Earth's Energy Balance and Thermodynamic Properties

Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 Earth’s Energy Balance and Thermodynamic Properties By: Walter Fiori, Correction page 17 Revised: 16 July, 2022. (Revisions to sections 4.3 and 4.3.3 of original article: Earth’s Energy Balance, Heat Sources, Global Warming and Thermodynamic Properties of 8/7/2022) Revised: 6 March, 2023. (Revision to pages 15 and 16 section 4.3.3.) Abstract This article theorises that the earth is an entity in the solar system that has properties that promotes life supported by the level of warmth from two (2) principle sources of heat: 1. The sun – that, together with the earth’s biospheric properties, elevates the earth’s status above a black body and supplies the warmth that maintains the conditions for life. 2. The earth’s mantle and core supplying heat in a volume that is continuous but subject to variability dependent on the thickness of the earth’s crust, extent of fissures in seafloor ridges, the movement of the continental and oceanic plates and subduction (or obduction) events. The interactivity of the heat released from the two (2) sources is considered in terms of the Laws of Thermodynamics and the Conservation of matter and Energy as, together, they have an effect on the earth which initiates a reconsideration of the current concept of the Earth’s Energy Balance and causes of global warming. Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................. 1 4.1 - Introduction .................................................................................................................... 2 4.2 – The Earth’s heat sources and heat capture mechanisms ............................................... 4 4.2.1 - Insolation ................................................................................................................. 4 4.2.2 - Ocean currents ......................................................................................................... 6 4.2.3 – Geothermal heat ...................................................................................................... 6 4.2.4 - The atmosphere ....................................................................................................... 7 4.2.5 - The epipelagic zone and the thermocline ................................................................ 8 4.3 – Earth Energy Imbalance (EEI) .................................................................................... 11 4.3.1 – Sources of heat energy that impact EEI................................................................ 12 4.3.2 – Glaciation and heat energy absorption ................................................................. 13 4.3.3 - Energy sources that impacted the earth in 2019 .................................................... 14 4.3.4 - Release of geothermal heat into the ocean ............................................................ 15 4.3.5 – The atomic age...................................................................................................... 17 4.3.6 – Ocean heat accumulation ...................................................................................... 19 1 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 4.3.7 - Instantaneous evacuation of heat from the biosphere. .......................................... 20 4.4 – The earth’s energy management systems .................................................................... 20 4.4.3 – Heat gains and losses caused by the day/night cycle............................................ 26 4.4.4 – Earth’s input/output energy – sources and drains ................................................. 27 4.4.5 - The geothermal heat escape route ......................................................................... 31 4.4.6 - Heat dissipation from the Polar Ocean .................................................................. 31 4.4.7 - The Polar Regions’ hydrologic cycle .................................................................... 33 4.5 –The Earth Energy System (EES) .................................................................................. 34 4.5.1 – The five (5) biospheric components of the EES ................................................... 36 4.5.2 – Differences between the EEB and the EES models ............................................. 37 4.6 –Tectonic events that increased the earth’s AGT........................................................... 38 4.6.1 – Earth’s dynamics .................................................................................................. 38 4.6.2 - The South American Altoplano uplift event ......................................................... 38 4.6.3 – Temperature changes of the Arctic Ocean ........................................................... 42 4.6.4 – Other events of collision and uplift ...................................................................... 43 References ............................................................................................................................ 44 4.1 - Introduction The principle sources of heat, the sun and the earth, are accompanied by other sources of heat that associate with life, irregular natural events such as volcanic convulsions and forest fires and the energy released from potential energy sources by human (anthropogenic) activities. In addition to the injection of heat into the earth system there are systems in place that transfer heat from one point to another such as:      Ocean currents that deliver water warmed at the equator to the colder Polar Regions. Ocean currents that transport warmed water east to west about the equator. Convection of the earth’s heat into the atmosphere and into space. Wind and water systems that transport clouds, water vapour and heat about the earth. The hydrologic cycle that harvests heat in the atmosphere and land and returns it to the oceans. These variable component are of considerable importance in particular as to how they apply uniquely to continental plates, open oceans at latitudes below the Polar Regions and at the land and oceans of the Polar Regions. The most important of the Polar Regions’ particular properties is that they don’t have a 24 hour day/night cycle. Instead, because of the earth’s axial tilt, they have long periods of daylight followed by long periods of night. The absence of an alternating 24 hour day/night 2 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 cycle, together with their high latitude, creates a situation that is particular to the Polar Regions. They receive little life giving warmth from the sun and it leads to the possibility of them becoming ice bound during spells of reduced levels of insolation i.e. ice ages. The process that leads to ice age conditions begins with a deep cooling trend. Consequences of the cooling trend alter the environmental conditions of the Polar Regions that progress to land based glaciation and sea ice extent in a particular sequence. The South Pole is the first Polar Region to be affected during a cooling trend. The cooling trend progressively cools the surface of the sea and turns surface water to ice in