Horology

In Chioggia, not far from Venice, Italy, an ancient turret clock has been discovered and deeply studied, thanks to centuries of documentation available in the wonderful local archives. The oldest document mentioning the clock, which apart from minor modifications is always the same, dates back to 1386.
This research allowed the author to put it side by side to the more famous clock in Salisbury Cathedral, so sharing the title of 'oldest surviving mechanical clock in the world'.

Author can be contacted at: [email protected]

The National Maritime Museum at Greenwich holds in its collections a Renaissance clock with astronomical complications made in Augsburg at the end of the sixteenth century. Beside the clock, the museum library holds its anonymous instruction booklet printed in Geneva in 1704. The clock is signed by Buschman, a prominent Augsburg maker, and is said to have belonged to John Casimir Vasa, king of Poland in the seventeenth century. This article discusses the authorship of the clock by comparing it with a twin clock from the same period signed by another maker. Whether it did indeed once belong to the Polish king is queried, with reference to his post mortem goods sale. This article uses written sources as well as the evidence from the clock itself, which was taken apart recently to study its history.

Giuseppe Candido (1837-1906) was an Italian Catholic bishop, with a genuine artistic skill - he was a talented painter, too - a scientist and a pioneer of the use of electricity in public timekeeping. In 1870, he designed and made a network of electric public clocks for the city of Lecce, in Southern Italy. This paper illustrates his contributions to horology.

Author can be contacted at: [email protected]

Artículo sobre la serie de relojes monumentales de péndulo cónico ideada por el relojero francés Eugène Farcot. Se estudia en detalle la unidad conservada en el Museo Cerralbo (Madrid, España).

Article in Spanish about the monumental conical pendulum clock series by the French clockmaker Eugène Farcot. It is described in detail the unit preserved in the Museo Cerralbo (Madrid, Spain).

The invention and spread of the mechanical clock is a complex and multifaceted historical phenomenon. Some of these facets, such as its social impact, have been widely studied, but their scientific dimensions have often been dismissed. The mechanical clock was probably born as a scientific instrument for driving a model of the universe, and not only natural philosophers but also kings, nobles and other members of the social elites showed an interest in clocks as scientific instruments. Public clocks later spread a new way of telling time based on equal hours, laying the foundations for changes in time consciousness that would accelerate scientific thinking.

A recently discovered employment agreement of 1772 shows that the partnership between Osborne and Wilson that made the earliest painted dials in England needs radical revision to confirm the original business partners. Also the key involvement and influence of third parties in establishing a successful business needs to be recognised. As well as a proposal by Osborne & Wilson to japan gun barrels, James Wilson was involved with relatives in making tortoiseshell boxes, while a fire at his
Birmingham clock dial manufactory may have hastened his death.

In ancient India time was measured in units called ghaṭīs by means of the sinking bowl type of water clock. In the late fourteenth century, Firoze Shah Tugluq adopted this water clock and the time units, so did Mughal rulers from Babur onwards. This custom was emulated also by East India Company at its factories in the seventeenth century. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the British Crown assumed direct control of the subcontinent, and began to replace the water clocks progressively by mechanical clocks. However, every locality followed its local time. In 1905 this plethora of local times were abandoned in favour of standard time 5 ½ hours ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). The present paper traces the change from the traditional Indian ghaṭīs to the European hours and later from local times to the Indian Standard Time on the basis of hitherto largely unpublished original documents.

This new standard textbook examines in detail portable timepieces ('watches') in the 15th and in particular 16th centuries. For this purpose, it gives all known preserved pieces of German and French production with over 800 pictures and 3D computer tomographies.

For the first time, this allows for a detailed analysis and comparison of movement structures, decorative and constructive elements.

Furthermore, spring-driven timepieces in paintings and art and in archives are examined as well as their accessories (keys, hands, cases). This completes the picture of late medieval and early Renaissance time measurement. Text in GERMAN, 500+ pages, 800+ pictures, hardcover, available on Amazon.de

The earliest navigators we know of who encountered the problem of finding their ship's position in open featureless ocean were the first Australians. There is archaeological evidence that enough people were settled in Australia 65,000 years ago, to have a marked effect on the extinction of the larger animals. Ancestors of many of them may have arrived 150,000 years ago or much earlier, even possibly as much as 700,000 years ago. Even during an ice-age, when the level of the sea was lower than today, the Australian continent was separated from the islands of Indonesia, by open sea wide enough to present a barrier to plants and animals.

