Universe expansion

I proposed a new expansion force to explain the flat rotation curves of plane galaxies, in a Newtonian approach in 2016. This force is validated here in General Relativity for an inhomogeneous radially symmetrical universe. It can be deduced from the solution of Einstein's equation with a cosmological constant. A pseudo-Schwarzschild "twin-potential" metric is considered, with two different potentials for the space and time dimensions. The expansion force results as a repulsive dual gravity. Negative masses are needed. The necessary mass repartitions are computed, in connection with the radial dynamics and the expansion rate's evolution. A linear model and a quadratic model are studied, connected with the observation representations of a universe in accelerated expansion. It is a first step towards a better representation of an inhomogeneous universe. The framework can be applied to deduce the universe mass repartition form the measured values of the expansion rate variation. Résumé J'ai proposé en 2016 une nouvelle force d'expansion pour expliquer les courbes de rotation plates des galaxies spirales dans une approche Newtonienne. Cette force est validée ici dans le cadre de la Relativité Générale pour un univers inhomogène à symétrie radiale. On peut la déduire comme solution de l'équation d'Einstein avec Constante Cosmologique. On considère une métrique à « potentiels jumelés », avec deux potentiels différents pour les dimensions spatiales et temporelles. Il en résulte une force d'expansion agissant comme une gravité duale répulsive. Il faut des masses négatives. On calcule les répartitions de masses nécessaires, en liaison avec la dynamique radiale et l'évolution du taux d'expansion. On étudie un modèle linéaire et un modèle quadratique, en lien avec les représentations d'un univers observé en expansion accélérée. Il s'agit là d'une première étape vers une meilleure représentation d'un univers inhomogène. Ce cadre peut être appliqué pour déduire la répartition de masses de l'univers à partir des valeurs mesurées du taux d'expansion.

"UKRAY" - UNIFIED FIELD THEORY -
- A New Unification Theory on Electromagnetic Gravitation-

THIS THEORY, GETS THESE QUESTIONS INTO;

- A CHANGE into Gravitational field and field equations, STATIC AND UNIVERSAL GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANTS,
- THE DYNAMICS OF Gravitational field with Combining the Electromagnetics Theory.
- THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT COULD BE EXCEEDED?
- THIS THEORY WAS PREPARED AS A CONSEQUENCE OF APPROXIMATELY 16 YEARS STUDY,
- WHOLE "666" PAGE
- INCLUDES ABOUT 100 THEOREMS,
- AND 1000 ILLUSTRATED DRAWINGS,

I imagined the situation of a mass falling towards the singularity point in a blackhole singularity in electrodynamic gravity conditions for some relative structures in the electromagnetic theory which is the most important and understandable theory in the classical physics I had comprehensive knowledge in my last years of my undergraduate term of the academic life (in about 2000) in an article of Faraday on the topic of the law of induction I had incidentally seen while I was examining the existing physics literature in the faculty's library. I wondered if the law of induction in a circular conducting wire differently perceived according to an observer in the train and the one on the land in the special relativity of Einstein may occur by the increase and decrease of mass during the course of falling to singularity in this blackhole and may create an electromagnetic gravity wave and a magnetic charge current which would decrease the impact of gravitation in parallel to this.

This oriented me to a series of researches to study and create this theory for years and then directed me to create a unified electromagnetic gravity theory composed of SEVEN ARTICLES in total I will submit here in order and step by step. Even though the theory includes a deductive mathematical approach, tensor calculation and geometric modellings, I will give solutions of Einstein-Maxwell Equations with a different mathematical 4×4 Pauli-Dirac Spinors and Tensor calculation construction in direction of closed extra dimension of the space (5 Dimension Effect)

This study which aims to prove that all forces and laws of physics exist in a single unified structure at the Starting and Ending moment of the Universe analyzes all laws of physics within the framework of a unified structure from Newton Mechanics to Quantum Theory, Einstein Relativity to modern 11-dimensional Super string theory. The study may also be considered as a "MODERN ERA PRINCIPIA" since it was started to be written in about 300 years (early 2007) after the publication of the great study of Newton named "PRINCIPIA" (1703-1707) on the topic of gravity theories.

