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Property and Environment Old and new remedies to protect natural resources in the European Context The Common Core of European Private Law The Trento Project Mauro Bussani and Ugo Mattei, General Editors Barbara Pozzo (Editor) Property and Environment Old and new remedies to protect natural resources in the European Context y Stämpfli Publishers Ltd. Carolina Academic Press www.staempfliverlag.com Ant. N. Sakkoulas Athens Bruylant SA Bruxelles Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.ddb.de. This publication is protected by international copyright law. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers except in cases permitted by law. This book has been published with the contribution of the Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Trieste Sold and distributed in Switzerland, Germany and Austria by Stämpfli Publishers Ltd., Berne In all other European countries by Bruylant and Sakkoulas In all other countries by Carolina Academic Press, Durham © Stämpfli Publishers Ltd. Berne · 2007 Produced by: Stämpfli Publications Ltd., Berne Printed in USA ISBN 978-3-7272-2030-2 (Stämpfli) ISBN 978-960-15-1833-6 (Sakkoulas) ISBN 978-2-8027-2417-9 (Bruylant) ISBN 978-1-59460-332-7 (Carolina Academic Press) Library of Congress Control Number 2007929425 Preface At the Common Core meeting of 1995 a “Working Agenda” was presented to the “Group on Property” with the aim of facing the problem of individualising the common core of European Private Law in the field of property as related to the environment. It was pointed out that this is actually a field where not only private law, but also many other components play a very important role. As the purpose of the Trento project is basically one of private law, the aim of the Working Agenda and of the following Questionnaire was to focus on the particular question: “Who owns the environment?” On this basis, the “Group on Property”, agreed to give me the task, as co-ordinator of the project on “Property and Environment”, of drafting the questionnaire applying the methodology decided in Trento. The first version of the questionnaire was presented at the Common Core meeting of 1996 and revised after a discussion with the national reporters and the chairman of the session “Property”, Professor Antonio Gambaro. The revised version was then circulated to environmental law experts from different European countries. The selection of the contributors as well as the development and refinement of the questionnaire took a considerable amount of time, but I finally reached the objective of collecting case studies from thirteen European jurisdictions, representing civil law countries, common law countries and Nordic countries in a balanced way. The volume is divided in two main parts: the first one contains three introductory chapters where the authors try to sketch out the general scenario in an historical and comparative law perspective; the second one includes, after a short description of the working agenda and the questionnaire, the case studies of the thirteen European jurisdictions. Now that the volume is finally coming to completion, I would like to thank all of the contributors. In particular, I express my deepest thanks to all national reporters and contributors for undertaking this task and preparing their reports. Moreover, I would like to thank Valentina Jacometti, research assistant to the chair of Private Comparative Law at the Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, for her assistance with the editing of the volume, and Francesco Castelli for his help with the collection of the bibliographical references and the abbreviations. V Contents Preface Contents List of Contributors Bibliography Abbreviations Part I – Defining the Scenario 1. 2. 