THE INFLUENCE OF THE OTTOMAN STATE ON ISLAMIC LAW
Ahmet Kilinc2022, YILDIRIM BEYAZIT LAW JOURNAL
https://doi.org/10.33432/ybuhukuk.1090220visibility
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The last two periods in the history of Islamic law are The Period of Taqlid (Imitation) and The Period of Codification and New Ijtihad (jurisprudence). These periods correspond to the Ottoman State’s period. According to the chronological period, Ottoman law has a dual distinction: the classical period and the post-Tanzimat period. During the taqlid period, which coincided with the classical period of the Ottoman State, many Fiqh books, annotations (haşiye), commentaries (şerh) and fatwa books were published. However, in the period the line of law created by the previous period was not exceeded. The Ottoman State placed emphasis on Shaykh al-Islam, applied “official (madhab) sect” and encouraged the formation of sultanic law. The period of codification and new ijtihad coincides with the post-Tanzimat period of the Ottoman State. In this period when both domestic and western laws emerged and the official sect understanding was not carried out for all laws and modern-style laws were enacted. Distinct perspectives were discussed in the field of law, while some thinkers considered it necessary to codify western law/norms through the reception method; other lawyers have argued the codification of domestic legal rules. As a result, both views were reflected in practice, and this reflection created a dual legal system which caused some serious problems. The Ottoman state has a very significant place in the development of Islamic Law. The laws it enacted were implemented in other countries even after it collapsed, and the laws it prepared set an example for other Islamic states even today.
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YBHD !
Yıl 7 ! Sayı 2022/2, s. 547-580
2022/2
Prof. Dr. M. Fatih UŞAN’a Dekanlıkta 10. Yıl Anısına Teşekkür
Armağanı
Ahmet KILINÇ
THE INFLUENCE OF THE OTTOMAN STATE ON ISLAMIC LAW∗
Doç. Dr. Ahmet KILINÇ∗∗
ABSTRACT
The last two periods in the history of Islamic law are The Period of Taqlid
(Imitation) and The Period of Codification and New Ijtihad (jurisprudence). These
periods correspond to the Ottoman State’s period. According to the chronological
period, Ottoman law has a dual distinction: the classical period and the post-Tanzimat
period.
During the taqlid period, which coincided with the classical period of the
Ottoman State, many Fiqh books, annotations (haşiye), commentaries (şerh) and fatwa
books were published. However, in the period the line of law created by the previous
period was not exceeded. The Ottoman State placed emphasis on Shaykh al-Islam,
applied “official (madhab) sect” and encouraged the formation of sultanic law.
The period of codification and new ijtihad coincides with the post-Tanzimat
period of the Ottoman State. In this period when both domestic and western laws
emerged and the official sect understanding was not carried out for all laws and
modern-style laws were enacted. Distinct perspectives were discussed in the field of law,
while some thinkers considered it necessary to codify western law/norms through the
reception method; other lawyers have argued the codification of domestic legal rules.
As a result, both views were reflected in practice, and this reflection created a dual legal
system which caused some serious problems.
The Ottoman state has a very significant place in the development of Islamic
Law. The laws it enacted were implemented in other countries even after it collapsed,
and the laws it prepared set an example for other Islamic states even today.
Keywords: Ottoman law, Islamic Law, period of taqlid, period of codification
and new jurisprudence, history of Islamic Law.
∗
∗∗
DOI: 10.33432/ybuhukuk.1090220 – Geliş Tarihi: 19.03.2022 – Kabul Tarihi: 09.06.2022.
Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi, Hukuk Tarihi Anabilim Dalı Öğretim
Üyesi, [email protected], ORCID: 0000-0002-8977-9588.
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YBHD 2022/2
OSMANLI DEVLETİ’NİN İSLAM HUKUKUNA TESİRİ
ÖZET
İslam Hukuk Tarihinin son iki evresi, Taklit dönemi ve Kanunlaştırma ve yeni
içtihat dönemidir. Bu iki dönem, Osmanlı Devleti dönemine tekabül etmektedir. Tarihi
gelişim açısından bakıldığında, Osmanlı Devleti, klasik dönem ve Tanzimat
dönemlerine ayrılmaktadır.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin klasik dönemine tekabül eden taklit döneminde, birçok
fıkıh kitabı, şerhler, metinler ve fetva kitapları çıkmıştır. Ancak bu dönemde bir önceki
dönemin temel felsefesi içerisinde kalınmıştır. Osmanlı Devleti bu dönemde
şeyhülislama ayrı önem vermiş, resmi mezhep anlayışına sahip olmuş ve örfi hukukun
gelişimine katkı sağlamıştır.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin Tanzimat sonrası dönemi, Kanunlaştırma ve yeni içtihat
döneminin başlangıcıdır. Bu dönemde hem yerli hem batılı kanunlar uygulanmış,
resmi mezhep anlayışı bazı hukuk branşlarında terk edilmiş ve modern tarzda
hazırlanmış kanunlar yürürlüğe girmiştir. Hukukun birçok alanında farklı bakış açıları
dile getirilmiştir. Birtakım hukukçular, yerli hukuka bağlı kanun yapımını savunmuş
iken, diğerleri batı kanunların getirilmesini ifade etmişlerdir. Nihayetinde her iki
anlayış da kabul görmüş, ancak bu durum ülkede ikili hukuk sisteminin doğmasına
neden olmuştur.
Osmanlı devleti, İslam hukukunun gelişmesinde mühim bir konuma sahiptir.
Onun zamanında çıkmış olan hukuk kuralları, devlet yıkıldıktan sonra dahi başkaca
ülkelerde uygulanmış, hatta günümüzde dahi Osmanlı hukuk kuralları, yeni
oluşturulacak hukuk kuralları için örnek teşkil etmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Osmanlı Hukuku, İslam Hukuku, Taklit/İstikrar dönemi,
yeni içtihat ve kanunlaştırma dönemi, İslam Hukuk Tarihi.
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Ahmet KILINÇ
INTRODUCTION
Islam is defined in doctrine as follows: It is the life system sent by Allah
through the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W), which includes the aspects of
human life's creed, ideas, morals and deeds1. So, Islam did not bring only
principles related to belief and worship. It also laid out the principles that
explain how interpersonal relations should be. Therefore, it can be stated that
Islam has the rules of social order which is named Fiqh (Islamic Law)2. Just as
Islamic law has its own characteristics3, its development is also unique to itself.
Islamic law, which has its own characteristics, was not formed as a whole,
but was born, developed and had its own characteristics in time. This law was
born in the time of the Prophet, completed the preparation stage in the time of
the Sahabah (Companions) and the Tabi'un, started to be systematized during
the time of mujtahids imams, and became perfect as a system during the time
of the madhab. Then the period of taqlid came into force. The next period is the
period of codification4. So, the history of Islamic law is divided into 6 periods
in chronological terms. These are 1. The Period of the Prophet 2. The Period of
the Four Caliphs and the Companions (Sahabah) 3. The Period of the Tabi'un
1
2
3
4
Karaman, Hayrettin (2013) Mukayeseli İslam Hukuku I, 8. Edition, İstanbul, İz, p. 26.
For a comment on the relationship between the concepts of “Fiqh” and “Islamic law”, see
Yıldız, Kemal/ Yıldırım, İlyas/ Demir, Oğuzhan (2014) “Türkçe Telif Edilen Fıkıh
İlmi/İslam Hukuku Tarihi Çalışmaları”, Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatür Dergisi, V: 12, I:24,
p. 131.
The main features that make Islamic law special are as follows: the basis of this law is religion.
Its basic references are the Quran and the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). Some rules/laws
cannot be changed. However, Islamic law is open to development. Sanctions in this law are
both worldly and otherworldly. Islamic law has come into existence by individual
ijtihad/jurisprudence. This law has been born and developed with the casuistic method; Cin,
Halil / Akyılmaz, Gül (2013) Türk Hukuk Tarihi, 5th Edition, Konya, Sayram, p. 49, 50;
Karaman, p. 48, 49; Ekinci, Ekrem Buğra (2003) İslâm Hukuku ve Önceki Şeriatlar, İstanbul,
Arı Sanat, p. 11.
Demir Abdullah (2019) Mufassal Türk Hukuk Tarihi, Ankara Astana, p. 101.
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4. The Formation of the Sects (madhhabs) 5. The Period of Imitation (taqlid)5
6. The Period of Codification and New Ijtihad.
Each period has its own peculiarities. The important periods for this
study are the last two periods. Because the last two periods are the period when
the Ottoman State was alive. Also in these periods, Islam was identified with the
Ottoman State. Moreover, we think that the last period is the one we are still in
it6.
Many thoughts have been expressed about the Turks' conversation into
Islam7 and its contribution and -if any- harms8 to this religion. However, the
most intense bond/relationship between Islam and Turks was in the Ottoman
Period. Because, in this period, although stated to the contrary9, the caliphate
passed to the Ottoman State and the advocacy and spread of Islam was
5
6
7
8
9
In the doctrine, some views prefer the concept of "madhhab-centered period" instead of the
concept of "taqlid period", for detail see Apaydın, Hacı Hüseyin (2010) İslâm Hukukuna
Giriş, 3rd Edition, Eskişehir, Anadolu Üniversitesi, p. 40.
In current age, many countries carry out the provisions of Islamic law. In many state
constitutions, it is written that the state is an Islamic state and Islamic law is applied in it. As
an example, the constitution of Malaysia article 3 declares that “Islam is the religion of the
Federation”, for detail please see Hamzah, Wan Arfan (2009) A first Look At the Malaysian
Legal System, Selangor, Oxford Fajar, p. 163. İran, Saudi Arabia are other examples for
Islamic states. Therefore, Islamic law is alive when viewed from the point of these Islamic
states. So, there are in the last period of the history of Islamic law.
For detail information see Biçer, Bekir (2007) Türklerin İslamlaşma Süreci, Ankara, Akcağ,
p. 11 and more pages.
