Social Networks (History)

Resumo: Este artigo analisa a mútua ingerência entre o matrimônio e o compadrio entre membros de uma elite rural do distrito de Piranga, localidade pertencente ao Termo de Mariana em Minas Gerais. Defende-se que estas duas práticas relacionais oferecem importantes chaves para compreensão das hierarquias sociais, da mobilidade sócio-espacial e enraizamento social. Como resultados, notou-se que através de casamentos com importantes famílias, indivíduos de outras regiões galgavam ascensão social e econômica através da inserção nos principais círculos relacionais da localidade em estudo. Por fim, perceberam-se importantes diferenças intergeracionais na prática do compadrio, a qual demonstra a importância em analisar esta prática conjuntamente ao ciclo vital.
Abstract: This work analyze the mutual interference between marriage and godparentage among members of a rural elite in the Piranga district, a place in the jurisdiction of the 'Termo de Mariana'. It is argued that these two relational practices offer important keys to understanding social hierarchies , social and spatial mobility and social embedded. As results, it was observed that through marriages with important families, individuals from other regions aspired social and economic ascension through insertion in the main relational circles of the locality under study. Finally, have been noted significant differences in intergenerational practice of godparentage, which demonstrates the importance in analyzing this practice jointly the life cycle.

From 1995 to the present day the number of Internet users has increased from 16 million to 3.7 billion. What are the reasons for such an extraordinary success? This book reconstructs the origins of the Internet from the period following the Second World War to the dissemination of the World Wide Web. It not only considers the technological innovations but also explores the cultural, social and political contexts in which the net developed.
The authors interpret the evolution of the “network of networks” as a process in which, at each stage, the solutions devised by its creators were the most functional to their needs and the most suitable to the times in which they operated. Despite its military origins, it was the users themselves who built the net: a community of researchers, for the most part academics, whose goal was the advancement of knowledge. As a result, and particularly with the advent of email at the beginning of the 1970s, the web was endowed with user-oriented features that continue to characterise it today.

This article examined how locality influenced the development of the social networks
established and cultivated by an extended family of merchants from the island of Chios in the Italian city of Ancona, and the causes behind the evolution of its relationship with the local Genoese and Greek communities during the peak of their presence in the city between 1530 and 1550.

Chios was ruled by a Genoese association of merchants and ship owners, the Maona,
and throughout the period of Latin occupation of the island the local Greek upper classes and the Genoese rulers initiated a process of constant mingling. This led to the partial integration of some of the most important Greek families in the Genoese nobility, and to the establishment of a resilient network of contacts both home and abroad.

Chios was also characterised by a strong system of extended family ties, which were created in the island and formed the backbone of their social experience as migrants. This produced a unique form of relay migration, and dictated the way they interacted with both the Genoese merchant colony in the city, and with the formal or semi-formal institutions of the local Greek community.

Se trata de dar a conocer la interrelación, conexión y comunicación de diversas familias que desarrollan sus carreras, a finales del siglo XVIII, de forma simultánea en la Armada y el Ejército, cuyo horizonte común era ascender, promocionar o readaptarse a un proceso de transformación social. En lo que se quiere poner énfasis, y plantear como hipótesis, es la comunicación y el vínculo entre dos instituciones aparentemente autónomas, pero que configuran un mismo «campo social», el de la guerra, de promoción, jerarquía y relación, ligado a un mismo servicio y mérito, y compartiendo una misma cosmovisión y evolución en su entorno social. Uniendo aspectos y temáticas de la Historia Militar, de las Instituciones y Social queremos mostrar las similitudes y las diferencias del desarrollo personal y familiar del servicio en ambas instituciones.

The study of borrowed vocabulary and language contact in the Old English period is technically problematic in many ways. Surviving texts give us few clues as to how loans functioned outside the clerical communities, what their regional and register distributions were, and to what extent written sources reflect the circulation of loans in spoken language. This may suggest that a descriptive catalogue of lexical loans is the only approach applicable to the Old English material. This paper, however, aims at an inferential analysis of several loans from Latin and Greek in the religious and educational domain based on contemporary approaches to linguistic innovation, diffusion and change, and the wider cultural context that would have ensured their currency and dissemination – social networks provided by medieval schools and monasteries, and the ecclesiastical community at large. Using a select body of educated loans, it argues that strong ties within monastic communities would generally have prevented contact-induced lexical change from spreading outside the monasteries. Yet the role of individual innovators with both clerical and non-clerical ties and early adopters with elementary Latin proficiency (parish priests) in diffusion of change should not be underestimated.

