European Archaeology

In this contribution, we advance historical ecology as one in a number of approaches to new studies of the first millennium BCE. Crumley and her colleagues have elaborated this cluster of concepts over 30 years of fieldwork in southern Burgundy, integrating the methods and theories of several disciplines. In the later part of this essay, we provide a guideline for how a research team might organize an historical ecological project (in this case, a study of Atlantic Europe during the first millennium BCE). We intend this outline to fill a gap in the current literature by providing a ‘scalable’ model for future studies in historical ecology; one useful at any number of geographic and/or temporal scales.

This study discusses the changing trends in the supply of wine, olive oil, fish sauce and domestic pottery in Pompeii over a period of more than two centuries through the examination of a pottery assemblage excavated recently in the House of the Vestals. The ceramic evidence is viewed in the light of broader political and economic trends that affected production and trade over the course of time. A clear shift from regional self-sufficiency to a heavier reliance upon extraregional goods, particularly from the Roman provinces of Africa and Spain, is observed. The authors point out that while the ceramic record is a useful indicator of general supply trends, conclusions must be drawn with caution and scholars need to consider what is not apparent in the archaeological record in order to gain a more complete picture of the past.

Our article seeks to determine the functions of visual communication design through the lens of modern conflict and public archaeologies. The Battle of Aslıhanlar, which took place in the triangle of the villages of Çal Köy, Allıören, and Yüğlük in Kütahya from 29 to 30 August 1922, was the focus of our experimentation. Our archaeological survey project was carried out in 2013; interviews with local people, a review of the literature available and our observations of local myths and traditions that emerged after the war constitute the basis of our article. We categorized these sources for the project design in order to form a storytelling narrative, so that the viewer could participate in the process of conflict as well as the ongoing research. We foresaw three major challenges while categorizing this complex dataset: equivalence of visual language; variable outputs of the multi-dimensional research methods; and interactivity for creating a live social platform. We responded to thes...

With the commemoration of World War I (WWI) under way, a preliminary stocktaking can be made of archaeological research into the physical remains of this war. The question is to what extent the perspective on the study of WWI heritage, and consequently the way in which archaeological research into WWI remains has been conducted, has evolved over the last ten years. Are relics from WWI seen as a legitimate subject of inquiry or does its archaeology as a discipline still strive for recognition? This paper deals with the practices surrounding WWI archaeology in Flanders, Belgium, as well as the (methodological) problems concerning the study of WWI archaeological remains, based on the reports resulting from fieldwork carried out by professional archaeologists.

I recently had the opportunity to review Alex Gibson’s thought provoking volume, 'Enclosing the Neolithic: Recent studies in Britain and Europe'. That review, to which the reader is directed for further commentary, identified as a weakness the uneven spread of regional case studies, and in particular the omission of studies from the West Country, Wales and North West England, which are so important in understanding the Irish Sea Zone. The aim of this paper is to address this with regard to the material from the North West of England, and in particular Cumbria. This paper is therefore meant to be read in conjunction with Gibson’s edited volume.

A metalwork hoard dated to the Wilburton phase of the later Bronze Age, found at Barway close to the Isle of Ely in the Cambridgeshire Fens, is reported. Consideration of the hoard, in the context of later prehistoric hoarding in the local landscape, reveals that particular sorts of artefacts were associated with particular places in the landscape. In particular a strong association between later Bronze Age hoards and causeways connecting the Isle of Ely to the outside world is identified, and an interpretation suggested. This study demonstrates the potential of a detailed contextual approach for providing a more nuanced understanding of later Bronze Age metalwork deposition that moves away from a simplistic wet-dry dichotomy.