As it is known, caliphate was abolished by Turkey Grand Nation Parliment in 1924. Abolition
of the Caliphate can be argued in different ways. Please see. Livaoğlu Mengüç, Hilal (2019)
“The Egyptian Response to the Abolition of the Caliphate: A Press Survey”, Cumhuriyet
Tarihi Araştırmaları Dergisi, I: 30, Year 15, p. 110 and more pages; Guida, Michelangelo
(2008) “Seyyid Bey and the Abolition of the Caliphate”, Middle Eastern Studies, V:44, I:2, p.
275 and more pages. However, it should not be forgotten that the caliphate is not an
institution mentioned in the main sources of Islamic law and that this institution has a secular
character.
Some thinkers stated that the Caliphate did not pass to the Ottoman state. According to them,
Ottomans were not from Quraysh, the Prophet’s (S.A.W) clan, or even Arab. Please see El
Moudden, Abderrahmane (1995) “The Idea of the Caliphate between Moroccans and
Ottomans: Political and Symbolic Stakes in the 16th and 17th Century-Maghrib”, Studia
Islamica, I: 82, p. 103 and more pages.
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made/provided by the Ottoman State. Also, it was the representative of Sunni
Islam.
The Ottoman state contribute to Islam not only in terms of economic,
political and social aspects, but also this state influenced Islamic law. In this
study, the role of the Ottoman state in the history of Islamic law is examined.
How did the Ottoman State affect Islamic law? What are the features that
distinguish the Ottoman state from other Islamic states in the field of law? What
did the Ottoman state leave as a legacy to Islamic law? The study seeks answers
to these questions.
As a rule, the study is based on the studies of Turkish literature. As a
matter of fact, these sources are first-hand sources. Archival documents and
foreign studies are also used when appropriate.
I. TAQLID (IMITATION) PERIOD
As it is known, The Ottoman State includes the period of taqlid and the
period of Codification and New Jurisprudence (Ijtihad). Today, it should be
said that we are still in the last period. For this reason, it is useful to remember
the basic information about the 5th and 6th periods of Islamic law history. Later
on, we will give information about the Ottoman practice in these periods.
The period is between the middle of Hijri 4th to the end of 13th century
which coincides with the beginning of the codification movements in the
Ottoman period from the middle of the Abbasid state period10. The period was
called the period of imitation (taqlid) and/or stability (istikrar). The distinctive
feature of the legal activities in this period was not to produce new solutions to
legal problems with ijtihad11 (jurisprudence) and to develop the law, but to
10
11
Demir, p. 115; Cin/Akyılmaz, p. 77.
Ijtihad is the creation of new legal provisions by jurists (mujtahid) who have enough
knowledge of Islamic law to make ijtihad when there is no provision regarding the solution
of a legal issue in the Qur'an and Sunnah; Cin/ Akyılmaz, p. 50; Weiss, Bernard (1978)
“Interpretation in Islamic Law: The Theory of Ijtihād”, The American Journal of
Comparative Law, V: 26, I:2, p. 200.
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expand the interpretations of the Fiqh madhabs that emerged in the previous
period and make them more understandable.
In the period of imitation (taqlid), the studies of Islamic jurists were
entirely within the boundaries drawn by the four legal sects (madhhabs). In this
time, the mujtahid mutlaq “absolute” did not educated, or even if educated, he
did not attempt to establish a new sect (madhhab). For this reason, mujtahids
in this period remained within the existing sects (madhhabs) and engaged in
ijtihad activities. That is why, this period is called the period of “taqlid” or
“stability”12. This situation brought up the debate whether “the door of ijtihad
was closed” 13 in the aforementioned period. And ijtihad that “the door of ijtihad
is closed” has become widespread14 in the period.
It should be stated that this period is the period in which Islamic law has
evolved15. Important works on Islamic legal methodology, usul al fiqh16 were
written in this period17. Islamic lawyers wrote doctrinal studies in accordance
with the rules and principles that the sect (madhhab) imams had preached.
Thus, in this time, valuable legal corpus emerged.
In the 5ht period of Islamic law history, studies on Islamic law have
emerged in the form of Text (metin), commentary (şerh), annotation (haşiye)
and fatwa books. These books examined the views of the madhhabs down to
12
13
14
15
16
17
Demir, p.115.
Ansay, Sabri Şakir (2002) Hukuk Tarihinde İslâm Hukuku, 4th Edition, Ankara, Turhan, p.
29.
Hallaq, Wael B. (1984) “Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?”, International Journal of Middle
East Studies, V: 16, I:1, p. 31; Demir, p. 115.
Kızılkaya, Necmettin (2006) “Hanefi Furû-ı Fıkıh Eserlerinde Fıkhî Kâidelerin Uygulama
Alanına Bir Örnek Olarak Bedâi’u’s-sanâi’”, İslam Hukuku Araştırmaları Dergisi, I: 8, p. 88.
Usul al-fiqh means a body of principles by which the mujtahid is able to develop the rules
from the specific Islamic evidences; Remali Yusoff, Nor’zurah Md. Kamdari (2017)
“Understanding Usul Al-Fiqh and Its Application Analysis for Sukuk, Muktamar Waqf
Iqlimi, V: IV p. 149; Şa’bân, Zekiyyüddîn (2000) İslâm Hukuk İlminin Esasları, Ankara,
Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı, p. 27.
Demir, p. 115; Kılınç, Ahmet, “İslam Hukuk Tarihi Açısından Osmanlı Devleti’nin Önemi”:
İbrahim, Abdülazim (Editor), 1. Uluslararası Irak’ta Osmanlı İzleri Sempozyumu Özet Bildiri
Kitabı,15-16 November 2021, Karabük.
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the last detail18. Commentaries (Şerh) are studies written on concise texts that
have become famous in a field of science, in which closed expressions are
explained, missing points are completed, mistakes are pointed out and
examples are reproduced19. The activity of writing a Fiqh book on the ground
formed by another Fiqh book and the product that emerged as a result of this
activity is called commentary (şerh)20. Annotations (Haşiye), which are
generally made on the commentary (şerh) of a famous Fiqh book, are short
explanations about issues such as proper names, verses, hadiths, poems, both
in the annotation and in some words and sentences in the text21. There are
differences between şerh and haşiye. First of all, although the şerhs were written
on the text of Fiqh, the majority of the haşiyes were written on the şerhs. In
addition, while the şerhs follow the content and expression flow of the text on
which they are based, haşiyes are written about certain points of the şerhs or
texts22.
The period of imitation (taqlid), chronologically, corresponds to the 13th
century and the beginning of the 19th century, which we define as the classical
period of the Ottoman State. In order to understand the influence of the
Ottoman State on Islamic Law in the Ottoman classical period, we need to
explain the Ottoman legal system.
II. OTTOMAN LEGAL SYSTEM IN TAQLID PERIOD
The Ottoman legal system in the period of imitation (taqlid) consists of
two main parts. One of them is Islamic law and the other is Customary
(sultanic) law. There are different opinions about the relationship between
these two legal systems. While some authors state that customary law remains
18
19
20
21
22
Demir, p. 116.
Şensoy, Sedat (2010) “Şerh”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, V: 38, İstanbul, p. 565.
L.W.C. (Eric), Van Lit (2017) “Commentary and Commentary Tradition The Basic Terms
for
Understanding
Islamic
Intellectual
History”,
MIDÉO,
V:
32,
<http://journals.openedition.org/mideo/1580> I.a.d: 25.02.2022; Kaya, Eyüp Said (2010)
“Şerh” TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, V: 38, İstanbul, p. 560.
Topuzoğlu, Tevfik Rüştü (1997) “Haşiye”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, V: 16, İstanbul, p. 419.
Kaya, p. 560.
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within the boundaries of Islamic law, others imply that customary law is a legal
system independent of Islamic law23. In any case, it is clear that there were two
legal systems integrated with each other during the Taqlid period in the
Ottoman State.
In the Ottoman State, Islamic law was applied both theoretically and
practically during the period of imitation (taqlid). Islamic law applied
theoretically and practically, then practice of the law was based on the sources
of Islamic law. In other words, some legal disputes were solved according to the
sources of Islamic law directly. As an example: The qādī register, in which it is
written that Abdullah forgave Yusuf who injured him, is based on the Qur'an.
The provision of the 40th verse of the Shura which is "Indeed, whoever forgives
and establishes peace, his reward belongs to Allah." is written clearly in the Qādī
register24. We can easily mention that in the practice and theory of law, 4
primary (Quran, Sunnah, Ijma and Qiyas) and secondary sources have been
abundantly utilized.
The Ottoman state contributed doctrinally to Islamic law. In addition,
there are several features that make the Ottoman state different from other
Islamic countries while practicing Islamic law. Let us now examine these
matters in detail.
23
24
For detail please see Sobia, Bashir / Amen Imran (2012) “Legal System of the Ottoman
Empire”, Journal of Law and Society Law College, V: 42, I:59, Peshawar, p. 101; Fendoğlu,
Hasan Tahsin (2021) Türk Anayasa Hukuku Tarihi, Ankara, Yetkin, p. 145; Avcı, Mustafa
(2019) Türk Hukuk Tarihi, 8th Edition, Ankara, Atlas, p. 91; Aydın, M. Âkif (2009) Türk
Hukuk Tarihi, 7th Edition, İstanbul, Beta, p. 65; Osmanağaoğlu Karahasanoğlu, Cihan
(2012) “Ömer Lütfi Barkan ve Türk Hukuk Tarihi”, İstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi
Mecmuası, V: 70, I:1, p. 421; Aydın, M. Âkif (2004) “Kanunnâmeler ve Osmanlı Hukukunun
İşleyişindeki Yeri”, Osmanlı Araştırmaları, V: 24, İstanbul, p. 40; Bozkurt, Gülnihal (1992)
“Review of the Ottoman Legal System”, Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve
Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi, I: 3, Ankara, p.117.
For the whole record please see Yılmaz, Çoşkun (Editör), Hasköy Mahkemesi 3 Numaralı
Sicil (H. 1023-1081 / M. 1615-1670) V:52, Hüküm no: 200 Orijinal metin no: [89-3], p. 136.