Desde a maneira como o tempo foi e vem sendo entendido pelo Homem, passando pelas formas que foi criando para medir a sua passagem, quisemos dar a conhecer aspectos da história da Relojoaria, desde a sua evolução, técnicas e estética aplicada. Os relógios em ferro, de grandes dimensões e de utilidade religiosa e secular, foram os precursores dos relógios que entraram na vida privada quer fosse em casa ou no bolso (caixa alta, de mesa, de parede, dos relógios lanterna e relógios de bolso); objectos que aparecem representados na Azulejaria, transportando por vezes, para as torres das igrejas, mosteiros, paços reais e do concelho, o modelo de mostrador usado nos relógios de mesa e de caixa alta, ou nas composições de painéis que contam uma alegoria ou uma fábula, que ensinam a matemática, a geometria e a astronomia. Na Pintura, aparecem como indicação de status, de poder atribuído à figura retratada, como recordação de um registo passado ou lembrança da brevidade da vida.
O século XX assistiu ao crescimento de colecções de múltiplas categorias, uma das quais foi a do médico – coleccionador Dr. Anastácio Gonçalves. A preferência que deu a estes medidores do tempo centra-se, cronologicamente, entre a segunda metade do século XVIII e o século XIX. Numa variedade de tipologias e estilos decorativos (pintura em esmalte, decoração de chinoiserie, motivos em metal, técnica “repoussé”), o maior núcleo da colecção reside nos dezasseis relógios de bolso ingleses, franceses e suíços. Apenas um é de caixa alta, três são relógios de mesa e o último, oferta de sua irmã, ostenta uma majestosa escultura representando “A Bacante” inspirada numa obra de Clodion com o mesmo nome e que, quase nos faz esquecer que guarda também um mecanismo de medição do tempo. São vinte e um os relógios que compõem a colecção patente na Casa-Museu Dr. Anastácio Gonçalves – ponto fulcral do estudo que culminou na presente dissertação.
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From how time was and has been understood by mankind, through the ways that he created to measure its passage, we wanted to make known several aspects of the history of Clockmaking and Watchmaking, from its evolution, technical and applied aesthetics. Iron clocks, large and of religious and secular utility, were the precursors of the clocks which entered the private life be it at home or in your pocket (long case, bracket, wall and lantern clocks and pocket watches); objects that are represented in Tiles, sometimes placing on churches, monasteries, royal palaces and county towers, the model used in the display  of bracket and long case clocks, or in the composition of panels that tell a parable or a fable and on those who teach mathematics, geometry and astronomy. In Painting, they appear as an indication of status and power to the figure portrayed, as a souvenir of a past record or recollection of the shortness of life.
The twentieth century saw the growth of collections of multiple categories, one of whom was of the collection of Dr. Anastácio Gonçalves. The preference he gave to his timekeepers focused, chronologically, between the second half of the eighteenth century and on the nineteenth century. In a variety of types and styles of decoration (painting on enamel, chinoiserie, motifs in metal, "repoussé" technique), the largest nucleus of the collection lies in the sixteen pocket watches of English, French and Swiss origin. Only one is a long case or “grandfather” clock, there are three bracket clocks and the last one, a gift from his sister, presents a majestic sculpture representing "The Bacchante" inspired on a work by Clodion with the same name, and which almost makes us forget that it also has a time measuring mechanism. There are twenty-one clocks and watches that make up the collection in exhibition at the House Museum Dr. Anastácio Gonçalves – that represent the focal point of the investigation which resulted in the present dissertation.

"This paper proposes three new (and tentatively, another two) identifications of sundials in Middle Eastern mosaics of the 5th – 8th century. The author discusses a vignette from the Holy Martyrs’ Church at Tayibat al-Imâm, central Syria, a mosaic panel from the tomb of Georgia and Theodosia in Jerusalem, two
vignettes of Sebastis and Kastron Mefaa from the St. Stephan’s Church at Umm al-Rasas, and a vignette of Jerusalem from the St. George’s Church at Madaba. These mosaics date, respectively, to 442, to the reign of Justinian (527 –565), and to the Byzantine Umayyad era (718). According to the author, these are probably the latest representations of sundials known to date from the Late Antiquity. Until this study, only six representations of sundials on mosaics from the Roman period were known. This paper adds three new items and two hypothetical ones from Byzantine times. It also offers an interpretation of the function of the famous column in Jerusalem, shown on the map of Madaba and the mega-vignette of the Holy City.
Key words: Sundials, Sonnenhuhren, Meridiane, Cadrans solaires, Relojes de sol."