The volume also includes SEVEN CHAPTERS in the form of SEVEN different articles which follow each other and make clear the subject when they are read consecutively. In addition, FOUR additional chapters in the form of APPENDIXES in nature of FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS were also included at the end of the volume for readers who have a less degree of technical knowledge about the topic…”

What Does the Theory Tell?
{Short Abstract and Philosophy of the Theory}

The THEORY summarizes the general and simple mathematical description of the universe in the form of general conclusion items and forecasts the followings;

Basic Projections of the Theory?

– NEW MODEL OF AN ATOM,
– NEW MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE,
– CHANGE IN GALILEO Inertia Principle,
– A FUNDAMENTAL CHANGE IN THE STRUCTURE OF MAXWELL's EQUATIONS, AN ADDITIONAL TERMS AND ADDITIONS,
– A CHANGE IN POYNTING ENERGY THEORY,
– A NEW ATOMIC MODEL,
– A NEW UNIVERSE MODEL,
– CHANGE IN GALILEO'S PRINCIPLE OF INERTIA,
– A FUNDEMENTAL CHANGE AND AN ADDITIONAL TERM IN THE STRUCTURE IF MAXWELL EQUATIONS,
– A CHANGE IN STATIC FIELD EQUATIONS OF THE GRAVITY FIELD AND IN THE UNIVERSAL GRAVITY CONSTANT.
– CHANGE IN POYNTING ENERGY THEOREM,
– HOW CAN THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT BE EXCEEDED?

During the poetry tour of UK and Europe, Bill and Daph hosted me in their delightful cottage in St Albans, following my Ver Poets recitation (April 27, 1998). I recall being transfixed by a tiny metal sculpture of an owl in the bedroom. It had a pair of large holes in place of eyes and I recall telling Bill that an Owl poem was bound to occur. And so it did a month later, one night in Graz, Austria. I must have then mailed it to Bill and 22 years later, emailed it to his daughter after learning that Bill had passed away.

The calligraphy was displayed in the Downloading Animals exhibition, Galerie Jean Cocteau. Bombay, April 6-10, 1999.
The poem was published in Alphabestiary, Holstein: Exile Editions, 2011. p.66

Cross Reference. See also
The note next to Daedalus (Calligraphy) in Poetry Section
Downloading Animals in Bat, Poetry Section
Alphabestiary in the Books section
VER Reading in Talks Section (forthcoming)

Acceleration Doppler Effect is introduced to explain the Redshift phenomenon in Inertia Transformation process. Hubble's Law and Cosmological Redshift are interpreted by Wu's Spacetime Accelerating Shrinkage Theory. In addition, Wu's Laws of Spacetime of Wu's Pair and Photon with respect to the age of universe and the gravitational field are derived and summarized.

The discovery of the acceleration of the rate of expansion of the Universe fosters new explorations of the behavior of gravitation theories in the cosmological context. Either the GR framework is valid but a cosmic component with a negative equation of state is dominating the energy--matter contents or the Universe is better described at large by a theory that departs from GR. In this review we address theoretical alternatives that have been explored through supernovae.

MEANING THAT EARTH REALLY IS THE CENTER OF THIS UNIVERSE THENCE ALL THAT THAT PORTENDS.  HOW ABOUT? JUST HOW EXPANSIVE ARE WE?

RATHER LOGICALLY = ALL-THAT-IS IS INSIDE OF OUR PURE CONSCIOUSNESSES AND WE KNOW IT ALL = PART OF THE PROBLEM.  AS PURE CONSCIOUSNESSES WE ARE EITHER IN THE ALL KNOWING STATE OR RIDING SOME HUMAN DONKEY FOR ENTERTAINMENT VIA SEPARATION.  SOON AS YOU SWITCH OFF AND LIKE DIE, THEN ALL OF A SUDDEN YOU KNOW EVERYTHING, IF YOU KNOW TO LOOK – NOT HOOD WINKED BY RELIGION.  THE MIRROR SYSTEM IS ENTIRELY TRANSPARENT IF YOU KNOW TO LOOK.

