A Grounded-Theory Study of Meta-Attention in Golfers

A grounded theory study of meta-attention in golfers Oliver, Alex; McCarthy, Paul; Burns, Lindsey Published in: The Sport Psychologist DOI: 10.1123/tsp.2019-0014 Publication date: 2020 Document Version Author accepted manuscript Link to publication in ResearchOnline Citation for published version (Harvard): Oliver, A, McCarthy, P & Burns, L 2020, 'A grounded theory study of meta-attention in golfers', The Sport Psychologist, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2019-0014 General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please view our takedown policy at https://edshare.gcu.ac.uk/id/eprint/5179 for details of how to contact us. Download date: 13. Dec. 2021 Page 1 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 1 Running Head: A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS A grounded theory study of meta-attention among golfers Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 2 of 41 2 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 1 This study sought to construct a theoretical understanding of meta-attention among golfers. 2 Eight male golfers (7 competitive-elite and 1 successful-elite) were interviewed about their 3 experiences of attentional processes in competitive golf. A Straussian grounded theory 4 approach was used throughout the research process, and interview transcripts were analysed 5 using open, axial and selective coding. Results indicated that meta-attention is resource-based 6 with metacognitive reflections of logistic and shot resources that facilitate attentional control. 7 Attentional control required successful target selection, consistent pre-shot routines and 8 consistent post-shot routines. Failures in wider or immediate resources or failure to initiate 9 control routines, can lead to internal distraction. The emergent theory provides an 10 understanding of the function of meta-attention in golf performance that can be used by 11 golfers, coaches or psychologists to improve attentional strategies. 12 Keywords: metacognition; attentional control; attention-regulation; optimal 13 performance; attention Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 3 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 3 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 14 Meta-attention is a form of metacognition which relates to an individual’s knowledge and 15 awareness of the operation and controllability of their attentional system (Miller & Bigi, 16 1979). The study of meta-attention among sports performers allows researchers to understand 17 how athletes focus and refocus their attention. Although attention research is one of the 18 fastest growing fields in cognitive psychology (Moran, 2011), there remains some ambiguity 19 about the functionality of attention, such as how an athlete can re-focus should there be a 20 breakdown in selective attention (i.e., concentration). By exploring meta-attention among 21 athletes, it should be possible to understand how athletes direct and misdirect their attention 22 (Moran, 1996). 23 24 To contextualise meta-attention, it is first necessary to look at metacognition. Metacognition 25 is conceptualised as an individual’s insight and control over one’s cognitive processes 26 (Flavell, 1979). Tarricone (2011) has expanded metacognition to a tripartite construct 27 including: knowledge, control and monitoring. Metacognition is identified as a pathway to 28 understanding expert performance in sport (MacIntyre, Igou, Campbell, Moran, & Matthews, 29 2014). MacIntyre et al. (2014) constructed this understanding on the assumption that experts 30 possess knowledge of an expected standard of performance, and an on-going metacognitive 31 monitoring system alerts a performer of any deviation from this standard, initiating a self- 32 regulatory strategy in an attempt to return performance to an expected standard. As expert 33 performance is typified by increased automaticity, less demand is placed on working-memory 34 (Beilock & Carr, 2001), freeing space for metacognitive assessment and implementing a 35 strategy to achieve one’s goals (MacIntyre et al., 2014). Elite athletes are said to be experts in 36 their motor-skill execution as well as possessing expertise in planning, metacognition and 37 reflection (MacIntyre et al., 2014). A few studies evidence the proficiency of higher-level 38 cognitive functioning in experts compared to non-experts. For example, McPherson (2000) Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 4 of 41 4 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 39 compared the planning strategies of highly skilled and beginner tennis players. Players 40 reported up to three times as many planning strategies than their lesser skilled counterparts. 41 These strategies included: attaining goals within the match, specific strategic actions and 42 conditions when such actions are most appropriate, regulatory statements about monitoring 43 performance, and a description of how to perform strategic actions. Conversely, novices 44 reported a disproportionate number of task-irrelevant thoughts, rather than strategic thoughts 45 to help them gain an advantage in the match. Gould, Eklund and Jackson (1992) showed that 46 during their best performances, Olympic Wrestlers reported clear use of strategic planning 47 and less so in their poorer performances. Optimal performances featured total concentration, 48 optimal intensity, confidence and, cognitions involving strategy, focusing and re-focusing 49 techniques. Taken together, these findings indicate the role of focusing on the right things 50 and deploying strategies whilst competing becomes clear. Additionally, the implementation 51 of strategy use seems to be facilitated by an in-built monitoring system, which could be 52 interpreted as an “executive” cognitive process – or metacognition, albeit this evidence is 53 indirect. 54 55 The original understanding of meta-attention has its roots in education, with research 56 showing that younger children perceive their attention to be controlled by external variables 57 whereas older children possess an awareness of internal variables that they can control to 58 direct their attention to maintain task relevant focus. Research shows that older children are 59 more able to perceive distractors, and are therefore in a better position to control arising 60 distractors, so not to disrupt task performance (Loper & Hallahan, 1982; Miller & Bigi, 61 1979). Attention may be lost without an environmental (i.e., external) distractor present, 62 instead a mind wandering to task irrelevant thoughts (i.e., internal) can cause an individual to 63 lose concentration (Moran, 1996; Moran, 2011). The mechanism in place which realises Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 5 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 5 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 64 sufficient attention is not directed to the task at hand becomes an area of interest, because it is 65 this monitoring system, searching for internal distractions, which subsequently allows the 66 performer to re-focus on the task at hand should attention be misdirected (Moran, 1996). The 67 effectiveness of this apparent refocus, however, is likely linked to the efficiency of the 68 individual’s cognitive processing (Moran, 1996). 