the winter. The ice melts in the summer. This continues until the cold reaches an intensity that creates a permanent sea ice cover that persists year round. The area of the permanent sea ice cover increases the lower the average global temperature is taken to. The same process occurs in the Northern Polar Region as well if the cooling trend continues to lower the average global temperature. When this occurs the temperature of the northern oceans is taken to the point where their surface begin to turn to ice and the process continues as per the South Polar Region until the cooling trend ceases. Note that at a time of an extensive ice age, as occurred in the Pleistocene following the cooling path that began a few million years leading up to the Pleistocene, the extent of sea ice cover is also subjected to the earth’s dynamic circumstances related to the Milankovitch cycles. Glacial ice accumulates on land as the cooling trend progresses and the cold conditions of the ice age deepen. The oceans at the equatorial regions increase in their warmth when a warming trend begins. Ocean currents take the warm water to the Polar Regions. The heat in the water current merges with heat released by geothermal activity. The heat dissipates into the cooler Polar Ocean water warming it. The sea ice begins to melt. The continual flow of warm water and geothermal heat eventually warms the Polar Region’s ocean water sufficiently to melt all the sea ice and halts any further sea ice from forming. The glacial ice on land begins to melt as ambient temperatures and evaporation from the warming ocean increases. In time the continual flow of heat energy into the Polar Regions changes their climate status. Warm temperate climate conditions are reached if conditions drive the peak average global temperature to become high enough. This process follows the energy inputs into the earth’s biosphere, from various sources, which determine the average global temperature and the potential for climate change. Energy inputs and outputs that have an effect on the earth’s temperature and climate conditions identify the earth as part of the open system of the universe and subject to universal physical laws. The earth stands apart from a “black body” because of its content and state of fluids; the atmosphere and the water that are bound to the solid mass by gravity. The state of the fluids allow the creation of two distinct life supporting layers; the biosphere and the hydrosphere. 3 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The sources of heat energy the earth is subjected to regulate the environmental conditions that exist in the two life supporting layers of the earth in accordance to the laws of Thermodynamics and the Conservation of Matter and Energy. Each of the layers has a reserve of energy that maintains the environmental conditions of the respective layer. The earth adds or subtracts energy in its reserves from all its energy sources depending on whether the 150MY Solar Cycle trend is taking it either on a cooling or warming path. Global warming, climate change and the alterations to the earth’s habitats are all subject to sources of energy that abide strictly to the Laws of Thermodynamics. They apply particularly to an earth structure that can be viewed as an open system with variable layer apertures. The methods in which the laws apply to the heat energy in the earth system persist as the energy strives to reach equilibrium with the universe through entropy. A simplicity in the concept of thermodynamics was found in the concluding remarks in the Encyclopaedia Britannica’s article by G. W. F. Drake (R4.01) who wrote: “The 20th-century English scientist C.P. Snow explained the first three laws of thermodynamics, respectively, as: 1. You cannot win (i.e., one cannot get something for nothing, because of the conservation of matter and energy). 2. You cannot break even (i.e., one cannot return to the same energy state, because entropy, or disorder, always increases). 3. You cannot get out of the game (i.e., absolute zero is unattainable because no perfectly pure substance exists).” These explanations are observed throughout this discussion. 4.2 – The Earth’s heat sources and heat capture mechanisms Several aspects of the earth’s properties have to be considered when investigating the sources of heat that create the climate conditions and environments that exist around the earth. The natural heat sources each have their impact on the land and oceans of the earth. They drive the hydrologic cycle, the heat content of the oceans, the average global temperature and the atmospheric transfer of heat energy to space. 4.2.1 - Insolation The sun is earth’s primary source of heat. It provides a consistent amount of energy that maintains life supporting conditions on the earth. It does this in conjunction with earth’s primary properties of atmosphere, water and land. There are two (2) components of the earth’s properties that contribute to the variations in the irradiation as it makes its way to the surface:   The thickness of the atmosphere it has to travel through. Earth’s obliquity. 4 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The earth’s obliquity is particularly important. During the passage of an orbit of the sun the earth’s obliquity changes the point of the earth that is on the plane of the ecliptic. Only at equinox does the sun shine equally on the northern and southern hemispheres as it oscillates between today’s 23.5° angle of obliquity. The equinox provides each hemisphere with identical day/night timing and a level of irradiation that only differs by the small change in distance between the sun and the earth between the autumnal and vernal equinoxes. As the earth tilts about its angle of obliquity it alternately exposes the hemispheres to the direct incidence of the sun’s irradiation. The action causing each hemisphere’s opposite change in seasons. The earth’s obliquity also has a considerable effect on the Polar Regions. The further up the latitudes the less is the intensity of the insolation that reaches the surface of the earth. Currently the Polar Regions begin at a latitude of 66.5°. The 66.5° latitude receives about 40% of the warmth of the sun’s irradiation at equinox, decreasing to 0% at 90° latitude. The Polar Regions do not have a 24 hour day/night cycle of varying daylight and night-time hours but long periods of night followed by long periods of day. The earth’s axial tilt amplifies the Polar Regions’ lack of insolation during the winter season, when no insolation strikes the surface, and magnifies it during the summer season when the sun shines constantly. The reduction in insolation as latitudes climb from the equator to the Poles is in accordance to the Lambert and Beer Law (R4.02). The law defines the way the two (2) following aspects of the earth cause the sun’s irradiation to reduce: 1. The atmosphere absorbs and reflects the irradiation on its way to the surface in accordance to the distance the irradiation has to travel to get to the surface. 