Tibetan Plateau

The evolutionary divergence of a single species into two has never been directly observed in nature, primarily because speciation can take a long time to occur. A ring species, in which a chain of intergrading populations encircles a barrier and the terminal forms coexist without interbreeding, provides a situation in which variation in space can be used to infer variation in time. Here we reconstruct the pathway to speciation between two reproductively isolated forms of greenish warbler (Phylloscopus trochiloides). These two taxa do not interbreed in central Siberia but are connected by a long chain of intergrading populations encircling the Tibetan Plateau to the south. Molecular data and climatic history imply that the reproductively isolated taxa came into contact following expansions northward around the western and eastern sides of the plateau. Parallel selection pressures for increased song complexity during the northward expansions have been accompanied by divergence in song...

The linkages between the space-time variability of observed clouds, rainfall, large-circulation patterns and topography in northern India and the Himalayas were investigated using remote sensing data. The research purpose was to test the hypothesis that cloudiness patterns are dynamic tracers of rainstorms, and therefore their temporal and spatial evolution can be used as a proxy of the spatial and temporal organization of precipitation and precipitation processes in the Himalayan range during the monsoon. The results suggest that the space-time distribution of precipitation, the spatial variability of the diurnal cycle of convective activity, and the terrain (landform and altitudinal gradients) are intertwined at spatial scales ranging from the order of a few kms (1-5 km) up to the continental-scale. Furthermore, this relationship is equally strong in the time domain with respect to the onset and intra-seasonal variability of the monsoon. Infrared and microwave imagery of cloud fields were analyzed to characterize the spatial and temporal evolution of mesoscale convective weather systems and short-lived convection in Northern India, the Himalayan range, and in the Tibetan Plateau during three monsoon seasons (1999, 2000 and 2001). The life cycle of convective systems suggests landform and orographic controls consistent with a convergence zone constrained to the valley of the Ganges and the Himalayan range, bounded in the west by the Aravalli range and the Garhwal mountains and in the East by the Khasi Hills and the Bay of Bengal, which we call the Northern India Convergence Zone (NICZ). The NICZ exhibits strong nighttime activity along the south-facing slopes of the Himalayan range, which is characterized by the development of shortlived convection (1-3 h) aligned with protruding ridges between 1:00 and 3:00 AM. The intra-annual and inter-annual variability of convective activity in the NICZ were assessed with respect to large-scale synoptic conditions, monsoon activity in the Bay of Bengal, and the modulating role of orography. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF) and canoni

work has been done on the Naqchu region in northern Tibet. This region is the most important pasturing area in Tibet. The grassland is greatly influenced by climate, especially drought. Therefore, palaeoclimatic records are needed to examine the full range of past drought variability, including magnitude and duration, to better anticipate future climate change. In addition, drought is a main factor limiting tree growth at the ecotone between the grassland and the forest at Nachqu region in northern Tibet. Climate change models predict higher temperatures and increased variability in precipitation in the future for the Tibetan Plateau (Zhang et al., 1996), which may increase the frequency and intensity of drought. The Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) is the most prominent index of meteorological drought to measure departures from

Spatial and temporal variability of the stable isotope composition of precipitation in the southeast Asia and western Pacific region is discussed, with emphasis on the China territory, based on the database of the International Atomic Energy Agency/World Meteorological Organization Global Network "Isotopes in Precipitation" and the available information on the regional climatology and atmospheric circulation patterns. The meteorological and pluviometric regime of southeast Asia is conn'olled by five different air masses: (1) polar air mass originating in the Arctic, (2) continental air mass originating over central Asia, (3) tropical-maritime air mass originating in the northern Pacific, (4) equatorial-maritime air mass originating in the western equatorial Pacific, and (5) equatorial-maritime air mass originating in the Indian Ocean. The relative importance of different air masses in the course of a given year is modulated by the monsoon activity and the seasonal displacement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Gradual rain-out of moist, oceanic air masses moving inland, associated with monsoon circulation, constitutes a powerful mechanism capable of producing large isotopic depletions in rainfall, often completely overshadowing the dependence of 6180 and 62H on temperature. For instance, precipitation at Lhasa station (Tibetan Plateau) during rainy period (June-September) is depleted in •80 by more than 6 ø/oo with respect to winter rainfall, despite of 10øC higher surface air temperature in summer. This characteristic isotopic imprint of monsoon activity is seen over large areas of the region. The oceanic air masses forming the two monsoon systems, Pacific and Indian monsoon, differ in their isotope signatures, as demonstrated by the average 6180 of rainfall, which in the south of China (Haikou, Hong Kong) is about 2.5%0 more negative than in the Bay of Bengal (Yangoon). Strong seasonal variations of the deuterium excess values in precipitation observed in some areas of the studied region result from a complete reversal of atmospheric circulation over these areas and changing source of atmospheric moisture. High d-excess values observed at Tokyo and Pohang during winter (15-25%0) result from interaction of dry air masses from the northern Asian continent passing the Sea of Japan and the China Sea and picking up moisture under reduced relative humidity. The isotopic composition of precipitation also provides information about the maximum extent of the ITCZ on the continent during summer. deposits, tree cellulose, and others [e.g., Johnsen et al. 1989;

Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) is the largest river system draining the northern slopes of the Himalayan ranges on the southern Tibetan Plateau. It remains one of only two large non-regulated rivers in China. In this paper the chemical composition of Yarlung Tsangpo and its major tributaries (Raga Tsangpo, Nyangchu and Lhasa River) are studied. Water samples (n ¼ 55) were collected and measured for major ions, trace elements and nutrients in order to: (1) define the present chemical quality of this water course; (2) address possible mechanisms governing the water chemical compositions, and (3) identify potential sources for contaminants. Multivariable analysis shows that geology and climate are the major explanatory variables for the spatial variation in water chemistry in this river system. In general, water chemistry is mainly controlled by carbonate weathering, with Ca 2þ and HCO À 3 being the dominant ions. In addition, runoff from brackish/saline lakes and geothermal waters, enriched in Na þ , Cl À , SO 2À 4 , Mg 2þ and Li, are major contributors of elevated concentrations of these solutes in the headwater regions resulting in a relatively high loading of total dissolved solids (TDS, 146-397 mg L À1 ). Levels of most heavy metals and total dissolved nutrients were generally found to be low. However, elevated As concentration (avg. 95 mg L À1 ) in the headwaters and additions from untreated wastewater were evident at some locations.