69 70 Meta-attention can be placed under the metacognitive umbrella which suggests that higher- 71 skilled athletes have a greater capacity to reign in a wandering mind by implementing 72 suitable strategies to re-focus on task relevant cues allowing for successful control of 73 attention. Research exploring higher-order attentional processes during performance (e.g., 74 meta-attention) is lacking; however, some insights into metacognition and attention have 75 been provided within endurance sport settings. For example, Brick, MacIntyre and Campbell 76 (2015) used content analysis to explore attentional focus and cognitive control in elite-level 77 endurance runners. In ten interviews, Brick and colleagues (2015) showed that planning, 78 monitoring, reviewing and evaluating and metacognitive experiences were fundamental to 79 effective cognitive control and strategy in running performance. Brick, Campbell, Sheehan, 80 Fitzpatrick, and MacIntyre (2018) indicated that runners’ attentional focus improved through 81 metacognitive proficiency as they became more experienced. Although these findings lends 82 support to the link between metacognitive proficiency and expert performance (e.g., 83 MacIntyre et al., 2014), it remains bound in context specificity. Endurance activities are 84 externally paced and continuous, and the self-regulated metacognitive processes identified in 85 this research are entwined with this (e.g., pacing strategy). Therefore, gaps in knowledge that 86 pertain to attentional processes at the ‘meta’ level within golf remain. In particular, the 87 internal variables that the meta-attentional system monitors for remains underexplored in 88 golf. Nevertheless, the capacity to self-regulate where competitors cannot receive coaching Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 6 of 41 6 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 89 instructions while they compete is imperative. Elements of these findings lend themselves 90 well to the current study as during competition golfers must monitor performance to know at 91 what time, and how, to execute certain skills, without coaching or external instruction. 92 93 Some theoretical insights into an attentional monitoring system, and attempts to control 94 attention are provided through ironic processing theory (Wegner, 1994). Ironic processing 95 outlines the paradox of attempts to control a wandering mind may cause it to wander further. 96 In ironic processing theory, Wegner (1994) outlined that under anxiety or cognitive fatigue, 97 an individual’s attention is directed towards signs of threatening stimuli as this monitoring 98 system requires less resource than the operating process. Attempts to regain control of a 99 wandering mind, ironically, lead to the very behaviour the individual wanted to avoid. The 100 ironic effects of displaying the behaviour sought to be controlled has been shown within 101 sports psychology literature including golf putting performance. For example, Wegner, 102 Ansfield and Piloff (1998) who showed that under cognitive load and avoidant instructions 103 the tendency to hit the ball past the target increased significantly. Alternative explanations of 104 debilitative effects of cognitive control, points towards overcompensation taking place. In 105 golf putting studies de la Pena et al., Murray and Janelle (2008) and Toner, Moran and 106 Jackson (2013) showed the mediating role of skill-level, indicating that higher skilled 107 performers were less likely to succumb to avoidant instructions related to kinematic changes. 108 However, the direction of missed putts was indicative of overcompensation, rather than ironic 109 processing. The results from these studies indicate that an athlete ought to direct attention to 110 relevant cues without using avoidant self-instruction. This process, however, might be 111 compromised by an athlete’s metacognitive proficiency – the athlete’s capability to draw on 112 and select the best cognitive strategies for a given task, therefore this warrants further 113 exploration through a meta-lens. Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 7 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 7 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 114 115 Further insights into the breakdown of attempts to control attention are outlined by 116 Attentional Control Theory (ACT) (Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos, & Calvo, 2007). ACT 117 (Eysenck et al., 2007) focuses on the debilitative influence anxiety can have on attempts to 118 control attention, thus offering some insights into why athletes may become distracted. The 119 performance arena is highly pressured and athletes are judged on their performances. 120 According to ACT, worrying about the outcome disrupts efficient attention control, 121 increasing the distractibility as threatening stimuli distract an individual by overriding goal- 122 directed attention. Studies within sports psychology have supported ACT hypotheses that 123 pressurised situations lead to a reduction in goal-directed attentional control and a reduction 124 in performance (Wilson, Wood, & Vine, 2009). Developing an understanding of meta- 125 attention can provide greater detail on the internal stimuli the monitoring process searches 126 for, and can be a pathway to reducing the debilitative effects of anxiety on performance. 127 128 In golf skill execution occurs intermittently, therefore the attentional processes involved can 129 be expected to differ from open externally-paced events. The inaction between shots may 130 suggest frequent changes in attentional focus which can offer insight about how attention is 131 voluntarily controlled during a performance. The current study examines golfers’ knowledge 132 of their attention to create a theory of meta-attention that is relevant to a sports setting. By 133 gaining an understanding of golfers’ knowledge of their attentional system more can be 134 understood about the occurrence of internal distractions within a closed self-paced sport. Life 135 story interviews (Atkinson, 1998) focused on the participants’ golfing career to explore their 136 knowledge of, and experiences of, controlling their attentional system to elucidate incidences 137 of meta-attentional accuracy and inaccuracy. Life story interviews cover what has happened 138 to a person and can cover from their birth to the present day, before and beyond (Atkinson, Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 8 of 41 8 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 139 1998). Therefore, these interviews provide insight into instances of attentional control with 140 optimal and sub-optimal outcomes. Developing this theoretical understanding can possess 141 practical implications by helping guide interventions with the aim of reducing internal 142 distractibility. Thus, findings can benefit performers, coaches and psychologists. By 143 successfully doing this, Moran’s (1996) two-decade old call for meta-attentional research is 144 answered. It is intended that the resulting grounded theory will provide insights into sources 145 of internal distractibility and the best practice for the control of attention. 146 Method 147 148 Methodological Congruence 149 Based on issues identified in grounded theory studies in sports psychology that has seen the 150 extent to which researchers follow “true” grounded theory methodology questioned (Holt & 151 Tamminen, 2010a; Holt, 2016; Holt & Tamminen, 2010b; Weed, 2009; Weed, 2010; Weed, 152 2017), Straussian grounded theory (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) is used in its entirety as a ‘total’ 153 methodology (Weed, 2009). This addresses the criticism that sports and exercise 154 psychologists ‘cherry-pick’ elements of grounded theory rather than using it in its entirety 155 (Holt, 2016). The selection of Straussian grounded theory is driven by the lead researcher’s 156 ontological and epistemological beliefs that are consistent with the post-positivist position 157 (Weed, 2009). Grounded theory is a suitable methodology where pre-existing theory within 158 the context is inadequate (Corbin & Strauss, 2008), because a theoretical account of meta- 159 attention in sport has yet to be meaningfully performed, a grounded theory methodology is 160 well matched to the research gap. 161 Sampling and Participants 162 Initial recruitment adopted purposive sampling using an already available network of three 163 golfers, that is, a sample who have knowledge and experience of the phenomenon of interest 164 was selected. As data collection progressed recruitment evolved into theoretical sampling, Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 9 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 9 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 165 that is data was driven by the evolving concepts and established patterns and variation within 166 the data (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). For example, initial recruitment 167 golfers had some tour experience, however, as collection and analysis progressed players 168 who had amassed greater tour exposure were recruited. This began to show the differences 169 and similarities in each of the emergent categories. The final sample consisted of 8 male 170 competitive golfers. However, the researchers did not explicitly seek a male only sample; 171 rather this was the sample available at the time of data collection. One player had previously 172 played full-time on the European Tour for a number of years, winning two European Tour 173 events. Six players had consistently played on the Tartan Tour or Europro Tour over a 174 number of years, and one player was a former county level champion and had previous 175 involvement in national age group squads. To ensure this was satisfied names were cross- 176 checked with relevant Order of Merit tables. Therefore these participants were considered to 177 be ‘competitive-elite’ and ‘successful-elite’ based on criteria outlined by Swann, Moran and 178 Piggott (2015). Because grounded theory aims to be substantive rather than general (Strauss 179 & Corbin, 1998), sampling strove for quality insights over quantity of insights, thus exclusion 180 criteria were applied to non-competitive recreational golfers. In doing so, the credibility of 181 our understanding of meta-attention was strengthened. 