3. Property Rights in the Defence of Nature. From the Historical Evolution to the Contemporary Challenges: A Comparative Law Analysis BARBARA POZZO I. Introduction II. The Adaptation of the Institution of Ownership to New Environmental Requirements III. Restrictions on Property for the Benefit of Greater Environmental Protection IV. Right of Access to Environmental Resources V. The Introduction of a New Concept of Environmental Property 1. Environmental Associations and the Creation of Trusts for the Protection of Nature 2. Negative Property, or What Nobody Wants Public and Private Land Property: The Current Meaning of a Traditional Distinction ANTONIO GAMBARO I. A Traditional Distinction II. Public Control on Private Property and the Protection of Environmental Goods III. The American Perspective IV. Two Different Approaches V. The Problem of Legal Terminology VI. The Meaning of the Distinction in the XIXth Century VII. The Regulation of Public Domain in Civil Law VIII. Property as a Social Institution IX. The Struggles of the XXth Century A Look into the Future of Environmental Property: Tradable Pollution Rights and Their Implementation in Europe VALENTINA JACOMETTI I. Introduction II. Economic Instruments for Environmental Protection 1. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Economic Instruments in the Environmental Field V VII XI XV XXIX 1 3 3 4 46 52 52 53 55 63 63 63 64 64 65 66 67 67 68 71 71 73 75 VII Contents 2. Tradable Pollution Rights and Taxation 3. Application Problems, Hostility and Fear III. Tradable Pollution Rights 1. The Origin of the Instrument a. Circulation and Globalisation b. The Historical Origin and Similar Figures c. Transferable Development Rights and Tradable Pollution Rights d. Property Profiles 2. Definition and Structure a. Definition of the Area of Application and Regulation of the Exchange Mechanisms b. Fixing the Reference Parameters c. Methods of Allocation d. Environmental Efficiency and Property Protection e. How the Market Functions f. Reporting, Monitoring and Control Mechanisms g. The Sanctions System IV. Future Perspectives: The Community and International Context 1. Emissions Trading at the International Level: The Kyoto Protocol 2. Specific Problems of Emissions Trading Systems at the Supranational Level 3. Initiatives at the European Level: The European Union, Denmark, the United Kingdom and Italy 4. Difficulties and Development Perspectives 76 77 78 78 80 81 82 84 86 88 92 93 96 98 100 100 102 102 104 106 110 Part II – Aims and Boundaries of the Comparative Law Enquiry 113 4. The Working Agenda Presented at the Common Core Meeting 1995 I. Extension of Remedies Intended to Protect Private Property II. Recognition of Public Goods III. Right to Access to Environmental Resources 115 115 116 118 5. The Questionnaire I. A Brief History of the Questionnaire on Property and the Environment II. The Questionnaire III. Comments 121 121 121 126 6. Contemporary Solutions Case 1: Remedies for Polluting Activity in the Case of Bordering Estates Preliminary Comparisons Case 2: Remedies for Polluting Activities in the Case of Non-bordering Estates Preliminary Comparisons Case 3: Availability of Preventive Measures in the Case of Bordering Estates 129 129 194 VIII 195 203 204 Contents Preliminary Comparisons Case 4: Availability of Preventive Measures in the Case of Non-bordering Estates Preliminary Comparisons Case 5: Availability of Preventive Measures in a Residential Area Preliminary Comparisons Case 6: Coming to the Nuisance Preliminary Comparisons Case 7: Coming to the Nuisance Unknowingly Preliminary Comparisons Case 8: Authorised, but Polluting Activity – Damages Recoverable Preliminary Comparisons Case 9: Accident Arising out of Polluting Activity – Damages Recoverable Preliminary Comparisons Case 10: Polluting Activity in a Residential Area Preliminary Comparisons Case 11: Polluting Activity in an Industrial Area Preliminary Comparisons Case 12: Aesthetic Nuisances Preliminary Comparisons Case 13: Access to Nature – Fenced Property Preliminary Comparisons Case 14: Access to Nature – Fenced Property Preliminary Comparisons Case 15: Licensed Activity in a National Park Preliminary Comparisons Case 16: Environmental Servitudes Preliminary Comparisons Case 17: Environmental Servitudes Preliminary Comparisons Conclusions BARBARA POZZO I. Gradual Convergence or Inherent Harmony? A First General Assessment II. Observations on Particular Cases 1. Extension