No Brasil tem crescido o interesse por pesquisas sobre trajetóriais individuais e a formação de redes sociais, as quais tem enriquecido as reflexões sobre estratégias de agentes históricos nos mais diversos estratos que marcaram as sociedades do passado brasileiro. Influenciado por recentes estudos que postularam teses sobre a precariedade da liberdade no Brasil oitocentista, este artigo analisa a trajetória de africanas egressas do cativeiro numa região que foi grande receptora de indivíduos oriundos do tráfico transatlântico de escravos. A reconstrução de suas relações de compadrio e as suas estruturas familiares possibilitou enxergar a força da escravidão nas sociabilidades forjadas, a qual, diga-se, pôs à prova, cotidianamente, a condição de liberdade, o que exigiu estratégias que demarcassem o lugar social destes indivíduos libertos. Por fim, a microanálise permitiu enxergar africanos libertos como agentes históricos que ultrapassaram os limites das hierarquias vigentes, construindo laços sociais que não se enquadraram pelas estruturas sociais do mundo dos senhoes de escravos.

O contexto específico de configuração das elites locais na formação do Estado no Brasil imperial apresenta a família à frente da constituição das estruturas políticas do passado brasileiro. Ao se cruzar documentação cartorial e paroquial, analisam-se as estruturas familiares de um grupo de eleitores de uma paróquia mineira oitocentista demonstrando o processo de formação de
redes clientelísticas em nível local.

This is the second of a series of Working Papers produced as part of the Mobile Museum Project (www.royalholloway.ac.uk/mobilemuseum). It represents work in progress and is subject to further revision in the course of the project. We are happy to acknowledge the support of the AHRC (The mobile museum: economic botany in circulation-AH/N00941X/1), our partner museums-the British Museum and Pitt Rivers Museum-as well as other museums who have provided data and answered our queries, in particular Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow, and our fellow project team members. We would also to thank the Kew archivists and librarians, and Traude Gavin for sharing her knowledge on Iban textiles.

Je voudrais ici montrer que les lettres que le pasteur et journaliste Jacques Pérard (Paris 1713-Stettin 1766) a adressées à  Prosper Marchand depuis Stettin et plus rarement depuis Amsterdam et Berlin constituent une mine d’informations pour saisir l’intense circulation à l’œuvre entre les pasteurs huguenots en Prusse : lecteurs, journalistes, auteurs érudits perpétuellement en quête de libraires-imprimeurs,  et la librairie hollandaise francophone, comprendre le rôle des intermédiaires que sont Pérard et Marchand dans un système où les auteurs sont souvent en Prusse et les presses en Hollande, ainsi que certains aspects de la crise de la librairie hollandaise des années 1740 –qui se traduit notamment par le départ de certains libraires pour la Prusse. La correspondance active de Pérard avec Marchand montre aussi comment en quelques années une relation professionnelle étroite s’élargit à une relation amicale forte.

Master thesis, written by Kim Bredesen. An examination of the networks of the shipowner and merchant Hans Herlofsen (1729-1802). I have also analysed how the networks were affected by periods of war and peace in the last decades of the 18th Century.

University of Agder, spring 2017.