182 Data Collection 183 Upon receipt of institutional ethics approval, potential participants were identified and 184 contacted by email. Further advertisements for recruitment were placed on Twitter. 185 Communications explained the purpose of the study, and that it would entail an interview 186 lasting approximately one hour. Those who corresponded and expressed an interest in the 187 study were contacted to arrange a mutually convenient time and location to meet, in most 188 cases this was at the home club of the participant. All participants provided informed consent 189 prior to the interview. As mentioned previously, interviews followed a life story format and 190 these were focused towards participants’ experiences in competitive golf settings, such as Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 10 of 41 10 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 191 reflections on tour events. Interviews took the form of semi-structured career-based 192 interviews, that were conducted in an effort to gain rich descriptions and insights into 193 perceptions of attentional thoughts and control that had been experienced at different points 194 over the course of careers, rather than a mere snapshot of a single event. All of the interviews 195 were conducted by the lead researcher. 196 197 An interview guide was developed to gain a detailed understanding of participant’s 198 metacognitions, this had the additional function of facilitating the interview process. The 199 interview guide used was designed to be fluid, and act as a gentle steering exercise, rather 200 than something that would be vigorously referred to and was something that evolved as the 201 research process went on. Interviews used open-ended questions and adopted a 202 conversational tone as this allowed for themes and points of discussion to emerge naturally 203 and did not constrain responses from the interviewees. Questions began by addressing themes 204 of concentration, attentional control and distraction. The emergent data and on-going analysis 205 shaped subsequent interviews as the emergent theory began to drive later interviews (Corbin 206 & Strauss, 2008; Strauss & Corbin, 1998), later interviews were more directed and sought to 207 delve into participants’ perceptions of their resources, such as social support, as these 208 concepts influenced the outcome of attentional control. Eight interviews were conducted and 209 lasted between 43 and 111 minutes (M= 62.13, SD= 21.33) that were digitally recorded using 210 a Dictaphone and were transcribed verbatim by the lead researcher. 211 Data Analysis 212 Within grounded theory, the process of data collection and analysis is interwoven with each 213 interview informing the next. To facilitate this process, the lead researcher gained a greater 214 sense of familiarity with the data by listening to audio recordings between interviews and 215 reading transcripts several times. Analysis took place between each interview and was 216 conducted by the lead researcher; specifically this process began with open coding, which Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 11 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 11 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 217 entailed identifying initial concepts within the data and developing categories. Open coding 218 led to initial development of concepts relating to meta-attention within golfers (e.g., how 219 emotions would influence attention). These categories were then refined through axial 220 coding, which helped illustrate the relationships that existed between categories and their 221 subcategories (e.g., whether these linked to immediate factors that could impact a specific 222 shot or whether these were more general factors that would impact an overall game). As 223 suggested by Corbin and Strauss (2008) during this stage draft models depicting inter- 224 category relationships were sketched; encouraging the researcher to think about the role of 225 each concept and the interactions between them (see figure 1 for an early draft model). 226 Additionally, axial coding was used to steer the research to investigate categories that 227 required further development to research saturation. Axial coding refined the categories 228 during which the constant comparative method was used, this forms a central part of 229 grounded theory (Holt & Tamminen, 2010a; Weed, 2009) and entails comparing incidents 230 across interviews for similarities and differences; providing depth to each concept. Saturation 231 was deemed to have been achieved when no further distinct insights on the operation and 232 controllability of attention were offered in interviews (Corbin & Strauss, 2008), after which 233 data collection was halted. 234 235 Coinciding with the process of open and axial coding was the use of memos that were 236 utilised to track the lead researcher’s thoughts about the data, questions asked of the data and 237 to track the development of the theory; encouraging micro-analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). 238 A shortened example of a memo relating to the role of the caddie, that later formed part of the 239 role of others subcategory, is as follows: what process is being described? (The caddie 240 performs several roles in concentration such as between shots facilitating switching off); how 241 can it be defined? (The relationship and understanding between player and their caddie); how Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 12 of 41 12 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 242 is this process developed? (The process develops as a relationship between a player and their 243 caddie); how does the participant act in this process? (The participant is less distracted when 244 positively perceiving a relationship between caddie themselves); when, why and how does the 245 process change? (The process can change dependent on the relationship with their caddie, a 246 new caddie can cause anxiety and distract the golfer). The notes gathered from memos guided 247 selective coding which entails a process of arranging and integrating categories and concepts 248 to form a theoretical framework. 249 250 To achieve methodological rigor, the researchers aimed to remain objective and recognize 251 bias throughout the research process. This was achieved by checking assumptions with 252 incoming data and following grounded theory in its entirety (Weed, 2009). In addition, 253 consideration was made to the coding procedure adopted. Specifically, Smith and McGannon 254 (2018) outlined that traditional inter-rater reliability used in qualitative sports and exercise 255 psychology research was ineffective for ensuring reliable research, therefore, researchers 256 should seek an alternative framework for establishing rigour in qualitative studies. To 257 overcome such issues Smith and McGannon (2018) presented alternative inter-rater 258 reliability guidelines, the researchers opted for intercoder reliability (MacPhail, Khoza, 259 Abler, & Ranganathan, 2016). Because of the guidelines’ consistency with the post-positivist 260 position held by the lead researcher (Smith & McGannon, 2018). The first author (a PhD 261 student) and second author (director of studies) devised a coding frame prior to independently 262 coding the research. The lead researcher completed coding for each of the transcripts, and the 263 second author coded a sample returning a Cohen’s kappa rating of .80. Following Burla et 264 al.’s (2008) guidelines this is ‘perfect’ agreement. In the cases of disagreement, codes were 265 discussed between the first and second author and in all cases the final code used was that 266 identified by the first author. Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 13 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 13 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 267 268 Further rigor was achieved through a post-hoc evaluation of the resultant grounded theory. 269 To do this, quality criteria outlined by Weed (2009, p.509) was used. Consistent with 270 Straussian realist ontology, the post-hoc evaluation related to how the concepts and the 271 theory generated would, and were perceived to, “fit” the nature of attention as a resource 272 based phenomenon; “work” by offering an analytical explanation of concentration in golf 273 performance, i.e., how an athlete focuses and re-focuses; “relevance” for use in a practical 274 setting to improve concentration in golf; and “modification” so the resultant grounded theory 275 can be updated and amended through future research and new knowledge gained. Here, it 276 should also be noted that the study prioritized meaningful findings related to golf, rather than 277 generalizable findings related to a wider sports context. 278 279 Results 280 The results are drawn from collated interview responses from 8 competitive golfers regarding 281 their knowledge and awareness of their attention. The findings indicate attentional 282 metacognitions made up of logistic factors, seen as planning, and shot factors, seen as 283 monitoring, provide golfers with resources to influence their attentional control. Thus, 284 attention-related metacognitive evaluations are a catalyst for attentional control as they 285 provide the platform to initiate control strategies. If conditions are met, optimal attention 286 control then requires an external target selection, a consistent pre-shot routine and a 287 consistent post-shot routine. If each level (i.e., metacognitive and control) is satisfied optimal 288 control response occurs, however sub-optimal control responses (i.e., distractibility) occur 289 when a failure occurs at any stage of the process. Figure 1. is a grounded theory model that 290 displays a schematic representation of the emergent concepts and their relationships. As can 291 be seen in the model, this is represented as a bottom-up process with progression from 292 logistic metacognitions towards shot-related metacognitions that facilitate attentional control. Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 14 of 41 14 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 293 Negative evaluations at either of these factors and subsequent failure to implement strategies 294 to overcome these can result in sub-optimal outcomes. Detailed insight into each component 295 will now be undertaken. 296 297 <Insert Figure 1. here> 298 299 300 Underpinning Factors Psychological skills. 301 The underpinning psychological skills that are present at each stage of attention control were 302 indicated throughout each interview. In line with the understanding of meta-attention’s 303 location within metacognition self-regulatory behaviours, particularly self-knowledge 304 provided an anchor for evaluation and control stages and something that would determine the 305 success of attempts to control attention, putting knowledge into action. A comment from one 306 of the golfers interviewed embodied the individualised nature of psychological skills, 307 ‘Everybody is different, so it’s what works for you is the key’. Self-regulatory skills refers to 308 altering inner states or responses including actions, thoughts, feelings and task performance 309 allow an athlete to find what works for them (Baumeister & Vohs, 2007). One golfer 310 described this key process as, ‘…finding your own sport DNA’. Psychological skills and 311 strategy are not a one-size-fits-all approach therefore it is central that the individual 312 understands what works best. 313 Attentional beliefs. 314 Participants converged on the idea of focusing on the right things (i.e., stimuli relevant to 315 successful shot execution), was described as an ability to ‘concentrate’, and was conducive of 316 effective attention, one participant exemplified this in their comment: 317 I suppose, for me, being focused, being concentrated on what you are doing. Attention 318 to detail, taking into account everything. In golfing terms, for me it’s going into every Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 15 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 15 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 319 last detail, so I suppose if you’re paying attention to everything round about you, 320 you’re looking at the lie, you’re at the conditions in terms of the wind, you’re thinking 321 about where you’re landing the ball rather than just standing knowing your yardage 322 taking a club and hitting it, you’re taking a bit more into consideration for your shot. 323 Furthering the concept that there are helpful and unhelpful stimuli within the attentional 324 system, and with it attention is movable to the most helpful stimuli for performance was 325 described by another participant who used an analogy to describe attentional control: 326 …you heard me talking about walking out the zone, I’d be turning my magnalight so 327 the that my attention was everywhere, but when I went into that little zone 20 yards 328 from getting to my ball I’d be walking away from the players, starting to get my 329 attention on what I’m trying to do… 330 The magnalight analogy can be seen to tie in with Posner’s (1980) spotlight hypothesis, and 331 suggest an accuracy to the attention process. The findings in this study indicate that to 332 successfully control their attention golfers must value the ability to move attention, holding 333 the belief that their concentration is shifted frequently throughout a performance has been 334 shared. 335 336 Logistic Resources 337 A major component identified within meta-attention was found to be a wider evaluative stage 338 that refers to factors that require satisfaction, but may not have a direct influence on the 339 immediate shot. 340 The role of others. 341 When free from internal distractions, golfers positively perceived the role of others and the 342 support that this provides. A golfer interviewed emphasised the importance of receiving 343 support from others: Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 16 of 41 16 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 344 the top players have got a team about them…they’ve got all these people about 345 them…they might have 6, 7 people in their team, all geared towards making that guy 346 a good golfer, the best he can be 347 Support networks varied between golfers, for reasons such as finance, the appraisal of 348 support network appears to influence meta-attentional accuracy. Central to the role of others 349 was the prevention of feelings of isolation that would lead to decreased meta-attentional 350 accuracy. According to one of the golfers a positive golfer-caddie relationship prevented 351 isolation, ‘Yeah, once you’re out on the golf course it sort of feels like you’re a team rather 352 than you’re standing out there alone’. This is seen to align with previous research on 353 perceived support in golf that indicates a positively perceived support increases the 354 situational control and is positively associated with challenge appraisals leading to more 355 performance outcomes (Freeman & Rees, 2009). Furthermore, improvements to perceived 356 social support can improve golfing performance (Freeman, Rees, & Hardy, 2009). Trust and 357 familiarity formed a basis for the role of others, without these present in a golfer’s 358 relationships, meta-attentional accuracy would be weakened. 