Why
a
photon
is
not
a
particle
Sjaak
Uitterdijk
[email protected]
Abstract
–
The
variables
and
parameters
of
the
presented
model
for
the
generation
of
an
arbitrary
photon
fit
like
the
pieces
of
a
jigsaw
puzzle
and
therefor
justify
the
conclusion
that
the
model
eliminates
the
wave-‐particle
duality
of
the
photon
by
explicitly
excluding
the
possibility
that
it
can
be
a
(massless)
particle
too.
Introduction
Considering
a
photon
as
an
(extremely)
short
pulse
with
an
electro-‐magnetic
wave
as
carrier,
eliminates
the
so-‐called
wave-‐particle
duality.
This
article
shows
how
the
origin
of
such
a
pulse
can
be
explained
by
applying
Ampère’s
and
Faraday’s
law
in
Bohr’s
atomic
model.
Using
the
Rydberg
formula
and
the
assumed
energy
E=hf,
the
expected
pulse
durations
and
their
related
EM-‐powers
are
presented.
Bohr’s
atomic
model
In
Bohr’s
atomic
model,
in
case
of
a
stable
atom,
an
equal
number
of
electrons
revolve
around
the
nucleus,
as
there
are
protons
in
this
nucleus.
These
electrons
can
rotate
in
orbits
with
different
distances
with
respect
to
the
nucleus.
These
distances
are
discreet.
In
other
words:
an
electron
will
never
orbit
in
between
the
determined
circles.
The
generally
accepted
concept
is
that
a
photon
is
emitted
if
an
electron
jumps
out
of
an
inner
orbit
into
a
more
outer
orbit.
The
question
is:
how
is
such
a
photon
precisely
generated?
Forces
holding
the
electron
in
its
orbit
An
electron
is
held
in
its
orbit
by
three
forces:
-‐
the
centrifugal
force
trying
to
eclipse
the
electron
out
of
its
orbit.
-‐
the
centripetal
gravitational
force
between
nucleus
and
electron
-‐
the
centripetal
Coulomb
force
between
nucleus
and
electron
with:
r
radius
of
the
orbit
of
the
electron
m
ve
velocity
of
the
electron
along
its
orbit
m/s
Z
atom
number
me
mass
of
the
electron
9.1*10-‐31
kg
mp
mass
of
proton
1.7*10-‐27
kg
mn
mass
of
the
nucleus
2
Z
mp
kg
G
gravitational
constant
6.7*10-‐11
Nm2kg-‐2
ke
Coulomb’s
constant
(1/4πε0)
8.99*109
Nm2C-‐2
qe
electric
charge
of
the
electron
1.6*10-‐19
C
The
mathematical
descriptions
of
the
mentioned
forces
are:
Centrifugal
force:
Fcf
=
meve2/r
Gravitational
force:
FG
=
Gmnme/r2
Coulomb
force:
FC
=
keZqe2/r2
Remarks:
-‐r
has
the
discreet
values
n2a0,
with
a0
so
called
Bohr
radius,
and
n=1,
2,
3……
-‐The
mass
of
a
proton
is
about
equal
to
the
mass
of
a
neutron.
-‐The
number
of
neutrons
is
taken
equal
to
the
number
of
protons.
-‐
FG
~
10-‐67Z/r2
and
FC
~
10-‐28Z/r2,
with
as
expected
result
that
FG
is
incomparably
small
compared
to
FC.
So,
the
real
number
of
neutrons
does
not
play
any
role
in
this
article,
neither
does
FG
anymore.
As
a
result,
the
electron
is
held
in
its
orbit
by:
Fcf
=
FC
So:
meve2/r
=
keZqe2/r2
from
which
it
follows
that:
ve
=
{keZqe2/(mer)}½
The
basic
idea
behind
the
generation
of
a
photon
The
fundamental
part
of
the
investigated
model
is
the
assumption
that
the
orbit
of
an
electron
around
the
nucleus
of
an
atom
is
equivalent
to
a
circular
shaped
electric
current,
creating
a
magnetic
field.
Suppose
the
“round
trip”
of
an
electron
is
se
seconds
and
its
electric
charge
is
represented
by
the
symbol
qe.
Then
the
first
approximation
of
the
meant
electric
current
is
qe/se=ie
ampere.
The
mentioned
“round
trip”
is
equal
to
2πr/ve,
with
r
the
radius
of
the
orbit
of
the
electron
and
ve
the
velocity
along
that
orbit.
Such
an
electric
current
causes
a
straight-‐lined
magnetic
field
He,
perpendicular
to
plane
of
the
orbit
and
enclosed
by
the
orbit
of
the
electron.
He
=
ie/2r
=qeve/4πr2
=
qe2(keZ/me)½/4πr2,5
As
soon
as
the
electron
eclipses
its
orbit,
r
changes,
so
the
strength
of
this
magnetic
field
changes.
And
a
change
of
a
magnetic
field
causes
a
change
of
an
electric
field.
A
source
of
an
electro-‐magnetic
wave
shows
up!
The
purpose
of
this
analysis
is
to
investigate
whether
this
idea
makes
sense
or
not
in
relation
to
the
available
information
about
photons.
The
kinetic
and
potential
energy
of
an
orbiting
electron
The
kinetic
energy
Ek
of
an
electron
in
orbit
r,
versus
its
potential
energy
Ep
is:
Ek
=
½meve2
versus
Ep
=
keZqe2/r
Applying
the
above
found
expression
ve2
=
keZqe2/(mer)
in
Ek
results
in:
Ek
=
½mekeZqe2/mer
=
½keZqe2/r
=
½Ep
This
compared
to
the
situation
of
a
mass
me
orbiting
around
a
mass
mn
shows
a
gravitational
potential
energy
Eg
=
Gmnme/r
versus
the
kinetic
energy
½meve2.
Based
on
Fcf
=
FG
or
Gmnme/r2
=
meve2/r
it
follows
that
ve2
=
Gmn/r.
This
applied
to
the
kinetic
energy
results
in
Ek
=
½Gmemn/r,
so
the
kinetic
energy
in
such
a
situation
also
equals
half
the
potential
energy!
The
expressions
above
show
that
in
both
situations
the
kinetic
as
well
as
the
potential
energy
of
an
orbiting
object
is
proportional
to
1/r.
As
a
result:
the
larger
the
orbit,
the
smaller
both
kinds
of
energy.
This
statement
dramatically
contradicts
the
prevailing
conception.