Hubble's Law is an experimental result that can be applied to a star with linear relation between recessional velocity and Redshift, subject to that the star is at more than 5 billion light years away and is moving away from earth at an acceleration speed faster than the light speed. Although Acceleration Doppler Effect can be used to derive Hubble's Law, an imaginary Dark Energy is suggested to explain the acceleration together with an expansion theory of the universe to support the super fast moving speed. To avoid these problems, a Spacetime Shrinkage model is proposed and a Spacetime Reverse Expansion Theory is successfully derived to interpret Hubble's Law.

The cosmological principle, promoting the view that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic, is embodied within the mathematical structure of the Robertson-Walker (RW) metric. The equations derived from an application of this metric to the Einstein Field Equations describe the expansion of the universe in terms of comoving coordinates, from which physical distances may be derived using a time-dependent expansion factor. These coordinates, however, do not explicitly reveal properties of the cosmic spacetime manifested in Birkhoff's theorem and its corollary. In this paper, we compare two forms of the metric-written in (the traditional) comoving coordinates, and a set of observer-dependent coordinates-first for the well-known de Sitter universe containing only dark energy, and then for a newly derived form of the RW metric, for a universe with dark energy and matter. We show that Rindler's event horizon-evident in the co-moving system-coincides with what one might call the "curvature horizon" appearing in the observer-dependent frame. The advantage of this dual prescription of the cosmic spacetime is that with the latest WMAP results, we now have a much better determination of the universe's mass-energy content, which permits us to calculate this curvature with unprecedented accuracy. We use it here to demonstrate that our observations have probed the limit beyond which the cosmic curvature prevents any signal from having ever reached us. In the case of de Sitter, where the mass-energy density is a constant, this limit is fixed for all time. For a universe with a changing density, this horizon expands until de Sitter is reached asymptotically, and then it too ceases to change.

Dark Energy is one of the mysterious realities of the universe, where our technology is unable to explain its origin and properties. However observational data are consistence with Lambda-CDM model and cosmological constant, but my analysis shows a different result; Cosmological Constant can't be the cause of expansion. As far as observation and experiment could not have the key impact for realizing the reality of Dark Energy, and also observational data are in reach of all researchers, I wanted to have a theoretical analysis of Lambda-CDM model by using these data based on accepted principles of science and physics to see whether it can cause the universe expansion or no. The result of this analysis shows that cosmological constant cannot cause the universe expansion, because based on the Frame-Dragging principle where ever there is mass it will warp and drag the fabric of space inside it, so acting as local locks against the fabric expansion. Since distribution of matter through the universe is not uniform, it will cause the universe to have no expansion or there must be a relative movement of one part of the universe with respect to the other part. But since the gravitational force between these co-relative moving masses will act as a unit force against the relative movement, and from the other side the repulsive force of the fabric of space is acting explicitly where the energy of one unit of space will not be added to other units to form a stronger repulsion, then the fabric of space won't be able to have a relative movement; so the Cosmological Constant has no way to be the cause for the universe expansion and acceleration.

This paper proposes a strong variant of ER=EPR conjecture (svEEC) based on Planck wormholes (PWs) (and partially assuming Einstein’s General Relativity), which svEEC helps redefining both big G and Planck constant, potentially explaining both the accelerated expansion of our universe (OU) and the highly variable experimental values of big G. This paper continues (from alternative angles of view!) the work of other past articles/preprints of the same author.
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Assuming a cellular structure for the space-time, the authors propose a model in which the expansion of the universe is understood as a decrumpling process, much like the one we know from polymeric surfaces. The dimension of space is then a real dynamical variable. The generalized Friedmann equation, derived from a Lagrangian, and the generalized equation of continuity for the