The text, a translation, and a detailed analysis of an astrological text in Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, copied in a Genizah fragment (Cambridge University Library, Taylor-Schechter K 7.46) are presented. The text begins by listing which planet rules each of the hours of the week. This is followed by short explanations of what each hour of each day of the week is auspicious for and what actions should or should not, be undertaken in each hour. Hebrew versions of this text are extant in several manuscripts, but this is the first publication of the Aramaic text from which they were translated. This text, along with several other Aramaic astrological texts from the Cairo Genizah and elsewhere, joins the growing body of evidence for the Jewish interest in astrology in Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages.

We investigate several early Nuremberg clocks and archival evidence for clockmaking in the 14th to 16th centuries. This allows us to corroborate several hypotheses about dissemination of horological knowledge in the sixteenth century and gain new insights on well-known clockmakers

The mechanical clock came to the Iberian Peninsula in the first half of the fourteenth century, probably through the kingdom of Aragon because of its commercial and political connections with Italy. The presence of clocks in the medieval Aragonese royal court has been documented, but very little is known of their existence in the Castilian royal court because of the lack of sources. This article examines the history of the mechanical clock and the royal court of Castile from the late fourteenth century to the beginning of the sixteenth century, drawing on published and unpublished sources collected in various Spanish archives. The most fruitful document dates back to 1504 and contains detailed descriptions of three outstanding domestic clocks, which are given here in an English translation.

If you read much about Hamilton's 992B pocket watch movement, you will see accolades galore among amateur watch enthusiasts primarily on watch forums. You can also find technical comments coming from unpaid dabblers, who seem genuinely authoritative. They just have not gone deep enough into watchmaking to provide information I can use. In-depth analysis from people who work on watches 10-12 hours a day seem rare. People who can compare a Hamilton wristwatch to the plethora of other brands and models tend to avoid watch forums and meetups. At the end of the day, they just want to clear their bench, eat dinner and do something different like watch TV. Professionals have told me that Hamilton watches present few problems to them. As one watchmaker told me, the movements typically just need cleaning, oiling and few adjustments. The watchmakers can still find parts for old Hamilton wristwatches from material houses. They consider Hamilton elegant but very straightforward. No need exists to search the Internet for some esoteric solution to a hairspring issue and so on. They don't feel the need to answer forum questions or comment about Hamilton movements. Full-time watchmakers stay busy and have solved the same esoteric problems many times. I chose to talk to a Rolex specialist who also services a multitude of Swiss movements and loves certain Hamilton wristwatches, primarily the 980, 992B, 982 and the 987A. Ted Tongson services about six watches a day, so he has little time to sit and discuss the esoteric differences among watch manufacturers. Jewelry stores make up the bulk of his business, but some Hamilton collectors and vintage watch retailers like me have found him. He charges me about 50% of what jewelers charge, that's because he charges wholesale prices to those stores who in turn double and triple his prices. I have worked on many watch movements, but I don't have the experience of watchmakers who make their living in the trenches day by day just servicing watches one after another. While I have met and worked next to many knowledgeable men and one woman who work in the field, I have only known four masters.

The treasure room at the Collegium Maius of the Jagiellonian Museum in Cracow contains an armillary sphere dating from 1510.

This scientific object of excellent French workmanship contains the Jagiellonian Globe, which looks surprisingly like the Lenox Globe, a sibling of the da Vinci Globe.

The fact that the Jagiellonian Globe is mounted in an armillary sphere supports the hypothesis that the Lenox, cast from reddish copper, was most likely the central part of a lost armillary sphere. A horologist copied the cartography of the Lenox Globe.

It is hypothesized that he also copied the decorative artistic design of the armillary sphere as a blueprint. Using primary data in his research, the author describes the compelling Jagiellonian instrument. He concentrates on aspects of epigraphy, toponymy, orthography, iconography, cosmography, ornamental history, visual arts, heraldry, kinematics, geometry, didactics and astronomy.

The methodology used is based on analogy in the arts, stemmatics, cartographic, historiographical and comparative analysis based on the latest 3D photographic scanning technology of the Lazarus Project of the University of Rochester.