See
for
example
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_orbital
Orbital
energy
In
atoms
with
a
single
electron
(hydrogen-‐like
atoms),
the
energy
of
an
orbital
(and,
consequently,
of
any
electrons
in
the
orbital)
is
determined
exclusively
by
n.
The
n=1
orbital
has
the
lowest
possible
energy
in
the
atom.
Each
successively
higher
value
of
n
has
a
higher
level
of
energy,
but
the
difference
decreases
as
n
increases.
For
high
n,
the
level
of
energy
becomes
so
high
that
the
electron
can
easily
escape
from
the
atom.
To
my
surprise
this
blunder
is
copied
blindly
on
several
places
on
the
Internet.
I
never
saw
it
described
or
expressed
correctly!
At
this
point
it
is
interesting
to
realize
that
Bohr’s
model
also
forces
us
to
conclude
that
an
electron
will
never
eclipse,
from
whatever
orbit,
neither
towards,
nor
away
from
the
nucleus,
if
an
external
force
would
not
compel
it
to
do
so.
Exactly
the
same
yields
for
an
orbiting
planet
and
spacecraft.
A
kind
of
(electron)
binding
energy
has
to
be
overcome.
This
will
be
investigated
in
more
detail
hereafter.
Background
of
the
Rydberg
expression
Citation
from
Wikipedia:
“The
Planck
constant
h
has
been
introduced
to
express
the
relation
between
frequency
f
and
energy
E
for
a
light
quantum
(photon)
as:
E=hf.”
Another
description
shows:
”The
Planck
constant
was
first
described
as
the
proportionality
constant
between
the
energy
(E)
of
a
photon
and
the
frequency
(f)
of
its
associated
electromagnetic
wave.”
The
formula
E=hf
is
a
non-‐physical
equation,
because
it
suggests
that
the
energy
of
a
photon
is
proportional
to
the
frequency
of
its
carrier.
It
is
well
known
that
this
can,
physically
speaking,
not
be
true.
Only
the
amplitude
of
the
electro-‐magnetic
wave
can
be
related
to
its
power,
thus
to
its
energy,
of
the
photon.
Seemingly
there
is
relation
between
the
frequency
and
the
amplitude
of
the
carrier
of
a
photon.
It
is
generally
accepted
that
the
orbits
of
an
electron
are
discrete.
However,
up
to
now
nothing
in
Bohr’s
model
forces
us
to
such
a
hypothesis.
For
whatever
radius
r,
the
balance
between
the
Coulomb
and
the
centrifugal
force
is,
by
definition,
perfect.
But
that
would
also
mean
that
an
arbitrary
small
orbit
radius
would
be
possible,
or
even
worse:
that
an
electron
would
melt
together
with
a
proton
to
a
neutron,
resulting
in
the
elimination
of
the
atom.
Based
on
this
proof
by
contradiction
it
is
indeed
logical
to
assume
only
discrete
orbits.
The
discrete
radii
are
mathematically
represented
by
rn
=
n2
a0/Z,
with
n
is
an
integer.
The
radius
a0
is
the
so
called
Bohr’s
radius,
the
smallest
in
the
neutral
hydrogen
atom.
The
mathematical
expression
for
a0
is
found
as
follows.
The
idea
behind
the
quantitative
presentation
of
the
discrete
radii
is
based
on
the
assumption,
for
whatever
reason,
that
the
angular
momentum
mevern
of
the
electron
is
quantized,
expressed
as:
mevern
=
nh/2π
Applying
this
to
the
relations:
Fcf
=
meve2/r
=
FC
=
keZqe2/r2
it
follows
that
:
r
=
n2h2/(4π2keZqe2me)
r
is
defined
as
a0
for
n=1
and
Z=1,
so:
a0
=
h2/(4π2keqe2me)
The
difference
in
kinetic
energy
of
the
electron
orbiting
in
n1
respectively
n2,
is
represented
by:
with:
ve2
=
keZqe2/mer
resulting
in:
ΔEkn
=
½me
(ve12
-‐
ve22),
ΔEkn
=
(keZqe2/2)*(1/rn1
–
1/rn2)
=
(keZqe2/2a0/Z)*(1/n12
–
1/n22)
Applying
the
expression
for
a0:
ΔEkn
=
{keZ2qe2/(2h2/(4π2keqe2me))}
*(1/n12
–
1/n22)
ΔEkn
=
h-‐2ke2Z2qe42π2me
*
(1/n12
–
1/n22)
With:
ke
=
1/4πε0
ΔEkn
=
Z2meqe4
2π2/h2(4πε0*4πε0)
*
(1/n12
–
1/n22)
ΔEkn
=
hc
*
Z2meqe4/(8ε02h3c)
*
(1/n12
–
1/n22)
The
Rydberg
expression
is:
1/λ=
R∞
(1/n12-‐1/n22)
with
the
following
parameters:
λ
wavelength
of
the
carrier
m
2
3
7
4
2
1.097*10
m-‐1
R∞
Rydberg’s
constant
(Z me
qe )/(8ε0 h c)
h
Planck’s
constant
6.626*10-‐34
kg
m2
s-‐1
ε0
dielectric
permittivity
8.854*10-‐12
A2
s4
kg-‐1m-‐3
µ0
magnetic
permeability
4π*10-‐7
NA-‐2
8
c
velocity
of
light
in
vacuum
2.999*10
m/s
With:
hc/λ
=
hf:
hf
=
hc
*
R∞
(1/n12-‐1/n22)
If
the
potential,
instead
of
the
kinetic,
energy
of
the
orbiting
electron
had
been
taken
as
reference
for
the
change
of
energy,
the
result
would
be:
ΔEpn
=
keZqe(1/rn1
-‐
1/rn2)
ΔEpn
=
keZ2qe/a0
*
(1/n12
-‐
1/n22)
ΔEpn
=
2
*
hc
*
Z2meqe4/(8ε02h3c)
*
(1/n12
–
1/n22)
ΔEpn
=
2
*
hc
*
R∞
(1/n12-‐1/n22)
,
being
in
agreement
with
the
relation
found
above:
Ek
=½Ep.
An
orbiting
electron
compared
with
an
orbiting
spacecraft
The
question
is:
why
would
the
difference
in
potential
energy
ΔEpn,
as
calculated
in
the
previous
chapter,
not
be
equal
to
the
energy
of
the
photon,
instead
of
ΔEkn.
Or:
if
an
electron
eclipses
from
an
inner
to
an
outer
orbit
the
total
energy
in
the
atom
decreases
with
ΔEkn
+
ΔEpn
=
3*ΔEkn.