Based on Yangton and Yington Theory, it is proposed that Dark Matter is composed of Wu’s Pairs with a tetrahedral structure. There is nearly no attractive force between two Dark Matters, neither between Dark Matter and any other substance. Only limited gravitational force can be generated by Dark Matter. Therefore, Dark Matter cannot be used as the building blocks for any substance. Also, because Dark Matter has a very stable structure and no particle can escape from it, therefore Dark Matter is totally invisible. That is why it is named “Dark Matter”. On the other hand, Dark Energy is proposed in explanation of Hubble’s Law. Although acceleration Doppler Effect can be used to derive Hubble’s Law in interpretation of universe expansion and acceleration based on a superfast acceleration speed and an imaginary Dark Energy, there is no such kind of energy can be found in the space. That is why it is named “Dark Energy”. Furthermore, Wu’s Spacetime Shrinkage Theory based on the shrinkage of the diameter lyy (Wu’s Unit Length) and circulation period tyy (Wu’s Unit Time) of Wu’s Pairs due to aging of the universe can also be used successfully in derivation of Hubble’s Law. Without acceleration and Dark Energy, Wu’s Spacetime Reverse Expansion Theory gives a more reasonable explanation to Cosmological Redshift and Hubble’s Law.

Yangton and Yington Theory is a hypothetical theory based on Yangton and Yington circulating particle pairs (Wu’s Pairs) with a build-in inter-attractive force (Force of Creation) that is proposed as the fundamental building blocks of the universe. It has explained successfully the formation of all subatomic particles, propagation of gravitational force, cosmological redshift, universe expansion and many other correlations between space, time, energy and matter. More than 31 major physical phenomena and theories are interpreted and derived from Yangton and Yington Theory. In summary, a road map of systematic derivation and a correlation network between the major physical phenomena and Yangton and Yington Theory are presented.

At the start of 20th Century, astronomers were thinking the universe to be stationary over large distances, this made Einstein to think for a cosmological Constant to gain a static universe. Einstein static cosmos was instable for some reasons. In this paper I want to add some more detail about this instability, I want to have a theoretical analysis of Cosmological Constant and Static Cosmos; in fact, it will be shown that not only the Einstein static cosmos is instable, but also there is no room and necessity for a cosmological constant at all, there is only one form of matter distribution through a special size of the universe that will cause a static universe, in any other form and size there is no way of having a Static Universe, no matter there is a Cosmological Constant or not. So it will be a big question that how could Einstein think that a Cosmological Constant would lead to a Static Universe?

“My Universe – A Theory of Yangton and Yington Pairs” is an extraordinary book of physical science with an unprecedented concept that bridges two major but conflicting subjects Quantum Field Theory and General Relativity in modern physics. It explains and correlates almost everything in the universe, including space, time, energy and matter, as well as those objects and events from subatomic particles all the way to the boundary of the universe based on Wu’s Pairs and a hypothetical Yangton and Yington Theory.

Note: “My Universe – A Theory of Yangton and Yington Pairs” can be found at the following Websites:
https://www.amazon.com/dp/1520923007
https://www.amazon.com/My-Universe-Theory-Yangton-Yington-ebook/dp/B06XT96BNB/ref=mt_kindle?_encoding=UTF8&me=

