Non pecuniary losses

There was a time in history when Italian and English tort’s structure had lots in common. Nowadays, instead, it’s not like that anymore, in particular if the plaintiff claims a non-pecuniary damage. Also in this case negligence is based just on the breach of duty of care, whereas the Italian Corte di Cassazione has clarified that a violation of a constitutional human right is demanded to the application of art. 2059 c.c. When to come into consideration, however, is the protection of health, the practical results tend to coincide to the point of bringing out a convergence on the need for an objective approach towards this right. In the perspective of European harmonization, the A. focuses his attention on how this concurrence has been possible and which stumbling blocks torts law had to overcome in both countries.

The article offers a critical analysis of non-pecuniary damages in contractual liability, by discussing the remedy’slegal bases, the role of the doctrinal category of the “obblighi di protezione” (Schutzpflichten) and the relevanceof the principle of good faith in the interpretation of the contract.

SOMMARIO: 1. Il framework. -2. Gli assi portanti di una possibile tassonomia. -3. I danni non patrimoniali da inadempimento nella cornice della distinzione fra obblighi di prestazione e obblighi di protezione. -3.1. La violazione di un obbligo di protezione. -3.2. Obblighi di prestazione e diritti fondamentali. -4. Il piano dei rimedi. Inadempimento e valori idiosincratici. -5. Conclusioni.

Legal scholars have been encouraged to examine alternative remedies for defamation in response to an increasing criticism of monetary damages. Various types of non-pecuniary relief (such as retraction, right of reply, publication of court decisions or declaratory judgement) have been made the subject of elaborate studies. The role of court-ordered apologies as a non-pecuniary defamation remedy has been scarcely discussed in academic literature. The work that has been done focuses either on the remedial role of apologies in East Asian jurisdictions or on apologies as a civil legal remedy aimed at emotional recovery for specific kinds of harm (such as personal injury, invasions of privacy or violations of equal opportunity legislation). These studies, which mostly go beyond the scope of defamation law, pay very little attention to the Western legal tradition. The Anglo-American and continental-European legal culture are considered non-apologetic traditions, which are clearly unfamiliar with the remedy of imposing apologies.

Contrary to the conventional wisdom, this article shows that court-ordered apologies are available as a defamation remedy in a non-negligible part of the Western legal tradition. This is demonstrated through a profound comparative legal analysis of continental legal systems (Western, Central as well as Eastern European jurisdictions), a mixed legal system (South-Africa) and common law systems. Simultaneously, this article allows us to gain a better understanding of why this remedy is still applied in some jurisdictions and why it has disappeared in others.

The article proceeds on the premise that a case can be made for court-ordered apologies as a defamation remedy in the Western legal tradition, and accordingly, it is argued that they are worth considering in jurisdictions which do not make use (anymore) of this legal tool. First, in operating a symbolic reversal of the original defamatory assertion, court-ordered apologies are more likely to produce a shaming effect than other remedies. Second, it is possible to attribute an educative function to court-ordered apologies, allowing courts to educate members of the community about what constitutes unlawful and injurious statements.
When examining the implementation of court-ordered apologies as defamation remedy, a civil-common law divide comes to the fore. Whereas apologies can be introduced in continental legal systems as a form of reparation, it is harder to import them into Anglo-American legal systems. The same goes for the reconciliation of this type of relief with freedom of expression, which is simpler to attain under the balancing test of the European Court of Human Right than in some common law systems.

SOMMARIO: 1. Le tipologie di tutela e le loro sfumature funzionali in ragione della natura patrimoniale o non patrimoniale del danno. - 2. La ricostruzione del sistema generale dei danni non patrimoniali. - 3. Il quantum dei danni non patrimoniali. - 4. I danni non patrimoniali “di riflesso”. - 5. I danni non patrimoniali “tanatologici”.

SOMMARIO: 1. Un'auspicabile svolta nel diritto tedesco della responsabilità civile. -2. Il richiamo alla coscienza sociale da parte della giurisprudenza italiana per individuare il soggetto danneggiato. -3. Il danno non patrimoniale subito dai congiunti della vittima quale opzione privilegiata nell'esperienza tedesca. -4. L'elaborazione della nuova disciplina del BGB: i soggetti legittimati ad agire e i criteri di quantificazione del danno. -5. La «gravità» del danno derivante dalla morte di uno stretto congiunto e la sua liquidazione. -6. Conclusioni. Il ruolo della giurisprudenza e l'uso dell'argomento comparatistico. della responsabilità civile e indispensabile un'integrazione mediante l'apparato sanzionatorio penale e amministrativo.