So
why
would
the
energy
of
the
emitted
photon
not
be
equal
to
3
times
the
difference
in
kinetic
energy?
And
what
happens
with
the
energy
of
the
external
force
that
compelled
the
electron
to
eclipse?
In
order
to
obtain
a
better
understanding
of
the
several
energies
related
to
an
orbiting
electron,
I
investigated
these
energies
in
case
of
a
spacecraft
orbiting
a
planet.
Suppose
the
present
orbit
of
the
spacecraft
is
at
radius
r1
with
velocity
v1
and
it
has
to
be
brought
to
r2
with
velocity
v2,
with
r2
>
r1,
so
v2
<
v1.
It
is
assumed
that,
in
order
to
bring
the
spacecraft
from
orbit
1
to
orbit
2,
it
has
to
be
accelerated
first
to
get
out
of
orbit
1
and
after
a
while
it
has
to
be
decelerated
to
v2,
so
that
it
will
end
at
r2
with
velocity
v2.
To
accelerate
it
from
v1
to
v1+Δv1
requires
the
energy
ΔE1
=
½ms{(v1+Δv1)2-‐v12}.
To
decelerate
it
from
v1+Δv1
to
v2
requires
the
energy
ΔE2
=
½ms{
v1+Δv1)2-‐v22}.
In
both
situations
the
word
“requires”
is
used
to
emphasize
that
it
is
the
energy
that
has
to
be
delivered
by
the
rocket
motors.
We
have
to
realize
that
negative
energies
don’t
exist.
“Energy
itself”
is
always
positive
and
it
can
only
be
negative
in
relation
to
another
energy,
in
order
to
show
that
it
is
smaller
than
that
other
one.
The
sum
of
the
two
kinetic
energies
is
the
total
energy
delivered
by
the
rocket
motors
only
to
slow
down
the
velocity
from
v1
to
v2:
Esk
=
½ms{v12-‐v22+4v1Δv1+2Δv12}.
The
part:
½ms{4v1Δv1+2Δv12}
is
the
result
of
the
fact
that
the
spacecraft
has
been
accelerated
first,
notwithstanding
the
fact
that
the
final
velocity
has
to
be
lower
than
the
initial
one.
This
to
prevent
it
from
crashing
on
the
planet.
This
part
of
the
spacecraft
energy
will
therefor
be
written
as:
Esk
=
½ms(v12-‐v22)
+
Eboost
The
other
part
of
the
energy
that
has
to
be
supplied
by
the
spacecraft
in
order
to
change
orbit
is
the
energy
necessary
to
tow
away
the
spacecraft
from
the
planet.
This
part
follows
from
the
calculation
of
the
difference
in
potential
energy
between
the
two
situations.
N.B.
This
is
a
false
formulation
but
I
will
continue
the
calculation
in
order
to
get
a
good
understanding
of
what
is
the
real
situation.
This
mentioned
difference
in
potential
energy
mathematically
is:
Esp
=
Gmpms
(1/r1
–
1/r2).
As
shown
earlier:
vi2
=
Gms/ri
Applying
this
equation
in
the
expression
of
Esp
it
is
found
that
the
total
energy
necessary
to
bring
the
spacecraft
from
orbit
r1
to
r2
thus
is
:
Esk
+
Esp
=
½ms(v12-‐v22)
+
mp(v12–
v22)
+
Eboost
Because
ms
<<<
mp
the
energy
to
be
supplied
by
the
spacecraft
in
order
to
move
from
orbit
r1
to
r2
is
very
well
approximated
by:
mp(v12-‐v22)
+
Eboost.
One
can
easily
conclude
that
a
spacecraft
orbiting
earth
will
not
be
able
at
all
to
produce
an
energy
like:
mp(v12-‐v22),
being
about
2*1032
Joule
for
v1=
7km/s
and
v2=
3km/s.
To
quote
Wikipedia:“This
is
roughly
equal
to
one
week
of
the
Sun's
total
energy
output.”!
The
false
description
at
the
start
of
this
argumentation
is
the
following.
The
spacecraft
does
not
need
to
be
towed
away
from
earth!
To
be
compared
with
the
situation
that
you
swing
a
stone,
tied
to
one
end
of
a
rope,
the
other
end
holding
in
your
hand.
If
the
rope
breaks,
the
stone
flies
away
from
you,
due
to
the
centrifugal
force
mstonevstone2/r.
So,
the
changing
gravitational
potential
energy
doesn’t
play
any
role.
Neither
will
it
do
in
case
of
an
orbiting
electron!
At
the
end
of
the
day
a
stabilized
spacecraft
is
created
with
a
lower
kinetic
energy,
but
the
system
as
a
whole
absorbed
energy
to
get
there.
So
still,
what
happened
with
that
absorbed
energy?
The
answer
to
this
question
is:
it
has
been
emitted
by
the
rocket
motors
as
exhaust.
So,
just
like
as
in
the
situation
of
an
electron,
changing
orbit,
this
system
also
emits
energy!
A
remarkable
resemblance!
Regarding
this
conspicuous
resemblance
it
is
very
likely
that,
just
like
the
emitted
energy
of
the
rocket
motors
equals
the
difference
in
kinetic
energy
of
the
spacecraft,
the
energy
of
the
emitted
photon
also
equals
this
difference
in
kinetic
energy
of
the
electron.
But
still
we
don’t
know
how
efficiently
the
electron
changes
orbit.
An
external
force
must
have
pushed,
so
accelerated,
the
electron
out
of
the
inner
orbit.
Is
this
energy
added
to
the
energy
of
the
photon?
Basically
we
don’t
know,
because
the
energy
of
a
photon
has
never
been
measured.
Most
likely
this
part
of
its
energy
is
small
compared
to
the
difference
in
kinetic
energy.
Further
elaboration
of
the
model
Several
measurements
have
been
carried
out
in
order
to
verify
the
outcome
of
the
Rydberg
expression.
See
the
table
under
“step
3”
for
the
specification
of
the
defined
series.
None
of
these
measurements
show
the
measured
energy
of
the
related
photons.
So
there
is
yet
no
experimental
evidence
yet
of
the
validity
of
the
relation
E=hf
for
the
energy
of
a
photon.
To
further
elaborate
on
the
idea
behind
the
generation
of
a
photon,
it
is
assumed
that
the
energy
of
a
photon
equals
the
difference
in
kinetic
energy
of
the
electron
generating
this
photon
by
changing
orbit.
As
will
be
shown
later,
the
real
value
of
the
energy
of
a
photon
does
not
play
such
an
important
role.