To explain galactic flat rotation curves, I proposed in a previous paper to introduce a new "cosmic expansion acceleration," with Newton's gravity being unchanged. In this paper, this acceleration is applied to 3D radially symmetric systems. It is found that it is equivalent to a precise negative mass repartition, acting as Newtonian (anti-) gravity. It is shown that the transverse velocity remains constant, due to the transverse part of the acceleration. The model can be applied to (expanding or imploding) radial systems made of gas, dust, stars, or galaxies. Concerning the universe, it is applied in the two cases of exponential expansion and accelerated expansion. It is shown that the model is in conformity with the present observed data, and the needed mass densities are computed. The energy balance is also examined (showing that the expansion acceleration work and mass erosion combine to contribute to the increase in the total mass), together with the proportion of radial/lateral force works. The model predicts an equal amount of positive and negative masses in the "inner" regions of the universe, but an excess of negative masses in the outskirts, which could explain the observed bubbles with "empty" spaces in the large-scale regions. It opens the way to the easiest simulation of the expansion acceleration influence. More generally, this proposal appears to be an alternative to the other models used to describe the same phenomena, such as dark matter and energy and modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND). V C 2019 Physics Essays Publication. R esum e: Dans un pr ec edent article, j'ai propos e une nouvelle "acc el eration d'expansion cosmique" pour expliquer les courbes de rotation plates des vitesses galactiques, tout en maintenant inchang ee la gravit e de Newton. Dans cet article, cette acc el eration est appliqu ee a des systèmes 3 D a sym etrie radiale. On trouve qu'elle est equivalente a une r epartition de masse n egative pr ecise, agissant comme une (anti-) gravit e newtonienne. On montre que la vitesse transversale reste constante, a cause de la partie transverse de l'acc el eration. Ce modèle peutêtre appliqu e a des systèmes a sym etrie radiale, constitu es de gaz, de poussières, d' etoiles ou de galaxies (en expansion ou en implosion). En ce qui concerne l'univers, il est appliqu e aux deux cas de l'expansion exponentielle et de l'expansion acc el er ee. Le modèle se r evèleêtre en conformit e avec les donn ees actuellement observ ees et les densit es massiques n ecessaires sont calcul ees. L' equilibre energ etique est aussi examin e (montrant que le travail de l'acc el eration d'expansion et l' erosion de masse se combinent pour contribuer a l'accroissement de la masse totale), ainsi que la proportion du travail des forces radiale et lat erale. Le modèle pr edit l' equilibre des masses positives et n egatives dans les r egions "internes" de l'univers, mais un excès de masses n egatives a la p eriph erie, ce qui pourrait expliquer l'observation a large echelle de bulles d'espaces "vides." Il permet d'envisager de simuler plus facilement l'influence de l'acc el eration d'expansion. Plus g en eralement, cette proposition de masse n egative se pr esente comme une alternative aux autres mod elisations actuellement utilis ees pour d ecrire les mêmes ph enomènes, telles que: la matière noire et l' energie noire, Dynamique Newtonienne Modifi ee (MOND), etc.

What if are our vision of gravity was incorrect? The theory of general relativity presents gravity as a distortion in the fabric of space-time linked to the presence of a mass. We have accepted this definition as an absolute truth. For decades, we have been coming up against insoluble problems that the current cosmological model fails to explain. The existence of dark matter, the difficulty that comes with fixing the value of the Hubble constant are one of many problems that have been haunting the nights of physicians and astronomers for way too long. What if the answer lay in rethinking our gravity model? In this article, I offer to provide an answer to the various questions I have just mentioned, by introducing the concept of "Djamilars", circular microscopic openings that bestrew the fabric of space-time, enabling the multiverse force to pass into our universe, thus generating gravity.

Wu’s Spacetime Field Equation is derived from Yangton and Yington Theory based on Wu’s Unit Length lyy (the diameter of Yangton and Yington Circulating Pairs) and Wu’s Unit Time tyy (the period of Yangton and Yington Circulating Pairs). Wu’s Unit Length and Wu’s Unit Time are correlated to each other by Wu’s Spacetime Theory. They are also dependent on the gravitational field and the aging of the universe. Furthermore, instead of being a constant, the speed of light C is a function of Wu’s Unit Length lyy, which can increase the acceleration (the curvature of Spacetime) to form a deep continuum in Spacetime along the edge of a spherical mass (or black hole). As a result, the existence of black hole can be interpreted by Wu’s Spacetime Field Equation. Also, the expansion of the universe can be explained by Wu’s Spacetime Shrinkage Theory and Wu’s Spacetime Reverse Expansion Theory without the modification of Wu’s Spacetime Field Equation with Einstein’s Cosmological Constant and dark...

Based on Yangton and Yington Theory, it is proposed that Dark Matter is composed of Wu's Pairs with a tetrahedral structure. There is nearly no attractive force between two Dark Matters, neither between Dark Matter and any other substance. Only limited gravitational force can be generated by Dark Matter. Therefore, Dark Matter cannot be used as the building blocks for any substance. Also, because Dark Matter has a very stable structure and no particle can escape from it, therefore Dark Matter is totally invisible. That is why it is named "Dark Matter". On the other hand, Dark Energy is proposed in explanation of Hubble's Law. Although acceleration Doppler Effect can be used to derive Hubble's Law in interpretation of universe expansion and acceleration based on a superfast acceleration speed and an imaginary Dark Energy, there is no such kind of energy can be found in the space. That is why it is named "Dark Energy". Furthermore, Wu's Spacetime Shrinkage Theory based on the shrinkage of the diameter l yy (Wu's Unit Length) and circulation period t yy (Wu's Unit Time) of Wu's Pairs due to aging of the universe can also be used successfully in derivation of Hubble's Law. Without acceleration and Dark Energy, Wu's Spacetime Reverse Expansion Theory gives a more reasonable explanation to Cosmological Redshift and Hubble's Law.