359 I just had guidelines with him… other caddies would be more forceful, if you like, I 360 didn’t get on well with that, but certainly having someone you’ve got a good 361 relationship with on the bag or you have a strict relationship psychologically that 362 helps a lot because I was always more comfortable with him on the bag. 363 Significantly, the findings demonstrate that insecurities surrounding a support network lead 364 to increased distractibility in competitive golf. In the present study, participants noted that 365 trust and a mutual understanding held by the golfer and support of the role played by the 366 support giver formed the basis of the perception of support. 367 Training. Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 17 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 17 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 368 A positive evaluation of training was consistently identified as important for reducing 369 distractibility, that required an absence of concerns about the quality of training and the skills 370 that had been rehearsed prior to competition. Golfers noted that making too many changes 371 mid-season could divert attention away from the most task relevant stimuli as athletes would 372 become caught up in monitoring and ensuring their desired change within performance is 373 implemented, thus distracting them. One participant outlined this, and provided information 374 on how this informed their decision-making in their early career: 375 [it is about] doing the right work at the right time. So when you have a gap of 376 November to February, ‘right what is it I’m trying to do to my technique, is there a 377 physical limitation which is preventing me from moving in that fashion?’ You start to 378 look at service providers etc. and I think if it had been explained to me a little more, 379 or explained to me at all in that age group 16-19 to 20 I would have understood to 380 prepare at the right points in the season. 381 This study found that positive evaluation of training was facilitative of attentional control as 382 it enabled golfers to feel suitably prepared for events. The findings demonstrate that for 383 accurate attentional control a suitable amount of pre-event planning must take place, and the 384 role of training is expanded further to wider-level planning as off-season training is 385 demonstrated to impact attentional accuracy. 386 Organisation. 387 Being suitably organised for an event would reduce a potential source of distraction 388 maintaining attentional accuracy on stimuli most relevant for performance. Responses 389 regarding organisation related to pre-event preparation, specifically what was in the bag. One 390 golfer detailed the role of organisation has in their attention and reducing distractibility: 391 What’s in the bag, what have I got to eat and drink in the bag, massively 392 important…so I don’t need to worry about that, that is something else less to think Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 18 of 41 18 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 393 about you know there’s nothing worse than, shit I couldn’t get enough water this 394 morning to put in my bag, or there’s not enough water on the course, I couldn’t find 395 the bars I like for the course, so the stuff in my bag I don’t like, and that’s a 396 distraction, so your attention is on that. 397 The present study shows that failure to have adequate organisation and preparation for events 398 (e.g., what goes in the bag) can lead to internal distractions experienced by golfers. 399 Knowledge and reflections on preparation helps the golfer in future events, improving the 400 accuracy of their meta-attention. 401 Financial. 402 The role of finance within competitive golf has been highlighted by the participants as an 403 important consideration for consistent levels of optimal attention across events. Participants 404 therefore discussed the importance of securing a stable financial footing through the likes of 405 sponsorship monies to sustain participation in tour golf. A golfer who positively evaluated 406 their financial footing was free from concerns that would otherwise distract the golfer. This 407 sentiment was explicitly laid out by several of the golfers: 408 If you know all the financial stuff is taken care of and you know all need to do is go 409 out and play good golf, your mind is totally clear and it’s a lot easier than if you’re 410 say trying to think about what you’re doing that night travel wise and all that sort of 411 stuff. That takes a lot of your concentration away. 412 The findings from this study suggest that financial concerns reduce the accuracy of meta- 413 attention as concerns that are present become internal distractions. As the above quote 414 outlines, positive evaluations of financial support appears to reduce financial-based anxiety, 415 allowing for greater attentional accuracy. 416 Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 19 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 19 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 417 Game Situation 418 A core component to meta-attention in golf is the game situation that can be read as lie of the 419 shot as this continually updates with each shot. Participants described the role stress can play 420 within the game situation, and the influences this can have on the attentional process. Internal 421 distractions can occur when a golfer perceives their performance to differ from the standard 422 expected, during that the golfers are occupied by thoughts on previous shots and their 423 implications. The following quote illustrates the negative knock-on effects thinking about 424 previous ‘bad’ shots can have: 425 426 …I had a bad hole and I was thinking about trying to not have another bad hole, so then I almost played defensive. 427 As well as thinking back, thinking too far ahead is identified as a hindrance for performance, 428 emphasising the importance of maintaining thoughts on the current shot. As professionals, 429 many of those interviewed are involved in coaching and mentoring roles, and this forms a 430 key consideration to their teaching as one of the interviewees outlined: 431 …I drum it into the youngsters coming through because they are the ones that will tell 432 their pals ‘oh am level after 6 holes’, ‘this is my best-ever after 9’, next thing you 433 screw it up on the back 9 because you’re score orientated. So, I think your focus, your 434 attention has got to be on as much as you can just on the task at hand, which is the 435 next shot. 436 This emphasises the importance that attention needs to be directed to one location – the shot 437 at hand – but that the performance as a whole and thoughts surrounding it can act as a 438 distractor inhibiting optimal levels of focus. 439 440 Shot Resources 441 Within each shot to successfully assert attention control, golfers require resources to achieve 442 this, these concepts take on different value at different times during a performance. The Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 20 of 41 20 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 443 concepts tied to shot resources can be related to monitoring and included: Physical 444 Condition, Motivation, Confidence, Acceptance, Emotions, Available Psychological 445 Resources, and these will now be discussed in turn. Physical condition. 446 447 Golfers consider physical factors including hydration and nutrition as vital resources for 448 meta-attention. Participants demonstrated the need to maintain hydration and hunger within a 449 round as feelings of dehydration or hunger increase the distractibility of a golfer. One of the 450 golfers interviewed provided an in depth insight into the liquid he would require to maintain 451 adequate levels of hydration to prevent feeling distracted: 452 Yeah, hydration, nutrition, what is your blood sugar like, for those 4, 4 and a half 453 hours that you are out there, at 15 degrees you’re looking at, nah 20 degrees you’re 454 looking at a litre and a half of water is the recommendation, 25 degrees 2 litres, 30 455 degrees, 2 and a half litres, so if you’re dehydrated your co-ordination isn’t so good. 456 The findings here indicate that monitoring and awareness of one’s physical condition appears 457 to be an important aspect, where feelings of hunger and thirst act as a distraction for the 458 golfer. 