Certainly
not
regarding
the
basic
principle
that
is
under
investigation.
To
summarize:
the
basic
idea
behind
the
generation
of
a
photon
is
that
an
orbiting
electron
is
equivalent
to
a
circular
shaped
electric
current.
Such
an
electric
current
causes
a
magnetic
field
He,
with
He
=
qe2(keZ/me)½/4πr2,5,
perpendicular
to
the
plane
through
the
orbit
of
the
electron.
So,
as
soon
as
the
electron
eclipses
its
orbit,
r
changes,
and
the
strength
of
this
magnetic
field
changes.
A
change
of
a
magnetic
field
causes
a
change
of
an
electric
field,
resulting
in
an
EM-‐field,
propagating
with
velocity
c
with
respect
to
the
nucleus
of
the
atom.
Step
1:
the
eclipse
of
an
electron
from
n=1
to
n=2
in
the
neutral
hydrogen
atom
The
value
of
Z
of
this
atom
is
1
The
two
radii
therefor
are:
r1
=
a0
=
5.29*10-‐11
m
and
r2
=
2.12*10-‐10
m.
The
magnetic
field
strengths
related
to
the
two
equivalent
electric
currents
are
calculated
as
follows
:
r1
=
0.53*10-‐10
r2
=
2.12*10-‐10
m
½
6
6
ve
=
qe{ke/(mer)}
ve1
=
2.19*10
ve2
=
1.09*10
m/s
-‐16
se
=
2πr/ve
se1
=
1.52*10
se2
=
1.22*10-‐15
s
-‐3
-‐4
ie
=
qe/se
ie1
=
1.05*10
ie2
=
1.32*10
A
He
=
ie/2r
He1
=
9.97*106
He2
=
3.11*105
A/m
The
amplitude
of
the
sinusoidal
shaped
magnetic
field
of
the
carrier
of
the
photon
will
be
represented
by
AH,
like
AE
will
be
the
amplitude
of
its
sinusoidal
electric
field.
The
relation
between
AH
and
AE
is:
AE
=
Zv
AH
V/m
where
Zv
is
the
so
called
characteristic
impedance
for
vacuum.
Zv
=
(µ0/ε0)½
=
377
Ω
Based
on
these
two
amplitudes
the
power
density
of
the
EM-‐field
is:
Pd
=
AE/√2
*
AH/√2
=
Zv
AH2/2
VA/m2
It
is
assumed
that
the
surface,
related
to
this
power
density,
is
constrained
by
the
orbit
of
the
electron
from
which
it
eclipses,
so
the
power
P
of
the
photon
in
this
example
is:
W
P
=
Zv
AH2/2
*
πr12
This
assumption
will
be
argued
under:
“Intermediate
conclusions
regarding
step
1”
In
order
to
be
able
to
calculate
the
energy
of
the
photon,
with
the
model
under
consideration,
this
power
has
to
be
multiplied
with
the
duration
of
the
photon.
This
duration
will
be
represented
by
the
name
pulse
width,
abbreviated
as
plsw.
In
this
sense
the
calculated
energy
of
the
photon
is
mathematically
represented
by:
Joule
Ec
=
plsw
*
Zv
AH2/2
*
πr12
Both
the
parameters
plsw
and
AH
are
yet
unknown.
Estimation
of
the
pulse
width
of
the
photon
It
is
assumed
that
the
minimum
value
of
the
pulse
width
is
one
period
of
the
carrier
of
the
photon,
because
if
it
would
be
less
it
is
difficult
to
imagine
that
it
would
be
possible
to
find
the
energy
of
the
photon
to
be
E
=
hf.
The
maximum
value
is
certainly
constrained
by
the
round
trip
time
of
the
orbit
to
which
the
electron
has
been
eclipsed,
because
after
that
time
period
the
magnetic
field
is
completely
stabilized.
Applying
the
Rydberg
expression
f
in
this
example
is
calculated
as:
f=c/λ
=
2.999*108
*
1.097*107
(1-‐1/4)
=
2.47*1015
,
resulting
in
T
=
4.05*10-‐16
So
4.05*10-‐16
<
plsw
<
12.2*10-‐16
s
The
estimation
for
the
pulse
width
in
this
example
is
that
it
equals
2
times
a
period
of
the
carrier:
8.1*10-‐16
s.
It
is
considered
unlikely
that
the
carrier
stops
abruptly
at
an
arbitrary
moment
within
such
a
period.
The
power
density
of
the
photon
in
this
example
can
now
be
calculated
as:
Pd
=
hf/(plsw*πr12)
=
6.626*10-‐34
*
2.47*1015
/
(8*10-‐16
*
π
*
(0.53*10-‐10)2)
Pd
=
2.29*1017
W/m2
W/m2
So:
Zv
AH2/2
=
2.29*1017
Resulting
in:
AH
=
3.49*107
A/m
N.B.
This
magnetic
field
strength
is
of
the
same
order
of
magnitude
as
the
field
strength
He1
!
In
order
to
obtain
more
reliance
(or
maybe
not)
in
the
validity
of
the
model,
the
variable
dHe/dt,
at
the
moment
of
the
eclipse,
is
analysed.
It
is
assumed
that
dHe/dt
has
its
maximum
value
at
the
moment
the
electron
eclipses.
At
a
certain
moment
the
magnetic
field
strength
H(t),
belonging
to
the
EM
field
that
will
be
generated,
can
be
represented
by:
H(t)
=
AH
sin(ωt)
and
the
next
assumption
is
that
this
sinusoidal
function
starts
also
at
the
moment
the
electron
eclipses.
So,
the
maximum
value
of
dHe/dt
is
assumed
to
be
at
t=0.
This
maximum
value
thus
is
represented
mathematically
by
AH
ω,
with
ω
the
radial
frequency
of
the
carrier
of
the
photon.
The
first
approximation
of
dHe/dt
is
ΔHe/Δt,
with
ΔHe
=
He1
–He2
and
Δt
a
yet
to
find
appropriate
value.
AH
ω
=
AH
*
2πf
=
3.49*107
*
2π
*
2.47*1015
=
5.41*1023
A/ms
Applying
ΔHe
=
He1
–He2
=
9.65*106,
leads
to
Δt
=
9.65*106
/
5.41*1023
=
1.78*10-‐17
s
This
value
for
Δt
is
an
order
of
magnitude
smaller
than
the
round
trip
time
of
the
orbit
from
which
the
electron
eclipses.