2. The greater the angle of incidence at any one point on the earth formed by the angle of obliquity and the plane of the ecliptic becomes, the greater is the depth of the atmosphere the irradiation has to travel through to reach the earth’s surface. Figure 4.1shows the way the irradiance intensity changes the further it has to travel to reach the earth’s surface. The indication of axial tilt on Figure 4 shows the times when the Polar Regions are either subject to continuous day or night conditions. The conditions prevalent at the Polar Regions work to both advance the earth into a warm state during periods of global warming and into a cold state, deeper towards ice age conditions, during periods of global cooling. The heat transfer mechanisms driving the local temperature of the Polar Regions are continuously in operation. 5 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 4.2.2 - Ocean currents The hydrologic cycle that applies about the earth manifests itself as a regional energy capture and inter-regional energy transfer mechanism. The equatorial regions receive considerably more of the sun’s heat compared to the Polar Regions. Insolation that strikes the oceans’ surface penetrates into the water and warms it considerably more at the equatorial regions than at the Polar Regions. The heat differential between the Polar and the equatorial regions form massive ocean currents that convey heat captured in the equatorial waters to the cooler Polar oceans. This action benefits both the Polar Regions and land adjacent to the warm ocean currents. The mechanism reduces the speed of advance of global warming while the earth is in the grips of ice age conditions as part of the heat delivered is used to melt sea ice. 4.2.3 – Geothermal heat The earth’s internally generated heat flux dissipates through the mantle into the earth’s crust, ocean waters, and atmosphere and into space throughout the surface of the earth’s sphere in a continuous process. It is the earth’s secondary heat source. Note that insolation is the primary source of warming of the oceans’ surface and the principle source of the epipelagic zone’s heat content, as discussed later. According to the KamLAND Collaboration in their 2011 article; Partial radiogenic heat model for Earth revealed by geoneutrino measurements (R4.03), the heat flux transmitted from below the earth’s crust was determined to be 44.2+/- 1.0TW (or 1.395 x 1021 +/- 3.156 x 1017 joules p.a.). The transmission of the heat energy from its source to the earth’s surface is measured and referred to as the geothermal gradient as shown in Figure 4.2. The gradient temperature of the earth increases in land, on average, by 25°C for each kilometre below the surface according to J.M.K.C. Donev et al. (2019) in their article; Geothermal gradient (R4.04) when measured from the surface to the base of the lithosphere. The heat generated at the earth’s core and in the mantle makes its way to the surface creating an additional heat source that applies to the surface of the earth. In the absence of any obstruction the heat enters the atmosphere and makes its way to space. However, there are obstructions as discussed later. 6 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 4.2.4 - The atmosphere NASA’s Earth Fact Sheet, 2021 (R4.05) describes the atmospheric composition (by volume, dry air) to be:     78.08% Nitrogen 20.95% Oxygen And by ppm: o 9340 Argon o 415 Carbon dioxide o 18.18 Neon o 5.24 Helium o 1.7 Methane o 1.14 Krypton o 0.55 Hydrogen Water content is highly variable and typically makes up about 1%. Figure 4.3 shows that the density of the atmosphere thins the further it is from the earth and forms into 5 distinct layers, each layer having particular properties. They have a defined termination boundary separating them. For example, the Troposphere terminates at the Tropopause and the Stratosphere terminates at the Stratopause. The creation and function of the boundaries are discussed in a later section of this article. The names and “thickness” of each layer are:   The Troposphere - The layer, 7 to 20km thick, closest to the earth’s surface.  The Stratosphere – The layer that begins at the boundary with the Troposphere and extends to about 50km above the earth’s surface.  The Mesosphere – The layer that begins at the boundary with the Stratosphere and extends to about 85 to 90km above the earth’s surface.  The Thermosphere – The layer that begins at the boundary with the Mesosphere and extends to heights from about 500 to 1000km above the earth’s surface. Within the Thermosphere there is a layer of ionised gases called the Ionosphere. The Exosphere – The layer that begins at the boundary of the Thermosphere and merges into space. The Troposphere contains about 50% of the gases that make up the earth’s atmosphere and nearly all the water vapour and dust that enters the atmosphere. Clouds form principally in the Troposphere. Life is supported by the properties of the Troposphere in an area about the surface of the earth defined as the biosphere. 7 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 4.2.5 - The epipelagic zone and the thermocline The oceans cover an area of 71% of the earth’s crust. Hence, based on the KamLAND data, 1.00 x 1021 joules of the earth’s internal heat flux is delivered to the ocean floor. Note: The value of the emitted heat based on the KamLAND data is a guide. The determined value of total annual emissions of the earth’s internal flux is discussed later. The constant release of the earth’s emitted heat into the oceans is the reason why:    The temperature of the water at the oceans’ floor is in the range of near 1 to 4°C. The water in the ocean depths is not a solid block of ice. The temperature of the water below the thermocline varies little within the noted range wherever it is measured, lowering the closer it is measured to the ocean floor. The principle heat capturing and retention components of the oceans are the epipelagic layer and the thermocline. The epipelagic layer can extend from sea-level to 200m below sea-level (generally in the range 100 to 200m in the open ocean at mid-latitudes) and the thermocline varies in depth from the base of the epipelagic layer to about 1000m below sea-level. This phenomenon is described in chapter 6.2, Temperature, of the book by P. Webb; “Introduction to Oceanography” (R4.06). Both the epipelagic and the thermocline layers behave in accordance to the Laws of Thermodynamics and in accordance to having four (4) sources of heat energy being injected into them:   Two (2) directly into the epipelagic layer (insolation and heat captured by the hydrologic cycle). Two (2) into the thermocline (transfer of heat from the epipelagic layer and rising geothermal heat). The variation in the depth of the epipelagic zone and the thermocline is predominantly noted in the seas at mid-latitudes that have an insolation variability based on the earth’s changing angle of obliquity throughout the year. The hydrologic cycle is one source of heat energy transfer into the epipelagic layer. The hydrologic cycle gathers:   The sun’s heat energy absorbed by the atmosphere as the sun’s irradiation passes through it. The sun’s heat transferred into the land and the heat that is created on the earth’s surface; a significant part of which is the heat released from the combustion of potential energy sources by humans. There are several natural events that create small quantities of heat that permeates into the earth’s atmosphere and land, such as decomposition of plants and animals, forest fires and random releases of the earth’s internal heat from surface volcanic activity. 