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A. IMPORTANT DOCTRINES CONTRIBUTION OF
OTTOMAN STATE TO ISLAMIC LAW IN TAQLID PERIOD
THE
The most important contribution of the Ottoman State to Islamic Law in
this period was the publication of many Islamic law studies. As a matter of fact,
it is stated that there were 105 jurists and around 150 Fiqh studies until the reign
of Padishah Mehmed 2nd, Conqueror (Fatih)25. Fiqh studies appear in various
forms. There are many fiqh books, commentary (şerh), annotations(haşiye)
written in this period in the Ottoman state.
As it is known, Fiqh books are studies that explain the legal topics and
institutions and their sources, sometimes deal with the subjects comparatively
between the sects (madhhabs), and reach a preferential result by discussing
different views on controversial issues26. Fiqh books are the products of the
furu‘-ı fiqh (branches of law) which is the one part of Islamic law27. Let me
introduce one of Fiqh books which was used as a course book in madrasahs in
the Ottoman State and in the 17th century. İbrahim Halebî's Mültekal-Ebhur,
which is the main reference book of the judges in the religious courts after the
middle of the century, is a study in this group. We have to mention that the
book has been annotated by various Ottoman lawyers28.
As has just been stated, many fatwa books were published in this period.
Fatwa books are works that bring together the answers given to the questions
people ask about legal issues they face in daily life29. The most important
property of the fatwas is that these consults were non-binding statement of the
25
26
27
28
29
For detail information see Cici, Recep (2001) Osmanlı Dönemi İslam Hukuku Çalışmaları
(Kuruluştan Fatih Devri Sonuna Kadar), Bursa, Arasta.
Cin / Akyılmaz, p. 44.
Islamic law divided into two parts. One part is Usul al-fiqh and the other one is füru-u fiqh.
While the methodology of the law was studied by the Usul al Fiqh, the material aspect interpersonal relations- of the law was studied by füru law; Aybakan, Bilal (2006) “Fürû‘
Fıkıh Sistematiği Üzerine” Marmara Üniversitesi İlâhiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 31, p. 20.
See Mevkûfâtî, Mehmed (1980) Mültekâ Tercümesi Mevkûfât, Simplified by: Ahmed
Davudoğlu, İstanbul Doyuran Matbaası; Çelik, Mehmet (2012) Büyük İslam Hukuku
Mecme’ul Enhur (Mültekâ’l-Ebhur’un Şerhi- Damad) Tercümesi, İstanbul, Yasin.
Cin / Akyılmaz, p. 47; Örsten, Seda (2007) “Osmanlı Hukuk Tarihi Kaynağı Olarak Fetvâ
Mecmuaları”, Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları, I:4, p.30.
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law30. Fatwas are usually issued in response to questions from individuals31. Its
main and basic purpose is to provide definitive answers32. Fatwas have been an
important tool in the resolution of disputes. Because many disputes were
resolved without appearing before a judge, based on a fatwa33. The fatwas have
an anonymity character which means instead of the real people, muftis used a
set of typical names, usually Amr, Zevc, Zeyd for males, and Zevce, Hind for
females34. In the Ottoman states, Shaykh al-Islams organized their fatwas under
legal headings and subheading for making them a useful source for students,
judges, muftis (jurisconsults) and other with an interest in the law35. The Fatwas
of Ebussuud Efendi, Fetavay-ı Fevziyye, Behcetü’l-Fetâvâ, Fetavay-ı Ali Efendi,
and Fetevay-ı Yahya Efendi drew attention as the studies that qādīs most
frequently benefitted / used.
Let's take the Behcetü’l-Fetâvâ as an example. This fatwa book contains
the fatwas of Abdullah Efendi from Yenişehir. Abdullah Efendi worked as a
qādī of the army and a Rumelia Qādī’ askeri. He became Shaykh al-Islam in
30
31
32
33
34
35
Imber, Colin (2007) Ebu’s-su’ud, The Islamic Tradition, Edinburg, Standford University, p.
7.
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2016) "Fatwa." Encyclopedia Britannica,
<https://www.britannica.com/topic/fatwa> I.a.d. 26.02.2022
Sirry, Mun'im (2013), “Fatwas and their controversy: The case of the Council of Indonesian
Ulama (MUI)”, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, V: 44, I:1, Singapore, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, p. 100; However, theoretically, the basis of some fatwas is also
shown in the fatwa. Such fatwas were not seen very often in the Ottoman Empire; Arslan,
Emine (2008) “Osmanlı Dönemi Nukûllü Fetvâ Mecmuaları”, Türk Hukuk Tarihi
Araştırmaları, I: 5, p. 133.
Gedikli, Fethi (2018) “Osmanlı Mahkemesinde Fetva Kullanımı ve Fetva-Kaza İlişkisi” :
Kaya, Süleyman; Uğur Yunus; Demiray, Mustafa (Editors), Osmanlı Hukukunda Fetva,
İstanbul, Klasik, p.218.
Imber, p. 56.
There are two types of fatwa books. The type that is compiled directly by the sheikh al-Islam
or the mufti and contains answers to the questions is called the “aslî fatwa books”. Those
compiled from the classical Hanafi literature and prepared as a reference source for muftis
and kadis are called “menkul fatwa books”; Örsten, 2007, p. 31; Heyd, Uriel (1995) “Osmanlı
Fetva Müessesesinin Bazı Tezahürleri (III Levha İle Birlikte)”, translator: Gedikli Fethi,
Marmara Universitesi, Hukuk Fakültesi Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, V: 9, I: 13, p. 287 and
more pages.
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1718. He held this position for about 13 years. While he was a Shaykh al-Islam,
his fatwas were compiled. The fetvā emīni36 (fatwa maker), Mehmed Fıkhî elAyn, arranged the fatwas of Abdullah Efendi and named it Behcetü’l-Fetâvâ. He
made citations from reliable fiqh books for every issue. There are 3474 fatwas
in the book. It was the most respected fatwa book in the 18th and 19th centuries
and was one of the four journals accepted by the Fetvāhane37.
Many monographic studies on Islamic law were also produced in the
classical period of the Ottoman State. Monographic studies that deal with a legal
issue, examine it in detail, according to various possibilities, and reach a
conclusion. For example, many monographic studies (risāle) were written
about the cash money waqfs, which caused great controversy in the Ottoman
State. Cash money waqfs is claimed as the definitive Ottoman contribution to
the Islamic Civilization38. The money waqf, as it is called in the fiqh books, is a
kind of waqf of a certain amount of money or a certain amount of money
together with the real estate, for a certain charitable purpose39. Islamic jurists
do not agree on whether money waqf is compatible with Islamic law. In the
Hanafi sect, Imam Zufer stated for the first time that the money foundation is
in accordance with the law40. In the Ottoman state, monographic studies began
to be written after Rumelia Qādī’asker Muhyeddin Mehmed b. Ilyas (d. 1547)
36
37
38
39
40
A fatwa maker (fetvā emīni) was the official who assisted the sheikh al-Islam, replaced him
in his absence, played an active role in the preparation of the fatwa and present it to the
shaykh al-Islam, and worked within the department of the meshihat in the central
organization of the State. Ayar, Tayip (2011) Osmanlı Devleti’nde Fetvâ Eminliği (18261922), (Phd Dissertation), Ankara University, Institute of Social Sciences, p. 244 and more
pages.
For detail information about Behcetü’l-Fetâvâ see Kaya, Süleyman/ Algın, Betül/
Trabzonlu, Zeynep / Erkan, Asuman (2011) Behcetü’l-Fetâvâ, İstanbul, Klasik, p. 9 and
more pages.
Mandaville, Jon E. (1998) “Faizli Dindarlık: Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Para Vakfı
Tartışması”, (Translator: Gedikli, Fethi), Yaz Gündemi, Türkiye Günlüğü, p. 129.
Gedikli, Fethi (2012) “İstanbul’da Para Vakıfları ve Mudârebe”, Osmanlı Hukuku Makaleler,
İstanbul Gündoğan, p.34.
For detail please see Osmanağaoğlu, Cihan (2010) “Osmanlı Devleti’nin Klasik Döneminde,
Para Vakıflarının Hukuki Yönü”, Maltepe Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, I: 1-2,
İstanbul, p. 282 and more pages
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banned the money waqfs. İbn Kemal, Ebussuud (d. 1573), Shaykh Bali Efendi
(d. 1552) stated that money waqfs could be established. In spite of this,
Muhyeddin Mehmed b. Ilyas and Birigivi argued that money waqfs could not
be established41.
As it can be seen, Ottoman jurists produced very important works of fiqh
in the period of imitation and made serious contributions to the development
of law.
B. UNIQUE TO THE OTTOMAN STATE IN PRACTICING
ISLAMIC LAW
As mentioned before, Islamic law has been practiced by various
geographies and different nations for hundreds of years. It can be stated that
every society contributes to the development of this law. It is possible to see
some differences or riches unique to the Ottoman State in practicing Islamic
Law.
We can say there are three different features in Ottoman State. These are
1. Official sect (madhhab) preference
2. Sultanic law
3. Status of Shaykh al-Islam.
Theoretically, the first of these differences is the official sect (madhhab)
preference or practice. As it is known, there can be more than one ijtihad on a
subject in Islamic law. These jurisprudences (ijtihads) can also contradict each
other. In this case, it should be determined which jurisprudence (ijtihad) the
judge should choose. Since the middle of the 16th century, the Ottoman State
wanted the disputes to be resolved according to the Hanafi sect (madhhab)'s
jurisprudence (ijtihad). For this reason, it was clearly stated in the letters patent
(berāt) for the appointment of judges (qādīs) and mufti that the decision and
the fatwa would be given according to the Hanafi school, and it was forbidden
41
Gedikli (2012), p. 37 and 38; Şimşek, Mehmet (1985) “Osmanlı Cemiyetinde Para Vakıfları
Üzerine Münakaşalar”, Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, I: 27 pp. 207-220;
Koyunoğlu, H. Hüsnü (2008) “Para Vakıfları: Muhasebe Defterlerine Göre 17. Yüzyıl
Istanbul Uygulaması”, Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi, V: 8, I:1, p. 264.
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to make judgments in line with the jurisprudence (ijtihad) of any sect
(madhhab) other than the Hanafi school42.
