Religius studies

One consequence of the rising political, intellectual and religious self-confidence and self-assertion of contemporary India, especially its  Hindu majority, is the Indian attempt to reclaim from the Western academy the right to 'objectively' and 'authoritatively', if not 'scientifically', explain itself and its history to the world. There is frequent tension between those  (a) who would defend with a learned voice Hinduism's traditional, scripture-based self-history, and those (b) who seek to explain India by the standards of Western humanistic scholarship, under the various rubrics of Indology. However, as Norvin Hein pointed out:
Ultimately, the opponents need each other ... They (a) ... are the most attentive people in the work of academics (b), with a scrutiny review of their writings, and how on the other hand, the contribution of these scholars (a) is necessary for the (b), although this makes them feel the most irritable. (Hein, 1992). If this process is not accepted, we would come to face the problem pointed out by Carl Sagan: "When one excludes the possibility of making critical observations and engaging in discussion, she/he is hiding the truth". Thus, in order to take this step of cognitive progress, Sagan suggests: "If we want to determine the truth on an issue, we should approach it with the greatest mental openness possible, and in full consciousness of our limitations and biases."

This topic has been one of the most discussed and investigated in the erudite communities of the studies of religions. Because,  just as Christ is for more than 2.7 billion Christians, Krishna is for 1.7 billion Hindus. However, for the verdict of Natural History that sustains modern Science, they were just simple human beings, turned into deities by their followers, and their miracles are only myths and legends (Cf. Rudolf Bultmann 1970., Albert Scheweitzer 1967, Larry W. Hurtado 2015, etc ...).However, we also find that a good number of specialists have been able to appreciate the transcendence of both divine figures, as reflected in the thought of Hans Küng:
And as Krishna is a divine religious hero, in the epic poem Mahâbhârata. Incarnation of Vishnu-Krishna, similarly, of the Holy Spirit is Christ. Messenger of the Bhagavad-gita -Krishna, and of the Gospels Christ. So historical character Krishna as Christ. So true Gods both. (Kunh 1998)

This study aims to discover the roots and origins of Shiite Sharia, the applied legal arguments, and the framework developed within Islamic jurisprudence for issuing judgements on cases such as compensation, blood money, punitive damages, judicial corporal punishment, and capital punishment.

It is a common belief among all Islamic jurists, Sharia experts, and scholars from all Islamic disciplines that such codes are derived from the very text of the Qur’an directly and, therefore, are regarded as divine law.

However, the researches previously conducted suggesting the existence of pre-Islamic elements of other religious legal disciplines belonging to the civilisation surrounding Arabia at the time the Fqih start to develop, within the Sharia. Jewish, Roman and especially the Persians are having the biggest influence of all.

In previous attempts at addressing those influences, some scholars2 regarded the level of influence by other legal disciplines such as Sasanid law unsubstantial. Moreover, those studies are mostly based on Sunni Sharia.

Based on strong evidence and undisputed findings within the theological and legal characteristics of Shia Sharia and the Iranian legal system before the seventh century, and what we regard as the Iranian/Islamic legal discipline from the ninth3 century, we can detect the complex procedural evolution of the Iranian/Islamic legal system that eventually leads to Shia Sharia in later centuries.

The historical-comparative method of legal research has been adopted to achieve a reliable outcome for this research. The research is based on a comparative study and examination of pre-Islamic legal texts from the late Sasanid empire against evidence of the historical development of Shiite jurisprudence and Shia Sharia.

In chapter 1.5, the limitations and parameters of this thesis are addressed; despite the similarities in many common narratives and theological beliefs, the differences in practice and criminological definition of certain legal remedies, which in their very nature are identical in many aspects, made the outcome a challenging one to some extent. Therefore, some parameters were set to create a broader context for this thesis.

The middle part of the thesis is divided into three sections; in chapter 2.0, the pre-Islamic historical aspects are discussed. Moreover, in C.2.1 the foundations of Sharia law are deliberated to some extent. In C.2.0 and C.2.2.A, the legal documents from both legal disciplines are introduced and referenced as well, and in C.3.0, the main comparison and cross-reference study takes place.

In order to provide a better judicial and theological background for the thesis, the researcher decided not to leave any minor element unattended, even the smallest similarities, unless proven dissimilar. In archaeology, even a small seemingly worthless horseshoe may lead to the discovery of the ruins of a civilisation, a city, or a historical truth buried beneath the dust and dirt of centuries.

Therefore, in the majority of the legal documents compared in this thesis, beyond some occasional similarities in the definition of crimes and punishments, there are some hidden judicial and procedural elements that are significant in supporting what this study aims to prove.