Furthermore, more than 40 international experts and researchers contained in the list of acknowledgements assisted in making this research possible. The author attributes the Jagiellonian Globe to Jean Coudray, Early Modern horologist active for successive French Kings in Blois. This is substantiated by a monogram. It is a capital letter C next to a reversed half-Moon on the bottom of the Jagiellonian Globe.

The author provides key evidence that this French horologist constructed the instrument between 1507 and 1510 based on a model armillary sphere. In making the Jagiellonian, Jean Coudray added the latest cartographic news in the form of a Latin
phrase “America noviter reperta” thereby baptizing the name of America for the first time in Early Modern history on a three-dimensional object.

Compelling arguments and chronological evidence are offered by the orthography, nomenclature, applied old French dimensions, iconography of the instrument and the unique cartography of the terrestrial globe contained at its center.

The specific didactic scheme of this universal armillary sphere, in addition to the whirlpools adjacent to the orb, bear the visual signature of Leonardo da Vinci. However, the French horologist was not only influenced by stylistic Renaissance and didactical aspects used by Leonardo. He copied them.

These include the mirroring of the Roman numerals and of the order of the hour band on the Equator reflecting the concaveness of the object based on a Vitruvian design. In addition, the unique design of the throne of the armillary sphere is influenced by Leonardo’s kinetics. The two scrolls of the throne contained in a newly developed design, in this case one of life-giving whirlpools, echoes the kinetic untamed energy and power of nature and of the oceans in particular. The iconography of the world sphere, the cosmic egg, in between the two scrolls means perfection, the primordial form which contains all the possibilities of all the forms as Plato’s animus mundi, the soul of the world.

The anonymous large mountainous island mirroring the Regio Pathalis of Pliny and Bacon is used in the cartography of the da Vinci, Lenox and Jagiellonian Globe. Finally, the author offers evidence of a bibliographical reference to a specific astronomical clock instrument just like the Jagiellonian Armillary Sphere. This reference is listed in a contemporary French inventory of the famous Florimond Robertet, notorious client of Leonardo da Vinci, dating from 1532.

https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=108034

We examine the transition from clocks to watches with specific analysis of the early watchmaker Peter Henlein. Further analysis of the number of watchmakers in two horological centres shows that the transition from making watches as a luxury item to a mass market product which found an interested clientele for its practical uses happened around 1520 - 1550.

In an intense period of scientific exploration after the Napoleonic wars, with the Royal Navy ascendant and the world in a relative state of peace, the chronometer became an essential tool of navigation. While the technical development of the chronometer in its early years has been well studied, the history of its use in navigation has not yet been fully explored. The current study presents the use of chronometers during the 1821–26 survey of Africa under Captain William Fitzwilliam Owen as an instructive and foundational episode in this narrative of development. This survey played a leading role in setting standard practice in the use of chronometers and provides a valuable case study of the different ways in which chronometers were used in coastal surveys.

In the same days when father Athanasius Kircher was teaching and working in the well known Collegium Romanum, another Jesuit, father Mario Bettini was trying to give his contribution to the history of horology. His water-driven clock, without wheels - as he declares - is examined and described. Other hint about his life and works are presented in the article.

A recent restoration on Torre Oscura, an ancient historical tower in the main square of the city of Trapani, in Sicily, brought back to light an astronomical dial, showing moon phases as well as the Zodiac signs. A research in the city archive allowed to discover the name of the maker who made it in the 16th century. The movement is unfortunately lost.

Author can be contacted at: [email protected]

Describes a short-duration German longcase clock movement with iron plates made by an anonymous rural clockmaker, probably in Westphalia about 1780-1820.  It has a simple method of rack striiking without the usual warning and a simple arrangement for the hammer to sound the hours.

We describe in detail two 15th century gothic domestic clocks in the Musée Charles VII in Mehun sur Yèvre. One of them is remarkable for being one of the very few courtly domestic clocks with exceptionally lavish decoration. The other one is unique in maintaining its original curved foliot with curved pallets. Text in French language.

This paper addresses the questions of when, why, and to what degree ancient physicians concerned themselves with temporal precision. Taking On Critical Days as a case study, it explores how Galen of Pergamum incorporates hourly timekeeping into his defense and refinement of Hippocratic "critical-day" schemes, designed to help physicians anticipate turning-points in febrile diseases. The paper proposes that Galen, in both his fever case histories and his astronomical explanations for critical days, uses hourly timekeeping to support certain claims about himself, his medical methodology, and the authority of Hippocrates.