RESUMO: Há cada vez mais um interesse maior na medida, predição e controle das perdas suplementares, pois estas são um dos fatores importantes na determinação do rendimento e temperatura de operação de motores de indução. Portanto, é essencial um método preciso para a sua medida para a avaliação adequada do desempenho dos motores elétricos. As perdas suplementares não são simples de serem modeladas e quantificadas, sendo fortemente influenciadas pelos erros de medição, e por isso, há uma preocupação para a uniformização de um método de ensaio. A presença dessas perdas produz sobreaquecimento, redução do conjugado, aceleração e desaceleração, diminuição do rendimento e da potência das máquinas. Neste trabalho, primeiramente, foi empregada a simulação computacional para a estimação das perdas suplementares em motores de indução trifásicos em operação, para diferentes pontos de carga. Os métodos foram implementados no MATLAB, tendo como base o escorregamento, a corrente ou o circuito equivalente do motor, estimado computacionalmente e experimentalmente. A cada ensaio foram medidos valores da tensão, corrente, potência de entrada, velocidade do eixo para diferentes cargas. Após, foram verificados quais métodos poderiam ser reproduzidos em nosso laboratório para a estimativa das perdas suplementares. Foi possível então calcular o rendimento e o erro em relação ao rendimento de referência, calculado com o valor medido da potência, conjugado e velocidade. PALAVRAS–CHAVE: Perdas suplementares com carga, motor de indução trifásico, eficiência. ABSTRACT: There is a great interest in measurement, prediction and control of the stray losses, because they are one important factor in the efficiency determination and for induction motor operating temperature estimation. Therefore, a precise method for its measure is essential for the induction motor performance evaluation. The modeling of the stray losses is not simple, and they are strongly influenced by errors in measurement, and therefore there is a concern for the standardization of an adequate test method. The presence of these losses produces overheating, reduction of the torque, acceleration and deceleration, efficiency reduction and limitation of the power of the machines. Firstly, in this article, it was used a computational simulation for the estimation of stray losses in three-phase induction motors operating with different loads. The methods were implemented on MATLAB, using the slip, current or the motor equivalent circuit, which was estimated computationally and experimentally. For each method studied were measured the values of the voltage, current, input power, shaft speed for different loads. Then, were investigated which methods could be reproduced in our laboratory for the stray load losses estimation. Then, it was possible to calculate the efficiency and its error in relation to reference efficiency. INTRODUÇÃO No estudo de motores de indução trifásicos verifica-se que o cálculo das perdas de maneira geral está bem consolidado. Entretanto, na literatura verifica-se ainda há considerável

This chapter offers a slightly different account of what corrective justice requires for the payment of monetary damages. Specifically, it argues that while corrective justice does require full compensation for the costs of future care, at least in so far as these involve pecuniary losses, and does require full compensation for the loss of future earnings, it does not require full compensation for non-pecuniary losses. This is true despite the fact that such losses have been caused by the defendant’s wrongdoing, and lie within its ambit. The reason for this is that corrective justice corrects for wrongdoing within the space of rights, not welfare. While welfare under the aspect of rights is ultimately attended to by a damages award under corrective justice, the fact that monetary damages can have no utility for the correction of non-pecuniary welfare losses under this aspect is decisive against the award of such damages.

When the doctor recognizes a deformities of the foetus just near the birth, the mother can claim damages for violation of the right to abortion provided that there has been causation between the breach of contract and the wrongful birth. The Italian Corte di Cassazione turns one’s attention to how the judge can check that if the mother had been informed, the law condition for the abortion would have been completed and she would have chosen interrupting the pregnancy. The A. discusses the various possibility in the light of breach of contract rules into the different steps of the relationship between the doctor and the mother.