8 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The temperature of the epipelagic layer is higher than the temperature of the thermocline. The temperature differential prevents the thermocline from transferring its gathered geothermal heat into the epipelagic layer until the epipelagic layer loses some of its heat and is able to absorb the heat content of the thermocline; a situation particularly evident at tropical regions. Figure 4.4 from P. Webb’s book shows the typical open ocean profile. The diagram indicates the dimensions of the mixed layer (the epipelagic) and the thermocline in a typical open ocean profile where the surface water temperature is about 18°C. The water temperature lowers the further it is measured up the latitudes. As the intensity of the insolation changes at any particular latitude (and as earth transitions through the seasons) so does the ability of the epipelagic zone to maintain a constant heat content. The lesser the intensity of the sun’s insolation the cooler the epipelagic layer becomes. The epipelagic layer has the greatest temperature variability. Its change in temperature causes a change in the temperature of the thermocline layer as more of the heat in the thermocline layer convects into the epipelagic until equilibrium is reached. The cooler the epipelagic layer becomes, the thicker the thermocline layer becomes as it absorbs heat from the layer below it. The thermocline is in receipt of the geothermal heat that may or may not be transferred to the epipelagic layer depending on each of the layers temperature. Figure 4.5, also from P. Webb’s book, shows the typical open ocean summer/winter thermocline layer thickness change. As the seasons change the amount of energy that any one point on the earth’s surface receives from the sun changes. The sun delivers less heat into the oceans during their respective winter period. As the heat delivered to the epipelagic layer reduces (and the temperature of the atmosphere reduces) heat in the epipelagic layer is convected into the atmosphere now colder than it (like it does at night but with a higher draw-off of heat during the winter period). When the epipelagic layer cools it draws the heat contained in the thermocline. The thermocline layer still contains heat that is protected by the epipelagic layer that is cooling from the top down and partly replenished by the receipt of its daily dose of insolation. What changes is the temperature of the barrier between the epipelagic and the thermocline layers and the rate of escape of the heat from the thermocline into the epipelagic layer. 9 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The process, described in Figure 4.6, shows the contraction and expansion of the epipelagic and thermocline layers in the open ocean at mid-latitudes as the seasons change from summer to winter. The properties that influence the changes are the intensity of the insolation and the volumes of evaporation and precipitation. The geothermal heat rising to the surface is considered to be at a constant level in this example. The amount of geothermal heat absorbed by the thermocline depends on the temperature that the thermocline is taken down to. The escape of geothermal heat rising to the ocean surface, and continuing into space, is impacted by the thermodynamic forces that alter the heat content of the epipelagic layer. The variable intensity of the insolation also alters the heat content of the epipelagic layer. This action modifies the rate of escape of the heat from the thermocline into the epipelagic layer. The greater the intensity of insolation the greater is the amount of heat captured by the epipelagic layer and the depth that it reaches. The thermocline gains heat and rises in the ocean waters pushed up by the cooler water below as the temperature between the two increases. A similar process occurs on land but the land does not have the heat retention properties of the oceans’ waters and loses its heat very quickly once the strength of the insolation diminishes on a change of season from summer to winter in a proportion equal to the amount of ground water that is retained in the land. In effect the epipelagic and the thermocline layers act as barriers to the rising geothermal heat. They slow down the release of the heat to space. However, the epipelagic and the thermocline layers are not perfect insulators; although their thermodynamic properties and associations with heat sources induce entropy. The sources of heat, and that, 1. the thermocline is sandwiched between the colder water below it, and that 2. the epipelagic layer is the recipient of the higher intensity solar irradiation, causes the changing heat content that controls the release of the geothermal heat to space. The geothermal heat flow into the atmosphere and into space is shown from being a continual process, as occurs at the Polar Regions, to a minimal flow as occurs in the Tropics. This action explains why the rate of ocean heat capture is at the level that it has been measured over the last decade. The differences in the epipelagic and thermocline layers between the latitude conditions noted on Figure 4.7 are also from P. Webb’s book. 10 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The insulating and heat capture and transfer properties that the epipelagic and thermocline layers exhibit ensures that the geothermal heat will maintain the temperature of the water below them at a constant level dependent on the amount of heat that is delivered to the epipelagic layer by the sun and any anthropogenic or natural activities that result in emitted heat introduced into the natural system additional to the sun’s irradiation or earth’s geothermal heat. Geothermal heat travels through the oceans and is dissipated into space if the level of insolation diminishes in a cooling trend. This will cause a constriction of the epipelagic layer at lower latitudes hence providing a greater area of the sea to respond to the varying insolation in a manner that currently applies at the Polar Regions. 