Purpose: The primitive anthropological meaning of genital ornamentation is not
clearly defined and the origin of penile intervention for decorative purposes is lost
in time. Corporeal decoration was practiced in the Upper Paleolithic period. We
discuss the existing evidence on the practice of phallic piercing, scarring and
tattooing in prehistory.
Materials and Methods: We studied the archaeological and artistic evidence
regarding explicit genital male representations in portable art made in Europe
approximately 38,000 to 11,000 years ago with special emphasis on decorations
suggesting genital ornamentation.
Results: Archaeological evidence that has survived to our day includes 42 phallic
pieces, of which 30 (71.4%) show intentional marks to a different extent with a
probable decorative purpose. Of these ornamental elements 18 (60%) were recovered
from the upper Magdalenian period (11,000 to 12,700 years ago) in France
and Spain, and 23 (76.7%) belong to the category of perforated batons. Decorations
show lines (70% of objects), plaques (26.7%), dots/holes (23.3%) or even
human/animal forms (13.3%). These designs most probably represent skin scarification,
cutting, piercing and tattooing. Notably there are some technical similarities
between the motifs represented and some designs present in symbolic
cave wall art. This evidence may show the anthropological origin of current male
genital piercing and tattooing.
Conclusions: European Paleolithic art shows decoration explicitly represented
in a high proportion of portable art objects with a phallic form that have survived
to our day. Decorative rituals of male genital tattooing, piercing and scarification
may have been practiced during Paleolithic times.

The identification of deviant burials as those of ‘vampires’ is a feature of excavated skeletons from sites across Eastern, Central and Southern Europe as well as the Balkans. Based on a close reading of historic and folkloric sources researchers have sought to match features of excavated sites with narrative descriptions drawn from vampire legend and myth. This study critically reviews the recent claims based on sites in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Greece, Italy, Poland and Slovakia. Whilst it is found that there was a widespread belief in vampires across Europe, it is argued that it is difficult to make absolute claims for ‘vampire’ burials on archaeological grounds as in most cases there are alternate and equally compelling interpretations of the data.

KEYWORDS
ARCHAEOLOGY, HISTORY, SIXTEENTH CENTURY, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, VAMPIRE, DEVIANT BURIAL, PLAGUE, BLACK DEATH, FOLKLORE, PAGAN, BURIAL, WITCH, BALKANS, EASTERN EUROPE, CENTRAL EUROPE, SOUTHERN EUROPE, BULGARIA, CZECH REPUBLIC, POLAND, GREECE, ITALY, SLOVAKIA, LESBOS, VENICE, APOTROPAIC, VAMPIRIDZHIJA, PERPERIKON, SOZOPOL, PROSTEJOV, CELAKOVICE, DRAWSKO, GLIWICI, SOUTHWELL, KILTEASHEEN, LAZZARETTO NUOVO, NACHTZEHRER, KAMIEN POMORSKI

This study provides the first evidence for the extraction of lead in the later early medieval period in Lancashire, in the North West of England. Archaeological evidence for human activity in the region during the later medieval period is modest, although the material culture that is known supports the historic accounts of settlement by people of Scandinavian origin, which is reinforced by studies of place names and local dialect. Investigation of two upland sites in the western Pennines, on Anglezarke and Rivington moors, indicates that lead was being extracted in the period c.680-1000 cal.AD, most likely from known veins at Lead Mines Clough. The emergence of extractive activity coincides with contact with the Norse who are known from both historic and archaeological evidence to have been present in Lancashire during the later early medieval period.

KEYWORDS
EARLY MEDIEVAL, LEAD, MINING, MINERAL EXTRACTION, MAGNETIC MEASUREMENT, SATURATION ISOTHERMAL REMANENT MAGNETISATION ASSAY, HEAVY METAL (LEAD) ASSAY, METALLURGY, UPLAND, PEAT, LANCASHIRE, ARCHAEOLOGY, ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHOD, NORSE ARCHAEOLOGY

Earlier scholarship saw the worship of Silvanus in Dalmatia from two different perspectives. Firstly, as a continuance of the pre-Roman indigenous cult which became »recognized« as the italic deity Silvanus through the interpretatio Romana, and secondly, as a product of indigenous assimilation in Roman culture. This article reconsiders these opinions from a different perspective, making the point that we deal here with an entirely new cultural practice, rather than the survival of the pre-Roman traditions, or with the assimilation of the indigenous population into the Roman identity. It is argued that the worship of Silvanus was used as an interface for communication and display of identity of different provincial sub-cultural groups in the early imperial times. It was a new, inventive and multifaceted religious practice, which incorporated existing local traditions and visual aesthetics with global symbolics of Silvanus, bringing together distinct societies and including Dalmatian communities into the »global« world of Roman Empire.