That
doesn’t
feel
unrealistic
and
it
means
that
the
magnetic
field
He1,
created
by
the
equivalent
electric
current
due
to
the
circular
movement
of
the
electron,
instantly
decreases
to
a
negligible
value,
compared
to
this
initial
field,
because
He2
<<
He1.
Intermediate
conclusions
regarding
step
1
The
model
applied
to
the
neutral
hydrogen
atom
where
an
electron
eclipses
from
the
most
inner
orbit
(n=1)
to
the
next
outer
orbit
(n=2),
learns
that:
-‐The
energy
of
the
emitted
photon,
expressed
as
E=hf,
exactly
equals
the
difference
between
the
kinetic
energy
of
the
electron
in
the
inner
orbit
minus
this
energy
in
the
outer
orbit.
-‐This
conclusion
dramatically
contradicts
the
“standard”
conception,
formulated
like:
“The
n=1
orbital
has
the
lowest
possible
energy
in
the
atom.
Each
successively
higher
value
of
n
has
a
higher
level
of
energy,……..”.
-‐The
length
of
the
photon
has
to
be
at
least
one
period
of
the
frequency
of
its
carrier
and
will
certainly
be
not
longer
than
3
of
these
periods.
-‐Dividing
the
energy
of
the
photon
by
the
length
of
the
photon
the
power
[VA]
of
the
photon
is
found.
To
find
a
value
for
the
strength
of
the
magnetic,
resp.
electric
field,
of
the
carrier
of
the
photon,
[A/m]
resp.
[V/m],
this
power
has
to
be
divided
by
the
surface
to
which
it
belongs.
Up
to
this
moment
all
variables
were
found
to
be
strongly
related
to
the
orbit
from
where
the
electron
eclipses,
so
the
most
likely
surface
is
assumed
to
be
the
surface
of
the
orbit
from
where
the
electron
eclipses:
πr12
in
this
example.
-‐Application
of
these
variables
shows
that
the
magnetic
field
strengths
of
the
EM
carrier
of
the
photon
varies
from
4.94
to
2.47*107
A/m,
all
three
of
the
same
order
of
magnitude
as
the
linear
magnetic
field
strength,
generated
by
the
orbiting
electron
in
orbit
n=1:
7*107
A/m.
-‐These
conclusions
justify
analyses
of
other
photon
emissions,
based
on
the
model
under
consideration.
Step
2:
The
eclipse
of
an
electron
from
n=1
to
n=n2
in
the
neutral
hydrogen
atom
In
step
1
it
is
assumed
that
the
length
of
the
photon
is
two
times
the
period
of
its
carrier,
also
based
on
the
assumption
that
it
will
certainly
not
be
longer
than
se2.
In
this
step
the
round
trip
time
sen,
with
n≥3,
will
be
much
larger
than
se2.
Notwithstanding
that
feature
plsw
will,
as
a
first
estimate,
be
taken
two
times
the
period
independent
of
n2.
The
frequency
of
the
carrier
is
calculated
by
means
of
the
Rydberg
expression,
resulting
in
as
well
the
length
of
the
photon
as
2/f,
as
in
its
energy
E=hf.
The
power
of
the
photon
now
equals
hf/plsw
(=
½hf2).
This
result
divided
by
the
surface
πr12
equals
the
power
density
of
the
photon.
The
magnetic
field
strength
AH
is
calculated
from:
AH
=
(2Pd
/Zv)½
and
Δt
from:
Δt
=
ΔH/(AH
ω).
This
last
calculation
learned
that
ΔH
has
to
be
interpreted
as:
ΔH
=
H1
–
Hn2
and
not
as
H1
notwithstanding
the
fact
that
Hn2
<<
H1.
The
relatively
small
error
in
the
calculation
of
Ec
for
n2
≥
3,
in
case
ΔH
is
chosen
to
be
H1,
is
completely
eliminated
for
ΔH
=
H1
–
Hn2
!
Effectively
I
found
this
remarkable
result
in
step
3,
due
to
the
fact
that
the
error
in
Ec
grew
explosively
to
>
100%
in
the
Brackett
series.
The
importance
of
the
correct
calculation
of
Δt
will
be
shown
later.
n2
1/λ
Pd
AH
Δt
hf
1/f=T
plsw
hf/plsw
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
8,23E+06
9,76E+06
1,03E+07
1,05E+07
1,07E+07
1,08E+07
1,08E+07
1,08E+07
1,09E+07
1,09E+07
1,64E-‐18
1,94E-‐18
2,04E-‐18
2,09E-‐18
2,12E-‐18
2,14E-‐18
2,15E-‐18
2,15E-‐18
2,16E-‐18
2,16E-‐18
4,052E-‐16
3,419E-‐16
3,242E-‐16
3,166E-‐16
3,126E-‐16
3,103E-‐16
3,087E-‐16
3,077E-‐16
3,070E-‐16
3,065E-‐16
8,10E-‐16
6,84E-‐16
6,48E-‐16
6,33E-‐16
6,25E-‐16
6,21E-‐16
6,17E-‐16
6,15E-‐16
6,14E-‐16
6,13E-‐16
2,02E-‐03
2,83E-‐03
3,15E-‐03
3,31E-‐03
3,39E-‐03
3,44E-‐03
3,48E-‐03
3,50E-‐03
3,52E-‐03
3,53E-‐03
2,29E+17
3,22E+17
3,58E+17
3,76E+17
3,85E+17
3,91E+17
3,95E+17
3,98E+17
4,00E+17
4,01E+17
3,49E+07
4,14E+07
4,36E+07
4,47E+07
4,52E+07
4,56E+07
4,58E+07
4,60E+07
4,61E+07
4,61E+07
1,78E-‐17
1,31E-‐17
1,18E-‐17
1,12E-‐17
1,10E-‐17
1,08E-‐17
1,07E-‐17
1,06E-‐17
1,06E-‐17
1,05E-‐17
Intermediate
conclusions
regarding
step
2
-‐The
presented
values
don’t
show
any
abnormality,
as
could
be
expected,
because
only
the
orbit
to
which
the
electron
eclipses
has
been
changed,
while
the
orbit
from
where
it
eclipses
proved
to
be
the
most
important
parameter
for
the
quantification
of
the
variables
(see
step
1).
-‐ΔH
in
the
expression
Δt
=
ΔH/(AH
ω),
has
explicitly
to
be
interpreted
as:
ΔH
=
H1
–
Hn2
and
not
as:
ΔH
=
H1.
-‐The
results
of
the
calculations
justify
analyses
of
other
photon
emissions,
based
on
the
model
under
consideration.