Wu Constant K and Wu’s Spcetime Constant γ are derived from Yangton and Yington circulation model. Also, Hubble’s Law and Hubble Constant H0 are derived from Spacetime Shrinkage Theory based on the aging of the Universe which successfully explains the expansion of the universe without the conflict of dark energy. This is called Spacetime Reverse Expansion Theory. Furthermore, Wu Constant K and Wu’s Spacetime Constant γ are calculated with Hubble Constant H0.

Wu’s Spacetime Field Equation is derived from Yangton and Yington Theory based on Wu’s Unit Length lyy (the diameter of Yangton and Yington Circulating Pairs) and Wu’s Unit Time tyy (the period of Yangton and Yington Circulating Pairs). Wu’s Unit Length and Wu’s Unit Time are correlated to each other by Wu’s Spacetime Theory. They are also dependent on the gravitational field and the aging of the universe.  Furthermore, instead of being a constant, the speed of light C is a function of Wu’s Unit Length lyy, which can increase the acceleration (the curvature of Spacetime) to form a deep continuum in Spacetime along the edge of a spherical mass (or black hole). As a result, the existence of black hole can be interpreted by Wu’s Spacetime Field Equation. Also, the expansion of the universe can be explained by Wu’s Spacetime Shrinkage Theory and Wu’s Spacetime Reverse Expansion Theory without the modification of Wu’s Spacetime Field Equation with Einstein’s Cosmological Constant and dark energy.

The present work shows that a combination of nonlinear contribution from the Ricci curvature in Einstein field equations can drive a late time acceleration of expansion of the universe. The transit from the decelerated to the accelerated phase of expansion takes place smoothly without having to resort to a study of asymptotic behaviour. This result emphasizes the need for thorough and critical examination of models with nonlinear contribution from the curvature.

Les premières mesures de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses spirales par Vesto Slipher (1912-1925) ** Résumé. Des mesures ont été, au début du XX e siècle, à l'origine d'un changement de vision de l'univers chez les astronomes. D'abord considéré comme tout entier contenu dans la Voie lactée, l'univers s'élargit en 1755 aux univers-îles suggérés par Kant. L'astronome américain Vesto Slipher, en mesurant dès 1913 les vitesses radiales des nébuleuses spirales, montre que ces objets sont probablement indépendants des autres objets célestes qui, eux, forment la galaxie. Ces travaux, très vite acceptés par les astronomes, ne mettent pas un terme à la polémique au sujet des nébuleuses spirales. Cependant, ils sont utilisés par les premiers cosmologistes théoriciens, en particulier Willem De Sitter et Georges Lemaître, à l'appui de leurs hypothèses et de leurs calculs. Abstract. At the Beginnings of the Discovery of an Expanding Universe: First Measurements of Radial Velocities of Spiral Nebulae by Vesto Slipher (1912-1925). Measurements were at the birth of new ideas about the universe. At first considered as entirely held into the Milky Way, the universe enlarged into island-universes as suggested by Kant in 1755. The American astronomer Vesto Slipher, measuring radial velocities of spiral nebulae in 1913 showed that these objects were probably independent from the other celestial objects, which form the Galaxy. His determinations of radial velocities, soon accepted by the astronomers, did not resolve the polemics about spiral nebulae. Nevertheless the first cosmologists and theoreticians, such as Willem De Sitter and Georges Lemaître, used them as a support to their hypotheses and their calculations

Recent observations of stellar globular clusters in the Milky Way Galaxy, combined with revised ranges of parameters in stellar evolution codes and new estimates of the earliest epoch of globular cluster formation, result in a 95% confidence level lower limit on the age of the Universe of 11.2 billion years. This age is inconsistent with the expansion age for a flat Universe for the currently allowed range of the Hubble constant, unless the cosmic equation of state is dominated by a component that violates the strong energy condition. This means that the three fundamental observables in cosmology-the age of the Universe, the distance-redshift relation, and the geometry of the Universe-now independently support the case for a dark energydominated Universe.