Over 40 years ago, the Supreme Court of Canada set an “upper limit” on the amounts which can be awarded as compensation for the non-pecuniary component of a bodily injury. This upper limit is now an effective cap. While the interpretation of the principles first set out by the Court has evolved, the cap has enjoyed a surprising and unusual stability, even as our society has changed. This short essay preliminarily sets out my thoughts on the cap, how it is understood by our courts, and the arguments which could lead to its abolition.

zastrzeżenie Kary uMownej a KoMpensacja nieMajątKowych uszczerBKów wierzycieLa I. truizmem jest stwierdzenie, że w obrocie gospodarczym istnieje zapotrzebowanie na instrument prawny zapewniający skuteczny i szybki sposób kompensacji szkody. zmierzając niewątpliwie ku potrzebom praktyki uchwała 7 sędziów sądu najwyższego z 6 listopada 2003 r., iii czp 6/03 rozstrzygnęła, wcześniej niezwykle sporną zarówno w doktrynie 2 , jak i w orzecznictwie 3 , problematykę czy szkoda jest przesłanką żądania kary umownej. sąd najwyższy przyjął, iż zastrzeżenie kary umownej na wypadek niewykonania lub nienależytego wykonania zobowiązania nie zwalnia dłużnika z obowiązku jej zapłaty w razie wykazania, że wierzyciel nie poniósł szkody. większość doktryny zaaprobowała tezę uchwały 4 . tym niemniej pojawiają się głosy kwestionujące jej prawidłowość lub postulaty de lege ferenda o jej zmianę 5 . podnoszone jest, że skutkiem tejże uchwały jest utrata przez karę umowną charakteru odszkodowawczego (kompensacyjnego) i jest ona obecnie opublikowana osnc 2004, z. 5, poz. 6 (z korektą w nr 6) z glosami aprobującymi j. jastrzębskiego, osp 2004, nr , poz. 5; a. slisza, Mop 2005, nr , s. 406-40; M. Bieniaka, Mop 2005, nr 20, s. 00-0. 2 z nowszej literatury por. np. p. drapała, Kara umowna (art. 483 k.c.) a odszkodowanie na zasadach ogólnych (art. 471 k.c.), pip 2003, nr 6, s. 60-6; e. skowrońska-Bocian, Kara umowna -kompensacja czy represja?, zp uKsw 2003, nr 2, s. 7 i n.; w. robaczyński, Kara umowna a szkoda, (w:) Odpowiedzialność cywilna. Księga pamiątkowa ku czci prof. Adama Szpunara, Kraków 2004, s. 2 i n. 3 za szkodą jako przesłanką roszczenia o karę umowną opowiedział się sąd najwyższy m.in. w wyroku z 4 lipca 76 r., i cr 22/76, osncp 77, nr 4, poz. 76; wyroku z 4 maja 2002 r., V cKn 357/00, niepublikowany, LeX nr 5553; wyroku z 7 czerwca 2003 r., iii cKn 22/0, niepublikowany, LeX nr 4400; wyroku z czerwca 2003 r., ii cKn 240/0, niepublikowany, LeX nr 270. odmienną wykładnię przyjął on m.in. w wyroku z 2 czerwca 70 r., ii cr 67/70, osnc 70, nr , poz. 24 oraz wyroku z 7 lutego 75 r., iii crn 406/74, osnc 76, nr 2, poz. 34. 4 por. z. radwański, a. olejniczak, Zobowiązania -część ogólna, warszawa 2005, s. 326; w. popiołek, (w:) Kodeks cywilny -komentarz. Tom II. Komentarz do art. 450-1088, red. K. pietrzykowski, warszawa 2005, s. 70. tak też wyrok sn z 4 grudnia 2003 r., ii cK 27/02, niepublikowany, LeX nr 5630; wyrok sn z lipca 2004 r., iV cK 522/03, osnc 2005, z. 7-, poz. 3. 5 K. zagrobelny (w:) Kodeks cywilny -komentarz, t. i, red. e. Gniewek, warszawa 2004, s. 24; p. Granecki, Glosa do wyroku SN z 8 lipca 2004 r., IV CK 522/03, osp 2006, nr , poz. 2; p. drapała, (w:) System prawa prywatnego. Tom 5. Prawo zobowiązań -część ogólna, red. e. łętowska, warszawa

The A. analyses the hypothesis if a defendant who does not enter in appearance can claim damages for the violation of Art. 6 of the ECHR, which declares that everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time. The Italian Corte di Cassazione considers that default does not represent a barrier for this opportunity, although damages could be reduced if the defendant had gained by the unreasonable time of the case. However the assumption of this solution is that there is an obligation between the defendant and State, so damages does not originate from a tort, but from a violation of a duty to performance.