Radiocarbon dates for the Early Bronze Age of Northern England are presented, these provide an independent chronology for the Collared Urns of the region together with associated Accessory Vessels and grave goods. The results indicate that Collared Urns were in use in Northern England between 2000/1950 BC and 1600/1550 BC. Comparison of the dates obtained for Northern England show that they are broadly correspondent with those obtained for Ireland, Scotland and Wales in previous studies. This rebuts the idea that Collared Urns radiated from southern England, reaching northern and western Britain after a passage of time, instead the pattern is one of parallel development in all the regions considered here.

KEYWORDS
EARLY BRONZE AGE, COLLARED URNS, DATING, BRITISH PREHISTORY, IRISH PREHISTORY, SCOTTISH PREHISTORY, BURIAL BARROW, CHRONOLOGY, RADIOCARBON DATING, LANCASHIRE, NORTH WEST ENGLAND

Gods, deities, symbolism, deposition, cosmology and intentionality are all features of the study of early ritual and cult. Archaeology has great difficulties in providing satisfactory interpretation or recognition of these elusive but important parts of ancient society, and methodologies are often poorly equipped to explore the evidence. This collection of papers explores a wide range of prehistoric and early historic archaeological contexts from Britain, Europe and beyond, where monuments, architectural structures, megaliths, art, caves, ritual activity and symbolic remains offer exciting glimpses into ancient belief systems and cult behaviour. Different theoretical and practical approaches are demonstrated, offering both new directions and considered conclusions to the many problems of studying the archaeology of cult and ritual. Central to the volume is an exploration of early Malta and its intriguing Temple Culture, set in a broad perspective by the discussion and theoretical approaches presented in different geographical and chronological contexts.

This paper is aimed at providing a new etymological reconstruction of the Italian word 'ocarina', which became widespread all over the world with the success of the musical instrument it describes. Going beyond the commonly accepted onomastic origin from the ‘invention’, by Giuseppe Donati, in Budrio, of the Italian 'ocarina' (the 'ucarèina / ucarènna', ‘little goose’, in the Bolognese Emiliano-Romagnolo dialect), in 1853, the study tries to go back in time till possible Indo-European origins for the name of the musical instrument, reconstructing a proto-form that could date back to the Neolithic and to the first stages of the Indo-European settlements in Europe. The article also reconstructs an Indo-European etymology for the word 'flute', in its generic proto-form comprehensively describing ‘wind instruments’ in general, highlighting how the onomastic origin of 'ocarina' differs from the one of the common word for all kinds of musical instruments producing sound by being blown. The lexical distinction could indicate the fact that the word 'ocarina', in its Indo-European proto-form and in remote times in Europe, was already describing a specific set of musical instruments, different from the common flute-like ones (which were originally bone flutes).

Key Words: Prehistoric Wind Musical Instruments, Ocarina, Ucarèina / Ucarènna, Indo-European Etymology, Historical Semantics

Colectivul de redactare al ediţiei I (în ordine alfabetică): Dragoş DIACONESCU, Sabin Adrian LUCA, Cristian Constantin ROMAN, Cosmin SUCIU Colectivul de redactare al ediţiei II (în ordine alfabetică): Dragoş DIACONESCU, Iosif Vasile FERENCZ, Sabin Adrian LUCA, Cristian Constantin ROMAN, Alexandru SONOC, Cosmin SUCIU, Sorin TINCU Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României Repertoriul arheologic al judeţului Hunedoara / coord.: Sabin Adrian Luca. -Alba Iulia : Altip, 2008 Bibliogr. ISBN 978-973-117-155-5 I. Luca, Sabin Adrian (coord.) 902(498-35 Hunedoara)