" Historians and Human Geographers deal with human systems or subsystems of considerable complexity. This situation presents a dilemma to those who use computational technologies, which demand a high level of precision to organize, analyze, and visualize information: the more complex the system is, the greater the imprecision of the available data. Historians and geographers often feel that their imprecise, ambiguous, contradictory, messy, largely qualitative information does not “fit” well in the available software categories, and they have trouble discussing the results produced when they work within computational environments because category assignment seems so arbitrary. This dilemma appears dramatically with the use of Geographically-Integrated History (GIH) as a research strategy. In this paper, we introduce fuzzy set theory (or fuzzy logic) as a proven solution for dealing with imprecision in complex systems.
"

The great Jewish migration to America in the turn of the 19 th century was researched excessively, specifically concerning its causes and the incorporation of the immigrants into the American society. However, research has scarcely dealt with transatlantuc communication between individuals and communities in the " new world " and communities in the " old world " , especially not with the spatial distribution of such communication. The following paper focuses on the European responsa literature as a source for such communication between the European orthodox world and the American orthodox world. While references to America in European responsa were rarities until the mid-nineteenth century, they became quite frequent along with the turn of the century mass migration. By spatially analyzing a GIS-mapping of these references between 1890 and 1930, we prove that that the existence of communication networks had a direct connection to a seemingly non-relevant parameter, the inner-orthodox debate between Hasidim and Mitnagdim. This conclusion leads to meaningful findings concerning the formation of an autonomous American rabbinical hierarchy, and the changing need of communities to relate to a distant authority. As this study demonstrates, a spatial analysis of the connections between Europe and America in the responsa literature provides some unexpected, even striking finds that may require a re-evaluation of certain historiographic commonplaces concerning the religious, and even the social history of American Jews.

Como han demostrado diversos estudios, los procesos que se desarrollaron en la zona andina a fines del periodo Colonial provocaron el debilitamiento de la figura del cacique en diversas localidades. En los Altos de Arica, la documentación eclesiástica de la doctrina de Belén, evidencia que junto con el desprestigio de la autoridad cacical se experimentó un fortalecimiento de las autoridades del cabildo indígena, cuyos integrantes no solo cumplieron roles políticos, sino que también desempeñaron funciones religiosas. Nos proponemos poner en evidencia la gran cantidad de autoridades locales que se suceden en cargos entre 1782 y 1813 en la doctrina de Belén, para luego, esbozar los distintos aspectos sociales, religiosos y económicos que rodearon a las autoridades de los pueblos de Belén ˗cabecera de la doctrina˗ y Socoroma, intentando comprender los antecedentes y alcances de su prestigio y sus particularidades con respecto a otros liderazgos indígenas del periodo Colonial. Finalmente...

The 1860’s saw the first successes of Stefano Bardini’s dealing career as well as the proliferation of professional academic expertise and its concomitant expression in publications.  From the early 1870s, Bardini maintained an active and energetic relationship with Wilhelm von Bode, first, because Bode had an ambitious collecting agenda on behalf of the German museums, as well as on behalf of several wealthy collectors.  Just as important was Bode’s prolific scholarly publication record which laid the foundations for what continue to be the norms for attribution as well as the practice of connoisseurship of Italian Renaissance sculpture.  Bode’s numerous publications promoted his professional expertise, which in the late nineteenth-century art market was an ever increasingly valuable commodity in Europe and abroad. And every bit as much, it promoted all of the Bardini objects which heavily populated the writings of Bode.  Circuitously, Bardini would then go on to cite the published authority of Bode, while at the same time, provide comparisons to other versions of objects—extant siblings, as it were—that Bardini had also put into circulation.  On the basis of archival material in Florence and Berlin, using the example of the so-called Pazzi Madonna, this paper reconstructs, in part, the microhistory of its transaction and the concomitant issues of branding, marketing, provenance, attribution and authenticity.

From 1858 to 1880 the Daughters of Charity religious order held an annual "fancy fair" in Los Angeles to support the work of its orphanage and school. The women of the town's elite families—Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish—managed the event and made the hand-crafted wares. Women across the class spectrum attended the fairs and purchased the wares. The important role of the fairs in community formation and in building a philanthropic culture enriches our understanding of the complexity of this frontier town beyond the focus on economic, political, and male-oriented events that dominate the standard literature.