1] The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) global land surface temperature (LST)/emissivity products supply daily, 8-day, and monthly global temperature and narrowband emissivity data. This article uses these products to calculate the surface long wave radiation of natural objects such as sand, soil, vegetation, etc., based on the Planck function and the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The results show that using the narrowband emissivity of a single band instead of the broadband emissivity results in large errors of up to 100 W m À2 of the calculated long wave radiation. A method to calculate broadband emissivity in the entire TIR spectral region from the narrowband emissivities of the MODIS bands (29, 31, and 32) in the thermal infrared region is proposed. Using the broadband emissivity, the surface long wave radiation could be calculated to an accuracy better than 6 W m À2 in the temperature region of 240-330 K, with a standard deviation of 1.22 W m À2 , and a maximum error of 6.05 W m À2 (not considering the uncertainty associated with the MODIS LST/emissivity products themselves). The satellite estimated broadband emissivity was compared with 3-year (January 2001 to December 2003) ground-based measurements of emissivity at Gaize (32.30°N, 84.06°E, 4420 m) on the western Tibetan Plateau. The results show that the broadband emissivity calculated from MODIS narrowband emissivities by this method matches well the ground measurements, with a standard deviation of 0.0085 and a bias of 0.0015. (2005), Estimation of surface long wave radiation and broadband emissivity using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land surface temperature/ emissivity products,

Holocene sediments from a 9 m high outcrop at the Gangyasang Qu's entry into Lake Nam Co, on the south-eastern Tibetan Plateau, were studied in a multiproxy approach. The lowermost part of the section is of early Holocene age and consists of varved sediments deposited in a proglacial lake. Geomorphological investigations of fossil beach ridges and fossil cliff lines in the littoral zone of Nam Co indicate a late Pleistocene lake level high of 29 m above the present level. A warming is visible in ostracode-rich silts deposited after 9.6 ka BP. An ostracode-based transfer function estimates a lake level 28 m higher than today from this time until about 5.2 ka BP. A late Pleistocene lake level high was accompanied by an increase in lake size, causing Nam Co to overflow into the lower course of Gangyasang Qu, where a bay with slack-water conditions formed. Between 4.2 and 1.3 ka BP the lake level was approximately 10 m higher than today. The progradation of the Gangyasang Qu delta into Nam Co and the decreasing lake level shifted the study site into a fluvio-lacustrine environment. The sandy character and relatively low numbers of ostracode valves in the topmost sediments indicate increased fluvial activity, possibly due to a temporary increase in flood frequency. This facies lasted at least until 1.3 ka BP, when the lake level of Nam Co dropped again and the river incised more than 10 m into the underlying fluvio-lacustrine and lacustrine sediments.

1] Reference evapotranspiration (RET), an indicator of atmospheric evaporating capability over a hypothetical reference surface, was calculated using the Penman-Monteith method for 75 stations across the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau between 1971 and 2004. Generally, both annual and seasonal RET decreased for most part of the plateau during the study period. Multivariate linear models were used to determine the contributions of climate factors to RET change, including air temperature, air humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed. Spatial differences in the causes of RET change were detected by K-means clustering analysis. It indicates that wind speed predominated the changes of RET almost throughout the year, especially in the north of the study region, whereas radiation was the leading factor in the southeast, especially during the summertime. Although the recent warming trend over the plateau would have increased RET, the combined effect of the reduced wind speed and shortened sunshine duration negated the effect of rising temperature and caused RET to decrease in general. The significant decrease in surface wind speed corresponded to the decreasing trends of upper-air zonal wind and the decline of pressure gradient, possibly as a result of the recent warming.

Quality characteristics of wheat are determined by different physiochemical and rheological analysis by using different AACC methods. AACC methods are expensive, time consuming and cause destruction of samples. Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is one of the most important and emerging tool used for analyzing wheat for different quality parameters. This technique is rapid and sensitive with a great variety of sampling techniques. In the present study different wheat varieties were analyzed for quality assessment and were also characterized by using AACC methods and FTIR technique. The straight grade flour was analyzed for physical, chemical and rheological properties by standard methods and results were obtained. FTIR works on the basis of functional groups and provide information in the form of peaks. On basis of peaks the value of moisture, protein, fat, ash, carbohydrates and hardness of grain were determined. Peaks for water were observed in the range 1,640 cm−1 and 3,300 cm−1 on the basis of functional group H and OH. Protein was observed in the range from 1,600 cm−1 to 1,700 cm−1 and 1,550 cm−1 to 1,570 cm−1 on the basis of bond amide I and amide II respectively. Fat was also observed within these ranges but on the basis of C-H bond and also starch was observed in the range from 2,800 and 3,000 cm−1 (C-H stretch region) and in the range 3,000 and 3,600 cm−1 (O-H stretch region). As FTIR is a fast tool it can be easily emplyed for wheat varieties identification according to a set criterion.

The Yarlung Tsangbo (YT) is the Tibetan portion of the Brahmaputra River. It transports a large amount of sediment annually to the Indo-Gangetic Plain and thus contributes significantly to the Quaternary evolution of the Plain. Eighteen surface sediment samples were collected from the YT, and the compositions of rare earth elements (REEs) were analyzed for the bulk sediments, <63 mm and <20 mm fractions. Results show that the YT sediments originated mainly from the Lhasa Terrane. The REE compositions in the YT sediments are similar along the river, with the light and middle REEs enriched relative to the upper continental crust, but the REE concentrations are higher than its lower reaches -the Brahmaputra River. The average grain size of the sediments is in the coarse range (123.8 mm). Grain size influences the REE concentrations of the YT sediment significantly. The <63 mm fraction of the sediment has higher REE concentrations and different REE patterns when compared with those in the bulk sample and <20 mm fraction, due to the presence of REE-enriched heavy minerals of zircon, monazite and allanite in this fraction. The relatively low REE concentrations in acid-leachable fractions of the sediments suggest most REEs in the sediments occur in the stable minerals due to the dominance of physical weathering in this region.

The Mekong is the longest river in southeast Asia. From its source on the Tibetan plateau it runs for 4,800 km through China, Myanmar, Lao PDR, Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam to the South China Sea, where it discharges on average 475,000 million m 3 per year. The total Mekong Basin (MB) catchment area covers 795,000 km 2 and has 73 million inhabitants. The Lower Mekong Basin (LMB) comprises the four countries, -Cambodia, Lao PDR, Thailand and Viet Nam -that signed the 1995 river development agreement and covers 77% of the total basin with 55 million people.

In the vast high altitude rangelands of the Tibetan plateau, and of the surrounding mountain regions of Central Asia – from Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan in the far west, to Mongolia and Bhutan in the east – yak husbandry has for millennia contributed to the sustenance and cultures of people living in these challenging, often marginal lands. Today, of the world’s estimated 14 million domestic yak, around 90% are found in China, 4% in Mongolia, and the rest are in the Himalayan and Central Asian countries (Wiener et al. 2003).