4.3 – Earth Energy Imbalance (EEI) In the 2021 article by N. G. Loeb et al, titled “Satellite and Ocean Data Reveal Marked Increase in Earth’s Heating Rate” (R4.07), it states: “Climate is determined by how much of the sun's energy the Earth absorbs and how much energy Earth sheds through emission of thermal infrared radiation. Their sum determines whether Earth heats up or cools down.” The explanation for the rise in the heat content of the oceans is centred on the irradiation received from the sun and various properties of the earth that manage the amount of the irradiation that is emitted back to space. The control applied to the amount of heat retained by the earth and absorbed by the oceans is based on the monitoring of the outgoing radiation from the earth as measured by earth satellites, in particular the “Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System’s (CERES)” data. K. von Schuckmann et al described, in their 2020 article, Heat stored in the Earth system: where does the energy go? (R4.08) that the Earth energy imbalance (EEI) was in the order of 0.87 W/m² (distributed per square metre) during the period 2010 to 2018, and only increasing. The energy captured in the oceans in 2019 was measured by Cheng et al (R4.09a) at 2.28x1022 joule as reported by Cosmos Magazine’s N. Carne (R4.09b). The cause of these findings has to be explained as the base data states that more energy is dissipated by earth into space than is delivered by the sun and intercepted by the earth. This represents the imbalance in the energy equation. There are two ways the amount of energy dissipated by the earth can be less than the amount of energy gathered from the sun. They are: 11 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 1. That the earth is in a warming trend where the irradiation energy received is less than the energy dissipated from the ocean heat store. 2. That the energy dissipated into space is the lesser portion of the total of the energy received from the sun added to other sources of energy generated on the earth less any energy that is consumed (e.g. applied in melting of the Polar ice). The first option is likely as the earth has been on a warming trend for the last 2.1 million years. The ocean heat content (OHC) has been increasing steadily since then. Option 2 was also investigated for its potential to both increase the OHC by 2.28x1022 joules of energy (in 2019), and for the earth to dissipate into space an amount of energy less than the amount received from the sun while a residual amount of energy is advancing the rate of global warming at the significant anomaly rate measured by several institutions. The value of the energy imbalance is detailed in Table 4.1. Table 4.1 – 2019 data on Incoming and Outgoing Irradiation On the plane of the ecliptic Distributed per square metre Energy Imbalance Sun Incoming Irradiation 1361.5 W/m² Earth Outgoing Irradiation 1357.9 W/m² Difference 340.4 W/m² 339.5 W/m² -0.9 W/m² 5.50x1024 Joules Incoming 5.485x1024 Joules Outgoing -1.454x1022 Joules Net Outgoing -3.6 W/m² The fact that the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, and that the earth is in a phase of warming at a rate that is unprecedented in earth’s geologic history states that the earth energy system is subjected to other sources of energy, the magnitude of which has to be determined. The difference in the energy imbalance of -1.454x1022 joules net outgoing, considered in terms of the rate that global warming is advancing, identifies the sun as being only one of the sources of heat energy that applies to the earth. 4.3.1 – Sources of heat energy that impact EEI The earth has several sources of energy that contribute to the content of heat energy measured in the biosphere’s oceans, land and atmosphere. They include:    Irradiation from the sun. Geothermal heat. Anthropogenic heat energy generation activities e.g. combustion of fossil fuels, nuclear fission reactions, exothermic chemical reactions such as munitions and specific non-carbon based fuels for propulsion. 12 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022       Natural instances of combustion, e.g. forest fires, molecular conversions (e.g. methane to carbon dioxide and water when combusted in the presence of oxygen e.g. possible permafrost pits of methane burning in Siberia. Deforestation and land clearing activities. Surface volcanic and tectonic expulsions of mantle heat. Sub-surface volcanic and tectonic expulsions of mantle heat. Natural life uptake and releases of heat energy, e.g. photosynthesis, endothermy, decomposition, and thermogenesis. Cosmic events e.g. the heat energy generated by cosmic and man-made matter as it travels to the earth’s surface through the atmosphere. The biosphere also experiences:   The release of heat energy to space (outgoing SW and LW radiation): The persistent outgoing radiation that is a function of incoming irradiation plus any additional energy in excess of what the biosphere can accommodate. The consumption of heat energy within the earth’s biosphere, in particular: The heat energy consumed annually as sea ice and glacial ice deposits are melted. The EEI quantifies the amount of energy that has to be added to the earth’s total incoming and outgoing energy difference to balance the energy equation and result in the current measured increase in global warming. The balancing of the equation is currently achieved by determining a value of radiative forcing. Also necessary to take into consideration when assessing the EEI is the consumption of the sun’s insolation by the processes of life that utilise the sun’s energy to create life matter. This aspect relates to the above categories:    “Natural instances of combustion”, “Natural life releases of heat” and “Anthropogenic activities” aspects of which represent human activities associated with the use of stored energy that can be released by combustion and fission. These three (3) categories represent the earth as an entity that has life properties that capture the sun’s heat and recycles it at volumes in accordance to the total biomass at any one instance in time. The amount of the sun’s energy held captive in living life matter is given back on the death of that life by one of several evolved recycling processes. As such, the energy gain/loss is a deviation from a state of energy equilibrium unless circumstances alter environmental conditions that either create or deter the opportunity for growth. 4.3.2 – Glaciation and heat energy absorption The current presence of glaciation is a controlling factor on the rate the earth is warming. The ice absorbs part of the heat energy that would otherwise be shown in the value of the EEI that needs to be balanced. 13 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The current rate of sea ice melt has been measured by the NASA Earth Science Communications Team (R4.10) at 276 billion metric tons per annum in the Arctic and 152 billion metric tons per annum in the Antarctic. The total of the Polar Regions sea ice melt requires 1.43x1020 joules of heat based on ice needing 334 joules per gram to melt as per the article by Todd Helmenstine (R4.11). 