459 Motivation. 460 The importance of motivation was consistently discussed by the interviewees that pertained 461 to the motivation for controlling attention. At a higher level, motivation had to be focused on 462 winning or performing at a high level, such as progression up the Tour ladder: 463 I always feel like I go to the qualifying school for the European tour, that’s when it’s 464 most heightened because that’s the one place I know where if I do well I can step it up 465 a level. The only true drive I have in the game is to play at that higher level. And so, 466 going into those tournaments, that’s when my attention is at its highest. Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 21 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 21 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 467 The motivation to perform well and win was contrasted to those at the lower ends of tours 468 where the financial constraints are more pronounced that appears to divert motivation 469 towards finance, rather than a continual drive to progress or win, as one of the golfers 470 explained. 471 Their [struggling tour players] mindset is nowhere near the mindset of the top guys 472 because their mindset is trying to make money whereas the higher up guys don’t need 473 to make the money so their mindset is just winning the tournaments 474 Consistent with prior research, high levels of motivation are required for consistent 475 performance in sport (Treasure, Lemyre, Kuczka, & Standage, 2007). In the present study, 476 successful performers have greater internalisation of their motivation that is a key part of 477 self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Successful golfers appear to be able to 478 internalise extrinsic motivators, such as finance, that reduces the internal distraction posed. 479 Confidence. 480 Perceptions of confidence were aligned with immediate attentional thoughts. Feeling 481 confident was vital for optimal attention control, whereas limited confidence would see 482 doubts arise and the occurrence of sub-optimal attentional thoughts that act as a distractor. 483 Participants described the importance of maintaining a feeling of confidence going into each 484 shot, and this can be brought about by a good score on a previous hole as one of the 485 participants described: 486 If you’re on a good wee run of shots – birdies or whatever, the amount of times you 487 see someone hitting a great wee hole a putt for an eagle or a birdie, brilliant feeling 488 when you eagle a hole, after that you go onto the next tee it’s amazing to see the 489 amount of times you hit a cracking drive just through feeling good. 490 Self-confidence is widely recognised as a marker in sporting performance (Woodman & 491 Hardy, 2003). Optimal levels of attention occurred when golfers had high levels of self- Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 22 of 41 22 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 492 confidence. Confidence allays any doubts that may be held by the golfer. Confidence appears 493 changeable within event and is influenced by each shot played. 494 Acceptance. 495 While golfers approached each shot with an aim and target in consideration, they identified 496 that this may not always occur, therefore golfers were more able to accept an outcome (i.e., 497 where the ball goes) if they had fulfilled other elements of the shot. This concept was 498 important for sustained attention and to avoid negative fallout from an unfortunate break of 499 the ball, as one participant exemplified: 500 As soon as the ball leaves the club face you can’t do anything about it. You can’t 501 control the bounce, you can estimate it but as soon as that ball hits the ground it could 502 do anything. It could hit a stone, hit a worm cast, it could do absolutely anything, you 503 can’t control it and you need to be more accepting. 504 Moreover, golfers indicated that the philosophy, golf is not a game of perfect (Rotella, 2004) 505 helped them with their approach to shots that did not reach the target location. Furthering this 506 concept, it was important to consider that mistakes occur, 507 The big thing is realising you’re going to make mistakes. We’re always going to make 508 mistakes. If I go and play golf tomorrow, I’ll make a mistake at some point, it might 509 be just a wee once or it might be a disastrous one but you learn from it, you learn 510 from it, but you’ll do it again, if you get a bad bounce off a bunker into the trees, it’s 511 happened before and it’ll happen again you know so you deal with it and move on. 512 A shift towards a mindful, acceptance, approach to each shot was important for the golfers. 513 Parallels can be drawn here with Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) (Gardner & 514 Moore, 2004; Gardner & Moore, 2012) that is built on the promotion of acceptance of 515 internal states (Hayes, 2004; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999). By accepting there are 516 elements of the shot that cannot be controlled for, a feeling of acceptance, acted as a barrier Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 23 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 23 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 517 for reducing internal distraction, particularly when a golfer may experience an unfortunate 518 bounce after an otherwise faultless execution of their skill execution. Emotions. 519 520 The integral role of emotions when facing each shot was consistently described by the 521 interviewees, where poor emotion-regulation would reduce the accuracy of meta-attention. 522 The distracting role undesired emotions can play was appreciated by the golfers who 523 indicated an awareness to regulate their emotions to facilitate optimal attention. 524 Yeah, I find that if you are anxious it can be a struggle from that and personally I 525 tend to do things quicker, and you’ve got to do the reverse and slow yourself down 526 and give yourself a bit of time, just to take in the situation and if it isn’t a good start, 527 just start again and go from there if you can… forget about what has gone on, so that 528 is one of their biggest assets. They tend to forget what they did 2 minutes ago and just 529 move on, which rather than maybe get a wee bit frustrated with yourself and get 530 angry. 531 The importance of emotion regulation has growing support for performance in sport (Lane, 532 Beedie, Jones, Uphill, & Devonport, 2012) that demonstrates the positive effects of 533 successfully keeping emotions in check. The strategy of regulating emotions serves the 534 function of controlling potential internal distractions stemming from a sub-optimal emotional 535 state. 536 Experience. 537 Accumulated exposure to different scenarios was crucial to aid the current shot, optimising 538 attentional thoughts and reducing the distractibility of fear of the unknown. This was 539 particularly important in challenging conditions, as one golfer outlined: 540 …difficult weather conditions… ‘think of a day, it’s a windy day, very windy, so you 541 know it’s going to be tough, think about the best round of golf you ever had playing Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 24 of 41 24 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 542 in the wind’. If someone said to me that, I’d go, ‘right I know I played a round at 543 [event] when I shot the best score of the whole day… it blew an absolute gale… So 544 you put yourself [there], you’re now thinking about a really good day. 545 The present research shows that golfers engage in an on-going in game monitoring that leads 546 to golfers reflections on experiences to inform them in performance. The reflections on 547 experience here act as a buffer to distracting thoughts which may arise during challenging 548 conditions, such as a strong headwind. 549 Psychological resources available. 