First domesticated around 10,000 years ago, most likely in the Changtang region of Tibet, yak provide many fundamentals necessary for both traditional and modern lifestyles, from meat and milk products, to fiber (for clothing and habitation), yak dung (for heating and cooking) and transportation. ...

Mountain rangelands in Asia constitute the most extensive high altitude pastoral regions worldwide. Other noteworthy zones exist in the Andes of South America, and in smaller isolated ranges or relatively high plateaus in Africa. There are also similarities with extensive rangelands and traditional resource-based livelihoods, such as practiced by Sami reindeer herders in cold northern climates. However, nowhere else in the world are high rangelands and nomadic pastoralism as extensive as on the vast Tibetan plateau and in the surrounding mountainous areas of the Himalayas and Central Asia.

The Markov chain, named after A.A. Markov (1856-1922), is a discrete event stochastic process with Markov properties in exponentials. In the process, given the current knowledge or information, the past (ie, the current previous historical state) is irrelevant for predicting the future (ie, the current future state).
At each step of the Markov chain, the system can change from one state to another based on the probability distribution, or it can maintain the current state. The change in state is called transfer, and the probability associated with different state changes is called the transition probability. A random walk is an example of a Markov chain. The state of each step in a random walk is a point in the graph, and each step can be moved to any adjacent point where the probability of moving to each point is the same (regardless of the previous stroll path).

The Editors of Asian Highlands Perspectives (AHP) are pleased to announce PLATEAU NARRATIVES 2017. AHP 47 features "Memories and Experiences" (six texts), "Beloved Animals" (ten texts), "Folktales" (thirteen texts), "A rig grad po" (four texts), "Uncle Ston pa" (thirty-five texts), and "Short Stories" (two texts). These texts range from a lengthy biographical treatment of one contributor's paternal grandmother (1938-2016) to a one-page A rig rgad po account to new Uncle Ston pa (Aku/Akhu Dunba, Tonpa, Tompa) creations that tell of the infamous trickster visiting Xi'an City and Thailand. These narratives were provided and translated into English by Plateau residents. Two texts are also available in Minhe Mangghuer (Monguor) and an additional two texts are also given in Namuyi Khato.

AHP 47 is available as a free download at
https://tibetanplateau.wikischolars.columbia.edu/VOLUME+47

and as an at-cost hardcopy at

http://www.lulu.com/shop/ahp-47/plateau-narratives-2017/hardcover/product-23137895.html

All AHP volumes are available for free download at
https://tibetanplateau.wikischolars.columbia.edu/Asian+Highlands+Perspectives

PLATEAU NARRATIVES 2017

CONTENTS

MEMORIES AND EXPERIENCES

13-42
Courage to Hope
Pad+ma dbang chen

43-45
A Night Date
Phun tshogs dbang rgyal

46-53
Herding, Romance, and a Letter
Lcags so lhun 'grub

54-59
Stolen Horses
Lcags so lhun 'grub

60-63
Nearly Gored to Death
Lcags so lhun 'grub

64-75
Life
Bla ma skyabs

BELOVED ANIMALS

77-78
Kho lu
Sangs rgyas bkra shis

79-81
Yellow-Head Horse
Sangs rgyas bkra shis

82-83
Rag drug: A Faithful Horse
Lcags so lhun 'grub

84-85
Gyang rta: A Gentle White Horse
Rin chen don 'grub

86-87
Bkra 'dzi the Race Horse
'Jam dbyangs skyabs

88-90
The Black Mare
Tshes bcu lha mo

91-95
A Faithful Dog
Dbang 'dus sgrol ma

96-99
Mdzo mo
G.yang skyabs rdo rje

100-102
A Heroic Dog's Loyalty
G.yang skyabs rdo rje

103-104
Brtson 'grus
Klu thar rgyal

FOLKTALES

106-108
Why Pikas Have No Tail
Gu ru 'phrin las

109-112
A Clever Boy
Phun tshogs dbang rgyal
113-114
A Clever Man
Tshe lha

115-119
The Greedy King and Tricky?Man
Lcags so lhun 'grub (translator) and Rgya mo skyid (teller)

RNAM RGYAL'S COLLECTION

121-124
Introduction
Rnam rgyal

125-126
A Hen for a Horse
Rnam rgyal

127-129
A Hunter's Destiny
Rnam rgyal

130-135
A Lucky Man
Rnam rgyal

136-138
An Argument About Karma
Rnam rgyal

139-141
A Royal Gamble
Rnam rgyal

142-147
The Merchant
Rnam rgyal

148-150
The Provocative Rabbit
Rnam rgyal

151-152
A Wise Father and His Foolish Son
Rnam rgyal

A RIG RGAD PO

154-155
A rig rgad po Threatens the Buddha With His Walking Stick
Sangs rgyas bkra shis

156-157
A rig rgad po Visits Lha sa
Pad ma skyid

158
Stuck in a Window
Pad ma skyid

159
Keeping Watch
Pad ma skyid

UNCLE STON PA

161
Uncle Ston pa and the Thief
Sgron dkar

162-164
The Buddha Image Eats Rtsam ba
Pad+ma skyabs

165-169
Sewing Up the Queen's Vagina
Rin chen rdo rje

170-172
Chanting, Herding, and Carrying
Sangs rgyas bkra shis

173-175
Uncle Ston pa Visits Xi'an
Sangs rgyas bkra shis

176-177
Grain in the Navels
Pad+ma dbang chen

178-180
Foreign Adventures
Pad+ma dbang chen

181-183
Nuns and Navels
Wen Xiangcheng

184-187
A Wheat Seed and a Millet Seed
Wen Xiangcheng

188-190
Can You See My Yak?
Libu Lakhi

191-192
An Old Yak Finds Youthful Energy
Mo lha dgu 'khor

193-194
A Clever Bus Driver
Khro bo rkyal stong


SHORT STORIES
262-267
Waiting for the Return
Rdo rje skyabs

268-276
Faith, Faith, Faith
Pad+ma skyabs

Past studies have revealed the important roles of certain types of microbes in precipitating dolomite in coastal hypersaline lakes and lagoons, and marine sediments, however, it is still poorly known if other types of microbes can precipitate dolomite in low-salinity lakes without any marine influence. The objective of this study was therefore to expand the microbial dolomite precipitation model by investigating the origin of dolomite in the sediments of Qinghai Lake, an inland, slightly saline lake (salinity 12.5 g/L) on the Tibetan Plateau, NW China. This objective was accomplished via an integrated approach combining geochemical investigations of natural dolomite present in the lake sediments with laboratory precipitation experiments. A 5-m sediment core was collected and pore water chemistry was analyzed. Calculation of saturation index indicated that dolomite was oversaturated in sediment pore water. Sub-spherical grains of dolomite with abundant pores and microstructures, similar to microbially precipitated dolomite, were found in the sediments, suggesting a biogenic origin. Dolomite precipitation experiments were set up in the laboratory to simulate the natural conditions of the Qinghai Lake. Dolomite was precipitated using sulfate reducing bacterium (SRB) Desulfotomaculum ruminis and aerobic halophilic bacterium Halomonas marina present in the Qinghai Lake sediments. Aqueous geochemistry and mineral characterization data collectively suggest that dolomite precipitation was accomplished via increase of pH and alkalinity to overcome the kinetic inhibitors and exopolymeric substances (EPS) and cell walls as possible nucleation sites. These results expand the current microbial dolomite precipitation model and have implications for dolomite formation in slightly saline, inland lake environments.