Many of these elements may sound irrelevant at first reading, specifically if one does not have adequate knowledge of Sharia or Zoroastrian jurisprudence. In some of these cases, the nature of the crime/sin committed, however, may not look similar to any other crimes or sins in the other legal code in comparison.

In a more detailed look into the judicial framework, the punishment, and the procedural treatment of the matter, the reader will find much more relevant similarities and even identical elements in the two disciplines. Considering both disciplines’ development time frame being at least a few centuries apart, and the historical advancement and priority of the Sassanid legal system in terms of time and development, it means the direct influence and adaptation is not accidental.

In C.3, this section provides more theological evidence from the Sasanid period, the school of Zoroastrian theology in comparison Shia theology, which, in fact, in some parts, the discussed theological beliefs are not only limited to Shia Muslims but extend to the entire Islamic theological world. In C.2, historical and political events and geopolitical facts are also presented to prove the existence of preconditions for such an in-depth influence.

In summary, this research demonstrates elements of proof of the central research topic, that Shia Sharia, Shia jurisprudence, and theology, in particular, and Sharia and Islamic jurisprudence, fiqh, and Islamic theology, in general, partially developed under the direct influence of the Sassanid Zoroastrian school of theology. In order to stay focused on the research topic, the elements, effects, and influences of the Sassanid legal discipline which none-directly influenced Islam trough the Judaism and the Babylonian Talmud are not addressed adequately, however, there were no possibilities of not having it mentioned.

The socio-cultural importance and significance of the Sassanid empire and the great Persian empires have shaped the sociocultural foundation of the Middle East significantly which unfortunately has been understudied.

ISKCON Communications Journal provides a forum for sharing realizations, experience and scholars research about ISKCON's attempts to communicate the Gaudiya Vaisnava message to governments, academics, other faith communities, the media, its own members and others. ICJ also provides a forum for members of various academicals and religious communities to comment on ISKCON's development in these areas.

Abstract
The sociologist Max Weber, was one of the first to study sociologically how  religious movements grow, taking into account its historical facets. It is interesting to note that, there is a diverse phenomenon that happens in the development and growth of all religions, just like the rise of holy exemplary saint people; as also persons whose succumb to the temptations of the world and fell down in serious moral faults, like happens in all professions and vocations. Here we will study another singularity that inevitably happens – Apostasy--. Therefore, the purport of this paper is to show a short scheme of the psico-social phenomenon in contemporary Gaudiya Vaisnava moviment in outside of India.  ISBN E9687 422-33 39.

מהי אמנות יהודית־פמיניסטית וכיצד היא תורמת למרחבי האמנות,
החברה והדת? הספר ביקורת נאמנה מציע מסגרת תיאורטית
להבנת אופייה, דרכי פעולתה ותרומתה של תנועת האמנות היהודית
הפמיניסטית הדתית, אשר התפתחה מאז סוף שנות התשעים של
המאה העשרים בשני המרכזים היהודיים הגדולים — ישראל וארצות
הברית. כמחקר ראשון מסוגו הוא עוסק באופן רחב ושיטתי באמנות
זו ודן בביקורתה כלפי המסורת היהודית, ההלכה והמוסדות היהודיים
הדתיים.
גיבורות הספר הן אמניות מישראל ומארצות הברית המבקרות
ביצירתן את הטקסט הדתי, את הממסד הרבני ואת הריטואלים
היהודיים. יצירותיהן מנותחות לאור האמנות הפמיניסטית הכללית
וההגות היהודית־פמיניסטית ובהשוואה לפרקטיקות אקטיביסטיות, תוך
ניתוח ההתקבלות של היצירות ובחינת הדיונים הציבוריים שהן חוללו.
הספר מראה כיצד האמנות היהודית־פמיניסטית משמשת סדנה
לבחינה חוזרת ונשנית של המסורת, תוך חתירה תחת הבניותיה
הממשטרות וניסיון לעצב אותה מחדש. מה שיכול להיתפס במבט
ראשון כפרובוקציה וכמעשה אנטי־דתי, מתברר במבט בוחן ומעמיק
יותר כעשייה דתית פנימית המכוונת לתיקון. העיון המשולב באמנות
היהודית־פמיניסטית הצומחת בשני המרכזים — ישראל וארצות הברית
— מאיר את ההקשרים המקומיים, את ההתפתחויות הדומות והשונות,
ואת ההשפעות של הגלובליזם, התפוצתיות וההגירה, על האמנות.