of Remedies Intended to Protect Private Property 2. Subjective Extension of Traditional Remedies: When the Aggrieved Parties Are Not the Owners 3. Coming to the Nuisance 4. The Impact of Public Law on Traditional Remedies 4.1. Pollution Caused by Authorised Activities 4.2 The Impact of Planning Law on Private Property 4.3. Aesthetic Nuisances in a Residential Area 4.4. Environmental Takings 5. Access to Nature 6. Public Standing 220 221 224 225 230 231 243 245 249 250 269 270 277 279 286 287 292 293 302 303 312 313 318 320 329 330 341 342 353 355 355 358 358 360 361 362 362 363 364 364 365 366 IX Contents III. A Look into the Future of European Policies IV. Are Legal Families Relevant? V. Forces Working in Depth: An Attempt to Discover Underlying General Trends X 367 367 368 Contributors PERNILLE AAGAARD, Lawyer, Bech Bruun Dragsted Advokatfirma, Århus, Denmark SANDRA CRISTINA ABRANTES PASSINHAS, Professor of Law, University of Coimbra, Portugal CLAUDIA AGOSTINIS, Regional Legal Counsel – Southern Europe, Genworth Financial, Italy MAR AGUILERA VAQUES, Professor of Constitutional Law, University of Barcelona, Spain BERTIL BENGTSSON, Professor Emeritus Civil Law, Faculty of Law, University of Uppsala, Sweden EUGENIA DACORONIA, Assistant Professor of Civil Law, Department of Law, University of Athens, Greece BIRGITTE EGELUND OLSEN, Associate Professor, PhD, at the Law Department Århus School of Business, University of Århus, Denmark ANTONIO GAMBARO, Professor of Private Comparative Law at the University of Milan, Accademia dei Lincei Fellow, Italy MONIKA HINTERREGER, Professor of Civil Law, Department of Civil Law, Karl Franzens University Graz, Austria MICHAEL HOFFMANN, Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz, Salzgitter, Germany VALENTINA JACOMETTI, Researcher in Private Comparative Law, PhD, at the University of Insubria, Master in Environmental Law at the University of Milan, Italy MARIE LOUISE LARSSON, Professor of International Environmental Law, Faculty of Law, University of Stockholm, Sweden JULIAN MORRIS, Director of International Policy Network, London, United Kingdom FRÉDÉRIQUE POUX, Professor of Civil Law at the University of Perpignan, France BARBARA POZZO, Professor of Private Comparative Law at the University of Insubria, Como; Scientific Co-ordinator of the Environmental Law MSc and PhD in Comparative Law Faculty at Milan State University, Italy XI List of Contributors WILLIAM PRASIFKA, Commission for Aviation Regulation, Dublin, Ireland ENCARNA ROCA, Professor of Civil Law, University of Barcelona, Spain KAARINA STÅHLBER, Corporate Legal Counsel, Nokia Corporation, Espoo, Finland HELLE TEGNER ANKER, Professor of Law, PhD, at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University of Copenhagen, Denmark MARK UILHOORN, Institute of Environmental Damage, Faculty of Law, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands XII Contributors to the case studies Austria: Denmark: England: Finland: France: Germany: Greece: Ireland: Italy: Portugal: Spain: Sweden: The Netherlands: MONIKA HINTEREGGER PERNILLE AAGAARD, HELLE TEGNER ANKER AND BIRGITTE EGELUND OLSEN JULIAN MORRIS KAARINA STÅHLBERG FRÉDÉRIQUE POUX MICHAEL HOFFMANN EUGENIA DACORONIA WILLIAM PRASIFKA CLAUDIA AGOSTINIS SANDRA CRISTINA ABRANTES PASSINHAS ENCARNA ROCA, MAR AGUILERA VAQUES MARIE LOUISE LARSSON, BERTIL BENGTSSON MARK UILHOORN XIII List of Contributors XIV Bibliography Chapter 1 AA. 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Civ., 1976, 689 Portugal CANOTILHO, Privatismo, Associativismo e Publicismo na Justiça Administrativa do Ambiente, RLJ, nº 3857, 232 CANOTILHO/MOREIRA, Constituição da República Portuguesa Anotada, 3rd edition, Coimbra, 1993 CORREIA, O Plano Urbanístico e o Princípio da Igualdade, Coimbra, 1997 CORDEIRO, Direitos Reais, Lex, Lisboa, 1879, reprint DE SOUSA, O Direito Geral de Personalidade, Coimbra, 1995 COSTA, Direito das Obrigações, 8th Edition, Coimbra, 2000 DIAS FIGUEIREDO, Tutela Ambiental e Contencioso do Ambiente, Studia Iuridica, Coimbra, 1997 DIAS FIGUEIREDO/MENDES PEREIRA, Legislação Ambiental Sistematizada e Comentada, 2nd edition, Coimbra, 2000 FERNANDES, Lições de Direitos Reais, Quid Iuris, Lisboa, 1996 LEITÃO, Instrumentos de Direito Privado para Protecção do Ambiente, RJUA, 7, 1997, 48 LIMA/VARELA, (with the collaboration of MESQUITA), Código Civil Anotado, vol. 