YESTERDAY'S TRIBE Reviewed: Kelsang Norbu; MY TWO FATHERS Reviewed: Sangs rgyas bkra shis; SMUG PA and CHU MIG DGU SGRI Reviewed: Konchok Gelek; KLU 'BUM MI RGOD Reviewed: Pad+ma rig 'dzin; PHYUR BA Reviewed: 'Brug mo skyid; TIBET'S BELOVED CHILD; Reviewed: Rinchenkhar; THE RISE OF GÖNPO NAMGYEL; Reviewed: Amy Holmes-Tagchungdarpa; IMAG(IN)ING THE NAGAS Reviewed: Mark Bender; THE DAWN OF TIBET Reviewed: Ivette M. Vargas-O'Bryan and Chelsea McGill; BRIGHT BLUE HIGHLAND BARLEY Reviewed: Limusishiden; A CACTUS OF TEARS and THE TUYUHUN KINGDOM Reviewed: Wu Jing; A CHANGE IN WORLDS Reviewed: Bill Bleisch; TIBETAN LITERARY GENRES Reviewed: Tricia Kehoe; LANGUAGE IN AN AMDO TIBETAN VILLAGE Reviewed: Zoe Tribur; EARLY CARPETS AND TAPESTRIES Reviewed: Juha Komppa; FOUNDING AN EMPIRE 1790-1840 Reviewed: Hilary Howes; CHINESE MUSLIMS Reviewed: Bianca Horlemann; THARLO and THE SACRED ARROW Reviewed: Khashem Gyal; RIVER Reviewed: Phun tshogs dbang rgyal; and AMNYE MACHEN MOUNTAIN CIRCUMAMBULATION Reviewed: Bill Bleisch.

We review Late Cenozoic climate and environment changes in the western interior of China with an emphasis on lacustrine records from Lake Qinghai. Widespread deposition of red clay in the marginal basins of the Tibetan Plateau indicates that the Asian monsoon system was initially established by 8 Ma, when the plateau reached a threshold altitude. Subsequent strengthening of the winter monsoon, along with the establishment of the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets, reflects a long-term trend of global cooling. The few cores from the Tibetan Plateau that reach back a million years suggest that they record the mid-Pleistocene transition from glacial cycles dominated by 41 ka cycles to those dominated by 100 ka cycles.
During Terminations I and II, strengthening of the summer monsoon in China’s interior was delayed compared with sea level and insolation records, and it did not reach the western Tibetan Plateau and the Tarim Basin. Lacustrine carbonate d18O records reveal no climatic anomaly during MIS3, so that high terraces interpreted as evidence for extremely high lake levels during MIS3 remain an enigma. Following the Last Glacial Maximum (LSM), several lines of evidence from Lake Qinghai and elsewhere point to an initial warming of regional climate about 14 500 cal yr BP, which was followed by a brief cold reversal, possibly corresponding to the Younger Dryas event in the North Atlantic region. Maximum warming occurred about 10 000 cal yr BP, accompanied by increased monsoon precipitation in the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Superimposed on this general pattern are small-amplitude, centennial-scale oscillations during the Holocene. Warmer than present climate conditions terminated about 4000 cal yr BP. Progressive lowering of the water level in Lake Qinghai during the last half century is mainly a result of negative precipitation–evaporation balance within the context of global warming.

1] Active continental rifts are spectacular manifestations of the deformation of continents but are not very numerous at the surface of the Earth. Among them, the Baikal rift has been extensively studied during the last decades. Yet no simple scenario explains its origin and development because the style of rifting has changed throughout its $30 Myr history. In this paper, we use forward and inverse models of gravity data to map the Moho and lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary in three dimensions. We then integrate these new results with existing geophysical and geological data on the Baikal rift structure and dynamics, and propose a scenario of its evolution. Earthquake depths, mantle xenoliths, heat flow, and seismic and gravity models advocate for a normal to moderately thinned continental lithosphere and crust, except beneath the Siberian craton, which exhibits a >100-km-thick lithosphere. Relatively thin lithosphere (70-80 km) is found east and south of the rift system and is in spatial connection with the Hangai-Hövsgöl region of anomalous mantle in Mongolia. From top to bottom, the rift structure is asymmetric and appears strongly controlled by the geometry of the suture zone bounding the Siberian craton. Moreover, the mode of topography support changes significantly along the length of the rift: mountain ranges south and north of the rift are underlain by negative Bouguer anomalies, suggesting deep crustal roots and/or anomalous mantle; rift shoulders in the center of the rift seem to result from flexural uplift. The commonly assumed ''two-stage'' rift evolution is not corroborated by all stratigraphic and seismic data; however, it seems clear that during the Oligocene, an ''early stage,'' which might be dominated by strike-slip tectonics instead of pure extension, created primitive basins much different from the present ones. Most of the ''true'' rift basins seem to have initiated later, during the Late Miocene or Pliocene. This kinematic change from strike-slip to extensional tectonics in the Baikal rift is part of a more general kinematic reorganization of Asia and can be associated with the rapid growth of the Tibetan plateau and the end of marginal basins opening along the Pacific boundary.