550 A positive perception of possessing sufficient psychological resources was vital for golfers to 551 facilitate attentional control for each shot. The intense levels of concentration required over a 552 round of golf can be draining, and to this end participants talked about the depleting effects of 553 competing on the course over a period of up to five hours: 554 Yeah because if you’re out on the golf course for 5 hours it’s a long time to think 555 about golf and you’d be surprised how drained you can be after a round of golf even 556 though you’re only hitting a shot for 30 seconds or something is all you’re executing a 557 shot for or around that, but for the whole 5 hours you’re just absolutely drained. 558 A resource, or strength, based model of psychological resources was hypothesised by 559 Baumeister and colleagues (Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998; Baumeister, 560 Vohs, & Tice, 2007). Self-control strength has been shown as a moderator in sports 561 performance involving fine perceptual motor-skills (Englert & Bertrams, 2012; Englert, 562 Bertrams, Furley, & Oudejans, 2015). The previous research indicates that individuals in a 563 state of depletion were more likely to succumb to anxiety and suffer from internal distraction. 564 Increased self-control strength and available resource acts as a buffer, guarding against 565 internal distraction. To mitigate the effects of depletion, maintaining strength, the golfers 566 demonstrated an understanding of an importance to ‘switch off’ between shots as this would Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 25 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 25 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 567 conserve the resources needed for future shots. The findings presented within the present 568 research suggest that the psychological resources that can be used to concentrate are finite, 569 therefore periods where no particular focus or concentration is important to reduce 570 distractibility. 571 572 Control Stage 573 Built on the resource stage is the control stage that relates to strategies deployed by golfers to 574 control their attention to an optimal focus point. This concept was made up of 575 subcomponents, target selection, pre-shot routine and post-shot routine, all of which had to 576 be adequately satisfied or attempts to control attention would have been sub-optimal, 577 allowing for distraction to occur. Each of the above mentioned stages will now be discussed 578 in turn. 579 Target selection. 580 Commitment to a target point when is an important component of attentional control in golf. 581 The consensus amongst the participants was that a target should be an external point, that 582 may not necessarily be the flag stick, in order to get the ball to reach the desired location: 583 ‘…so there’s a target there, there’s a tree at the background there that’s my flag’. In contrast 584 to external focus points, internal focus points were recognised to be unhelpful for 585 performance. Golfers stated that this would be the case in stressful situations where ‘you’re 586 trying to execute a shot under pressure’ the same golfer later added: ‘…you want to be 587 focusing externally, so on your target or something’. An internal focus can refer to focusing 588 on the mechanics of a swing (i.e., a skill that is automatic) and this too can lead to a 589 breakdown in performance, the issue was encapsulated by one of the golfers interviewed: 590 …intuitively you would think it would help, because you would be better equipped to 591 know how things work but in my head it’s as simple as a formula 1 driver knowing 592 how an engine works, it doesn’t really matter. They need to be, it just doesn’t matter. Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 26 of 41 26 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 593 If you were to know about it and think about it during the performance it just hurts 594 you. 595 This is consistent with Masters’ (1992) theory of re-investment, that has been shown to have 596 a debilitative impact on golf performance in further research, including Bawden, Maynard 597 and Westbury (2001) who showed golfers who scored highly on self-consciousness were 598 more likely to suffer performance breakdown on a putting task than those who scored lowly. 599 The findings in the current study also display consistency with Wulf (2013) that an internal 600 focus of attention can hinder performance. Within the selection of a target ironic processing 601 (Wegner, 1994) was also seen to occur as one of the golfers recalled an instance of a missed 602 603 putt where ironic processing took place: But as stupid as it sounds there are times when you are hitting your shot and in the 604 backswing you are thinking ‘don’t go right, don’t go right’, and you just end up 605 hitting it way over right! 606 Ironic processing has been shown in a number of self-paced sporting tasks, including golf 607 (Wegner et al., 1998). This impacts the self-instruction and target selection undertaken by the 608 golfer, it is important that an external target is selected and that performers abstain from 609 avoidant instructions to direct concentration towards targets more facilitative of positive 610 performance outcomes. 611 Pre-shot routine. 612 According to the golfers, an integral part of attentional control was their ability to implement 613 a pre-shot to trigger concentration. Consciously monitoring the pre-shot routine and ensuring 614 each part is fulfilled can counter potential distractions that may have arisen: 615 I put the bag down that’s me in my pre-shot routine and I’m starting to take into 616 consideration everything around this specific shot, so for me it’s at that point it’s 617 almost a signal, that’s me started... So, something like that having a bit of a signal is Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 27 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 27 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 618 quite good I think, because it’s a clear barrier…if…distracted…say ‘right back to the 619 start’. 620 Research indicates that pre-performance routines have an important function for attention in 621 sport, allowing an athlete to deal with distraction (e.g., Boutcher & Crews, 1987), focus 622 attention (e.g., Cotterill, Sanders, & Collins, 2010), and act as a trigger (Boutcher & Crews, 623 1987; Moran, 1996). Moreover, research (Cotterill et al., 2010; Jackson, 2003) also 624 emphasises the importance of maintaining consistency within pre-shot routines as this is 625 something that remains stable across scenarios and a source of permanence a golfer can go to 626 in an ever changing unpredictable environment. The findings of the present study indicate 627 that the establishment of a consistent pre-shot routine, and successful implementation of it, 628 serves as an imperative function for attentional control and the prevention of succumbing to 629 distraction. 630 Post-shot routine. 631 Post-shot routines were indicated to be a vital component and in the process of meta-attention 632 because it reduces distractibility. Previous literature outlines the function of the post-shot 633 routine as a facilitative space for evaluation of the shot played (Finn, 2009). Present findings 634 show following a short period of evaluation the golfer then switches off by diverting attention 635 elsewhere to something non-task specific. This is demonstrated by the following comment 636 from one of the participants interviewed: 637 …after that [the shot] I would walk into my neutral box, reflective box where I would 638 evaluate the process and the outcome, put the club in the bag and as soon as I walked 639 away from that zone I wouldn’t think at all, I would bring my eyes up and just enjoy 640 it… 641 The post-shot routine facilitates self-regulatory behaviours, such as emotion regulation, 642 allowing the golfer to approach the next hole without baggage of frustration, or other Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 28 of 41 28 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 643 negative appraisals. The switch off is the diversion of attention away from task relevant 644 thoughts, similarities can be made with Nideffer and Sagal (2006) who indicated analysis 645 would take place prior to a shift to a broad external focus before the next shot. The period of 646 switch-off between shots can be facilitated by others where positive relationships were 647 present. Similar results were indicated in research by Davies, Collins and Cruickshank (2017) 648 who noted the contribution of caddies in the control of attention between shots. 