Motivated by the fact that any nonzero Λ can introduce a length scale or a time scale into Einstein's theory, rΛ = ctΛ = 3/|Λ|. Conversely, any cosmological length scale or time scale can introduce a Λ(t), Λ(t) = 3/r 2 Λ (t) = 3/(c 2 t 2 Λ (t)). In this letter, we investigate the time varying Λ(t) corresponding to the length scales, including the Hubble horizon, the particle horizon and the future event horizon, and the time scales, including the age of the universe and the conformal time. It is found out that, in this scenario, the Λ(t)CDM model can be taken as the unified origin of the holographic and agegraphic dark energy models with interaction between the matter and the dark energy, where the interacting term is determined by Q = −ρΛ. We place observational constraints on the Λ(t)CDM models originating from different cosmological length scales and time scales with the recently compiled "Union2 compilation" which consists of 557 Type Ia supernovae (SNIa) covering a redshift range 0.015 ≤ z ≤ 1.4. In conclusion, an accelerating expansion universe can be derived in the cases taking the Hubble horizon, the future event horizon, the age of the universe and the conformal time as the length scale or the time scale.

This paper proposes a black-hole-associated Casimir effect (bhCE) possibly (and strongly) inhibiting Hawking radiation (HR) (and proposing an explanation on why HR wasn’t observed from far distances yet) and creating a spatial expansion around any macro / micro (/quantum) black-hole which may plausibly drive the global accelerated expansion of our universe (AEOU). bhCE was firstly proposed in two past papers [23, 25] (with partially distinct arguments) and continues (from alternative angles of view and additional arguments) the work of other past articles/preprints of the same author in physics [1-36].
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346009510
http://www.dragoii.com/DragoiAL_BlackHoleCasimirEffect_vs_Hawking_radiation_v1.0_latest.pdf

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Stars that are more than 5 billion light years away from earth obey Hubble’s Law having linear relations between redshift, recessional velocity and proper distance. Although Acceleration Doppler Effect can be used to derive Hubble’s Law based on a superfast acceleration speed and an imaginary Dark Energy for the interpretation of the universe expansion theory. Wu’s Spacetime Shrinkage Theory based on the shrinkage of the diameter lyy (Wu’s Unit Length) and circulation period tyy (Wu’s Unit Time) of Wu’s Pairs – the building blocks of the universe due to the aging of the universe is successfully used to derive Hubble’s Law without acceleration and Dark Energy. Because of these reasons, Wu’s Spacetime Reverse Expansion Theory is proposed for a better explanation of Cosmological Redshift and Hubble’s Law.

Yangton and Yington Theory is a hypothetical theory based on Yangton and Yington circulating particle pairs (Wu's Pairs) with a build-in inter-attractive force (Force of Creation) that is proposed as the fundamental building blocks of the universe. It has explained successfully the formation of all subatomic particles, propagation of gravitational force, cosmological redshift, universe expansion and many other correlations between space, time, energy and matter. More than 31 major physical phenomena and theories are interpreted and derived from Yangton and Yington Theory. In summary, a road map of systematic derivation and a correlation network between the major physical phenomena and Yangton and Yington Theory are presented.

Assuming a cellular structure for the space-time, we propose a model in which the expansion of the universe is understood as a decrumpling process, much like the one we know from polymeric surfaces. The dimension of space is then a dynamical real variable. The generalized Friedmann equation, derived from a Lagrangian, and the generalized equation of continuity for the matter content of the universe, give the dynamics of our model universe. This leads to an oscillatory non-singular model with two turning points for the dimension of space.