As the highest plateau surrounded by towering mountain ranges, the Tibetan Plateau was once considered to be one of the last populated areas of modern humans. However, this view has been tremendously changed by archeological, linguistic, and genetic findings in the past 60 years. Nevertheless, the timing and routes of entry of modern humans into the Tibetan Plateau is still unclear. To make these problems clear, we carried out high-resolution mitochondrial-DNA (mtDNA) analyses on 562 Tibeto-Burman inhabitants from nine different regions across the plateau. By examining the mtDNA haplogroup distributions and their principal components, we demonstrated that maternal diversity on the plateau reflects mostly a northern East Asian ancestry. Furthermore, phylogeographic analysis of plateau-specific sublineages based on 31 complete mtDNA sequences revealed two primary components: pre-last glacial maximum (LGM) inhabitants and post-LGM immigrants. Also, the analysis of one major pre-LGM sublineage A10 showed a strong signal of post-LGM population expansion (about 15,000 years ago) and greater diversity in the southern part of the Tibetan Plateau, indicating the southern plateau as a refuge place when climate dramatically changed during LGM. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

The 12th May 2008 Wenchuan earthquake in the Longmen Shan occurred on a large thrust fault largely inherited from an Indosinian structure itself probably controlled by an older structural heritage of the South China block continental margin. Within the whole northeast Tibet region, such a structural inheritance has had a major impact on the Tertiary deformation. It appears of primary importance to assess the pre-Tertiary tectonic evolution of the main blocks involved to understand the actual deformation in the eastern edge of Tibet ...

A common feature of convergent plate boundaries is the self-organization of strain, exhumation and topography along discrete, arcuate boundaries. Deviations from this geometry can represent first-order changes in stress applied at a plate boundary that must affect how strain is partitioned within the interior of an orogen. The simplicity of the Himalayan fold and thrust belt seen along its central portion breaks down along the eastern extremity of the arc where the 400 km-long Shillong Plateau has developed. This change in strain partitioning affects nearly 25% of the arc and has not previously been considered to be important to the orogen's development. New low-temperature thermochronometry data suggest this structure initiated in mid to late Miocene time, significantly earlier than was previously estimated from the sedimentary record alone. Development of the Shillong Plateau may be linked to a number of kinematic changes within the Himalayan and Burman collision zones that occur at the same time. These events include the onset of E-W extension in central Tibet, eastward expansion of high topography of the Tibetan Plateau, onset of rotation of crustal fragments in southeastern Tibet, and re-establishment of eastward subduction beneath the Indo-Burman ranges. We suggest that the coincidence of these tectonic events is related to the 'dismemberment' of the eastern Himalayan arc, signifying a change in regional stress applied along the India-Eurasia-Burma plate boundaries. Discrepancies between vertical long-term faulting rates and geodetically derived far-field convergence rates suggest that the collisional boundary in the eastern Himalayan system may be poorly coupled due to introduction of oceanic and transitional crust into the eastern plate boundary. The introduction of dense material into the plate boundary late in the orogen's history may explain regional changes in the strain field that affect not only the Himalaya, but also the deformation field more than 1000 km into the Tibetan Plateau.

This paper examines the relationship between seismogenic thickness, lithosphere structure and rheology in central and northeastern Asia. We accurately determine earthquake depth distributions which reveal important rheological variations in the lower crust. These variations exert a fundamental control on the active tectonics and the morphological evolution of the continents. We consider 323 earthquakes across the Tibetan Plateau, the Tien Shan and their forelands as well as the Baikal Rift, NE Siberia and the Laptev Sea and present the source parameters of 94 of these here for the first time. These parameters have been determined through body wave inversion, the identification of depth phases or the modelling of regional waveforms. Lower crustal earthquakes are found to be restricted to the forelands in areas undergoing shortening, and to locations where rifting coincides with abrupt changes in lithosphere thickness, such as the NE Baikal Rift and W Laptev Sea. The lower crust in these areas is seismogenic at temperatures that may be as high as 600°C, suggesting that it is anhydrous, and is likely to have great long-term strength. Lower crustal earthquakes are therefore a useful proxy indicating strong lithosphere in places that are too small in areal extent for this to be confirmed independently by estimating effective elastic thickness from gravity-topography relations. The variation in crustal rheology indicated by the distribution of lower-crustal earthquakes has many implications ranging from the support of mountain belts and the formation of steep mountain fronts, to the localization and orientation of rifting. In combination, these processes can also be responsible for the separation of the front of the thin-skinned mountain belts from their hinterlands when continents separate.

The Yarlung Zangbo Suture Zone (YZSZ) is believed to be composed of material largely derived from the destruction of the Neo-Tethys that occurred from early Mesozoic to early Cenozoic. We report here geochronological and petrological data obtained for newly discovered alkaline gabbro blocks embedded in a mélange zone of the western YZSZ. Single zircon U-Pb analyses from one representative gabbro sample by SIMS (Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry) yielded a combined crystallization age of about 363.7 ± 1.7 Ma (1σ). In situ Hf isotopic analyses yielded ε Hf (t) values of +2.6 to + 5.5, suggesting an enriched mantle source. All of the gabbro samples show typical Ocean Island Basalt (OIB) affinity with little or no continental crust contamination. They also display strong geochemical similarities with the Hawaii basalts and the Xigaze seamount basalts suggestive of their intra-oceanic setting. These observations, in combination with the Early Carboniferous layered gabbros reported at Luobusa, indicate that these rocks could represent remnants of the Paleo-Tethys. We propose that a branch ocean separating the Western Qiangtang terrane and the Lhasa terrane from the Gondwana continent might have been present during the Late Devonian and the Early Carboniferous, providing new constrains on the configuration of Paleo-Tethys in Tibetan Plateau during early Late Paleozoic.

The identification of cultural groups in the archaeological record, and the reasons for and mechanisms of contact between them, have been major topics of discussion in archaeology since its beginnings as a discipline. The methodological and theoretical aspects of these questions have largely been argued on the basis of ethnographic studies and socio-anthropological theories, but they are notoriously difficult to apply to archaeological research. To bridge this gap between socio-anthropological models and the material record, this dissertation starts from a concrete body of archaeological material that reflects the lives and movements of various groups of people living at a crossroad of different contact routes.

A quick and reliable analytical method for the quantitative assessment of roxithromycin in pharmaceutical formulations was developed using Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) transmission spectroscopy for routine quality control. The sample preparation was avoided except grinding for pellet formation and eliminated the use of toxic solvents. For the determination of roxithromycin, conventional KBr was used in the form of pellets for acquisition of the FT-IR spectra of standards and samples. The calibration model was developed based on simple Beer's law using the FT-IR carbonyl region (C O) from 1765 to 1705 cm −1 . The excellent coefficient of determination (R 2 ) was achieved (0.9992) with 0.01 mg standard error of calibration. This work clearly revealed the capability of the transmission FT-IR spectroscopy and extended its application for determining the exact quantity of roxithromycin to control the processing formulation and quality of finished product with the analysis time of less than 3 min using the neat solid samples.