Step
3:
The
eclipse
of
an
electron
from
n=n1
to
n=n2
in
the
neutral
hydrogen
atom
The
related
frequencies
to
these
eclipses,
as
mathematically
presented
by
the
Rydberg
formula,
have
been
measured
by
and
named
after
the
shown
scientists.
n1
n2
Name
series
wave
length
first
n2
n2
→
∞
-‐9
1
2
→
∞
Lyman
121.486*10
91.1144*10-‐9
-‐9
-‐9
2
3
→
∞
Balmer
656.024*10
364.458*10
-‐9
-‐9
3
4
→
∞
Paschen
1874.35*10
820.030*10
-‐9
-‐9
4
5
→
∞
Brackett
4049.53*10
1457.83*10
5
6
→
∞
Pfund
7454.82*10-‐9
2278.61*10-‐9
6
7
→
∞
Humphreys
12363.5*10-‐9
3280.12*10-‐9
The
table
shows
that
the
Lyman
series
has
been
analysed
under
step
2
For
all
series
the
relation
hf
=
½me(vn12-‐vn22)
has
been
checked
and
found
to
be
valid.
The
most
important
conclusion
is
that
the
magnetic
fields
AH(n1+1),
relative
to
the
magnetic
field
generated
by
the
orbit
of
the
electron
from
where
it
eclipses,
increase
from
a
factor
3
to
about
a
factor
7,
along
the
series,
if
plsw
=
2/f.
If
plsw
is
taken
(n1+1)/f
,
this
ratio
varies
over
all
series
from
3.5
to
4.3
If
it
is
taken
(n1+2)/f
this
range
becomes
2.9
to
3.9.
For
all
three
values
of
plsw
the
absolute
value
of
AHn2,
within
each
series,
shows,
as
function
of
n2,
an
increase
varying
from
1.3
in
the
Lyman
series
up
to
2.7
in
the
Humphreys
series
Based
on
this
information
it
is
considered
more
likely
that
plsw
≈
(n1+1)/f
.
The
model
under
investigation
doesn’t
give
a
decisive
answer.
Only
measurements
of
the
length
of
the
photon
will
give
it.
For
all
series
the
same
table
as
presented
under
step
2
has
been
calculated
and
shown
in
the
attachment.
N.B.
The
pulse
width
in
these
calculations
is
(n1+1)/f!
Final
step:
The
eclipse
of
an
electron
from
n=n1
to
n=n2
in
an
arbitrary
ion
An
arbitrary
ion
in
this
study
is
meant
to
be
a
nucleus
with
Z
protons
around
which
one
electron
is
orbiting.
The
only
basic
parameters
that
change
in
such
a
situation
are
the
radii
of
the
orbits,
because
these
are
represented
by
rn
=
n2
a0/Z.
So,
in
fact
nothing
changes
fundamentally,
by
altering
the
value
of
Z.
The
Excel
spread
sheets
(not
included
in
this
article),
that
have
been
used
for
the
calculations
for
the
series
mentioned
under
step
3,
indeed
don’t
show
any
abnormalities
by
changing
Z.
As
an
example:
the
length
of
the
photon
for
n1=1
and
n2=2
is
≈0,01
femtosecond
for
Z
=9,
while
for
Z=1
this
length
is
≈1
femtosecond.
The
characteristics
of
the
photon
expressed
mathematically
In
order
to
understand
in
detail
how
a
photon
looks
like,
the
calculation
of
the
energy
is
build
up
by
four
characteristics
of
the
pulse:
frequency,
length,
power
density
and
surface
related
to
this
power
density:
Ec
=
Zv
AH2/2
*
πr12
*
plsw(f)
With
AH
=
(ΔH/Δt)
/2πf
and
plsw
=
(n1+1)/f
this
can
also
be
written
as:
Ec
=
{Zv
ΔH2Δt
-‐2
(2πf)-‐2}/2
*
πr12
*
(n1+1)/f
The
analyses
described
under
step
2
and
3
proved
that
ΔH
=
Hn1
–Hn2,
from
now
on
presented
as
ΔHn1,n2.
Δt
will
be
presented
as
Δtn1,n2,
f
as
fn1,n2
and
r1
as
rn1.
As
a
result
Ec
wil
be
presented
as
En1,n2
and
can
be
written
as:
En1,n2
=
{Zv
ΔHn1,n22Δtn1,n2-‐2
(2πfn1,n2
)-‐2}/2
*
πrn12
*
(n1+1)/fn1,n2
If
Δtn1,n2
is
now
considered
as
an
unknown
variable
and
En1,n2
is
replaced
by
the
known
variable
hfn1,n2,
then:
Δtn1,n2
-‐2
=
hfn1,n2
*
{
Zv-‐1
*
ΔHn1,n2-‐2
*
(2πfn1,n2)2
}
*
2
*
π-‐1rn1-‐2
}
*
fn1,n2/(n1+1)
This
equation
applied
in
the
formula
for
power
density:
Zv
{(ΔH/Δt)
/2πf}2/2
leads
to:
Pd
=
(hfn1,n22/πrn12)/(n1+1)
thus
En1,n2
presented
as:
“power
density
*
surface
*
pulse
width“
to:
En1,n2
=
(hfn1,n22/πrn12)/(n1+1)
*
πrn12
*
(n1+1)/fn1,n2
Presented
as:
“power
*
pulse
width”:
En1,n2
=
(h
fn1,n22)/(n1+1)
*
(n1+1)/fn1,n2
Presented
as
generally
accepted:
En1,n2
=
h
fn1,n2
The
magnetic
resp.
electric
field
strength
of
the
carrier
of
the
photon
can,
based
on
the
presented
model,
thus
be
calculated
from
an
expression
that
only
consists
of
the
Rydberg
parameter
fn1,n2
and
the
atom
parameters
n1
and
rn1,
assumed
that
the
length
of
the
photon
is
(n1+1)/fn1,n2.
AE
=
Zv
AH
V/m
AH
=
hfn1,n22/πrn12/(n1+1))
A/m
This
proves
that
the
particle-‐wave
duality
of
a
photon
has
been
eliminated
by
this
model,
because
what
might
yet
be
the
reason
to
qualify
a
photon
as
a
particle
(too)?
Conclusions
The
study
has
proven
that
the
generation
of
a
photon
can
be
explained
by
considering
an
orbiting
electron
in
an
atom
as
an
electric
current.
This
current
causes
a
straight-‐lined
magnetic
field,
perpendicular
to
plane
of
the
orbit
and
enclosed
by
the
orbit
of
the
electron.