This paper aims to explain the eschatological outbreak that occurred during the X century in Scandinavia and northern Europe century, which gave rise to a great iconography of Ragnarök, stemmed primarily from the pre-Christian Norse mythology. Our basic hypothesis is that various astronomical phenomena occurred during in the VIII and IX centuries (total eclipses of the sun and passages of comets, both related to the constellation of Wolf´s Jaw - the Hyades) recovered in the Nordic man his eschatological fears, creating a large amount close image of the year AD 1000. Our main methodology is the Cultural Astronomy, coupled with the prospects of the cultural history of myths.

Chronology, distribution and interpretation of Urnfield metal-hilted swords

Subject, regions and period of time covered (chapter 1)

This study was basically concerned with the supra-regional investigation of a sufficiently differentiated group of bronze objects, which will allow for a taxonomic, chronological, chorological and interpretative analysis. In consideration of their advanced state of research, treatment and publication, the metal-hilted swords (‘Vollgriffschwerter’) of the Urnfield period appeared to be an excellent field for further research. First of all, it was an important prerequisite for my study to synchronize the regional chronological systems which have been established for the Urnfield period; the result of this effort is shown in Fig. 1. In order to avoid confusion between the innumerable regional nomenclatures of the relevant archaeological phases, terms such as Reinecke’s ‘Bz D’ or ‘Ha B1’ are used supra-regionally.

Classification systems of swords and their theoretical-methodical background (chapter 2)                                                             

The analysis of the various classification systems used for metal-hilted swords must be preceded by a reconsideration of basic methodical principles of classification.
Every classification – an intrinsically arbitrary construct in itself – can prove its justification by nothing but its heuristic value. In addition to the type-bound study of given combinations of attributes, it appears equally useful and helpful to proceed to a systematic consideration of individual attributes in their localized and chronological perspectives as well.
Within the taxonomic hierarchy which I used for the classification of metal-hilted swords, the highest tier is represented by the so-called ‘basic form’ (‘Grundform’) which is determined by the configuration of the pommel. The next subordinate tier is the ‘species’ (‘Art’) level, which is characterized by the outline of the hilt. This level can again be subdivided into different types, which is done by considering the combination of at least two formal and/or ornamental attributes of the hilt. By additionally taking at least one other formal, ornamental or production-related attribute into consideration, it is possible to break the type level down into different variants of a type, although it is to be noted that the different classes of variants need not contain all representative embodiments of a particular type.

History and state of research of the classification of Urnfield metal-hilted swords (chapter 3)

A critical comparison of the more important classification systems used for metal-hilted swords and an evaluation of their respective methodical validity resulted in the adoption and use of those types and variants of swords that proved to be coherent. On the other hand it was found necessary to also define new taxonomic units. The understanding of representative embodiments of variants to be closely affiliated but not to belong to the class of the corresponding type turned out to be particularly problematic. It was, therefore, a methodological necessity to revise the classification of this kind of ‘variants’.
The result of my analyses is shown in Figs. 5-11, where the diagnostic attributes of all individual taxonomic units are specified in detail. As a consequence, it is to be found that only a sword which possesses all of these attributes can validly be assigned to the respective class of the corresponding taxonomic unit. 