4.3.3 - Energy sources that impacted the earth in 2019 The detailing of the individual components of the earth energy system discussed in this section is concerned with the energy contributed by each of the energy sources in 2019. It includes the ocean heat energy added to the oceans as measured by Cheng et al (R4.09a) and the amount of heat energy emitted into space as determined by K. von Schuckmann (R4.08) from the CERES data. Other energy contributions to the earth energy system were determined from the sources with appended reference numbers. Five (5) measured categories of heat energy sources were tabled and summed to determine the total amount of known heat energy that affected the earth energy system in 2019. The categories and their values are shown in Table 4.2 Table 4.2 – Calculating the Earth Energy Imbalance (EEI) in 2019 Sources of Earth Energy Gains and Losses Incoming irradiation from the sun (R4.12) Primary energy derived from potential energy sources (R4.13) Determined Geothermal Energy – KamLAND group (R4.03) Energy needed to melt sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic (R4.11) Additional ocean heat content as measured by Cheng et al. (R4.09a) Total earth energy system gains during 2019 (1) Earth energy system losses - outgoing radiation (2) Difference between earth energy system gains and losses (3) Joules 5.50x1024 5.73x1020 1.40x1021 1.43x1020 2.28x1022 5.53x1024 5.49x1024 1.04x1022 Table 4.2 shows that in 2019 the energy (3) required to balance the total earth energy is equal to the sum of the total earth energy sources (1) less the outgoing radiation (2). The unknown factors that contribute to the calculated 1.04x1022 joules of heat energy to balance the EEI equation must come from a combination of earth based sources as noted previously. The difference in the “gains and losses” in the Total Energy Gains (3) represents 18 times the amount of primary energy produced by humans from potential energy sources noting that:  Natural instances of combustion, forest fires, deforestation and land clearing represents between 5 and 6% of the total of the carbon dioxide emitted by the combustion of fossil fuels in 2019. This is a conservative measure based on the Australian Government’s 2019/2020 assessment of carbon dioxide emissions from the Australian bushfires contributing an estimated 830 Mtonne (R4.14), the total of all other forest fires around the world making the same contribution and forest land clearing and burn-off contributing a further 1%. The value of the total of carbon dioxide emissions for 2019, 36.7 billion 14 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022  tonnes, was obtained from Our World in Data (R4.15). As carbon dioxide emissions are proportionate to primary heat generation the additional energy contribution by this category would be very small in comparison to the value shown in Table 4.2 (3). Exothermic chemical reactions, cosmic events, equilibrium factors regarding natural life uptake and volcanic activity, both terrestrial and sub-surface would also be minor contributors. The potential candidate for most of the additional heat energy summed in the earth energy system in 2019 is the earth itself in the form of geothermal energy released from the mantle into the sea floor. The geothermal energy in this category is additional to the geothermal energy determined by the KamLAND group. The determined geothermal heat injected into the earth energy system is shown in Table 4.3. Table 4.3 – Calculating the Energy gains from geothermal sources in 2019 Sources Difference between earth energy system gains and losses Determined Geothermal Energy by the KamLAND group Energy needed to melt sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic Additional Ocean heat content as measured by Cheng et al. Total calculated energy added to the earth energy system Less: Primary energy derived from potential energy sources 2019 Additional earth energy gains from geothermal sources Joules -1.04x1022 1.40x1021 1.43x1020 2.28x1022 2.43x1022 5.73x1020 2.41x1022 The data states that the total geothermal heat released by the mantle into the earth’s surface layers was equal to 2.41x1022 joules in 2019. The 2019 additional geothermal energy noted in Table 4.3, a persistent variable permeation of the mantle’s heat energy into the oceans, averaged about 1.72x105 joules/day/m2 (1.97W/m2 of power) throughout the 71% of the surface area of the earth the sea covers. It suggests that mantle heat permeates into the sea floor as a regular feature and at a variable rate. Heat is added or subtracted to a nominal released amount as tectonic activity moves the continental plates and opens and closes heat ejection apertures throughout the ocean floor, possibly at a rate of greater intensity about the ocean ridges and at the junctions of the oceanic and continental plates. The heat released into the oceans by geothermal transfer, together with warm ocean currents, flows heat throughout the oceans. 4.3.4 - Release of geothermal heat into the ocean The information reported by Cheng et al provided a glimpse of the heat energy added to the total heat content particularly in the latter years of the 2010 to 2020 decade. However, it was important to understand the change in the OHC in 2019 in order to be able to get a grasp of the components that add and subtract from the heat energy content of the earth. The summation of all the energy sources became a way of explaining why the outgoing irradiation measured by CERES in 2019 was lesser than the incoming irradiation from the sun but not by the amount of energy necessary to cause the increases in surface and ocean warming while 15 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 the earth was on a moderate natural warming path. It proved that the sun is not the only energy contributor and that there are properties of the earth that act in unison with the sun’s irradiation of a magnitude of heat greater than primary energy production. A further investigation was undertaken to identify the rates of change in the release of geothermal heat into the ocean. The purpose was to identify the consistency of the increase in the OHC for a longer period of time than the last 10 years. This investigation sourced data on the Global OHC, 0 to 2,000m, (measured by NOAA (R4.16)) shown as the insert on Figure 4.8. The rate of change in global OHC p.a. (0 to 2000 m) calculated from Figure 4.8 was based on regions of the curve that accommodated a simple line of best fit. (Note that Cheng et al’s 2019 data on OHC mentioned previously was for the whole of the ocean not just the top 2000m.) The results of the assessment showed that there were periods, numbered 1 to 5, which could be shown to have distinct rates of change in global OHC, 0 to 2,000m, during the period 1962 to 2020. The results of the assessment of the NOAA Ocean Heat data is as per Table 4.4. Table 4.4 – Rates of change in OHC 0 to 2,000m, 1962 to 2020 Time 1962 to 1966 1966 to 1968 1968 to 1975 1975 to 1990 1991 to 2020 2010 to 2020 Increased heat content -4.96x1022 joules 1.22x1021 joules 7.16x1022 joules 3.18x1022 joules 2.52x1023 joules 1.09x1023 joules Number of years 4.03 1.74 7.15 15.69 28.82 10 Average Rate of change p.a. -1.23x1022 joules 7.05x1020 joules 1.00x1022 joules 2.03x1021 joules 8.73x1021 joules 1.09x1022 joules A sixth (6th) rate of change assessment, reported separately in Table 4.4, for the period 2010 to 2020 was also made as there appeared to be an upturn during the latter part of the decade, offsetting a significant OHC loss early in the decade. The conclusion from the rate of change assessment in Table 4.4 is that the earth releases its internal heat energy into the sea floor at varying rates. Taken in combination with the CERES outgoing radiation assessment for 2019, together with all other heat energy components that add and subtract from the total energy, the data indicates that for each time period shown 16 