Weak gravitational lensing is a powerful tool for studying both the geometry and the dynamics of the Universe. Its power spectrum contains information on the sources emitting photons and on the large-scale structures that these photons cross. We calculate the weak lensing cosmic convergence and shear power spectra, in linear theory and Limber's approximation, for two different classes of cosmological models: the standard Λ cold dark matter (ΛCDM) and unified dark matter (UDM) models. The latter models attempt to solve the problems of the dark matter in the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters and of the late-time acceleration of the Universe expansion by introducing a scalar field that mimics both dark matter and dark energy. A crucial feature of the UDM models is the speed of sound c∞, i.e. the value of the sound speed at late times, on which structure formation depends. In this paper, we provide the predictions of the UDM models for the weak lensing signal, with various values of c∞. We consider both the cosmic microwave background and background galaxies at different redshifts as sources for the weak lensing power spectra. We find that the power spectra in UDM models are more sensitive to the variations of c∞ for sources located at low redshifts. Moreover, we find that for c∞ > 10-3 (in units of the speed of light), the UDM weak lensing convergence power spectrum Cκκ(l) for background galaxies is strongly suppressed with respect to the ΛCDM spectrum, particularly at small angular scales l >~ 100.

Weak gravitational lensing is a powerful tool for studying both the geometry and the dynamics of the Universe. Its power spectrum contains information on the sources emitting photons and on the large-scale structures that these photons cross. We calculate the weak lensing cosmic convergence and shear power spectra, in linear theory and Limber's approximation, for two different classes of cosmological models: the standard ΛCDM and Unified Dark Matter (UDM) models. The latter models attempt to solve the problems of the dark matter in the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters and of the late-time acceleration of the Universe expansion by introducing a scalar field that mimics both dark matter and dark energy. A crucial feature of the UDM models is the speed of sound c ∞ , that is the value of the sound speed at late times, on which structure formation depends. In this paper, we provide the predictions of the UDM models for the weak lensing signal,with various values of c ∞ . We consider both the Cosmic Microwave Background and background galaxies at different redshifts as sources for the weak lensing power spectra. We find that the power spectra in UDM models are more sensitive to the variations of c ∞ for sources located at low redshifts. Moreover, we find that for c ∞ > 10 −3 (in units of the speed of light), the UDM weak lensing convergence power spectrum C κκ (l) for background galaxies is strongly suppressed with respect to the ΛCDM spectrum, particularly at small angular scales l 100.

Weak gravitational lensing is a powerful tool for studying both the geometry and the dynamics of the Universe. Its power spectrum contains information on the sources emitting photons and on the large-scale structures that these photons cross. We calculate the weak lensing cosmic convergence and shear power spectra, in linear theory and Limber's approximation, for two different classes of cosmological models: the standard ΛCDM and Unified Dark Matter (UDM) models. The latter models attempt to solve the problems of the dark matter in the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters and of the late-time acceleration of the Universe expansion by introducing a scalar field that mimics both dark matter and dark energy. A crucial feature of the UDM models is the speed of sound c ∞ , that is the value of the sound speed at late times, on which structure formation depends. In this paper, we provide the predictions of the UDM models for the weak lensing signal,with various values of c ∞ . We consider both the Cosmic Microwave Background and background galaxies at different redshifts as sources for the weak lensing power spectra. We find that the power spectra in UDM models are more sensitive to the variations of c ∞ for sources located at low redshifts. Moreover, we find that for c ∞ > 10 −3 (in units of the speed of light), the UDM weak lensing convergence power spectrum C κκ (l) for background galaxies is strongly suppressed with respect to the ΛCDM spectrum, particularly at small angular scales l 100.

Much is made of the mysterious directionality of thermodynamic time and its contrast to the near temporal symmetry of the underlying dynamical laws of Nature. I point out that if you are reasonably modest with respect to the ''why'' of this paper's title, the answer is known and is not particularly complicated. The basic reason is that the universe is expanding (as first emphasized in this context by T. Gold) and as a result, at about 380 000 years of age, underwent a transition (because of expansioninduced cooling) from being dominated by short-range forces to being dominated by long-range forces. The most likely states under one regime (homogeneous) became extremely unlikely under the successor regime. Proceeding from that unlikely state many billions of years ago continues to fuel the negentropy flow that maintains our thermodynamic arrow.