Cupellation

English:
A late-Hellenistic production site was found at the eastern stoa of the agora of Kos. The presence of destroyed fire-structures indicates pyrotechnological processes, related to pigment manufacture and metallurgy. Pigment production included the treatment of natural earths and the manufacture of the artificial material Egyptian blue. Among the excavation’s finds were hollow tubular litharge rods, amorphous lead lumps and drops, and a small quantity of silver, which point to lead production and silver separation through cupellation. The co-existence of the two separate manufacturing activities at the same site may have been beneficial in supplying the workshop with raw materials and fuel. The strategic location of the production site in the commercial centre of the ancient town, with its connection to the port, would have facilitated trade. The production debris from the Koan site underlines the relationship between pigment manufacture and metallurgy.
Italian:
Un sito produttivo risalente all’età tardo ellenistica fu messo in luce nel settore orientale dell’agorà di Kos. Resti di fornaci, pur se scarsamente conservate, testimoniano processi piro-tecnologici relativi alla metallurgia e alla manifattura di pigmenti. La produzione dei pigmenti includeva il trattamento di terre colorate e la manifattura del blu egizio, un pigmento artificiale. Alcuni tra i materiali rinvenuti nel sito (barre tubolari di litargirio, masse amorfe e gocce di piombo, e residui d’argento) indicano la produzione di piombo e la separazione dell’argento tramite coppellazione. La compresenza delle due diverse attività manifatturiere nello stesso impianto artigianale potrebbe essere stata vantaggiosa in termini di approvvigionamento di materie prime e combustibile. La posizione strategica della manifattura, situata nel centro commerciale della città antica e interconnessa con il porto, avrebbe facilitato la commercializzazione dei prodotti. Gli scarti produttivi suggeriscono una relazione tra la produzione di pigmenti e la metallurgia.

Resumen: En al-Andalus, el laboreo en las minas presenta una gran complejidad, ya que en él queda integrado frecuentemente un conjunto de procesos a bocamina, ajenos al propio sistema de explotación, pero imprescindibles para el aprovechamiento de los metales que se quieren beneficiar. En este sentido, este artículo pretende abordar el estudio de los trabajos a pie de mina que fueron llevados a cabo en las explotaciones andalusíes de oro y plata. Para ello se recurre a la información aportada por las fuentes documentales medievales, a los resultados obtenidos por la Arqueología Experimental y a las conclusiones derivadas de los trabajos de campo en minados argentíferos y auríferos.
Summary: The working at the mine appoints a great complexitiy in al-Andalus, and frequently integrates an ensemble of bung-hole process, extraneous to the mine system, but essential to the profit of the metals. In this sense, this article is intended to approach the study of the works outside the mine which took place in the golden and silver andalusian mines. The author recurs to the information proffered by the medieval documents, to the results obtained by the Experimental Archaeology and to the conclusins deduced from the archaeological works in mines of gold and silver.

The scientific examination is described of the metallurgical remains excavated from the Phoenician-period site at Monte Romero, Huelva, in the south of Spain. Silver was the principal metal extracted, but the ores were complex and the process involved several stages. This is evidenced by the waste products, which include two distinct types of slag (tapslag and free-silica slag), speiss, lead metal and litharge, together with cupellation dishes, furnace fragments and tuyeres. From the examination of these finds, the smelting technology is reconstructed and shown to be a sophisticated process.

This thesis considers the technology employed to produce silver within the Porco-Potosí region, southern Bolivia, providing archaeo-metallurgical data on indigenous and European silver production methods in Porco during the period AD 1500 to 2000. The research has been conducted as part of Proyecto Arqueológico Porco-Potosí (PAPP) set up by Dr Mary Van Buren (Colorado State University).

The region of Porco was home to an Inca mine already prior to the Spanish conquest in 1538. Five years later, Spanish rule was established at Potosí. Indigenous technology, such as wind blown furnaces, huayrachinas, continued to be used in the region until the introduction of mercury amalgamation from 1570 onwards meant that the indigenous methods of silver production were superseded. Huayrachina technology employed at Porco dates back to at least the mid 16th century, with historical indications for earlier usage. PAPP has documented ongoing huayrachina smelting near Porco as late as 2003, showing the continuing existence of this technology. In this thesis, different silver production techniques from the archaeological and ethnographic records have been assessed using analytical techniques: Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence, Optical Microscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy, and including a historical, archaeological and theoretical review of the relevant data.