649 650 Substantive Grounded Theory 651 In sum, concentration in golf occurs if a performer positively perceives their attentional 652 resources and successfully implements consistent control routines. Resources are needed at 653 different times, and if missing or depleted when they are required the negative appraisal 654 becomes an internal distraction reducing the accuracy of concentration. Positively perceived 655 resources are facilitative of performance. Thus, it is the interaction between the golfer and 656 their resources that determine whether they produce optimal attention control, i.e., focused 657 attention (concentration), or if they succumb to cognitive distractions, i.e., divided attention. 658 Rather than promoting one factor, the grounded theory depicts numerous factors that interact, 659 and are critical at different times building a golfer’s attentional control. Meta-attention is 660 conceptualised as a bottom-up process with attentional metacognitions building towards 661 attention control. In golfers, meta-attention reflects how a golfer assesses and uses attentional 662 resources to create accurate attentional control. 663 Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 29 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 29 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS General Discussion 664 665 The present study developed a grounded theory of meta-attention among golfers to explore 666 and explain the processes that lie behind concentration and internal distractibility during a 667 sports performance. It is hoped the findings can provide theoretically driven interventions to 668 aid concentration in sports performers. Findings advance the current held understanding of 669 meta-attention in sport (e.g., Miller & Bigi, 1979: Moran, 1996), providing a data-driven 670 understanding of the internal resources that help a golfer concentrate during performance. 671 Concentration in golf was reported to occur following a positive evaluation of attentional 672 resources and the successful implementation of attentional control. 673 674 Applied Implications 675 The novel understanding of meta-attention created in this study possesses several applied 676 implications. First, the grounded theory presents a model depicting meta-attention and its 677 processes that can be used by golfers and support staff to understand attention and potential 678 sources of distractibility and the influence it has on attempts to control attention. These 679 resources can be drawn on when they are required to avoid internal distraction. One way to 680 enhance concentration is to teach performers to avoid using binary evaluations of their 681 resources (i.e., positive or negative). To achieve this it may be worthwhile for golfers to be 682 ‘mindful’ (e.g., Birrer, Röthlin, & Morgan, 2012) because this emphasis might reduce 683 internal distractibility brought about by negative evaluations. The encouragement of being 684 mindful may have greater pertinence to golfers in the early stages of their careers as, for 685 example, these golfers are less likely to have a wide and established support network around 686 them. 687 688 In addition to mindfulness training, golfers should seek to establish consistent pre- and post- 689 shot routines. If a consistent pre-shot routine is established golfers are able to offset potential Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist Page 30 of 41 30 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 690 distractions that have occurred, and control their attention. In line with previous literature 691 pre- and post-shot routines are suggested to act as a switch on and switch off of concentrated 692 attention (e.g., Boutcher & Crews, 1987). Therefore, implementing the establishment of pre- 693 and post-shot routines within a training environment is likely to be beneficial to performers 694 for their attentional control, i.e., facilitating concentration, within competitive settings. 695 696 Study limitations and suggestions for future research 697 There are strengths and weaknesses within the current study. The methodological congruence 698 ensured that grounded theory was applied appropriately and thoroughly from start to finish 699 (Weed, 2009). To our knowledge, this is the first model of its kind that seeks to understand 700 meta-attention in a sporting context and provide a theoretical explanation for concentration 701 and internal distractibility in a sporting sample. Although using competitive-elite and 702 successful-elite performers provides this study with reasonable strength, a sample consisting 703 of wholly ‘successful elite’ or ‘world-class elite’ (Swann et al., 2015) would further enrich 704 the insights into the operation of meta-attention within a sporting context, as these performers 705 are likely to possess even greater metacognitive proficiency (MacIntyre et al., 2014). It is 706 likely variations in meta-attention are present between golf and other sports, in particular 707 those that are externally paced and use open motor skills. Additionally, by using an 708 exclusively male sample it remains unclear whether the findings in the present study are 709 generalizable to females. Thus, the findings and the implications from the present study are 710 likely limited to male golfers. 711 712 Several avenues for future research arise from this study. First to gain further insights into the 713 meta-attentional process, a study that adopts a Think Aloud Level 3 (Ericsson & Simon, 714 1993) methodology could prove to be suitable line of enquiry because this method would Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 31 of 41 The Sport Psychologist 31 A GROUNDED THEORY OF META-ATTENTION AMONG GOLFERS 715 capture meta-attentional thoughts as they occur. Additionally, researchers could explore 716 meta-attention across different sports and possible variations in meta-attention. Given the 717 golf specific sample within this study, a similar grounded theory study could be fulfilled 718 within a different sporting sample. Moreover, as per Straussian grounded theory (Corbin & 719 Strauss, 2008), the theory of meta-attention created in the current study is open to extension 720 and update with new knowledge. Thus, future research could seek to further extend our 721 understanding of meta-attention in golf. 722 723 In summary, the present study has developed the first theoretical understanding of meta- 724 attention using competitive golfers. In addition to increasing theoretical knowledge, the study 725 possesses practical implications by equipping psychologists, coaches and performers with a 726 model to understand attentional processes and recourses to best facilitate concentration, and 727 where sources of internal distractibility can arise. Specifically, the present findings may be 728 used to drive interventions that seek to manage internal distractions, increasing the golfer’s 729 concentration. 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Anxiety, attentional control, and performance 879 impairment in penalty kicks. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 31, 761-775. 880 Woodman, T., & Hardy, L. (2003). The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self- 881 confidence upon sport performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 21, 882 443-457. doi:10.1080/0264041031000101809 883 Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years. International 884 Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 77-104. 885 doi:10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728 Figure 1. An early draft of a Grounded Theory model of Meta-attention in golf Figure 2. A Grounded Theory model of Meta-attention in golf Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 The Sport Psychologist For Peer Review 145x104mm (96 x 96 DPI) Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825 Page 40 of 41 Page 41 of 41 The Sport Psychologist For Peer Review 148x187mm (96 x 96 DPI) Human Kinetics, 1607 N Market St, Champaign, IL 61825