Official madhhab is clearly reflected in the fatwas: “Question: Is it
permissible to apply to the Shafi'i (sect) in dividing an oath? Answer: There is no
Shafi'i in this land. In this case, would it be valid if the Zayd who took the oath
applied to the Shafi'i qādī and removed his oath from Shai’I qādī? Answer: There
is a sultan's prohibition that making a decision according to the Shafi(teşeffü) sect
is not valid in Diyar-ı Rum (Anatolia)”43.
Likewise, qādīs resolved disputes according to the Hanafi sect. For
example, according to the Hanafi sect, in the crime of abortion, the fetus
aborted (separated) from its mother must have certain characteristics.
According to the Hanafi sect, some of the fetal organs should be determined
and it should be understood that the fetus is human44. A fetus with these
features is called "müstebinet'ül-hilka" and it has been revealed that this feature
is sought for the crime mentioned in the qādī registers45. It is possible to
multiply examples46.
42
43
44
45
46
Cin/Akyılmaz, p. 89; Bardakoğlu, Ali (1997) “Hanefî Mezhebi”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi,
V: 16, İstanbul p.7; Aydın (2009), p. 93.
Düzdağ, Ertuğrul (2012) Kanunî Devri Şeyhülislam Ebussuud Efendi Fetvaları, İstanbul,
Kapı, p. 174.
Özdemir, Merve (2016) “Osmanlı Fetvalarında Iskât-ı Cenînin (Cenin Düşürmenin) Cezai
Sonuçları”, Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, I: 46, V: 9, p. 957; Ucatlı, Abdulahat
(2009) “İslâm Hukukunda Cenine Müdahalenin Hükmü”, (Master) Istanbul University,
Institute of Social Sciences, p. 32 quoted from Muhammed Emin b. Ömer b. Abdülazîz edDımaşki İbn Abidin (ö. 1252/1836), Reddü’l-Muhtar ala Dürri’l-Muhtar, Riyad, Dâru
Alemü’l-Kütüb, 2003/1423, I, 500; Ebü'l-Hasan Burhaneddin Ali b. Ebî Bekr Merginani (ö.
593/1197), el-Hidâye Şerhu Bidâyeti’l-Mübtedi, Karaçi İdaretü’l-Kur’an ve’l-Ulumü’lİslâmiyye, 1417, V:7, 102; Konan, Belkıs (2008) “Osmanlı Devleti’nde Çocuk Düşürme
Suçu”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, I: 4, V: 57, p.325.
For detailed information see Kılınç, Ahmet (2018) “Çocuk Düşürtme Suçunun 17’nci Yüzyıl
İstanbul’undaki Görünümü”, Dicle Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 23, I:38, p. 64.
Hanafi sect was also preferred for money waqfs. Judges decide according to the Imam Zufer
and İmam Muhammed and Ebu Yusuf’s ijtihads who are the students of Imam-ı Azam Ebu
Hanife about cash foundations.
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As seen in other Islamic countries, the official madhab practice was
chosen as a method to ensure legal unity and stability as much as possible, and
in that period, it fulfilled the task of enacting47. Notwithstanding, the official
madhhab practice has been criticized for allegedly hindering the development
and dynamism of the law48. The application of the Hanafi sect in regions where
people who follow other sects are in the majority has been the subject of
criticism49.
Another feature that distinguishes the Ottoman state in the taqlid period
is the existence of customary (sultanic) law. It is because many branches of law
have been formed according to the customary (sultanic) law rules. There are
too many definitions regarding to the Sultanic law. It can be summarized as:
Customary (sultanic) law is the law created by the political authority of the time
(ulu’l-emr) of Islamic state within the limits set by Islamic law50. The main
authority here is the political authority of the time.
The customary (sultanic) law shows itself through the Qānūnnāmes. The
Qānūnnāmes are discussed in the Dīvān -ı Hümâyun, which means the Sultan's
board (Dīvān) made up of senior executives, and are announced with the
Sultan's edict51. Shaykh al-Islams of the period also supported the development
of customary (sultanic) law. For example, Shaykh al-Islam Pir Mehmed Efendi
(death date 1620) gave the following answer to a question asked to him: "It is
47
48
49
50
51
Bardakoğlu, p. 93.
Cin/Akyılmaz, p. 90; Aydın, p. 94; Aydın, M. Akif (2011) “İslam Hukukunda Hukukî
İstikrar ve Sosyal Değişim Açısından Mezheplerin Konumu (Hanefi Mezhebi İçtihatları ve
Osmanlı Devleti Uygulamaları Çerçevesinde)”, Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları, I: 11, p. 30.
Rafeq, Abdul-Karim (1999) “Relations Between The Syrian 'Ulama' And The Ottoman State
In The Eighteenth Century”, Oriente Moderno Nuova serie, V: 18 (79), I:1, p. 67 and more
pages; Peters, Rudolph (2005) “What does it mean to be an official madhhab: Hanafism and
the Ottoman Empire.”, The Islamic School of Law: Evolution, Devolution, and Progress
(Editors: P. Bearman, R. Peters, F. Vogel.) Cambridge, Harvard University, p. 156.
Cin / Akyılmaz, p. 86; Aydın, 2009, p. 73 and more pages; Avcı, p. 91; İnalcık, Halil (2000)
“Türk İslam Devletlerinde Devlet Kanunu Geleneği”, Osmanlı’da Devlet, Hukuk, Adalet,
İstanbul, Eren, p. 27.
Mumcu, Ahmet (2007) Divan-ı Hümayun, 3rd Edition, Ankara, Phoenix, p. 126; Karataş,
Abdullah Vefa (2019) “Divan-ı Hümayun ile Paşa Divanının Karşılaştırılması -Manisa
Şehzâde Sarayı Dîvânı Örneği-“, Adalet Dergisi, V:1-2, I: 63, p.238.
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necessary to apply to the political authority in this matter. The rule is established
as or how the political authority orders. It is obligatory (wacib) to obey the
political authority for public order."52
In the Ottoman state, administrative, financial, military, tax
regulations53, land law, tazir crimes54 and penalties were mainly codified with
customary (sultanic) law. We can say that the Ottoman state acted actively in
this regard. For example, during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, nearly
200 law codes were coming into force and 29 of them were (umūmī
Qānūnnāmes) general law codes55. Even in family law, which has many and
detailed provisions in Islamic legal sources, customary law norms have been
formed. This fatwa confirms our opinion: “Question: "When there is an order
that there should be a judge’s decision for a marriage, is it possible to marry
without the judge's skill? Answer: No, it turns out that there will be animosity and
enmity.”56
In the Ottoman State, the opinions of those who had a minority view
among the jurists of the Hanafi sect were codified through sultanic law, based
on the principle of public interest. Giving the icāreteyn-based foundations and
land into operation with unlimited lease agreements without a time limit, the
gedik institution57 that can be expressed as derived from European tradesmen's
customs, imposing death sentences for counterfeiting and homosexuality that
52
53
54
55
56
57
Anhegger R./İnalcık Halil (1956) Kanunname-i Sultanî ber Müceb-i Örf-i Osmanî, Ankara,
Türk Tarih Kurumu, p. X.; Cin/ Akyılmaz, p. 83.
For more detailed information about the “kul system”, one of the most important
administrative, financial and military institution of the Ottoman State, see Karataş, Abdullah
Vefa (2020) “Türk Hukuk Tarihi Açısından Kul Sistemi”, Yıldırım Beyazıt Hukuk Dergisi,
I:1, p. 155 and more pages.
Karakaya, Harun (2020) “Osmanlı Ceza Hukuku’nda Parada Sahtecilik Suçu” (Master),
Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University, Institute of Social Sciences, Ankara, p.16.
For detail see Kılınç, Ahmet (2018) “Hukuk Tarihi Açısından Kanuni Dönemine Münhasır
Gelişmeler”: Baki, Adnan/ Karal, Hasan (Editors), I. Uluslararası Kanuni Sultan Süleyman
Sempozyumu, 24-26 April 2018, p. 51.
Düzdağ, p. 37.
For detail see Koyuncu, Nuran (2016) “Osmanlı Hukukunda Esnaf Gediği”, II. Türk Hukuk
Tarihi Kongresi, Gedikli, Fethi (Editor), İstanbul, Onikilevha.
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disrupt social life, allowing cash waqfs are examples of codification of minority
jurisprudence, taking into account the public interest58.
It should be mentioned that the relationship between Islamic law and
sultanic law reveals the existence of different views today. On the one hand, it
is stated that the customary law may be contrary to the Islamic law and that
there may be a transition to the secular legal system, on the other hand, it is
argued that the sultanic law is expressed as siyāset-i shar'iyya and is within the
boundaries of Islamic law59. In my opinion, Islamic Law and Customary
(sultanic) Law are not separated from each other with certain lines. Islamic and
customary (sultanic) law rules are placed side by side and the two legal systems
complement each other with the balance-control mechanism60.
Another feature that makes the Ottoman state different is the status of
the Shaykh al-Islam. The term Shaykh al-Islam has expressed an honorary title
conferred on the scholars of Fiqh, who, since the 10th century, settled the
disputed issues among the fuqahā, gained fame with their fatwas and gained the
approval of many Islamic jurists61. In the Ottoman State, the head of the
ilmiyye62 group and theoretically the judicial organization was Shaykh al-
58
59
60
61
62
Kılınç, 2018a, p. 50; Akgündüz, Ahmed (1990) Osmanlı Kanunnameleri ve Hukuki
Tahlilleri, V: 4, İstanbul, Fey Vakfı, p. 6.
For detail see Cin/ Akyılmaz, p. 86; Avcı, p. 92; Cin, Halil/ Akgündüz, Ahmed (1989) Türk
Hukuk Tarihi, V:1, Konya, pp. 143-144, 163-165; Bardakoğlu, Ali (1999) “Osmanlı
Hukukunun Şer’îliği Üzerine”, Osmanlı, V: 6, Ankara, p. 416; Üçok, Çoşkun (1946)
“Osmanlı Kanunnamelerinde İslam Ceza Hukukuna Aykırı Hükümler”, Ankara Üniversitesi
Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V:3, I:1, p. 126; Heyd, Uriel (1983) “Eski Osmanlı Ceza Hukukunda
Kanun ve Şeriat”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, (Translator: Selâhaddin
Eroğlu) V:. XXVI, p. 633 and more pages; Heyd, Uriel, (1973) Studies in Old Ottoman
Criminal Law, Oxford, Oxford, pp. 174-175; 180-192.