A 305-m-thick loess-red clay sequence was discovered recently at Lingtai, which is located in the middle part of the Chinese Loess Plateau. It consists of a complete Pleistocene loess-soil sequence with a thickness of about 175 m and 130 m of Tertiary red clay deposits. The red clay sequence at Lingtai is the thickest one presently known in the Loess Plateau. Field observations show that the Lingtai red clay contains over 110 couplets of pedogenic B horizons and horizontal carbonate nodule horizons, and that it can be regarded as an extremely thick soil complex. Paleomagnetic studies of 680 samples suggest that the basal age of the Lingtai loess-red clay sequence is about 7.05 Ma. Grain size analysis of samples taken at 3.3 cm intervals indicates that the red clay has the same sedimentological characteristics as those observed in the loess, thus suggesting a wind-blown origin of the Tertiary red clay and continuous atmospheric dust deposition in the Loess Plateau during the last 7.05 Ma. The pedogenic characteristics of the paleosols within the Pleistocene loess and the B horizons in the red clay suggest that the East-Asia summer monsoon in the latest Miocene may have already been slightly stronger than that during the Holocene. This implies that at about 7.5 Ma BP, the Tibetan Plateau could have been uplifted to a critical height in maintaining the East-Asia summer monsoon system. Observations of the loess-red clay sequence also suggest that the long-term changes in the East-Asia summer monsoon strength have been nonlinear since the latest Miocene.

The relative importance of distributed versus localized strain remains a matter of intense debate regarding orogenic plateau development, particularly in Tibet where through-going crustal-scale faults are required to explain large magnitudes of displacement and strain-partitioning. We present results from an exhumed lower crustal shear zone that point to a rheological dichotomy during Paleoproterozoic transpressive strain in the western Canadian Shield. This dichotomy provides insight into the topography across eastern Tibet, i.e. the Longmen Shan region and Sichuan basin, which has been interpreted to be the result of strain-localization induced by differences in crustal strength at depth. The Grease River shear zone (GRsz) is a 5-7 km-wide, >400 km-long shear zone that cuts the Athabasca granulite terrane, one of Earth’s largest exposures of continental lower crust (>20,000 km2). The GRsz is dominated by penetrative NE-striking, steeply NW-dipping foliations with gently SW-plunging stretching lineations and dextral SW-over-NE kinematics. Neoarchean top-to-the-SE flow of weak lower crust (sub-horizontal fabric at ca. 2.60-2.55 Ga) in the Athabasca granulite terrane exposed SE of the GRsz was followed by >650 m.y. of near-isobaric cooling and strengthening of continental lithosphere. In contrast, melt-weakened flow and shallow SW-dipping fabric development in lower crust exposed NW of the GRsz occurred at ca. 1.93-1.90 Ga during culmination of the Taltson orogeny. Melt-weakened flow NW of the GRsz was coincident with ca. 1.92-1.90 Ga dextral transpressive strain along the GRsz. Southeast of the GRsz, deformation was restricted to discrete 10s of m-scale moderately- to steeply-dipping shear zones in rocks that had previously dehydrated and isobarically-cooled in the Neoarchean. This pattern of pervasive ductile flow contrasted with localized strain illustrates the dramatic effects of rheological heterogeneity across a transcurrent shear zone. This is analogous to the inferred low viscosity flow of crust around the rigid basins that bound the Tibetan Plateau (i.e., the Sichuan and Tarim basins).

Muztag Ata and Kongur Shan massifs represent a significant area of anomalously high topography at the northwestern end of the Tibetan Plateau, rising to &gt;7500 m above sea-level (asl) from the plateau that has an average elevation of ~3500 m asl. These massifs provide an excellent opportunity to test geomorphic concepts, such as the glacial buzz-saw model. Using remote sensing, digital elevation

The Anning River Valley at the eastern rim of the Tibetan Plateau has long been a transit area and exchange corridor connecting Southwest China to the northern steppe. What has long remained unexplored are the local developments in the Anning River Valley itself. Recent fieldwork has brought to light new evidence and recent research on the local chronology has greatly enhanced our understanding of local prehistoric developments. Nevertheless, the Anning River Valley is usually treated as a cultural unit rather than the diverse area it is. Based on the results of recent fieldwork analyzed in a combination of object typology and spatial analysis, the present paper argues that during the Neolithic period the Anning River Valley was inhabited by various separate groups engaged in various types of subsistence practices. Over time, these groups grew increasingly closer and were finally drawn into one identity group connected by the practice of erecting megalithic graves. The conspicuous nature of those monuments and the complex rituals conducted in and around them also attracted communities in the neighboring mountains. Some of them adopted the practice wholesale; others adopted only certain aspects but preserved other burial customs of their own as well as ceramic form traditions and tool assemblages. As the paper shows, these differences in reaction to this new burial practice depended partially on local geographic preconditions, partially on the nature of the groups involved and various cultural factors.

Aeolian deposits are widely distributed in the interior of the Tibetan Plateau, and their chronology is poorly known. It is not yet clear whether they accumulated only after the last deglaciation, or over a longer time. We applied quartz OSL dating to aeolian samples from the Lhasa area with OSL ages ranging from 2.9 ± 0.2 to at least 118 ± 11 ka. The probability density frequency (PDF) distribution of 24 ages reveals age clusters at about 3, 8, 16-21, 33, and 79-83 ka, indicating enhanced sediment accumulation then. The results show that aeolian deposition occurred throughout most of the last 100 ka. This implies that: 1) an ice sheet covering the whole Tibetan Plateau during the last glacial maximum (LGM) could not have existed; and 2) erosion during the last deglaciation was not as strong as previously proposed, such that not all pre-Holocene loess was removed. The age distribution shown in the PDF indicates that aeolian accumulation is episodic. Sand-formation events revealed by age clusters at 3, 8, and 16-21 ka imply roughly synchronous environmental responses to corresponding global-scale arid events.

1] Changes in indices of climate extremes are analyzed on the basis of daily maximum and minimum surface air temperature and precipitation at 71 meteorological stations with elevation above 2000 m above sea level in the eastern and central Tibetan Plateau (TP) during 1961-2005. Twelve indices of extreme temperature and nine indices of extreme precipitation are examined. Temperature extremes show patterns consistent with warming during the studied period, with a large proportion of stations showing statistically significant trends for all temperature indices. Stations in the northwestern, southwestern, and southeastern TP have larger trend magnitudes. The regional occurrence of extreme cold days and nights has decreased by À0.85 and À2.38 d/decade, respectively. Over the same period, the occurrence of extreme warm days and nights has increased by 1.26 and 2.54 d/decade, respectively. The number of frost days and ice days shows statistically significant decreasing at the rate of À4.32 and À2.46 d/decade, respectively. The length of growing season has statistically increased by 4.25 d/decade. The diurnal temperature range exhibits a statistically decreasing trend at a rate of À0.20°C per decade. The extreme temperature indices also show statistically significant increasing trends, with larger values for the index describing variations in the lowest minimum temperature. In general, warming trends in minimum temperature indices are of greater magnitude than those for maximum temperature. Most precipitation indices exhibit increasing trends in the southern and northern TP and show decreasing trends in the central TP. On average, regional annual total precipitation, heavy precipitation days, maximum 1-day precipitation, average wet days precipitation, and total precipitation on extreme wet days show nonsignificant increases. Decreasing trends are found for maximum 5-day precipitation, consecutive wet days, and consecutive dry days, but only the last is statistically significant.