In Porco, a diverse range of metallurgical techniques was being used for both small and large scale production. From the early colonial periods onwards both European and indigenous methods were used simultaneously to produce silver. The Spanish influence is evident in the archaeological remains of European furnaces. The analyses of the European furnaces show that these were more efficient in extracting metal than the indigenous huayrachinas, at the expense of an increased fuel consumption. A comparison between the archaeological and recent huayrachina remains has shown differences in smelting capacity; the latter having a relatively low metal yield and reduced technical efficiency, and indicating a change in ore composition.

Recent silver production shows an environmental adaptation taking into account the difficulty and cost in obtaining fuel and ore. The continued use of the huayrachina over five centuries shows the persistence of indigenous technology, despite other production methods being available.

The results of this project contribute to a better understanding of the history of the Porco-Potosí region, and to Andean metallurgy.

1. Ossète rasyg/rasug ‘ivre’, hongrois részeg ‘id.’, ne sont pas d’origine finno-ougrienne, mais remontent à un vieil iranien *frāsūka-, du verbe *fra-sū- ‘gonfler’, cf. vieil indien ŚAVI. Il s’agira d’un emploi métaphorique de ‘gonflé’ au sens ‘plein’. La question d’une parenté avec les mots védiques plā´śuka- (sens incertain) et prā-śū´- ‘plus fort’ est laissée ouverte.
2. Ossète ævzist/ævzestæ ‘argent’ < alain *azwēst(a) ne peut guère être apparenté ou emprunté au vieux slave dzvězda ‘étoile’ ni s’analyser en *ṛz-wahištā vel sim. Il semble en revanche possible de le tirer du grec ἄσβεστος ‘qui ne s’éteint pas’, bien que le lien sémantique soit hypothétique.
3. Ossète ærx°y/ærxi ‘cuivre’, avec sa correspondance phonétique unique, reflète vraisemblablement le vieil iranien *xruwant- ‘sanglant’, par un proto-ossète *arxuw/*arxiw. Le vieil adjectif aurait d’abord pris le sens ‘rouge’.
3.5.2. Excursus sur celt. *īsarno- 'fer'.
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1. Ossetic rasyg/rasug ‘drunk’, Hungarian részeg ‘id.’, are not of Finno-Ugric descent. Rather, they represent an Old Iranian *frāsūka-, from *fra-sū- ‘swell, inflate’, cf. Old Indic ŚAVI. That would be a frozen metaphorical use of ‘swollen’ in the sense of ‘full up’. The question of a possible relation with Old Indic plā´śuka- (uncertain meaning) and prā-śū´- ‘stronger’ is left open.
2. Ossetic ævzist/ævzestæ ‘silver’ < Alanic *azwēst(a) cannot easily be akin with or borrowed from early Slavic dzvězda ‘star’ or represent *ṛz-wahištā- vel sim. A derivation from Greek ἄσβεστος ‘unquenched’ seems possible, although the semantic link is hypothetical.
3. Ossetic ærx°y/ærxi ‘copper’, with its unique phonetic correspondence, is likely to reflect Old Iranian *xruwant- ‘bloody’ > Proto-Ossetic *arxuw/*arxiw. The old adjective would at first have taken the meaning ‘red’.
3.5.2. Excursus on Celt. *īsarno- 'iron'.

P late-like or tubular fragments of litharge (PbO) are found scattered around ancient furnace sites or in excavations in the wider region of Lavrion. Similar findings have been localized in Makronissos, Thasos and Lesvos islands. It is generally recognized that litharge pieces are related to cupellation, a unique metallurgical process by which silver was produced from argentiferous lead, since the oldest prehistoric times up to the 18th century AD. other ancient remains consisting mainly of litharge have been reported: important quantities of finely ground material of litharge mixed with other minerals, either loose or in agglomerated condition, have been found near ancient washing plants in Agrileza and Soureza, but their origin remains questionable. Furthermore, broken or intact artifacts which consist mainly of litharge, but are not litharge (as they are sometimes improperly called) have been the object of speculations. These artifacts are either large recipients of conical form or sometimes shallow bowls with or without

T he aim of the present investigation is to study the chemical and mineralogical composition of lead slags collected during the excavation campaign of ancient furnaces at "Ari" -Lavrion by C. Tsaimou, in order to define the nature of pyrometallurgical activities related to the excavated furnaces. Chemical analysis, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy in conjunction with energy dispersive spectroscopy-EDS were used to identify the mineral species, consisting of CaO rich silicates, oxides and metallic phases. The primary slag phases include melilite-group minerals, spinelgroup minerals, clinopyroxene, olivine-group minerals and glass. The presence of CaF2 and BaSO4 in all slags, which constitute the typical gangue of the primary ore, as well as of Ca-rich silicates indicate the use of bar-