Kılınç (2018a), p. 50, 57.
Cin/ Akyılmaz, p. 170; İpşirli, Mehmet (2010) “Şeyhülislam”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, V:
39, İstanbul, p. 91 and more pages.
Atcıl, Abdurrahman (2009) “The Route to the Top in the Ottoman Ilmiye Hierarchy of the
Sixteenth Century”, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, I: 3, V: 72, London,
Cambridge, p. 489.
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Islam63. Because he had extensive powers in the legislative, administrative and
judicial topics in the Ottoman state during this period.
He had the power in legislative topics in the Ottoman state. Because it is
known that his opinion was taken before the laws were enacted64. At the
beginning of the Qānūnnāmes, there is a provision that means "It is the Sultan's
code that was prepared in accordance with Islamic law"65. Important legal
regulations such as the Land Code of 1858, Majella were sent to the Shaykh alIslam to check their compliance with Islamic law before the sultan approved
it66.
When important administrative decisions were to be taken, he was called
to the Dīvān and asked for his opinion67. Shaykh al-Islam was never a member
of the Dīvān -ı Hümâyun. In case of need, he was called and his opinion was
taken. The compatibility of the decision of the Dīvān regarding the executive
63
64
65
66
67
Bulliet, Richard W. (1972) “The Shaikh Al-Islām and the Evolution of Islamic Society”,
Studia Islamica, I: 35, p. 53, 54; Cin / Akyılmaz, p.170; Akyılmaz, Gül (2004) “Osmanlı
Devletin’de Yönetici Sınıf-Reaya Ayrımı”, Gazi Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 8,
I:2; It is clearly written in the qānūnnāmes that the Shaykh al-Islam was the head of the
ilmiyye class; Akgündüz (1990), p. 318.
Örsten, Seda (2005) “Osmanlı Hukukunda Fetvâ”, Ankara University, Institute of Social
Science (Master), Ankara p. 42 and more pages.
Akgündüz (1990), p. 48. While this is the case, it is known that some laws enacted especially
after the Tanzimat are contrary to Islamic law. Commercial Codes can be given as an
example. On the other hand, the compatibility of fratricide, monetary foundation and some
criminal law sanctions with Islamic law is controversial in the doctrine; see Üçok, Çoşkun
(1947) “Osmanlı Kanunnamelerinde İslâm Ceza Hukukuna Aykırı Hükümler”, Ankara
Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 4, p. 48 and more pages.
Hocaeminefendizade, Ali Haydar Efendi (1992) Dürerü’l-Hukkâm Şerhu Mecelleti’l
Ahkâm, İstanbul, Osmanlı, p. 5 and more pages; Cin, Halil (1992) Osmanlı Toprak Düzeni
ve Bu Düzenin Bozulması, 3rd Edition, Konya, Selçuk Üniversitesi, p. 21.
Erdem, Gazi (2008) “Religious Services in Turkey: From the Office of Şeyhülislām to the
Diyanet”, The
Muslim World, I: 2-3, V: 98, <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/ doi/10.1111/j.14781913.2008.00216.x/full.> I.a.d: 28.02.2022.
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power with Islamic law was examinate by him68. Shaykh al-Islams gained
importance in the Ottoman state with the fatwas they gave, as stated before.
Even the sultans themselves received a fatwa from the Shaykh al-Islam.
They had the power to choose and offer judges to the Sultan. After 1574,
the executive powers were constantly expanded against the qādī‘asker, and the
authority to appoint the qādī’askers, the state judges called "mevali", the
mudarris who received a salary of more than forty akçe, the army judges and
the muftis belonged to the Shaykh al-Islams69. Therefore, Shaykh al-Islam has
ceased to be an institution that not only transmits theoretical knowledge, but
also has an active role in state administration.
Even though Shaykh al-Islam supervised important legal regulations
such as Majella, Land Code, they did not control all sultanic law regulations. In
addition, Padishah had the authority to appoint and dismiss the Shaykh alIslam. In some issues Padishah wanted to obtain a fatwa from the Shaykh alIslam in order in order to avoid discussions that the sultan acted contrary to the
Shari'ah law. When the Shaykh al-Islams did not want to give a fatwa, they could
be dismissed by the sultan and the person who would issue the requested fatwas
was appointed to this situation70.
As a matter of fact, the Shaykh al-Islams took a role in the appointments
of qādī, had administrative and legislative power, the necessity of judgement
according to the Hanafi madhab in the qādī appointment decisions (berāts), the
emergence of law in many law fields within the scope of limited legislative
authority can be mentioned as the features that distinguish the Ottoman State
in the period of Taqlid.
68
69
70
Yakar, Emine Enise (2019) “A Critical Comparison Between the Presidency of Religious
Affairs (Diyanet İşleri Başkanliği) and the Office of Shaykh Al-Islâm”, Kilis 7 Aralık
Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 6, I:11, p. 430.
Cin / Akyılmaz, p. 171; Beyazıt, Yasemin (2009) “Osmanlı İlmiyye Bürokrasisinde
Şeyhülislâmlığın Değişen Rolü ve Mülâzemet Sistemi (XVI.-XVIII. Yüzyıllar)”, Belleten, V:
73, I: 267, p. 423 and more pages.
Cin / Akyılmaz, p. 171 and more pages.
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III. THE PERIOD OF CODIFICATION AND NEW IJTIHAD.
The period that started with the declaration of the Tanzimat edict and
still continues is called the period of “enactment/codification and new ijtihad”
in terms of Islamic legal history. The striking feature of this period is the
enactment of the provisions of Islamic law. In this period, two types of
enactment methods were followed. The first is to enact the provisions of Islamic
law. The second is the translation of the laws of European states71.
There are many reasons for the legalization movements in the Ottoman
State72. The first of the reasons for the legalization movements of the Tanzimat
period is the changes in commercial, economic and social life. Changes in social
life, especially the change in the roles of women in society, are among the
reasons for enactment movements. Legal needs also led to the need for new
laws. As a matter of fact, the effects and pressures of western states are also
among the reasons for enactment movements.
71
72
For detail see Kayar, Betül (2021) Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Hukuk Reformları, Ankara,
Adalet; Demir, p. 117. For the similarities of the Codification movement in the Ottoman
Empire with similar movements in the same period, see Akyılmaz, Gül (2021)“İki Önemli
Kodifikasyon Örneği: Mecelle ve 1774 Tarihli İsveç (Medeni) Kanunu, Benzerlikler Farklılıklar”, Uluslararası Mecelle Sempozyumu, Bursa, p. 85 and more pages; Gedikli, Fethi
(2015) “Hukukî Düşünce Yahut Cumhuriyetin Hukuk Devrimi “Bedevilikten Medenliğe
Geçiş”: Bolay, Süleyman Hayri (Editor) Tanzimat’tan Günümüze Türk Düşüncesi V:2,
Ankara, Nobel, p. 890 and more pages.
For detail see Demir, p. 118; Şentop, Mustafa (2005) “Tanzimat Dönemi Kanunlaştırma
Faaliyetleri Literatürü”, Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatürü Dergisi, I: 5, V: 3, p. 647 and more
pages; Akgündüz (1990), pp. 129-130; Ortaylı, İlber (1995) İmparatorluğun En Uzun
Yüzyılı, 3rd Edition, İstanbul, Hil, p. 52; Gümüş, Musa (2013) “Osmanlı Devleti’nde
Kanunlaştırma Hareketleri İdeolojisi ve Kurumları, Tarih Okulu Dergisi, I: 14, p. 166 and
more pages; İbrahim, Abdülazim (2022) “Tanzimat Sonrası Gayrimüslim Osmanlı
Tebaasının Hukuki Durumu”, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, I:1,
V:5, p.64; Akman, Ahmet (2019) “Tanzimat Sonrasi Osmanli Usûl Hukukundaki
Gelişmeler”, MANAS Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, I: 1, V:8, p.432.
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In the preparation of new laws, different opinions declared73. Some views
suggested that Islamic law should be codified in a modern way74. Some opinions
recommended that western laws should be transferred to the Ottoman State75.
As a result, there has been a dual distinction between domestic (national) laws
and laws taken from foreign legislation by way of quotation (reception).
As stated before, within the framework of the limited legislative authority
granted to the ulu’l-emr by Islamic law, modern legalization movements were
seen in the Ottoman State. In the Tanzimat period, the domestic laws prepared
without benefiting from the laws of foreign countries are the Penal Code of 1840
(1256) and 1851 (1267), the Land Code of 1858 (1274), the Majella, which was
completed between 1869-1876, and the Family Law Decree of 191776.
73
74
75
76
Bozkurt, Gülnihal (2020) Batı Hukukunun Türkiye’de Benimsenmesi, 3rd Edition, Ankara,
Türk Tarih Kurumu, p.51; Üçok, Coşkun/ Mumcu, Ahmet / Bozkurt, Gülnihal (2015) Türk
Hukuk Tarihi, 17th Edition, Ankara, Turhan, p. 333; Durhan, İbrahim (2008) “Tanzimat
Döneminde Osmanlı Yargı Teşkilatındaki Gelişmeler”, Erzincan Üniversitesi Hukuk
Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 12, I:3-4, p. 55 and more pages; Velidedeoğlu, Veldet Hıfzı (1940)
“Kanunlaştırma Hareketleri ve Tanzimat”, Tanzimat I, İstanbul, Maarif, pp. 168-169; Akça,
Gürsoy / Hülür, Himmet (2006) “Osmanlı Hukukunun Temelleri ve Tanzimat
Dönemindeki Hukuksal Yeniliklerin Sosyo-Politik Dinamikleri”, Selçuk Üniversitesi
Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi, I: 19, p. 295 and more pages;
Kılınç, Ahmet (2019) “İslam Hukukunun Evrenselliği Bağlamında Hukuk-ı Aile
Kararnamesi ile Malezya İslam Aile Hukuku Kanunu 1984’ün Mukayesesi”, Erciyes
Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 14, I:2, p.623 and more pages.