Two new Juniper tree-ring-width (TRW) chronologies spanning more than 500 years were developed in the Yellow River source area, North Eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (NE-QTP). For the two studied sites, located approximately 50 km apart, split correlation and coherence analysis reveal unstable tree-growth responses to local moisture availability. While significant correlations are obtained with April-June local precipitation, Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and river flow from 1948/1954 to 1998 and from 1948/1954 to 1970s, these correlations vanish for the time period 1970s-1998. The local instrumental climate data (precipitation, PDSI and river flow) exhibit opposite correlations with large scale modes of variability (El Niño Southern Oscillation, ENSO, and Pacific Decadal Oscillation, PDO) before and after the 1977 PDO shift. One tree-ring chronology is coherent and anti-phased with instrumental ENSO/PDO indices at 5.2-year frequency. On the longer time span, this TRW chronology is compared with PDO reconstructed from historical Chinese data. This comparison also exhibits unstable multi-decadal relationships, notably in the mid 19th century. Altogether, the comparison between our two chronologies, local instrumental climate records, and ENSO/PDO indices suggest a cautious use of local TRW records for paleoclimate reconstructions. Further studies are needed to explore both the spatial coherency of tree-ring records and the temporal stability of their response to local and large scale climate variability.

Keywords: adakites high-Mg andesites peraluminous subduction uplift Eocene Qiangtang Tibet Changes in oceanic O-Sr isotopic compositions and global cooling beginning in the Eocene are considered to have been caused by the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. The specific timing and uplift mechanism, however, have long been subjects of debate. We investigated the Duogecuoren lavas of the central-western Qiangtang Block, which form the largest outcrops among Cenozoic lavas in northern-central Tibet and have widely been considered as shoshonitic. Our study demonstrates, however, that most of these lavas are high-K calc-alkaline andesites, dacites and rhyolites. Moreover, they are characterized by high Sr (367-2472 ppm) and Al 2 O 3 (14.55-16.86 wt.%) and low Y (3.05-16.9 ppm) and Yb (0.31-1.48 ppm) contents and high La/Yb (27-100) and Sr/Y (48-240) ratios, similar to adakitic rocks derived by partial melting of an eclogitic source. They can be further classified as either peraluminous and metaluminous subtypes. The peraluminous rocks have relatively high SiO 2 (N 66 wt.%) contents, and low MgO (b1.0 wt.%), Cr (4.94-23.3 ppm) and Ni (2.33-17.0 ppm) contents and Mg # (20-50) values, while the metaluminous rocks exhibit relatively low SiO 2 (55-69 wt.%) contents, and high MgO (1.41-6.34), Cr (25.7-383 ppm), Ni (14.13-183 ppm) and Mg # (46-69) values, similar to magnesian andesites. 40 Ar/ 39 Ar and SHRIMP zircon U-Pb dating reveal that both peraluminous and metaluminous adakitic rocks erupted in the Eocene (46-38 Ma). Paleocene-Early Miocene thrust faults and associated syn-contractional basin deposits in the Qiangtang Block suggest that this region was undergoing crustal shortening within a continent during the Eocene. The low ε Nd (−2.81 to −6.91) and high 87 Sr/ 86 Sr (0.7057-0.7097), Th (11.2-32.3 ppm) and Th/La (0.23-0.88) values in the Duogecuoren adakitic rocks further indicate that they were not derived by partial melting of subducted oceanic crust. Taking into account tectonic and geophysical data and the compositions of xenoliths in Cenozoic lava in northern-central Tibet, we suggest that the peraluminous adakitic rocks were most probably derived by partial melting of subducted sediment-dominated continent of the Songpan-Ganzi Block along the Jinsha suture to the north at a relatively shallow position (the hornblende + garnet stability field), but the metaluminous adakitic rocks likely originated from the interaction between peraluminous adakitic melts generated at greater depths (the garnet+ rutile stability field) and mantle. Because the Duogecuoren adakitic rocks must have originated from a garnet-bearing (namely, eclogite facies) source, Eocene continental subduction along the Jinsha suture caused the thickening of the Qiangtang crust. Given that crustal thickening generally equates with elevation, the uplift of the Central Tibetan Plateau probably began as early as 45-38 Ma, which provides important evidence for tectonically driven models of oceanic O-Sr isotope evolution during global cooling and Asian continental aridification beginning in the Eocene.

This paper summarises the nature of climatic change during the Last Glacial}Interglacial cycle on the Tibetan Plateau and adjacent areas. The results are derived from inland glacier #uctuations, lake level changes and dust (loess) records of Central Asia including Tibet. These are based on our "eld investigations from 1988 to 1998 and literature surveys. The changing extents of di!erent climatic controlled geomorphic landscapes and vegetation zones help to provide estimates of the magnitude of climatic change. Features, such as ice wedge casts, loess, and palaeosols, ELA-reconstruction's and palaeobotanical data are used to help reconstruct palaeoprecipitation and palaeotemperatures. Weathering characteristics, the overlying strata and some luminescence dates indicate that there are two main glacial ice advances during the last glacial cycle. These correspond to marine Oxygen Isotope Stages (OIS) 2 and 4. In some areas, as the eastern or northern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, remnants of older glaciations are preserved. Higher lake levels in the deserts of Central Asia and on the Tibetan Plateau are dated to '40 to 25 ka (OIS 3) and to Late Glacial / Early to Mid Holocene periods. Our work supports the view that in many areas of Central Asia cold phases during the last glacial correspond with the maximum extent of glaciers and the periglacial activity. The last glaciation produced large alluvial fans alternating with periods of high lake stands on the Tibetan Plateau. However, at the northern margin of the Plateau in the Qaidam Basin and in some particular desert areas in Western China, high lake levels occurred also during the Pleistocene and are related with alluvial fans.