Fire assaying, a technique that has been around for centuries, is still the most generally accepted method which is used to determine the purity of gold. In Indian jewellery industries (including big market players like Tanishq), the lead time for receiving the sample from the customer department and declaring the result (purity of gold) is very large which forces the company to outsource the testing activity, which increases the overall cost. One of the key processes in Fire assaying is the cupellation process.. During the study some bottle neck areas were identified and this paper presents the solutions to overcome the same and increase the productivity. In the proposed method individual loading of cupels have been eliminated and bulk loading is introduced using bullion blocks. For this purpose, indigenous equipment multi-loader, an exclusive fork and base plate have been designed. All the modelling has been done using NX 5 CAD/CAM software. This will enable the operators to process 21 samples in one stroke and thus reducing the loading and unloading time considerably.

The refining of silver alloys to obtain the silver they contain (cupellation) has been undertaken for thousands of years. The primary material evidence for this process comprises a lead-rich waste known as litharge cakes. Studies conducted by Bayley and Eckstein (2006) and Bayley (2009) suggested that cupellation in the medieval period was more successful/advanced than in Roman times based on the higher PbO/Cu2O ratio in the medieval litharge cakes. The analyses of a further forty five litharge fragments from twelve archaeological sites has found no correlation between the PbO/Cu2O ratio and time period. The microstructural and chemical analyses showed that there were two major compositions; a clay/vegetable ash mixture and bone ash. No correlation was identified between hearth lining composition and the PbO/Cu2O ratio. However, it is argued that the clay/vegetable ash was more absorbent than the bone ash litharge cakes. It was also noticed that 90% of the medieval litharge was clay/vegetable ash while they accounted for only 50% of the Roman litharge. This may be indicative of a compositional preference in certain time periods. Unfortunately the dating is poor in most cases limiting more comprehensive interpretations. Nevertheless there is no evidence to suggest a more effective practice at either period.

This is the original Powerpoint of the lecture presented in the grand auditorium Springer of the Israel Museum on Tuesday 26th June 2012, as a general introduction before the opening of the exhibition « White Gold » (see now the paper published in the Magazine of the American Numismatic Society.

Some call it an evolution since ancient societies were accustomed to settling transactions in precious metals for many centuries, even for millennia in some parts of Mesopotamia. But what happened in Asia Minor in the last third of the 7th c. BC (the date is debated) is best called a revolution, one which shaped the world of money forever. It was a revolution if the current view holds on: an issuing authority was powerful enough to impose a forced currency to standardized stamped lumps of metal priced well above their intrinsic value. Compared with the ingots or nuggets which were traded before, the main difference is very simple: coins were no more weighted within the limit of the issuing power. This is, in fact, the very definition of what a coin is: a small blank of metal whose alloy and weight are guaranteed by the impression of an official stamp or seal. Implicit but at the very heart of this revolution is the principle of fiduciary money, opposed to simple commodity money. People were convinced to accept a means of exchange whose intrinsic value was legally determined. And white gold Greek coins are likely to have been priced considerably above their intrinsic value.
We know where it happened: ancient Asia Minor, now Western modern Turkey. The distribution map of recorded finds, isolated or not, does not go beyond what was then controlled by the Mermnad rulers, the kingdom of Lydia which ended with its last king Croesus. It mainly covers the areas of Lydia with its capital Sardis, and Ionia with the city of Ephesus; it also extends to some parts of Mysia going North and Caria going South. This pattern strongly limits any explanation linking these first coins with long trade commercial purpose. 
What we don’t know for sure is: 1) when it first happened? 2) Who were the issuing powers? And, critically: 3) for what purpose these white gold coins were issued?
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Resumen: A partir de ciertos datos analíticos y del estudio formal de los lingotes de plata andalusíes que componen el conjunto descubierto en Hornachuelos (Córdoba), se hace referencia tanto a los procesos metalúrgicos de obtención de la plata como a la propia elaboración del lingote mediante el vertido del metal fundido en un molde o lingotera. Se plantea, también, la posibilidad del uso de ciertos materiales arqueológicos (Tables de broyage/Mesas de moler) como lingoteras.

Abstract: Starting from several analytical aspects and from formal studies of the silver andalusian ingots that compound the treasure discoveries in Hornachuelos (Córdoba), the author refers to the metallurgic methods of obtaining the silver as so to the elaboration of the ingots by means of the pouring of melted metal to the mould. The possible use of certain archaeological materials (Tables de broyage/Mill tables) like metal moulds is established too.