As
soon
as
the
electron
eclipses
to
a
more
inner
orbit,
this
magnetic
field
decreases
rapidly
and
cause
through
this
an
electric
field.
A
source
of
an
EM
filed
has
been
created.
Calculations,
carried
out
on
this
model,
proved
that
this
principle
indeed
works,
but
above
all
it
also
gives
an
impression
of
the
length
of
the
photon.
Real
values
have
to
be
gained
by
measurements.
Based
on
the
educated
estimates
of
the
length
of
the
photon,
the
power
of
the
photon
can
be
calculated
and
as
a
result
the
strength
of
the
magnetic
and
electric
field
of
the
carrier
of
the
photon.
As
a
result
it
can
be
concluded
that
this
model
eliminates
the
wave-‐particle
duality.
Einstein
wrote
about
this
duality
the
following;
"It
seems
as
though
we
must
use
sometimes
the
one
theory
and
sometimes
the
other,
while
at
times
we
may
use
either.
We
are
faced
with
a
new
kind
of
difficulty.
We
have
two
contradictory
pictures
of
reality;
separately
neither
of
them
fully
explains
the
phenomena
of
light,
but
together
they
do".
My
words:
Nature
doesn’t
deal
with
dualities,
paradoxes
or
contradictions.
Judgments
like
these
are
created
by
mankind,
not
understanding
a
certain
phenomenon.
Physical
science
should
not
accept
these
kinds
of
judgements.
See
the
‘Encore’
on
the
next
page
too.
Encore
The
presented
model
of
the
generation
of
a
photon
is
based
on
Ampère’s
and
Faraday’s
law,
bound
together
in
the
Maxwell
laws,
normally
called
Maxwell’s
equations.
By
working
out
Maxwell’s
equations,
the
velocity
of
light
in
vacuum
is
calculated
as
c.
N.B.
Maxwell
lived
in
the
century
that
the
ether-‐model
was
generally
accepted
within
the
scientific
community.
As
a
result
the
reference
for
c
was
by
definition
this
ether.
The
Principle
of
Relativity
states:
all
physical
laws
are
the
same
in
all
inertial
systems.
The
inner
part
of
an
atom
and
its
direct
surrounding
is
by
definition
vacuum.
Applying
the
Principle
of
Relativity
in
the
presented
model
leads
to
the
conclusion
that
a
photon,
generated
by
an
atom,
based
on
the
mentioned
physical
laws,
must
have
a
propagation
velocity
c
w.r.t.
this
atom,
whatever
the
velocity
of
this
atom
might
be.
Effectively
this
is
the
so-‐called
emission
theory,
vigorously
rejected
by
the
community
of
physicists.
To
quote
Wikipedia:
“Emission
theories
obey
the
principle
of
relativity
by
having
no
preferred
frame
for
light
transmission,
but
say
that
light
is
emitted
at
speed
"c"
relative
to
its
source
instead
of
applying
the
invariance
postulate.”
Einstein’s
Special
Theory
of
Relativity
is
based
on
the
hypothesis
of
a
system
“in
rest”
w.r.t.
which
the
velocity
of
light
in
vacuum
would
be
c.
The
community
of
physicists
realized
that
this
system
“in
rest”
is
equivalent
to
the,
by
Einstein
himself,
abandoned
ether-‐model
and
therefore
slinky
changed
his
hypothesis
in:
c
w.r.t.
any
inertial
system,
known
under
the
expression:
“invariance
postulate”.
In
this
way
a
“non-‐Einstein”
Special
Theory
of
Relativity
has
been
created,
of
which
the
hypothesis
is
fundamentally
contradictive
with
Einstein’s
hypothesis!
N.B.
A
postulate
is
an
assumption,
so
self-‐evident
that
further
evidence,
if
it
would
be
possible
to
deliver
it
at
all,
is
not
required.
A
hypothesis
is
an
assumption
that
needs
yet
to
be
proven.
One
of
the
consequences
of
the
invariance
hypothesis
is
that
the
velocity
of
light
in
vacuum
is
also
c
w.r.t.
its
source,
whatever
the
speed
of
that
source
might
be!
But
that
same
community
of
physicists
seemingly
excludes
this
inertial
system
from
all
the
“any
inertial
systems”,
as
put
forward
in
the
invariance
hypothesis!
This
inconsequence,
the
contradiction
between
Einstein’s
hypothesis
and
the
invariance
hypothesis
and
the
contradiction
of
both
these
hypotheses
with
the
Principle
of
Relativity,
leads
to
the
unavoidable
conclusion
that
the
Special
Theory
of
Relativity
has
to
be
rejected.
Regarding
the
velocity
of
light:
only
the
emission
theory
can
be
valid.
It
is
indeed
a
theory,
not
a
hypothesis.