Dating and distribution of Urnfield metal-hilted swords (chapter 4)

The clear distinction of those types of metal-hilted swords which are dated per definitionem and those which yet need to be dated is of great importance. The present study accepts and adopts the type form character of the Riegsee and Ragály types for Bz D, of the Dreiwulstschwert (‘sword with three bulges’) species for Ha A, of the basic form Schalenknaufschwert (‘sword with disc pommel’) for Ha B1 and of the Mörigen, Auvernier and Tachlovice types for Ha B3. On the other hand, H. Müller-Karpe’s (1959, 156f. 172; 197; 1961, 24; 29; 31; 47) distinction between older and later types of Dreiwulstschwerter, which he considered as being type forms of his Ha A1 and A2 phase definitions and which was based on an assumed formal development, had to be questioned. So had the early dating of some antennae swords into Ha B2 and Ha B1, respectively.
According to the formal attributes seen as chronologically relevant for the Dreiwulstschwerter (shape of the pommel knob, outline of the blade), a conical pommel knob can be regarded as an older, and a willow-leaf-shaped blade as a later attribute for southern Germany and neighbouring regions – although this will go with certain reservations only. Representative embodiments of the Schwaig and Erding types, maybe also of the Gundelsheim type, can be accepted as belonging to the older, those of the Aldrans type as belonging to the later Dreiwulstschwerter in this area. In eastern central Europe such a distinction is, however, not possible, since a great number of swords found in this particular area show a combination of both of those attributes which are considered as being chronologically indicative in western central Europe. Moreover, the definition of the eastern central European hoard phases (‘Depotfundstufen’) corresponding to Ha A1 and Ha A2 respectively, as well as their parallelization with southern Germany, was mainly done in line with Müller-Karpe’s classification of the Dreiwulstschwerter. Mutual confirmations of western and eastern central European sword datings are, therefore, of a circular character.
The heterogeneous dating of the antennae swords was already noticed by E. Sprockhoff (1934, 34; 71) and further extended by Müller-Karpe (1961, 53-55; 57f. 65; 88) with the object of confirming his tripartition of Ha B. The seven antennae swords which are either definitely or with all probability to be dated into Ha B1 do not show any attributes which they have in common, which means to say that no such type can be regarded as characteristic for Ha B1. Those final Urnfield metal-hilted swords not deposited until Ha C cannot be typographically differentiated from those swords which are dated into the Ha B3 phase, either. Dating of the antennae swords into Ha B1 or Ha C, respectively, can therefore only be done as a result of a thorough study of the context of any one find. These dating problems show quite clear that it is out of question to segregate type forms for the one or the other phase of the basic form antennae sword.
The clarification of taxonomic and chronological questions is succeeded by the regionally oriented criticism of sources and the epistemological evaluation of the distribution maps to determine their historical validity. Following H.J. Eggers (1950, 55; 1986, esp. 258), I differentiate between the levels of the ‘living’, the ‘dead’ and the ‘re-discovered’ culture. In order to draw conclusions from the ‘re-discovered culture’ about the ‘dead culture’, it was necessary to analyse the state of research, treatment and publication as well as that of the conditions in which the finds were made. These factors proved to be comparable in the setting of this study. By carrying out a large number of cross-checks, it is possible to get an idea of both the dimension and the distribution of sources, in which metal-hilted swords could have passed on at least theoretically. An aspect which was of particular importance was the question to what extent metal-hilted swords and swords with an organic hilt were considered to be functionally equivalent at least in the context of their deposition and in how far they were thus considered as being of a ‘substitutive character’. This study also shows to what extent the currently known area of distribution of certain classes of swords allows for insights concerning their prehistoric spread.

Interpretation of the distribution of Urnfield metal-hilted swords (chapter 5)