This book concerns the role of 'religion' in daily life in late antiquity. It springs out of an engagement with documents found in a small town in Roman Egypt, and their relationship to a lost religious tradition, 'Manichaeism' , that once spread across the Eurasian continent. In order to approach this issue, I have drawn on a range of different fields: papyrology, Coptology, microhistory, prosopography, network theory, cultural sociology, Manichaean studies, early Christian studies, and the study of ancient associations. The aim has been to shed light on the dynamics between what we may roughly term 'ideological' and 'social' forces in the history of late antique religion. In its present form, the book is a substantially rewritten version of my doctoral thesis, 'The Limbs of the Light Mind: The Social World of a Manichaean Community in Fourth-Century Egypt' , which was defended at the University of Bergen in the Fall of 2018. The changes from thesis to book are many, however-too many to enumerate here. The most conspicuous one is the shedding of detailed discussion of the Kellis community's economy, which has been replaced by a more focused engagement with religious identity. Several of the chapters from the thesis treating economic activity have been removed, while those chapters discussing religious life have been reorganised and greatly expanded. The person to whom this work owes its greatest debt is undoubtedly my former supervisor, Eivind H. Seland. His unfailing support during my PhD made my ideas into a realisable project, and his continued advice, friendship, and invitations for walks have been a great source of strength and fresh air in the subsequent period-especially appreciated under the COVID19 pandemic, still-ongoing as I write this. I am, furthermore, most grateful to the members of my dissertation committee, Jacques van der Vliet, Arietta Papaconstantinou, and J. Christian Meyer, who pointed out important deficiencies and areas for improvement of the thesis, while also giving me the confidence to plan for a publication. I would, moreover, like to send my sincere thanks to the scholars who read and commented on the manuscript while still a thesis-in-waiting, especially Giovanni Ruffini, René Falkenberg, and Ingvild Gilhus. Many others have been of great importance along the way; especially Alexandros Tsakos, who has been a great support and a tutor in all things Coptic, and Mattias Brand, with whom I've had many friendly and fruitful disagreements over the years. Furthermore, I wish to extend my thanks to Johannes van Oort, who both helped improve the manuscript and guided me through the publication process; my three anonymous reviewers, for their comments, Tables Currency and measures in Dakhleh (c.355-370) 44 Selected prices in Kellis (c.355-70) 45 Sequence of Psais, Andreas, Ploutogenes, and Horos 67 Makarios' greetings (P.Kellis V Copt. 19) 163 Matthaios' greetings (P.Kellis V Copt. 25) 164 Religious books in the documentary papyri 204 Elect in the House 1-3 material 224

In the course of sorting research for an article on the bronze doors of the Morgan Library which were transacted from Stefano Bardini’s Villa Marignolle in 1901, several figures came to populate the immediate social network of that particular art market vignette.  Upon the basis of additional research in several other archives, this paper offers a first sketch of some of the many agents and intermediaries involved in a cluster of questionable activity with respect to American collectors in search of European acquisitions shortly after the close of the Paris Exposition Universelle of 1900.

Photo sharing is a captivating feature which popularizes Online Gregarious Networks (OSNs). Lamentably, it may leak users' privacy if they are sanctioned to post, comment, and tag a photo liberatingly. In this paper, we endeavor to address this issue and study the scenario when a utilizer shares a photo containing individuals other than him/her (termed co-photo for short). To obviate possible privacy leakage of a photo, we design a mechanism to enable each individual in a photo be cognizant of the posting activity and participate in the decision making on the photo posting. For this purport, we require an efficient facial apperception (FR) system that can apperceive everyone in the photo. However, more authoritatively mandating privacy setting may limit the number of the photos publicly available to train the FR system. To deal with this dilemma, our mechanism endeavors to utilize users' private photos to design a personalized FR system concretely trained to differentiate possible photo co-owners without leaking their privacy. We additionally develop a distributed consensus predicated method to reduce the computational intricacy and for fend the private training set. We show that our system is superior to other possible approaches in terms of apperception ratio and efficiency. Our mechanism is implemented as a proof of concept Android application on Facebook's platform.