Taş, Kemaleddin/ Göksüçukur, Betül (2019) “Osmanlı Dönemi Batıcılık, İslamcılık
Türkçülük Fikir Akımları ve Din”, Dini Araştırmalar, V: 22, I:56, p. 477 and more pages;
Yıldız, M Cengiz (1999) “Osmanlı’nın Son Dönemindeki Üç Düşünce Akımının Sosyolojik
Analizi: Batılılaşma, İslamcılık ve Milliyetçilik”, SDÜ Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler
Dergisi, I: 4, Isparta, p. 286.
Akbulut, İlhan (2018) Türk Hukuk Tarihi, İstanbul, Timaş, p. 309; for detail information
about Namık Kemal and its law oponion see Değirmenci, Rıdvan (2021) Tanzimat Sürecinde
Osmanlı Devleti’nin Hukuk Değişimi ve Namık Kemal’in Hukuk Anlayışı, Ankara, Astana,
p.77 and more pages.
Cin / Akyılmaz, p. 560-561; Akgündüz, Said Nuri (2017) Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Ceza
Hukuku Uygulaması, İstanbul, Rağbet, pp. 77-78; Osmanağaoğlu Karahasanoğlu, Cihan
(2011) “Mecelle-i Ahkam-ı Adliyye’nin Yürürlüğe Girişi ve Türk Hukuk Tarihi Bakımından
Önemi”, Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi, I: 29, p. 114; After the
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Majella, has been prepared based on Islamic legal sources. Only the
ijtihads within the Hanafi Sect were included in the Majella. It is partially
prepared in a modern style. The first 99 articles are general rules and include
legal principles. It was published in the form of books between 1868-1876. The
sixteen books mainly cover the debts, partly the law of property and jurisdiction
and do not have the characteristics of a full civil/obligation law; There are no
family and inheritance law departments.
The land code of 1858 is one of the efforts to bring together the principles
of land law in the Tanzimat period. The law consists of an introduction (art. 17), three chapters and 132 articles in six chapters, and a rhetoric. The first article
of the qānunnâme divides the lands in the Ottoman country into five categories:
mulk, mîrî, mevkuf, abandoned and mevât land.
The 1840 penal code was prepared by partially utilizing the western law
technique. However, in accordance with the Ottoman law-making tradition, it
did not include information on the general theory of crime. In this respect, it
can be said that it is a domestic law. Regarding the hadd and qisas punishments,
it is sufficient to refer to the Sharia, only tazir punishments are regulated.
Crimes such as crimes against the sultan and the state, rebellion, injury, insult,
bribery, and rancor were organized. It does not contain provisions contrary to
Islamic Law. In the law, a fixed penalty was prescribed for each crime, and the
judge was not given discretionary power. The death penalty will be decided by
the judge, but the execution will be carried out after the sultan's approval.
It would be useful to briefly dwell on the 1917 family law decree. In the
Family Decree of 1917, the jurisprudence (ijtihad) of the Hanafi sect
(madhhab), which was the first official sect (madhhab), was abandoned on
some issues and the views of other legal sects (madhhab) (Maliki-ShafiiHanbali sects (madhhabs)) were preferred and solutions were tried to be
produced for social needs and conditions of the age without going beyond the
1920s, codification movements in family and inheritance law started in other Islamic
countries as well.
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limits of Islamic law77. In other words, the 1917 family law decree was prepared
according to the views of four sects, and this decree even includes provisions
for non-Muslims78. Thus, the period of taqlid and following only one sect
(madhhab) has ended. As a result, a suitable ground has been prepared for the
initiation of jurisprudence activities in Islamic countries to adapt Islamic law to
the needs of the day.
The laws prepared by translation from other countries are the
Commercial Code of 1850, the Criminal Code of 185879, the Commercial
Procedure Code of 1861, the Maritime Commercial Code of 1863, the Criminal
Procedure Code of 1879, and the Civil Procedure Code of 187980. The laws that
were translated from the West brought new legal institutions with them 81.
Attorneyship82, notary83 public, public prosecutorship84 can be given as
examples of these institutions.
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
Aydın, M. Akif (2017) Osmanlı Aile Hukuku, İstanbul, Klasik, p.28 and more pages; Cin,
Halil (1988) İslâm ve Osmanlı Hukukunda Evlenme, Konya, Selçuk Üniversitesi, p. 293 and
more pages.
Some provisions of the decree were common to all Muslim and non-Muslim. Engagement
provisions exemplify this. Doğangüzel, Semra Betül (2021) Osmanlı Hukukunda
Nişanlanma, 2nd Edition, Ankara, Adalet, p. 40 and more pages.
Some scholars do not think that this act was prepared by translating Western country’s act.
For discuss see Örsten Esirgen, Seda (2019) “Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Türk Hukukunda
Kanunlaştırma Hareketleri”, Adalet Dergisi, V: 1-2, I:62-63, p. 438.
Cin / Akyılmaz, p. 561; Akgündüz (2017), pp. 77-78.
Bozkurt, p. 126 and more pages.
The defense mechanism became modern and organized with the 1875 Mehakim-i Nizamiye
Dava Vekilleri Hakkında Nizamname; Kılıç, Yusuf (2019) Osmanlı Hukuku’nda Vekâlet
Sözleşmesi, Ankara, Adalet, p. 148.
The 1879 Code of Mukavelat Muharrirleri Nizamnamesi, was prepared by utilizing the
French Notary Law, and enacted for the first time that an officer would only be a notary
public, Ülker, İbrahim (2018) Osmanlı Noterlik Hukuku, Ankara, Adalet, p. 384.
The prosecutorship is regulated in detail by the law Mehakim-i Nizamiye’nin Teşkilat-ı
Kanun-ı Muvakkatı and Usul-i Muhakemeat-ı Cezaiye Kanun-ı Muvakkat dated 1879; Ünal
Özkorkut, Nevin (2016) Osmanlı Hukukunda Müdde-i Umumilik, Ankara, Turhan, p.80;
Ünal Özkorkut, Nevin (2003) “Savcılık, Avukatlık ve Noterlik Kurumlarının Osmanlı
Devleti’ne Girişi”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V:52, I:4, p.149.
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The codification movements in the Tanzimat period created a dualist
(dual) structure in the Ottoman legal system, while the rules of Islamic law
remained valid, and laws taken from Western countries were tried to be
implemented in certain areas85. Another reason for the emergence of the dualist
legal system in the post-Tanzimat period is the changes in the judicial
organization. Because, new courts such as the ticaret (trade), muhtelit ticaret
(mixed commerce), nizāmiye courts, meclis-ı tahkikat emerged.
The dualistic structure has led to serious problems. It is stated by both
the lawyers of the period and some contemporary lawyers that this situation
caused conflicts of duty and authority between the judicial organizations at that
time and therefore caused the cases to be resolved unjustly86. Some authors even
stated that this situation is unreasonable and dangerous87. The reason for the
criticism of the period in this way is that some crimes have the duty and
authority of both the sharia courts and the nizāmiye courts88.
CONCLUSION
There is a historical stage of development and formation of Islamic law.
The last two of the six periods of Islamic legal history correspond to the
Ottoman State period. The period of imitation (taqlid) and codification and the
new ijitihad are important both for Islamic law and for the Ottoman state.
85
86
87
88
Koyuncu, Nuran / Yılmaz, Yasin “Osmanlı’nın Son Yüzyılında Hukuk Düşüncesinin
Dönüşümü ve Dönemin Başlıca Tartışma Konuları”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi
Dergisi, V: 26, I:2, p. 83; Cin / Akyılmaz, p. 563.
Mehmed Arif Bey (1325) “İ’dâm Cezâsı Târihcesi – Bizde İcrâ Edilememesi Esbâbı”, İlm-i
Hukuk ve Mukayese-i Kavânîn Mecmuası, I: 1, p. 53 and more pages, Kılınç, Ahmet (2015)
“Bir Meclis-i Vâlâ Hükmü ve Tahlili”, Adam Akademi, V: 5/1, p. 15-36; Kılınç, Ahmet /
Yıldırım, Davut (2021) “Tanzimat Dönemi Dualist Hukuk Yapısının Şahsa Karşı İşlenen
Suçlara Yansıması”: Koyuncu, Nuran / Yıldız, Abdulkadir (Editors), Necmettin Erbakan
Hukuk Araştırmaları Kamu Hukuku, Konya, Necmettin Erbakan University Publications, p.
177.
Kantar, Baha (1984) Ceza Hukuku, İstanbul, p. 139; Gökcen, Ahmet (1987) “Tanzimat
Dönemi Osmanlı Ceza Kanunları ve Bu Kanunlardaki Ceza Müeyyideleri” (Master), İstanbul
University, Institute of Social Sciences, p. 37; Kılınç (2015), p. 19.
Kılınç (2015), p. 19; Kılınç/Yıldırım, pp. 177-178.
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Because in these periods, the caliphate passed to the Ottoman state, and the
Turks contributed a lot to the spread of Islam. This union made significant
contributions to the development and experience of Islamic law.
The period of taqlid, which corresponds to the 13th -19th centuries,
coincides with the classical period of the Ottoman state. The Ottoman state
made very important contributions both theoretically and practically in this
period.
Fiqh books, commentaries (şerh) and annotations (haşiye) which has
doctrinally rich content were written in the Ottoman state. Only the existence
of 150 fiqh studies until the Padishah Mehmed 2nd, conqueror period is an
example of this. During this period, many important studies such as fiqh books
such as Mülteka’l-Ebhur and fatwa books such as Behcetü'l Fetâvâ were
produced in the Ottoman state. As in the case of the money foundation, very
serious monographic Islamic law studies have been written.
During this period, there were several aspects that made the Ottoman
state special. These are the official sect (madhhab) preference, the sultanic law
and the status of the Shaykh al-Islam. Since the 16th century, the Ottoman state
government ordered to resolve legal disputes according to the Hanafi sect's
jurisprudence (ijtihad). This situation was written in the qādī records and
became the subject of fatwas. The qādīs resolved the disputes according to the
ijtihad of the Hanafi madhhab. While this preference provided legal unity and
legal stability, it also constituted a relative obstacle to the development of law.