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For Foreign Lawyers, Kluwer Deventer 1993 LUIGIES, KROFT and DE MUNNIK, Netherlands, in: BREALY (ed.) Environmental Liabilities and Regulations in Europe, London 1993 SEERDEN, HELDEWEG, Public Environmental Law in The Netherlands, in: SEERDEN, HELDEWEG (eds.) Comparative Environmental Law in Europe, An Introduction to Public Environmental Law in the EU Member States, MAKLU, Antwerpen 1996 STEIN, Civil Procedure, in: CHORUS, GERVER, HONDIUS and KOEKKOEK (eds.) Introduction to Dutch Law. For Foreign Lawyers, Kluwer Deventer 1993 UILHOORN, The Netherlands. Changes in Civil Code, 1997 Environmental Liability CS 45 VAN DUNNÉ, BIERBOOMS, Liability Developments in The Netherlands: Strict Liability and the Impact of the Interim Soil Cleanup Act, 1993 Environmental Liability, 72 VAN DUNNÉ, Environmental Liability, Continental Style, in: VAN DUNNÉ (ed.) Environmental Contracts and Covenants: New Instruments for a Realistic Environmental Policy? Vermande Lelystad 1993 VAN DUNNÉ, Legal Aspects of Non-point Source Pollution of the River Meuse. A Comparative Analysis of Issues of Liability in Tort and Multiple Causation, in: VAN DUNNÉ (ed.) Non-point Source River Pollution: The Case of the River Meuse, London 1995 VAN DUNNÉ, Tort Background of Environmental Contracts in the Case of River Pollution in The Netherlands, in: BASSE, Environmental Law. From International to National law, GudJura 1997 XXVIII Abbreviations Austria ABGB ann. BGBl ecolex ed. EvBl JBl JGS OGH ÖJZ p. Phi RdU RGBl sec. subvol. SZ vol. Z Allgemeines Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch annotation Bundesgesetzblatt Fachzeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht edition Evidenzblatt der Rechtsmittelentscheidungen Juristische Blätter Justizgesetzsammlung Oberster Gerichtshof Österreichische Juristenzeitung page Produkt- und Umwelthaftpflicht international Recht der Umwelt Reichsgesetzblatt section subvolume Entscheidungen des österreichischen Obersten Gerichtshofs in Zivil-(und Justizverwaltungs-)sachen volume Zahl Denmark § Ufr IPPC Cf. a.m. e.g. paragraph Ugeskrift for retsvæsen Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control confront ante meridiem exempli gratia England All ER WR WLR ChD AC Ariz All England Law Reports Weekly Reporter Weekly Law Reports Chancery Division of the High Court Appeal Cases, Law Reports Arizona Law Review XXIX Abbreviations Co. Rep. App. Cas p. KB Ch Co. DLR Ibid. I. R. Ltd. WR EG QB KB Ph Edn YB Ed LMELR s op cit EC NLJ P & CR AC No. HL LR v. Bing NC Corp. H. & C. Salk Ld. Raym. NSWR ExD. CLY SI St Tr XXX Coke’s King’s Bench Reports Law Reports Appeal Cases, House of Lords page Law Reports, King’s Bench Division Law Reports, Chancery Division Company Dominion Law Report ibidem Irish Reports Limited Weekly Reporter Estates Gazette Queen’s Bench Law Reports, King’s Bench Division Phillips’ Chancery Reports editions Yearbook edition Land Management and Environmental Law Report section opus citatum European Community New Law Journal Property, Planning and Compensation Reports Appeal Cases Number House of Lords Licencing Review versus Bingham. New Cases, English Common Pleas corporation Hurlstone & Coltman’s Exchequer Reports Salkeld’s King’s Bench Reports Lord Raymond’s King’s Bench and Common Pleas Reports New South Wales Reports Law Reports, Exchequer Division Current Law Year Book Statutory Instrument State Trials and Proceedings Abbreviations France p. CUJAS LGDJ s. cf. Civ. NCPC S. PA PUF Éd. RTD civ. JCP RD. Imm. Somm. Obs. pp. jurisp. JORF Op.cit. GP D. Cass. Crim. Cass. Civ. Concl. Bull. page Editions Juridiques Cujas Libraire General de Droit et de Jurisprudence Et suivants confronter Recueil Civil Nouvel Code de Procédure Civile Recueil Sirey Petites Affiches Presses universitaires de France édition Revue trimestrielle de droit civil Juris-classeur périodique (Semaine