Clockmakers have long pioneered the design and experimentation of new materials, often in response to demands from the state as well as the market. Late eighteenth and early nineteenth century research into the errors to which marine chronometers were liable is a superb example of this. Balance springs made of hard-drawn gold, resistant to oxidation, were used by John Arnold from the late 1770s, and subsequently by his son John Roger, until Arnold senior’s death. In 1828, Johann Gottlieb Ulrich patented a non-ferrous balance, while, in Glasgow that same year, James Scrymgeour produced a flat spiral made entirely of glass. It is the remarkable application of glass to the construction of balance springs that is the concern of this article. Specifically, the efforts of the firm of Arnold & Dent, and later Dent alone, to secure the performance of their marine chronometers against variations in homogeneity, magnetism, temperature and elasticity, by using new materials for their balance springs.

In the stores of the British Museum are three exquisite springs, made in the late 1820s and 1830s, to regulate the most precise timepieces in the world. Barely the thickness of a hair, they are exquisite because they are made entirely of glass. Combining new documentary evidence, funded by the Antiquarian Horological Society, with the first technical analysis of the springs, undertaken in collaboration with the British Museum, the research presented here uncovers their extraordinary significance to the global extension of nineteenth century capitalism through the repeal of the Corn Laws. In the 1830s and 1840s the Astronomer Royal, George Biddell Airy; the Hydrographer to the Admiralty, Francis Beaufort; and the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Peel, collaborated with the virtuoso chronometer-maker, Edward John Dent, to mobilize the specificity of particular forms of glass, the salience of the Glass Tax, and the significance of state standards, as means to reform. These protagonists looked to glass and its properties to transform the fiscal military state into an exquisitely regulated machine with the appearance of automation and the gloss of the free-trade liberal ideal. Surprising but significant connections, linking Newcastle mobs to tales of Cinderella and the use of small change, demonstrate why historians must attend to materials and how such attention exposes claims to knowledge, the interests behind such claims, and the impact they have had upon the design and architecture of the modern world. Through the pivotal role of glass, this paper reveals the entangled emergence of state and market capitalism, and how the means of production was transformed in vitreous proportions.

Alguien podría pensar que el origen de este libro fue la suerte, pero el azar, en el arte, sonríe a quien respeta su patrimonio y esquiva a quien lo desprecia. En 2009 se encomendó a la Escuela-Taller Juan Arnaldín I de la Diputación Provincial de Zaragoza la restauración de un lienzo renacentista fijado sobre tabla y dedicado a San Antonio abad que procedía de la iglesia parroquial de Pozuelo de Aragón (Zaragoza). El estudio radiológico de la pieza permitió a los restauradores descubrir que, bajo la tela pintada, la tabla que le servía de refuerzo era una obra gótica con la representación de la esfera de un reloj bajomedieval. Más tarde se pudo establecer que este indicador horario era el único conservado en España de esa época, pues los de los relojes del monasterio de Santes Creus y de la catedral de Cuenca son posteriores. La recuperación y la investigación multidisciplinar efectuada en torno a esa esfera horaria han permitido identificarla con la del reloj mecánico que encargó el abad del monasterio cisterciense de Veruela, Gonzalo Fernández de Heredia y Bardají (1475/1476-1479), diseñado para su instalación en el interior de la iglesia del monasterio, junto a la puerta del dormitorio. Este reloj, tras ser reformado en 1500, permaneció en ese mismo lugar hasta 1550, cuando el abad Lope Marco (1539-1560) lo hizo desmantelar tras la edificación de una torre horaria a pocos metros. La "tabla" el "Relox viejo" de Veruela se inspira en modelos del norte de Europa, entre los que sobresale el reloj de la catedral de Beauvais (Picardía, Francia), construido a comienzos del siglo XV, pocos años antes de la realización del verolense.