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 geothermal heat energy released at the sea floor is partly dissipated into space and the remainder is stored in the ocean principally below the thermocline. When the rate of change was negative, as is the case in the period 1962 to 1966, it indicates that either no geothermal heat was released (an impossibility) or the ocean was caused to give up a quantity of its OHC. A possible explanation of the loss of heat energy relates to the nuclear testing activities that were being conducted post World War II as described in section 4.3.5 – The atomic age. OHC data for the period 1900 to 1960 was not available. An estimate of the average geothermal heat emitted into the biosphere was based on the movement of the average global temperature in the periods 1900 to 1960 compared to 1960 to 2020 and the relativity between the average global temperature increase and the 0 to 2,000m OHC for the time period 1960 to 2020 by the criteria shown in Figure 4.9. The reasoning for adopting this method was that the rate of growth of the OHC seemed to correlate to the rate of growth of the average global land and ocean surface temperature anomaly. An assessment of the two growth figures indicated that the OHC increased at a rate 7% faster than the temperature anomaly. An estimated average value for the geothermal heat emitted into the earth’s biosphere of 9.33x1021 joules p.a. during the period 1900 to 1960 was calculated by dividing the temperature anomaly growth ratio into the 2019 additional earth energy gains from geothermal sources (2.41x1022 joules) and multiplying the result by 1.07. The value calculated is about 7 times greater than the KamLAND geothermal heat release findings, and about 40% of the total geothermal heat determined in 2019. 4.3.5 – The atomic age The intensity of the nuclear detonations during the early to mid-1960’s, and that they occurred in the atmosphere and underwater, may have been the cause of the expulsion of OHC, particularly in the 0 to 2,000m depth, as represented by the negative rate of change in the years 1962 to 1966 (as per Table 4.4), and a return to normality beginning in the latter part of 1966. Nuclear testing in the atmosphere and underwater lessened after 1964. Prăvălie, R., wrote in his article of 2014 (R4.17): “…, countries like the United States, the USSR, the United Kingdom, France, and China became nuclear powers during 1945–1964 ... 17 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 During this period, a large number of nuclear tests were conducted in all global environments (atmosphere, underground, and underwater)”. He further noted that the Limited Test Treaty came into effect in 1963 but it was not signed by France and China who continued to test nuclear devices in the atmosphere. A graphical representation of nuclear testing events post World War II, indicating detonation intensity of each event, is shown in the article “Nuclear Testing 1945 – Today (R4.18). Following is a hypothesis based on the testing of atomic devices causing the negative OHC trend. It centres about the frequency and intensity of underwater and atmospheric detonations leading up to and including activities to the mid 1960’s. A quantification of this phenomena is complex as the data is difficult to obtain. It is offered as a possible explanation for the negative OHC trend 1962 to 1966, the rate of OHC warming from 1968 to 1976, a period of quiescence to 1990, and an advanced rate of OHC gain from then to today. One objective of an analysis in the circumstances leading to the negative OHC trend would be to determine the amount of heat dissipated into space. However, in the absence of an outgoing radiation monitoring device like CERES and other methods of determining heat capture and retention in the biosphere as available today, it is impossible to have measured data that could support an analysis. Whether more or less than the heat content of the water, the detonations and other factors that contribute to outgoing radiation into space can only be a calculated assumption based on what the total energy at that time could have been. Each detonation had an impact on a considerable area of water surface, to the depth the detonation blast reached. A significant volume of water, together with its heat content, was ejected into the atmosphere. The blast plume (the mushroom), together with the water vapour it contained, allowed the heat of both the blast and the OHC to rapidly dissipate into space. The functioning of the hydrologic cycle under such conditions would be limited. The short timing associated with any one detonation would prevent the hydrologic cycle from capturing the atmospheric heat content. Furthermore, the absence of the epipelagic zone and the thermocline following an underwater, and possibly an atmospheric detonation, leaves an opening for the geothermal heat to transfer to the atmosphere as the colder water at the oceans’ depth rushed to the surface and neutralised the epipelagic and thermocline layers. Geothermal heat transfer through a cold water layer is described in section 4.4 of this article titled “The earth’s energy management systems". The data in Table 4.4 implies that the ocean and atmospheric detonations created the opportunity for the heat held captive in the epipelagic zone and the thermocline, and the rising geothermal heat, to escape into the atmosphere and into space at a rate that resulted in a (negative) OHC rate of change equal to -1.23x1022 joules p.a. from 1962 to 1966. There is no other reason for it to happen. The earth did not stop its release of geothermal heat because humans wanted to test their atomic bombs and there was no event that absorbed that quantity of heat from the ocean. 18 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 Figure 4.10 compares the Global Surface Temperature Anomaly and OHC (0 to 2,000m) from 1955 to 1980. The graphs show a similarity in the trends of both data sets and the particular increase and reduction in the data elements about the 1960 to 1965 years. Both segments of the graphs in Figure 4.10 also show that from about 1965 onwards the rate of ocean warming began to increase, moderately at first, but then at a rate as shown in Figure 4.8. The correlation between the two (2) datasets suggests: 1. The consequence of the atomic detonations carried out in the ocean and the atmosphere resulted in significant ocean heat losses. 2. There is a possibility that the force of the terrestrial, oceanic and atmospheric detonations had an effect on the stability of the earth’s continental plates, oceanic plates, ocean ridges, subduction and obduction zones thereby deteriorating the bonding of the crustal matter and creating an opportunity for the earth’s internal heat to increase in its leakage into the oceans’ floor. In this way geothermal heat contributed to the steadily increasing rate of ocean heating since the late 1960’s. 3. The atomic events represent a cause for total OHC increasing from an estimated 8.5x1021 joules p.a., on average, during 1900 to 1960 to 2.28x1022 joules in 2019 (about 2.7 times p.a. more in 2019 than in 1900 to 1960). 