The Ottoman state acted bravely in using the sultanic law. Only during the reign
of Sultan Suleiman about 200 qānūnnāmes were issued. Even provisions on
family law have been enacted through Sultan edicts. Some legal choices, which
are in weak opinion within the Hanafi madhhab, have been legalized through
qānūnnāmes. In our opinion, Islamic law and sultanic law are two legal systems
that are intertwined and complement each other. Shaykh al-Islam gained an
official identity in the Ottoman state and became the head of the ilmiyye group
and theoretically the judicial organization. Shaykh al-Islam had legislative,
executive and judicial powers in the Ottoman State.
The Ottoman state started the period of codification and new ijtihad. In
this period, both the rules of law were taken from the west and domestic
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provisions were enacted with modern techniques. As in the 1917 family law
decree, the official sect preference was abolished. Along with the laws brought
from the west, new legal institutions took their place in the Ottoman law.
During the Tanzimat period, these developments created a dualist legal
structure. Both laws created in accordance with Islamic provisions and laws
brought from the West were in effect at the same time. This has been a very
important gain in terms of legal experience.
The Ottoman state has a very important place in the formation of Islamic
law. The laws enacted during its reign were implemented in Islamic states even
after it was collapsed. Many states continue to use the laws enacted during its
reign as an example. Developments such as official sectarian preference and
dualist legal structure in the Ottoman state are very important “experiences”
for today's Islamic states. For this reason, when a step is taken regarding Islamic
law, the Ottoman experiences should not be ignored.
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Açısından Mezheplerin Konumu (Hanefi Mezhebi İçtihatları ve Osmanlı
Devleti Uygulamaları Çerçevesinde)”, Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları,
I: 11, pp.7-31.
Aydın, M.Âkif (2009) Türk Hukuk Tarihi, 7th Edition, İstanbul, Beta.
Aydın, Mehmet Akif (2017) Osmanlı Aile Hukuku, İstanbul, Klasik
Bardakoğlu, Ali (1997) “Hanefî Mezhebi”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, V:16,
İstanbul.
Bardakoğlu, Ali (1999) “Osmanlı Hukukunun Şer’îliği Üzerine”, Osmanlı, V:
6, Ankara, pp. 412-417.
Beyazıt, Yasemin (2009) “Osmanlı İlmiyye Bürokrasisinde Şeyhülislâmlığın
Değişen Rolü ve Mülâzemet Sistemi (XVI.-XVIII. Yüzyıllar)”, Belleten,
V: 73, I: 267, pp. 423-442.
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Bozkurt, Gülnihal (2020) Batı Hukukunun Türkiye’de Benimsenmesi, 3rd
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Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2016) "Fatwa." Encyclopedia
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Society”, Studia Islamica, I: 35, pp. 53-67.
Çelik, Mehmet (2012) Büyük İslam Hukuku Mecme’ul Enhur (Mültekâ’lEbhur’un Şerhi- Damad) Tercümesi, İstanbul, Yasin.
Cici, Recep (2001) Osmanlı Dönemi İslam Hukuku Çalışmaları (Kuruluştan
Fatih Devri Sonuna Kadar), Bursa, Arasta.
Cin Halil/ Akgündüz Ahmed (1989) Türk Hukuk Tarihi, V:1, Konya.
83
573
Ahmet KILINÇ
YBHD 2022/2
Cin, Halil (1988) İslâm ve Osmanlı Hukukunda Evlenme, Konya, Selçuk
Üniversitesi.
Cin, Halil (1992) Osmanlı Toprak Düzeni ve Bu Düzenin Bozulması, 3rd
Edition, Konya, Selçuk Üniversitesi.
Cin, Halil / Akyılmaz, Gül (2013) Türk Hukuk Tarihi, 5th Edition, Konya,
Sayram.
Değirmenci, Rıdvan (2021) Tanzimat Sürecinde Osmanlı Devleti’nin Hukuk
Değişimi ve Namık Kemal’in Hukuk Anlayışı, Ankara, Astana.
Demir Abdullah (2019) Mufassal Türk Hukuk Tarihi, Ankara Astana.
Doğangüzel, Semra Betül (2021) Osmanlı Hukukunda Nişanlanma, 2nd
Edition, Ankara, Adalet.
Durhan, İbrahim (2008) “Tanzimat Döneminde Osmanlı Yargı Teşkilatındaki
Gelişmeler”, Erzincan Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 12, I: 34, pp. 55-108.
Düzdağ, Ertuğrul (2012) Kanunî Devri Şeyhülislam Ebussuud Efendi
Fetvaları, İstanbul, Kapı.
Ekinci, Ekrem Buğra (2003) İslâm Hukuku ve Önceki Şeriatlar, İstanbul, Arı
Sanat.
El Moudden, Abderrahmane (1995) “The Idea of the Caliphate between
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Şeyhülislām to the Diyanet”, The Muslim World, V: 98, I: 2-3,
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Fendoğlu, Hasan Tahsin (2021) Türk Anayasa Hukuku Tarihi, Ankara,
Yetkin.
Gedikli, Fethi (2012) “İstanbul’da Para Vakıfları ve Mudârebe”, Osmanlı
Hukuku Makaleler, Istanbul, Gündoğan.
Gedikli, Fethi (2015) “Hukukî Düşünce Yahut Cumhuriyetin Hukuk Devrimi
“Bedevilikten Medenliğe Geçiş”: Bolay, Süleyman Hayri (Editor)
Tanzimat’tan Günümüze Türk Düşüncesi V:2, Ankara, Nobel.
84
574
YBHD 2022/2
Ahmet KILINÇ
Gedikli, Fethi (2018) “Osmanlı Mahkemesinde Fetva Kullanımı ve Fetva-Kaza
İlişkisi” : Kaya, Süleyman; Uğur Yunus; Demiray, Mustafa (Editors),
Osmanlı Hukukunda Fetva, İstanbul, Klasik.
Gökcen, Ahmet (1987) “Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Ceza Kanunları ve Bu
Kanunlardaki Ceza Müeyyideleri” (Master), İstanbul University,
Institute of Social Sciences.
Guida, Michelangelo (2008) “Seyyid Bey and the Abolition of the Caliphate”,
Middle Eastern Studies, V: 44, I: 2, pp. 275-289.
Gümüş, Musa (2013) “Osmanlı Devleti’nde Kanunlaştırma Hareketleri
İdeolojisi ve Kurumları, Tarih Okulu Dergisi, I: 14, pp. 163-200.
Hallaq, Wael B. (1984) “Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?”, International Journal
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Heyd, Uriel (1983) “Eski Osmanlı Ceza Hukukunda Kanun ve Şeriat”, Ankara
Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, (Translator: Selâhaddin Eroğlu) V:
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Heyd, Uriel, (1973) Studies in Old Ottoman Criminal Law, Oxford, Oxford.
Heyd, Uriel (1995) “Osmanlı Fetva Müessesesinin Bazı Tezahürleri (III Levha
İle Birlikte)”, translator: Gedikli Fethi, Marmara Universitesi, Hukuk
Fakültesi Hukuk Araştırmaları Dergisi, V: 9, I: 13, pp.287- 317.
Hocaeminefendizade, Ali Haydar Efendi (1992) Dürerü’l Hukkâm Şerhu
Mecelleti’l Ahkâm, İstanbul, Osmanlı.
Imber, Colin (2007) Ebu’s-su’ud, The Islamic Tradition, Edinburg, Standford
University.
İbrahim, Abdülazim (2022) “Tanzimat Sonrası Gayrimüslim Osmanlı
Tebaasının Hukuki Durumu”, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Hukuk
Fakültesi Dergisi, I:1, V:5, pp.63-91.
İncalcık, Halil (2000) “Türk İslam Devletlerinde Devlet Kanunu Geleneği”,
Osmanlı’da Devlet, Hukuk, Adalet, İstanbul, Eren.
İpşirli, Mehmet (2010) “Şeyhülsilam”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, V: 39,
İstanbul.
85
575
Ahmet KILINÇ
YBHD 2022/2
Kantar, Baha (1984) Ceza Hukuku, İstanbul.
Karakaya, Harun (2020) “Osmanlı Ceza Hukuku’nda Parada Sahtecilik Suçu”,
(Master), Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University, Institute of Social
Sciences, Ankara.
Karataş, Abdullah Vefa (2019) “Divan-ı Hümayun ile Paşa Divanının
Karşılaştırılması -Manisa Şehzâde Sarayı Dîvânı Örneği-“, Adalet
Dergisi, V:1-2, I: 63, pp.235-264.
Karataş, Abdullah Vefa (2020) “Türk Hukuk Tarihi Açısından Kul Sistemi”,
Yıldırım Beyazıt Hukuk Dergisi, I: 1, pp.153-188.
Karaman, Hayrettin (2013) Mukayeseli İslam Hukuku I, 8th Edition, İstanbul,
İz.
Kaya, Eyüp Said (2010) “Şerh” TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, V: 38, İstanbul.
Kaya, Süleyman/ Algın, Betül/ Trabzonlu, Zeynep / Erkan, Asuman (2011)
Behcetü’l-Fetâvâ, İstanbul.
Kayar, Betül (2021) Tanzimat Dönemi Osmanlı Hukuk Reformları, Ankara,
Adalet.
Kılıç, Yusuf (2019) Osmanlı Hukuku’nda Vekâlet Sözleşmesi, Ankara, Adalet.
Kılınç, Ahmet (2015) “Bir Meclis-i Vâlâ Hükmü ve Tahlili”, Adam Akademi,
V: 5/1, pp. 15-36
Kılınç, Ahmet (2018) “Çocuk Düşürtme Suçunun 17’nci Yüzyıl
İstanbul’undaki Görünümü”, Dicle Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi
Dergisi, V: 23, I:38, pp. 31-84.
Kılınç, Ahmet (2018) “Hukuk Tarihi Açısından Kanuni Dönemine Münhasır
Gelişmeler”: Baki, Adnan/ Karal, Hasan (Editors), I. Uluslararası Kanuni
Sultan Süleyman Sempozyumu, 24-26 April 2018, (2018a).