Prehistoric silver purification using lead cupellation has been documented in multiple places throughout the Andes, but direct evidence of the Inka use of this technology has remained elusive. In this study, we use X-ray fluorescence, scanning electron microscopy, and electron-microprobe analysis to document direct evidence of Inka period (AD 1400e1532) silver purification using lead cupellation in the Tarapacá Valley of northern Chile. Local metalworkers used wind-driven huayra furnaces to produce pure lead metal, sustaining temperatures of ca. 900e1100 C to smelt lead-bearing ores that may have included galena. The lead metal was then used in open-vessel cupellation of silver-bearing ores, some of which may have been cupriferous and derived from the nearby Inka mines at Huantajaya. Phase analyses of the slagged interiors of bowl-shaped ceramic vessels used for cupellation indicate that the metalworkers maintained the oxidizing environment and temperatures between 800 and 1100 C requisite for cupellation. We argue that the Inka introduced this technique to Tarapacá metalworkers. The absence of finished silver artifacts in local valley contexts suggests that the refined silver was removed from the valley for use elsewhere in the empire.

When examining the alloy of several works of Adam van Vianen, who was one of the founders of the Dutch Kwabstijl, with X-ray fluorescence, a much higher silver and lower bismuth percentage and was found in the silver than was commonly used by his contemporaries. It is the hypothesis that Van Vianen used a high percentage of silver, as it is more malleable, and he could therefore obtain extreme deformation of the silver without the formation of cracks. Recipes on silver production and refinement in the silversmith workshop that would have been commonly used at the time were selected to serve as a basis for making reconstructions in silver. These books were-the Probierbuchlein by Calbus of Freiberg and the Description of Leading Ore Processing and Mining Methods by Lazarus Ercker. Reconstructions were made, and the 'test' procedure, leading to 'blick' silver, generated highly refined silver, the silver being very malleable. It is therefore concluded that this recipe could have been used on purpose by Adam van Vianen to make his elaborate objects. On the other hand, there exists the possibility that this low bismuth content might be generated by coincidence, as a side effect to the multiple annealing and pickling cycles the objects went through.

The research focuses on assessing the metal content, mainly copper, lead, iron and also silver in metallurgical slag samples from the area where historical metallurgical industry functioned. In the smelter located in Mogiła, near Krakow (southern Poland), whose operation is confirmed in sources from 1469, copper was probably refined as well as silver was separated from copper. Based on the change of chemical and soil phase content and also taking cartographic and historical data into account, considering the restrictions resulting from the modern land use the area was determined whose geochemical mapping can point to the location of the 15 th century Jan Thurzo's smelter in Mogiła near Krakow. Moreover, using the same approach with the samples of this kind here as with hazardous waste, an attempt has been made to assess their impact on the environment. Thereby, taking the geoenvironmental conditions into account, potential impact of the industrial activity has been assessed, which probably left large scale changes in the substratum, manifested in the structure, chemical content and soil phase changes. Discovering areas which are contaminated above the standard value can help to identify historical human activities, and finding the context in artefacts allows to treat geochemical anomalies as a geochronological marker. For this purpose the best are bed sediments, at present buried in the ground, of historical ditches draining the area of the supposed smelter. Correlating their qualities with analogical research of archeologically identified slags and other waste material allows for reconstructing the anthropopressure stages and the evaluation of their effects. The operation of Jan Thurzo's smelter is significant for the history of mining and metallurgy of Poland and Central and Eastern Europe.

This report explores the use of portable X-Ray Fluorescence (pXRF) spectroscopy as a survey technique for archaeological prospection. St Algar’s Farm was chosen because recent archaeological excavation (undertaken by a community archaeology group) has indicated that cupellation of lead took place in the Roman period. Lead cupellation is known primarily from the recovery of litharge (lead oxide rich material) left behind when lead was oxidised in order to recover silver. Geophysical surveys of the site show the presence of a simple road system, enclosures and buildings. The excavations have found little evidence for either earlier or later activity. The pXRF was optimised to allow rapid determination of lead content of the soil. Each pXRF analysis point was surveyed using a Global Positioning System (GPS) instrument and the combined datasets were interrogated using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software to reveal spatial variations which could be compared with the data from other survey techniques.

The research focuses on assessing the metal content, mainly copper, lead, iron and also silver in metallurgical slag samples from the area where historical metallurgical industry functioned. In the smelter located in Mogiła, near Krakow (southern Poland), whose operation is confirmed in sources from 1469, copper was probably refined as well as silver was separated from copper. Based on the change of chemical and soil phase content and also taking cartographic and historical data into account, considering the restrictions resulting from the modern land use the area was determined whose geochemical mapping can point to the location of the 15