Sul finire del 1918 Rudolf Rocker tornò in Germania dopo un lungo esilio 1 . Stabilitosi a Berlino insieme alla compagna Milly Witkop e al figlio Fermin, Rocker era rapidamente diventato un punto di riferimento per l'organizzazione anarcosindacalista Freie Arbeiter Union Deutschlands (Faud), che nel 1921 superò i centocinquantamila iscritti 2 . Nello stesso anno la casa editrice della Faud, Verlag "Der Syndikalist", pubblicò un opuscolo anonimo di una ventina di pagine, dal titolo La rivoluzione russa e il partito comunista, in cui si denunciava il "Moloch bolscevico" e il "capitalismo di Stato" nati dalla rivoluzione d'ottobre. Nella sua introduzione, Rocker non esitava ad assumersi "la piena e incondizionata responsabilità di ogni parola" pronunciata da questo manoscritto, giunto direttamente da Mosca 3 .

The Greeks were one of those outgroups to whom the Anglo-Saxons had reasons to look up to, because of the antiquity of their culture and the sanctity of their language, along those of the Hebrews and the Romans. Yet as a language Greek was practically unknown for most of the Anglo-Saxon period and contact with its native speakers and country extremely limited. Nevertheless, references to the Greeks and their language are not uncommon in the Anglo-Saxon sources (both Latin and vernacular), as a little less than 200 occurrences in the Dictionary of Old English (s.v. grecisc) testify.

This paper uses these data, supplementing them with searches in the Dictionary of Old English Web Corpus, Brepolis Library of Latin Texts - Series A, monumenta.ch and Medieval Latin from Anglo-Saxon Sources, and analyses lexical and syntactic strategies of the Greek outgroup construction in Anglo-Saxon texts. It looks at lexemes denoting ‘Greek’ and their derivatives in Anglo-Latin and Old English, examines their collocates and gleans information on attitudes towards Greek and the Greeks, and on membership claims indexed by Latin-Greek or English-Greek code-switching, by at the same time trying to establish parallels and influences between the two high registers of the Anglo-Saxon period.

Uno de los rasgos más llamativos de la vida religiosa de la Baja Edad Media fue el espectacular incremento de las mujeres consagradas a Dios, la diversificación de sus formas de vida y el gran peso de lo femenino en la simbología y el lenguaje religiosos. En estas páginas se analiza la complejidad del fenómeno partiendo de su característico vínculo con la ciudad por considerarlo factor decisivo. Se muestra el papel ejercido por las mujeres religiosas en la construcción y evolución del entramado sociopolítico urbano bajomedieval, tanto en una dimensión de libertad y autoridad que dio origen a nuevas formas de socialización e incidencia política femeninas, como de control por parte de los sistemas de poder institucionales y oligárquicos. El trabajo se centra en el contexto andaluz por la gran riqueza de sus manifestaciones religiosas femeninas considerando que ello tiene mucho que ver con la acción de las mujeres en la configuración de las nuevas cristiandades urbanas nacidas tras la reconquista. La amplitud del marco cronológico permite percibir su evolución y los cambios en el tránsito a la Edad Moderna.

El presente trabajo indaga el papel que los desembolsos de la Real Caja de Buenos Aires tenían sobre la actividad económica de la comarca durante el siglo XVII, identificando la incidencia que dichos flujos de recursos fiscales tuvieron sobre los actores más influyentes en el mercado local. Para ello, se sigue la hipótesis según la cual los flujos de valores de origen fiscal (o gasto público) incidían, aunque desigualmente, en el desenvolvimiento económico de los actores. Para dilucidar el problema, se ponen en contacto dos universos: el de la interacción económica entre particulares (vislumbrado en la red de escrituras notariales) y el de los desembolsos de la Real Caja de Buenos Aires. Un básico indicador reticular pareciera expresar la incidencia del segundo universo sobre el primero: la centralidad de intermediación detentada por los actores en la interacción económica. En este sentido, el artículo no pretende avanzar sobre el "impacto económico del gasto público", la composición ni la tipología del gasto público en Buenos Aires durante el siglo XVII, como tampoco ahonda en las singularidades de la economía de transacciones interpersonales sobre la que se efectúa el análisis, en la medida en que estos aspectos fueron abordados en otros trabajos debidamente referidos.