Kılınç, Ahmet (2019) “İslam Hukukunun Evrenselliği Bağlamında Hukuk-ı
Aile Kararnamesi ile Malezya İslam Aile Hukuku Kanunu 1984’ün
Mukayesesi”, Erciyes Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 14, I: 2,
pp. 623-662.
86
576
YBHD 2022/2
Ahmet KILINÇ
Kılınç, Ahmet / Yıldırım, Davut (2021) “Tanzimat Dönemi Dualist Hukuk
Yapısının Şahsa Karşı İşlenen Suçlara Yansıması”: Koyuncu, Nuran /
Yıldız, Abdulkadir (Editors), Necmettin Erbakan Hukuk Araştırmaları
Kamu Hukuku, Konya, Necmettin Erbakan University Publications.
Kılınç, Ahmet, “İslam Hukuk Tarihi Açısından Osmanlı Devleti’nin Önemi”:
İbrahim, Abdülazim (Editör), 1. Uluslararası Irak’ta Osmanlı İzleri
Sempozyumu Özet Bildiri Kitabı,15-16 November 2021, Karabük.
Kızılkaya, Necmettin (2006) “Hanefi Furû-ı Fıkıh Eserlerinde Fıkhî Kâidelerin
Uygulama Alanına Bir örnek olarak Bedâi’u’s-sanâi’”, İslam Hukuku
Araştırmaları Dergisi, I: 8, pp. 79-98.
Konan, Belkıs (2008) “Osmanlı Devleti’nde Çocuk Düşürme Suçu”, Ankara
Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 57, I: 4, pp. 319-335.
Koyuncu, Nuran (2016) “Osmanlı Hukukunda Esnaf Gediği”, II. Türk Hukuk
Tarihi Kongresi, Gedikli, Fethi (Editor), İstanbul, Onikilevha.
Koyuncu, Nuran / Yılmaz, Yasin “Osmanlı’nın Son Yüzyılında Hukuk
Düşüncesinin Dönüşümü ve Dönemin Başlıca Tartışma Konuları”,
Selçuk Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 26, I: 2, pp. 77-109.
Koyunoğlu, H. Hüsnü (2008) “Para Vakıfları: Muhasebe Defterlerine Göre 17.
Yüzyil Istanbul Uygulaması”, Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi,
V: 8, I: 1, pp. 253-303.
L.W.C. (Eric), Van Lit (2017) “Commentary and Commentary Tradition the
Basic Terms for Understanding Islamic Intellectual History”, MIDÉO, V:
32, <http://journals.openedition.org/mideo/1580> I.a.d: 25.02.2022
Livaoğlu Mengüç, Hilal (2019) “The Egyptian Response to the Abolition of the
Caliphate: A Press Survey”, Cumhuriyet Tarihi Araştırmaları Dergisi , I:
30, Year 15, pp. 109-133.
Mandaville, Jon E. (1998) “Faizli Dindarlık: Osmanlı İmparatorluğunda Para
Vakfı Tartışması”, (Translator: Gedikli, Fethi), Yaz Gündemi, Türkiye
Günlüğü, p. 129-144.
Mehmed Arif Bey (1325) “İ’dâm Cezâsı Târihcesi – Bizde icrâ edilememesi
esbâbı”, İlm-i Hukuk ve Mukayese-i Kavânîn Mecmuası, I: 1, pp.49-53.
87
577
Ahmet KILINÇ
YBHD 2022/2
Mevkûfâtî, Mehmed (1980) Mültekâ Tercümesi Mevkûfât, Simplified by:
Ahmed Davudoğlu, İstanbul Doyuran Matbaası.
Mumcu, Ahmet (2007) Divan-ı Hümayun, 3rd Edition, Ankara, Phoenix.
Örsten Esirgen, Seda (2019) “Taznimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Türk Hukukunda
Kanunlaştırma Hareketleri”, Adalet Dergisi, V: 1-2, I: 62-63, pp. 429-480.
Örsten, Seda (2005) “Osmanlı Hukukunda Fetvâ”, Ankara Üniversity Institüte
of Social Sicence (Master), Ankara.
Örsten, Seda (2007) “Osmanlı Hukuk Tarihi Kaynağı Olarak Fetvâ
Mecmuaları”, Türk Hukuk Tarihi Araştırmaları, I:4, pp. 29-40.
Ortaylı, İlber (1995) İmparatorluğun En Uzun Yüzyılı, 3rd Edition, İstanbul,
Hil.
Osmanağaoğlu Karahasanoğlu, Cihan (2011) “Mecelle-i Ahkam-ı Adliyye’nin
Yürürlüğe Girişi ve Türk Hukuk Tarihi Bakımından Önemi”, Osmanlı
Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi, I: 29, pp. 93-124.
Osmanağaoğlu Karahasanoğlu, Cihan (2012) “Ömer Lütfi Barkan ve Türk
Hukuk Tarihi”, İstanbul Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Mecmuası, V: 70,
I: 1, pp. 413 – 440.
Osmanağaoğlu, Cihan (2010) “Osmanlı Devleti’nin Klasik Döneminde, Para
Vakıflarının Hukuki Yönü”, Maltepe Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi
Dergisi, I: 1-2,, pp. 247-300.
Özdemir, Merve (2016) “Osmanlı Fetvalarında Iskât-ı Cenînin (Cenin
Düşürmenin) Cezai Sonuçları”, Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi,
V: 9, I: 46, pp. 956-965.
Peters, Rudolph (2005) “What does it mean to be an official madhhab:
Hanafism and the Ottoman Empire.”, The Islamic School of Law:
Evolution, Devolution, and Progress (Editors: P. Bearman, R. Peters, F.
Vogel.) Cambridge, Harvard University, pp. 147-158.
Rafeq, Abdul-Karim (1999) “Relations Between The Syrian 'Ulama' And The
Ottoman State In The Eighteenth Century”, Oriente Moderno Nuova
serie,nV: 18 (79), I:1, pp. 67-95.
88
578
YBHD 2022/2
Ahmet KILINÇ
Remali Yusoff, Nor’zurah Md. Kamdari (2017) “Understanding Usul Al-Fiqh
and Its Application Analysis”, Sukuk, Muktamar Waqf Iqlimi, V: 4, pp.
148-157.
Şa’bân, Zekiyyüddîn (2000) İslâm Hukuk İlminin Esasları, Ankara, Türkiye
Diyanet Vakfı.
Şensoy, Sedat (2010) “Şerh”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, V: 38, İstanbul.
Şentop, Mustafa (2005) “Tanzimat Dönemi Kanunlaştırma Faaliyetleri
Literatürü”, Türkiye Araştırmaları Literatürü Dergisi, V: 3, I: 5, pp. 647672.
Şimşek, Mehmet (1985) “Osmanlı Cemiyetinde Para Vakıfları Üzerine
Münakaşalar”, Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, I: 27, pp.
207-220.
Sirry, Mun'im (2013) “Fatwas and their controversy: The case of the Council
of Indonesian Ulama (MUI)”, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, V: 44,
I: 1, Singapore, Cambridge, Cambridge University, pp. 100-117.
Sobia, Bashir / Amen Imran (2012) “Legal System of the Ottoman Empire”,
Journal of Law and Society Law College,V: 42, I: 59, Peshawar, pp. 101110.
Taş, Kemaleddin/ Göksüçukur, Betül (2019) “Osmanlı Dönemi Batıcılık,
İslamcılık Türkçülük Fikir Akımları ve Din”, Dini Araştırmalar, V: 22, I:
56, Ankara, pp. 463-488.
Topuzoğlu, Tevfik Rüştü (1997) “Haşiye”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, V: 16,
İstanbul.
Ucatlı Abdulahat (2009) “İslâm Hukukunda Cenine Müdahalenin Hükmü”,
(Master) İstanbul Üniversity , Institute of Social Sciences.
Üçok, Çoşkun (1946) “Osmanlı Kanunnamelerinde İslam Ceza Hukukuna
Aykırı Hükümler”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V:3, I:
1, pp. 125-146.
Üçok, Çoşkun (1947) “Osmanlı Kanunnamelerinde İslâm Ceza Hukukuna
Aykırı Hükümler”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, V: 4,
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89
579
Ahmet KILINÇ
YBHD 2022/2
Üçok, Coşkun/ Mumcu, Ahmet / Bozkurt, Gülnihal (2015) Türk Hukuk
Tarihi, 17th Edition, Ankara, Turhan.
Ülker, İbrahim (2018) Osmanlı Noterlik Hukuku, Ankara, Adalet.
Ünal Özkorkut, Nevin (2003) “Savcılık, Avukatlık ve Noterlik Kurumlarının
Osmanlı Devleti’ne Girişi”, Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi
Dergisi, V:52, I: 4, pp.114-154.
Ünal Özkorkut, Nevin (2016) Osmanlı Hukukunda Müdde-i Umumilik,
Ankara, Turhan.
Velidedeoğlu, Veldet Hıfzı (1940) “Kanunlaştırma Hareketleri ve Tanzimat”,
Tanzimat I, İstanbul, Maarif.
Weiss, Bernard (1978) “Interpretation in Islamic Law: The Theory of Ijtihād”,
The American Journal of Comparative Law, V: 26, I:2, pp. 199-212.
Yakar, Emine Enise (2019) “A Critical Comparison Between The Presidency
Of Religious Affairs (Diyanet İşleri Başkanliği) And The Office Of
Shaykh Al-Islâm”, Kilis 7 Aralık Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi,
V: 6, I: 11, pp. 421-452.
Yıldız, Kemal/ Yıldırım, İlyas/ Demir, Oğuzhan (2014) “Türkçe Telif Edilen
Fıkıh İlmi/İslam Hukuku Tarihi Çalışmaları”, Türkiye Araştırmaları
Literatür Dergisi, V: 12, I: 24, pp. 127-145.
Yıldız, M Cengiz (1999) “Osmanlı’nın Son Dönemindeki Üç Düşünce
Akımının Sosyolojik Analizi: Batılılaşma, İslamcılık ve Milliyetçilik”,
SDÜ Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal bilimler Dergisi, I: 4, Isparta, pp. 279301.
Yılmaz, Çoşkun (Editör), Hasköy Mahkemesi 3 Numaralı Sicil (H. 1023-1081
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90
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