juridique) Revue de droit immobilier Sommaires Observations pages jurisprudence Journal officiel de la République Française opus citatum Gazette du Palais Recueil Dalloz-Sirey Cassation Criminale Cassation Civile conclusion Bulletin des arrêts de la Cour de cassation Germany BayObLG BayVGH BGB BGBl BGH BGHZ BImSchG BVerfGE Bavarian State Court of Justice Superior Administrative Court of Bavaria Civil Code (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch) Federal Law Gazette Federal Court of Justice Decisions of the Federal Court of Justice in Civil Matters (official collection) Federal Pollution Control Act (Bundes Immissionsschutzgesetz) Decisions of the Federal Constitutional Court (official collection) XXXI Abbreviations BVerwGE GewO GG GMBl GVG OLG OVG TA Lärm TA Luft VwGO Decisions of the Federal Administrative Court (official collection) Business Practice Act (Gewerbeordnung) Basic Law (Constitution Grundgesetz) Federal Ministerial Law Gazette Courts Constitution Act (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz) Court of Appeals Superior Administrative Court Administrative provision on permissible plants under sec. 16 Business Practice Act (Gewerbeordnung), GewO concerning noise (Technische Anleitung zum Schutz gegen Lärm) First administrative provision under the Federal Pollution Control Act concerning clean air (Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung der Luft ) Administrative Court Procedure Act (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung) Greece AP Arch N Arm. art. BGB Dir(s). Dni EEC EED EEN Ef Ath Ell Dni EU ff. GCC ibid. no. NoV p. pp. par. Per Dik XXXII Areios Pagos = Court of Cassation Archeio Nomologhias (legal periodical) Armenopoulos (legal periodical) article Buergerliches Gesetzbuch = German Civil Code Directive(s) Dikaiosini (legal periodical) European Economic Community Epitheorissi Emporikou Dikaiou (legal periodical) Efimeris Ellinon Nomikon (legal periodical) Efeteio of Athens = Court of Appeal of Athens Elliniki Dikaiosini (legal periodical) European Union following Greek Civil Code ibidem number Nomiko Vima (legal periodical) page pages paragraph Perivallon kai Dikaio (legal periodical) Abbreviations RHDI Revue Hellénique de droit international = Hellenic Revue of International Law (legal periodical) Ireland ILRM All ER KB HCL IR CMLR Ibid. DLR AC WLR Bing WC CLMD Irish Law Reports Monthly All England Law Reports King’s Bench Division High Court Litigation Irish Reports Common Market Law Reports ibidem Dominion Law Reports Appeal Cases Weekly Law Reports Bingham’s Common Pleas Reports Worker’s Compensation Current Law Monthly Digest Italy Art. Vol. p. Cass. Mass. Resp. Civ. e Prev. Giur. It. Op. cit. Riv. Giur. Edil. Sez. Foro It. Rass. Giur. Arch. Civ. Cit. Enc. Giur. Enc. Dir. Tratt. Dir. Priv. Ss Riv. Trim. Dir. e Proc. Civ. Cass. Civ. Pret. article volume page Corte di Cassazione Massimario Responsabilità Civile e Previdenziale Giurisprudenza Italiana Opera citata Rivista Giuridica Edilizia Sezione Foro Italiano Rassegna Giurisprudenziale Archivio Civile Citato Enciclopedia Giuridica Enciclopedia Diritto Trattato Diritto Privato seguenti Rivista Trimestrale Diritto e Procedura Civile Cassazione Civile Pretura XXXIII Abbreviations Chaps. Giust. Civ. Trib. Novissimo Dig. It. c.c. C. Cost. Cass. Pen. Giust. Pen. Riv. Pen. c.p. Riv. Crit. Dir. Priv. Arts. L. Par. Chapters Giustizia Civile Tribunale Novissimo Digesto Italiano codice civile Corte Costituzionale Cassazione Penale Giustizia Penale Rivista Penale codice penale Rivista Critica Diritto privato Articles legge Paragraph Portugal RJUA p. op. cit. dact. RLJ pp. n° Revista Jurídica do Urbanismo e do Ambiente page opus citatum dactiloscrito Revista de Legislação e Jurisprudência pages number Spain STS/SSTS STC NGO Sentencia/Sentencias del Tribunal Supremo Sentencia Tribunal Constitutional non-governmental organisation Sweden NJA Ed Nytt Juridiskt Arkiv edition The Netherlands Art. Arts. Ed. Eds. XXXIV article articles Editor Editors Abbreviations NJ JCS Nederlandse Jurisprudentie National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection XXXV