This paper deals with the role of the public spending in the economic activity, identifying the incidence that the fiscal disbursement had on the performance of the most influential actors in the local market. The hypothesis proposed is that the economic performance of the actors was affected, unequally, by the flows of resources of fiscal origin. To address this hypothesis, two universes are put in contact: the economic interaction between individuals, and the disbursements of the Royal Treasury of Buenos Aires. A basic indicator expresses the incidence of the second universe on the first one: the betweenness centrality held by the actors in the economic interaction. This article does not deal with the " economic impact of the public spending " , neither with the typology of the public expenditures, nor does it explain the singularities of the interpersonal transactions economy over wich the analysis is carried out, in the extent that those topics have been addressed in different papers, properly referred.

By reinterpreting a set of correspondence between Chinese and Japanese monks, this article gives a “thick description” of a lumber transaction between a prestigious monastery in Hangzhou, China, and a newly established monastery in Hakata, Japan. Examining the network connecting the two monasteries shows that in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Hakata-based Chinese merchants sought patronage and connections from powerful religious establishments in both China and Japan, whose political patronage conferred economic privileges. The quest for gaining trade profits, spreading Buddhist teachings, and enhancing political authority drove all the parties together and formed a religio-commercial network linking China and Japan.

Este artigo problematiza as estratificações sociais no passado brasileiro a partir da análise das relações de compadrio e das sociabilidades cotidianas de um domicílio chefiado por um indivíduo livre, pardo, que desenvolvia a atividade de carpinteiro na localidade em que vivia. Postula-se que as redes sociais que o envolvia naquela sociedade escravista oferecem importantes elementos para compreensão das hierarquias sociais, da mobilidade sócio-espacial e enraizamento social, além de dar subsídios para se conhecer os mecanismos de manutenção do prestígio social e do poder. Utilizou-se na pesquisa realizada, informações contidas em recenseamentos
populacionais e registros paroquiais de batismo, por meio das quais, partindo de técnicas específicas da demografia histórica, conheceu-se o espaço em estudo a partir da composição populacional do mesmo. Por fim, a Análise de Redes Sociais
evidenciou o posicionamento de ‘pardos livres’ e como se estruturam dentro da hierarquia social vigente.

École française de Rome Fabrice Jesné Directeur des études, Époques moderne et contemporaine Claire Challéat Assistante scientifique, Époques moderne et contemporaine Piazza Farnese, 67 -000186 Roma -Italia T. +39 06 68 60 12 44 [email protected]

Este artículo analiza la red social del pintor romántico Federico de Madrazo durante sus años de pensionado en París y Roma. A partir de la correspondencia con su padre, José de Madrazo, se reconstruye el mapa relacional del artista y se analiza el papel de sus componentes en el desarrollo personas y profesional del pintor durante su viaje europeo entre 1837 y 1842.

A los pocos días de su llegada, el conde de Baños se enfrentó con los habitantes de su Virreinato: le culparon de ser arrogante, despectivo y de llevarse el dinero del rey. Tal concierto de quejas y denuncias en contra de un personaje tan eminente era algo bastante excepcional aunque, sí, no lo era su conducta ¿Cómo explicarlo? Entre la necesaria mano dura que exigiría un contexto difícil y el temperamento peculiar del mismo virrey, aquí se explora una tercera hipótesis, haciendo hincapié en el estatuto peculiar de la familia aris-tocrática a la que pertenecía y su trayectoria propia. Peu de temps après son arrivée, le comte de Baños vit se dégrader ses relations avec les habitants de la vice-royauté qu'il administrait: on l'accusa d'être arrogant, méprisant et de voler l'argent du roi. Une telle série d'attaques contre un personnage aussi haut placé était assez exceptionnelle même si ses écarts de conduite n'avaient rien d'inhabituel. Comment expliquer ce paradoxe? On a jusque-là évoqué les difficultés du moment qui exi-geaient que le gouvernant se montrât ferme ainsi que le tempérament du vice-roi. Ici, une troisième hypothèse est explorée à partir de la prise en compte du caractère particulier de son statut au sein de l'aristocratie espagnole et de la trajectoire de sa famille.

In this article, the author proposes some solutions to our modern seemingly intractable economic problems. Keynesian theories, the bug-bear of modern economics, seem to hold little water nowadays. Modern economies appear to be in need of more radical solutions. This article is the revised version of an article which had been published in an international journal.