See
also:
http://vixra.org/abs/1504.0234
and
http://vixra.org/abs/1502.0080
Attachment
n2
1/λ
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
8,23E+06
9,76E+06
1,03E+07
1,05E+07
1,07E+07
1,08E+07
1,08E+07
1,08E+07
1,09E+07
1,09E+07
hf
1,64E-‐18
1,94E-‐18
2,04E-‐18
2,09E-‐18
2,12E-‐18
2,14E-‐18
2,15E-‐18
2,15E-‐18
2,16E-‐18
2,16E-‐18
n2
1/λ
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1,52E+06
2,06E+06
2,30E+06
2,44E+06
2,52E+06
2,57E+06
2,61E+06
2,63E+06
2,65E+06
hf
3,03E-‐19
4,09E-‐19
4,58E-‐19
4,84E-‐19
5,01E-‐19
5,11E-‐19
5,18E-‐19
5,23E-‐19
5,27E-‐19
1/f=T
4,1E-‐16
3,4E-‐16
3,2E-‐16
3,2E-‐16
3,1E-‐16
3,1E-‐16
3,1E-‐16
3,1E-‐16
3,1E-‐16
3,1E-‐16
1/f=T
2,2E-‐15
1,6E-‐15
1,4E-‐15
1,4E-‐15
1,3E-‐15
1,3E-‐15
1,3E-‐15
1,3E-‐15
1,3E-‐15
Lyman
series
plsw
8,10E-‐16
6,84E-‐16
6,48E-‐16
6,33E-‐16
6,25E-‐16
6,21E-‐16
6,17E-‐16
6,15E-‐16
6,14E-‐16
6,13E-‐16
hf/plsw
2,02E-‐03
2,83E-‐03
3,15E-‐03
3,31E-‐03
3,39E-‐03
3,44E-‐03
3,48E-‐03
3,50E-‐03
3,52E-‐03
3,53E-‐03
Pd
AH
Δt
2,29E+17
3,22E+17
3,58E+17
3,76E+17
3,85E+17
3,91E+17
3,95E+17
3,98E+17
4,00E+17
4,01E+17
3,49E+07
4,14E+07
4,36E+07
4,47E+07
4,52E+07
4,56E+07
4,58E+07
4,60E+07
4,61E+07
4,61E+07
1,78E-‐17
1,31E-‐17
1,18E-‐17
1,12E-‐17
1,10E-‐17
1,08E-‐17
1,07E-‐17
1,06E-‐17
1,06E-‐17
1,05E-‐17
Pd
AH
Δt
3,28E+14
5,97E+14
7,49E+14
8,39E+14
8,96E+14
9,33E+14
9,60E+14
9,79E+14
9,93E+14
1,32E+06
1,78E+06
1,99E+06
2,11E+06
2,18E+06
2,23E+06
2,26E+06
2,28E+06
2,30E+06
7,14E-‐17
4,37E-‐17
3,56E-‐17
3,20E-‐17
3,00E-‐17
2,88E-‐17
2,81E-‐17
2,75E-‐17
2,71E-‐17
Pd
AH
Δt
5,95E+12
1,27E+13
1,75E+13
2,07E+13
2,30E+13
2,46E+13
2,57E+13
2,66E+13
1,78E+05
2,60E+05
3,05E+05
3,32E+05
3,49E+05
3,61E+05
3,70E+05
3,76E+05
1,75E-‐16
9,89E-‐17
7,57E-‐17
6,50E-‐17
5,91E-‐17
5,54E-‐17
5,29E-‐17
5,12E-‐17
Balmer
series
plsw
6,56E-‐15
4,86E-‐15
4,34E-‐15
4,10E-‐15
3,97E-‐15
3,89E-‐15
3,84E-‐15
3,80E-‐15
3,77E-‐15
hf/plsw
4,61E-‐05
8,41E-‐05
1,05E-‐04
1,18E-‐04
1,26E-‐04
1,31E-‐04
1,35E-‐04
1,38E-‐04
1,40E-‐04
Paschen
series
n2
1/λ
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
5,34E+05
7,80E+05
9,15E+05
9,95E+05
1,05E+06
1,08E+06
1,11E+06
1,13E+06
hf
1,06E-‐19
1,55E-‐19
1,82E-‐19
1,98E-‐19
2,08E-‐19
2,15E-‐19
2,20E-‐19
2,24E-‐19
1/f=T
6,3E-‐15
4,3E-‐15
3,6E-‐15
3,4E-‐15
3,2E-‐15
3,1E-‐15
3,0E-‐15
3,0E-‐15
plsw
2,50E-‐14
1,71E-‐14
1,46E-‐14
1,34E-‐14
1,27E-‐14
1,23E-‐14
1,20E-‐14
1,18E-‐14
hf/plsw
4,24E-‐06
9,07E-‐06
1,25E-‐05
1,48E-‐05
1,64E-‐05
1,75E-‐05
1,83E-‐05
1,90E-‐05
Brackett
series
n2
1/λ
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
2,47E+05
3,81E+05
4,62E+05
5,14E+05
5,50E+05
5,76E+05
5,95E+05
n2
1/λ
6
7
8
9
10
11
1,34E+05
2,15E+05
2,68E+05
3,04E+05
3,29E+05
3,48E+05
hf
4,91E-‐20
7,57E-‐20
9,18E-‐20
1,02E-‐19
1,09E-‐19
1,14E-‐19
1,18E-‐19
hf
2,66E-‐20
4,27E-‐20
5,31E-‐20
6,03E-‐20
6,54E-‐20
6,92E-‐20
1/f=T
1,4E-‐14
8,8E-‐15
7,2E-‐15
6,5E-‐15
6,1E-‐15
5,8E-‐15
5,6E-‐15
1/f=T
2,5E-‐14
1,6E-‐14
1,2E-‐14
1,1E-‐14
1,0E-‐14
9,6E-‐15
plsw
6,75E-‐14
4,38E-‐14
3,61E-‐14
3,24E-‐14
3,03E-‐14
2,89E-‐14
2,80E-‐14
hf/plsw
7,26E-‐07
1,73E-‐06
2,54E-‐06
3,15E-‐06
3,61E-‐06
3,95E-‐06
4,22E-‐06
Pd
AH
Δt
3,23E+11
7,68E+11
1,13E+12
1,40E+12
1,60E+12
1,76E+12
1,87E+12
4,14E+04
6,39E+04
7,74E+04
8,62E+04
9,22E+04
9,66E+04
9,97E+04
3,40E-‐16
1,84E-‐16
1,36E-‐16
1,13E-‐16
1,00E-‐16
9,19E-‐17
8,64E-‐17
Pd
AH
Δt
3,25E+10
8,35E+10
1,29E+11
1,66E+11
1,96E+11
2,19E+11
1,31E+04
2,11E+04
2,62E+04
2,97E+04
3,22E+04
3,41E+04
5,75E-‐16
3,04E-‐16
2,19E-‐16
1,78E-‐16
1,54E-‐16
1,40E-‐16
Pfund
series
plsw
1,49E-‐13
9,31E-‐14
7,48E-‐14
6,59E-‐14
6,08E-‐14
5,75E-‐14
hf/plsw
1,79E-‐07
4,59E-‐07
7,10E-‐07
9,14E-‐07
1,08E-‐06
1,20E-‐06
Humphreys
series
n2
1/λ
7
8
9
10
11
8,09E+04
1,33E+05
1,69E+05
1,95E+05
2,14E+05
hf
1,61E-‐20
2,65E-‐20
3,36E-‐20
3,88E-‐20
4,25E-‐20
1/f=T
4,1E-‐14
2,5E-‐14
2,0E-‐14
1,7E-‐14
1,6E-‐14
plsw
2,89E-‐13
1,75E-‐13
1,38E-‐13
1,20E-‐13
1,09E-‐13
hf/plsw
5,57E-‐08
1,51E-‐07
2,44E-‐07
3,24E-‐07
3,90E-‐07
Pd
AH
Δt
4,88E+09
1,33E+10
2,14E+10
2,84E+10
3,42E+10
5,09E+03
8,40E+03
1,07E+04
1,23E+04
1,35E+04
8,88E-‐16
4,63E-‐16
3,27E-‐16
2,62E-‐16
2,24E-‐16