Late Miocene and Pliocene hominoids from Yunnan Province in southern China have been recovered from four sites or site complexes: Xiaolongtan, Yangyi, Shihuiba and Yuanmou. Of these, Shihuiba and Yuanmou are among the most prolific fossil hominoid sites in Eurasia, and they have yielded important evidence that is critical for documenting the evolutionary history, biogeography and paleobiology of later Neogene hominids. The aim of this paper is to clarify their taxonomy and nomenclature, and to present a preliminary synthesis of their phylogenetic relationships and biogeography. The morphological pattern and degree of variation observed in the fossil samples is consistent with there being a single, sexually dimorphic species represented at each site. Provisionally, we consider the Shihuiba, Xiaolongtan and Yuanmou samples to belong to two separate species within a single genus. The valid names for these species are Lufengpithecus lufengensis (from Shihuiba) and L. keiyuanensis (from Xiaolongtan and Yuanmou). From a phylogenetic perspective, the currently available evidence suggests thatLufengpithecus is either a primitive hominid that represents the sister taxon of the Ponginae+Homininae or a primitive sister taxon to the Ponginae. We tend to favor the second alternative, but acknowledge that a more comprehensive comparative analysis is needed to substantiate the phylogenetic and taxonomic affinities of Lufengpithecus. Importantly, the Yunnan fossil apes provide a unique temporal perspective on the evolutionary history of hominoids. Their continued occurrence during the late Miocene and Pliocene (∼8–2 Ma), when hominoids became extinct throughout the rest of Eurasia, suggests that southern China (and presumably southeast Asia in general) was an important refugium for hominoids, including the ancestors of the orang-utans and gibbons. The uplift of the Tibetan plateau and its impact on regional climatic conditions may have been an important contributing factor in isolating the hominoids geographically and ecologically. We speculate that changed climatic condition in the mid-Pliocene, and possibly the arrival of Homo soon after, may have precipitated the regional extinction of large hominoids in southern China and in mainland southeast Asia.

Analysis of river water, rock, travertine and soil from the high altitude, negligible vegetation setting of the Southern Tibetan Plateau demonstrates that Ca and Mg isotope ratios are fractionated during weathering. Dissolved Ca in the two rivers studied is derived primarily by limestone dissolution. δ 44/42 Ca in the rivers averages 0.43‰ and is statistically distinct from limestone at 0.31‰. The range in δ 44/42 Ca in these small rivers is 0.43‰, equivalent to the entire range in δ 44/42 Ca recorded in marine carbonate over the last 80 Ma. Precipitation of isotopically light travertine with a δ 44/42 Ca of 0.21‰ enriches solute Ca in heavy isotopes. The Mg isotope composition of the rivers is intermediate between limestone and silicate rock averaging − 1.5‰. Silicate soil has a δ 26 Mg of − 0.03‰, heavier than silicate rock by 0.5‰. These fractionations in the soil create a companion groundwater reservoir of heavy Ca and light Mg. Seasonal variations in Ca and Mg isotope ratios in the dissolved load are small, but define an array which can be modelled as a mixture between a fractionated groundwater reservoir and surface runoff (reflecting the isotopic composition of the lithology). Fractionation of Ca during the weathering of the continents is of importance to the global cycle of Ca. The riverine input of Ca to the oceans (dominated by carbonate weathering) is controlled not only by the composition of the primary continental crust but also by the size and composition of a fractionated reservoir on the continents. The impact on the oceanic cycle of Ca depends on the relative residence times of dissolved Ca in the ocean and the storage time of fractionated Ca.

The available soil water capacity (ASWC) is important for studying crop production, agro-ecological zoning, irrigation planning, and land cover changes. Laboratory determined data of ASWC are often not available for most of soil profiles and the nationwide ASWC largely remains tacking in relevant soil data in China. This work was to estimate ASWC based on physical and chemical properties and analyze the spatial distribution of ASWC in China. The pedo-transfer functions (PTFs), derived from 220 survey data of ASWC, and the empirical data of ASWC based on soil texture were applied to quantify the ASWC. GIS technology was used to develop a spatial file of ASWC in China and the spatial distribution of ASWC was also analyzed. The results showed the value of ASWC ranges from 15 × 10 .2 cm~ocm 3 to 22 × 10 .2 cm3.cm -~ for most soil types, and few soil types are lower than 15 × 10 -2 cm3.cm -3 or higher than 22 x 10 -2 cm3.cm-k The ASWC is different according to the complex soil types and their distribution. It is higher in the east than that in the west, and the values reduce from south to north except the northeastern part of China. The "high" values of ASWC appear in southeast, northeastern mountain regions and Northeast China Plain. The relatively "high" values of ASWC appear in Sichuan basin, Huang-Huai-Hai plain and the east of Inner Mongolia. The relatively "low" values are distributed in the west and the Loess Plateau of China. The "very low" value regions are the northern Tibetan Plateau and the desertified areas in northern China. In some regions, the ASWC changes according to the complex topography and different types of soils. Though there remains precision limitation, the spatial data of ASWC derived from this study are improved on current data files of soil water retention properties for Chinese soils. This study presents basic data and analysis methods for estimation and evaluation of ASWC in China.

The Tibetan Plateau is the product of crustal thickening caused by collision between India and Asia. Plate tectonic reconstructions suggest continuous northward movement of the Indian plate relative to stable Eurasia at nearly 50 mm/yr for the last 50 My. The plateau is now at~5 km elevation with steep topographic gradients across the southern and northern margins. These steep topographic gradients are also related to large lateral variations in the geoid and gravity anomalies. In a SSW to NNE cross section, the Bouguer gravity anomaly decreases over a distance of 500 km from about 0 mGal in the India plate to~−500 mGal on the Tibetan Plateau. The geoid anomaly also presents steep gradients on both the Himalayan front and the northern margin, reaching values between 20-30 m on the plateau, suggesting a pronounced thinning of the lithospheric mantle. Uplift late in the tectonic evolution of the plateau, the widespread extension, and the associated magmatism have been attributed to convective removal of the lower part of lithospheric mantle and its replacement by hotter and lighter asthenosphere. Here we present a twodimensional lithospheric thermal and density model along a transect from the Indian plate to Asia, crossing the Himalaya front and the Tibetan Plateau. The model is based on the assumption of local isostatic equilibrium, and is constrained by the topography, gravity and geoid anomalies and by thermal data within the crust. Our results suggest that the height of the Tibetan Plateau is compensated by thick crust in the south and by hot upper mantle to the north. The Tibetan Plateau as a whole cannot be supported isostatically only by thickened crust; a thin and hot lithosphere beneath the northern plateau is required to explain the high topography, gravity, geoid and crustal temperatures. The lithosphere reaches a maximum depth of~260 km beneath the southern Plateau, and thins abruptly northward to~100 km under the central and northern Plateau. The lithosphere depth increases again beneath the Qaidam basin and the Qilian Shan to~160 km.