The unknown details of the long history of the turret clock installed on the tower of the main square in Trento, Italy is explored through a research in the local archives. The public clock becomes the witness, with alterations and modifications suffered, of the compliance of the city to the different political powers leading the community, according to a sort of political correctness ante litteram

Author can be contacted at: [email protected]

The present paper explores the social lives of European timepieces as a particular set of objects in late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century Japan, when the archipelago first encountered the “Southern Barbarians” from Portugal and Spain. Rather than viewing them solely as instruments of time measurement or as decorative objects, I discuss clocks as actors that moved within networks of exchange primarily between Europe and Japan, but also, significantly, within East Asia and Japan itself. Along their trajectory, these devices assumed shifting and at times contradictory meanings for various actors; this is particularly true in view of the fundamental clash between European and Japanese systems of time-reckoning, which essentially rendered early European-style mechanical clocks ‘timeless’ in Japan, with its equinoctial system of variable hours. For Jesuit missionaries and foreign emissaries who brought these early devices to Japan, they were timekeepers, objects of ecclesiastical use, paragons of European ingenuity, and above all diplomatic tools that granted access and established connections with the Japanese ruling elite. For the Japanese, by contrast, these global objects assumed meaning within their highly developed local gift-culture as desirable novelty items, particularly within the socially volatile environment of the unification of the country under Tokugawa control. My contention is that these microhistories of exchange help us understand why mechanical clocks did not have the same ‘revolutionary’ effect on time-reckoning in Japan as they did in Europe; the social lives of these objects strikingly illustrate the power imbalances in diplomatic negotiations that made Japan impervious to coercion by the European powers.

https://brill.com/view/journals/kron/20/1/article-p64_6.xml

An unknown turret clock found by an amateur collector in the States, some pictures sent to a friend in UK, then rebounced on my desktop. A signature hard to decipher. The story of a research which cast new light on a family of Italian turret clock makers, the Battoclettis, working between 19th and 20th century, between Italy and America. Contacts with the living members of the family allowed to reconstruct a genealogical tree and the history of their activities.

Richard of Wallingford's contribution to the history of horology is well-known among the experts but not to a wide audience. The life, works and deeds of Richard are discussed, as well as a description of his astronomical clock, whose existing models are presented together with a 3D reconstruction proposed by a then-student of Università di Roma Tor Vergata under supervision of professor Ettore Pennestrì. Cultural and technological links between Italy and England are presented as well.

Author can be contacted at: [email protected]

The mechanical isotropic harmonic oscillator comprises at least a two degrees of freedom linkage supporting an orbiting mass with respect to a fixed base with springs having isotropic and linear restoring force properties wherein the mass has a tilting motion. The oscillator may be used in a timekeeper, such as a watch.

Father Athanasius Kircher, SJ, was an extraordinary character in the cultural panorama of Rome in Baroque times. In his writings, mixing sorcery, empirical experimentation, science, archeological and natural science observations, he intermingled a number f description for timekeepers he invented. Particularly interesting the so-called magnetic clock, horological application of his interest in magnetism, he deeply presented in his Ars Magnetica.

The article describes the history of the now lost imperial water clock in Beijing, in the Garden of the Summer Palace, designed by a Milanese Jesuit priest, Giuseppe Castiglioni, who worked in China during the 18th century and was an appreciated painter, too. Castiglioni was responsible for the artistic side of the project: the technical design was carried on by Père Michel Benoist, a Jesuit from France, but relocated to Beijing.

Author can be contacted at: [email protected]

On the Jubjub bird and on Charles Darwin and evolution being possibly addressed in Lewis Carroll's and Henry Holiday's "The Hunting of the Snark". --- 1st: 2015-01-01, update (minor changes): 2015-01-02 19:07 UTC. --- Errata (corrected on 2015-01-08): I used the Name "Dodgson" without having explained, that "Lewis Carroll" was the pen name of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson. --- 2015-10-19: More info on the source of Darwin's portrait. --- 2015-12-13: Raymond Schumann told me (related to Page 5, line 155): "The Victorians made morning calls in the afternoon."
https://www.google.de/search?q=The+Victorians+made+morning+calls+in+the+afternoon --- 2016-02-08: Additional image at bottom of page 1. --- 2016-02-20: Carroll's/Dodgson's obsession with time. --- 2016-03-12: Removal of empty page. Illustration by Grandeville added.

Conservation of a complex object, such as an antique clock, demands an interdisciplinary approach. In this case, the object in question is a double-
sided, polychrome, wooden, hanging, almost round clock face, measuring approximately 1 m in diameter, with original clock hands and mechanism,
dating back to the beginning of the 17th century. The general motivation behind full conservation of this particular object is to bring it back to life so that it can fulfil its main purpose – to indicate time. The paper takes three steps towards this end: the study of the clock and its place in horological history; the conservation of the metal mechanism, gilded clock hands and polychrome, and wooden casing, and the exhibition of a dynamic, working system of the clock face’s original, four-century-old components. In this context, the paper examines main restoration issues and discusses the resolutions applied therein.