The goals of this chapter are two-fold. First, we provide a description
of what communities of practice are. What are their defining characteristics?
What excludes certain groups of speakers from being members of a
community of practice? This will serve as an introduction to the concept for
those who are not already familiar with the term, and will re-establish the essential
parameters of discussion for those who are acquainted with it. Part of this
will entail explicit contrast between the community of practice and other, preexisting
constructs such as the speech community and social networks. Second, we demonstrate how the community of practice might impact on
studies of intercultural communication. Is it possible to use studies of different
communities of practice to frame questions about intercultural (mis)communication?
Would such studies lend themselves to being transformed into programmes
for intervention or for highlighting best practice in intercultural communication?
What generalizations emerge from community of practice-based
research and what limitations are there in the use of the community of practice for
sociolinguistic research, particularly in the field of intercultural communication?

During the post-Byzantine period of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in certain areas of Greece, back then, under Ottoman occupation, a particular form of cooperative organization was developed. Rural regions-networks of adjacent communities-having secured a special privileged status of community administration-were organised as a local production system designed to produce specific agricultural or craft products which were then destined for international markets. The present paper aims, first, to bring to light the Greek guild, its internal organization and its geographical impacts; and, second, to investigate the phenomenon of the cooperative community networks. In particular, it presents successful historical examples of cooperative organization, their deeper values and operational rules developed in Eastern Mediterranean during the post-Byzantine period. At the same time, it aims at the study and prominence of the deeper values and motives and main operational rules, firstly on regional micro-level of professional guilds and latterly on a peripheral macro-level of cooperative forms in between in the wider regions of Greek territory. Four historically successful cases of cooperative organization in the Greek territory thrived during the Ottoman occupation, aspects of which offer useful proposals for the founding and operation of today's cooperative initiatives. The success of these cases is in line with the exploitation of specific political and socioeconomic conditions; the parallel growth of an expansive, international commercial network; monopolies' function; and the invention of innovative operation rules of cooperative organization.

Como han demostrado diversos estudios, los procesos que se desarrollaron en la zona andina a fines del periodo Colonial provocaron el debilitamiento de la figura del cacique en diversas localidades. En los Altos de Arica, la documentación eclesiástica de la doctrina de Belén, evidencia que junto con el desprestigio de la autoridad cacical se experimentó un fortalecimiento de las autoridades del cabildo indígena, cuyos integrantes no solo cumplieron roles políticos, sino que también desempeñaron funciones religiosas. Nos proponemos poner en evidencia la gran cantidad de autoridades locales que se suceden en cargos entre 1782 y 1813 en la doctrina de Belén, para luego, esbozar los distintos aspectos sociales, religiosos y económicos que rodearon a las autoridades de los pueblos de Belén ˗cabecera de la doctrina˗ y Socoroma, intentando comprender los antecedentes y alcances de su prestigio y sus particularidades con respecto a otros liderazgos indígenas del periodo Colonial. Finalmente, hacemos una propuesta alternativa al concepto de mediadores culturales, entendiendo a estas autoridades étnicas no como "mediadores", sino como sujetos relacionales. Palabras claves: cabildo, cofradías, sistema de cargos, mediadores, compadrazgo, redes sociales. As several studies have shown, the processes that developed in the Andean area towards the end of the colonial period weakened the cacique figure in several localities. In the highlands of Arica, the ecclesiastical documentation of the Doctrine of Belén shows that the loss of the cacique's authority contrasted with a strengthening of the indigenous chapter, the members of which fulfilled not only political roles, but also religious functions. This article highlights the high number of local authorities that succeeded one another in the Doctrine of Belén between 1782 and 1813, and outlines the various social, religious, and economic aspects that surrounded the authorities of the towns of Belén, head of the doctrine, and Socoroma, so as to understand the origin and scope of their prestige, as well as their peculiarities with respect to other indigenous leaders of the colonial period. Finally, we make an alternative proposal to the concept of cultural mediators by regarding them as ethnic authorities acting as relational subjects.