To allow for an interpretation of the Urnfield metal-hilted swords’ distribution, it was necessary to define a number of what are called ‘custom circles’ (‘Sittenkreise’), which enable us to validly grasp the behaviour of prehistoric man.
The so-called ‘workshop circle’ covers the sum of stationary workshops inclusive of possible migrant craftsmen in a certain region at a certain period of time. This is complemented by the ‘demand circle’, i.e. the area in which there was a demand for the products of a certain workshop circle, and also by the ‘costume circle’, i.e. the territory within which the respective swords were part of the costume of the particular ‘community of traditions’ (‘Traditionsgemeinschaft’). The question of the localisation of workshop circles was prevailing in my study.
Factors which are indicative of the production of a certain class of swords within a certain region are (1) a comparatively high relative frequency of finds in the specific area and at the same time a comparatively low relative frequency in the neighbouring regions – although it must be understood that neither high nor low frequency may be derived from the state of available sources –, (2) the deposition of these swords in compliance with the usual customs of this area, (3) the existence of forerunners and successors in the region concerned, (4) a possible connecting link between the swords in terms of their production, (5) a stylistic, especially an ornamental relationship to other material groups of the area, in particular bronzes, and possibly also pottery.
In order to get an impression of the geographic distribution of numerous formal and ornamental attributes, which can be another indicator for workshop circles, if a great number of individual attributes was found to be concentrated in a given region, the distribution area of the Bz D and Ha B1 metal-hilted swords was subdivided into a western and an eastern sector, whereas the spread of the ‘...

Finding jobs in archaeology is anything but easy, but a topic of the utmost interest to everyone who wants to work in it, and particularly to students shortly before completing their degree. Since there is little advice to be found on how to actually get a job in archaeology (other than rather cynical rumours of the rather unpleasant kind), most students and job-seekers in archaeology have few if any ideas of what they can actually do themselves to increase their chances. In this article, I will try to provide some such advice, focussing primarily on the European labour market and, within that, the areas and archaeological sectors I know best, the academic sector in the German and English speaking countries, with the odd other advice thrown in where it seemed suitable.

In "A ‘Splendid Idiosyncrasy’: Prehistory at Cambridge 1915-50" Pamela Jane Smith charts the development of prehistoric archaeology from an amateur ‘haphazard’ pastime to a fully ledged academic discipline. Smith argues persuasively that the formalization of prehistory as a university subject emerged
out of the daily round of informal exchanges centred around the tearoom of the Cambridge University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. The convivial atmosphere engendered by the exchange of tea and cakes established a close relationship of trust amongst the participants which necessarily prepared the way for academic exchanges. Reflecting the centrality of food and drink in Smith’s analysis of the birth of prehistory, the Editors broke with the recent tradition of book reviews in these 'Proceedings' to talk to Pamela Jane Smith over a convivial lunch at Wolfson College, Cambridge. What follows is an annotated transcript of our conversation, which critically reviews her recent study.

The volume combines the papers presented at two meetings on prehistoric salt evaporation, a national French one [8 articles] and an international one [13 articles]. They cover the time from the Neolithic to the Iron Age, as a main focus, and at some places to the Roman Imperial period. Geographically, a region from Spain to Romania and from Italy to Northern France is covered, complemented by contributions on Mexico, Niger and China. Thematically, questions of the history of research, the production processes and their products, the type-chronology of the briquetage, salted food, salt trade and experimental archaeology are touched upon. Emphasis is laid on salt extraction techniques without briquetage, environmental changes caused by salt evaporation of sometimes almost industrial dimensions as well as on the socio-economic and political background of the salt production. Available source material are the results of old and modern rescue and research excavations, interdisciplinary research projects, surveys, modern attempts of reconstructions, and the analysis of secondary publications.

The present work is based on a unitary approach of Neolithic and Eneolithic discoveries in the Lower Mures Basin. From a chronological perspective, it envisages the approximate period of 6000–3000/2800 calBC, from the onset of the Starcevo-Cris-Körös pottery until the disappearance of the Baden and Coofeni pottery.

Alcohol has been a part of the human diet for millennia, however little analysis has been done on the origins of large-scale production, specifically in Europe. The rise of agriculture in Europe during the Neolithic revolution brought about a greater availability of food and the allowance for specialized skills. Naturally, one of these skills was that of brewing. Examining four different sites from Neolithic Europe, correlations and connections are made to suggest possibilities of the cultural role of alcohol in its production, consumption, and ritualization.