4.3.6 – Ocean heat accumulation The water in the oceans stores heat energy that has been directed into it by the sun’s insolation, the hydrologic cycle and geothermal heat. The sea floor is warmed by heat conducted or vented into the ocean from the mantle. The 2021 rate of growth in the oceans’ heat content is in the order of 1.5x1022 joules p.a. according to L. Cheng et al in their 2022 article: “Another Record: Ocean Warming Continues through 2021 despite La Nina Conditions” (R4.19). The value of warmth added to the oceans is far greater than the amount of geothermal energy said to be rising through the geothermal gradient or the residual delivered by the sun. This presents itself as a quandary that, added to other questions on this matter, led to further investigations into the imbalance in the earth’s input output energy content in an attempt to 19 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 explain why the earth is warming if the stated energy imbalance indicates that more energy is dissipated from the earth than is delivered by the sun, and where the heat came from that increased OHC as reported by Cheng et al. 4.3.7 - Instantaneous evacuation of heat from the biosphere. The observation from the negative rate of ocean warming that occurred between 1960 and 1964 infers that any intense short term expulsion of intense heat into the atmosphere, such as a volcanic release of geothermal energy or the detonation of an atomic device, will allow entropy to quickly take control and distribute the emitted heat into the Troposphere. That action promptly changes the heat relativity between the layers of the atmosphere and allows the excessive heat to pass directly into space. There would be no opportunity for the prevalent biospheric heat management mechanisms associated with the hydrologic cycle and the ocean heat store to recapture the heat. The emission of heat in both a volcanic eruption and nuclear detonation creates intense heat for a relative short time. The intensity of the heat would disrupt the thermodynamic barriers set up by the incoming irradiation and the biospheric content of released heat. The released heat would be promptly evacuated into the cooler Stratosphere and consequently through the atmospheric layers to space as each of their boundaries buckle to the sudden upsurge in each layer’s heat content. The hydrologic cycle would not be able to capture the instantaneous release of heat from these sources. The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process that, depending on the average global temperature and latitude, repeats in less than 12 days. There would not be time for the volume of water vapour or precipitation in the atmosphere to gather all the heat that is emitted by these localised events that may last from minutes to hours. Any heat gathered would have a negligible effect on the overall heat content of the earth. Even a percolating volcanic event may not have sufficient heat content to cause any significant disruption to the average global temperature. 4.4 – The earth’s energy management systems The ocean heat accumulation data provided by Cheng et al represented a significant increase in the earth’s heat accumulation but it appeared not to have an impact on the earth’s average global temperature of the magnitude expected with the amount of heat retained. The rate of advance of an average warming trend, as described in the article Variability of the Total Solar Irradiance (R4.20), states that the earth needs to retain a small part of the incoming insolation in order to proceed in a warming trend. The amount of heat energy necessary to advance a warming trend at 1.3°C/MYs was estimated to be 1.14x1016 joules p.a. On this basis it suggests that the earth should be adding about 1.5x1020 joules p.a. to maintain the rate of warming of 0.017°C p.a. reported by NOAA in their Global Climate Report – Annual 2016 (R4.21). 20 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 However, what the 2019 OHC measurement by Cheng et al is stating is that the amount of heat energy added to the oceans is about 150 times more than the amount necessary to maintain the rate of warming of 0.017°C p.a. This data makes the measurements of the incoming and outgoing thermal radiation measured by CERES even more confusing. The assessment of the incoming and outgoing radiation (in Table 4.3) showed that, apart from the anthropogenic energy created by the combustion or consumption of potential energy materials, there must have been an additional 2.41x1022 joules of energy added to the earth energy system to balance the total energy in 2019. The additional energy must be principally supplied by the earth’s internal heat generating mechanism as it is the only other source that could generate heat of this magnitude. The need to balance the earth energy system to the value previously noted and the determination of the magnitude of the geothermal energy released from the mantle raised the question: “How can the earth emit considerable geothermal energy and it not have a strong bearing on the average global temperature?” 4.4.1 – Earth’s energy processing environments An examination of ocean heat accumulation, its sources, the amount of heat dissipated into space and the rate of global warming introduced the idea that the earth had two (2) energy processing environments, driven by two (2) opposing heat energy sources, and a layer of ocean that separated them as shown in Figure 4.11. The primary heat source is the sun. It delivers to the earth 5.5x1024 joules of energy each year. The earth’s rotation about its axis causes the sun to strike any one point on the surface during the day but it is absent from that particular point at night. This allows the point affected by the sun to warm and cool in the 24 hour day/night cycle. Both the warming and cooling cycle apply themselves in variable intensities at that one point from the start of the day/night, to a peak point during the day/night and to the conclusion of the day/night cycle. The earth’s obliquity also comes into play as mentioned earlier. Geothermal heat is a generally constant flow from the earth’s core and mantle although it may vary one year to the next subject to movements of the earth’s crustal mass. The 700m thick top ocean layer contains, according NOAA (R4.16), about 74% of the heat content of the top 2000m of the ocean as shown in Figure 4.12. 21 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 This layer, considered to be the epipelagic and thermocline layers, serves as the earth’s “biosphere energy processing environments separator layer” where one energy processing environment is above sea level (comprising the energy sources of insolation, anthropogenic energy, geothermal energy, any other energy released as heat into this environment and the hydrologic cycle as the harvester of heat energy) and the other is the mass of water below the sea’s thermocline layer (comprising of geothermal energy, insolation that reaches the sub-thermocline layer, and any other energy released as heat into this environment). The proposed energy processing environments above and below the ocean separation layer work in accordance to the Laws of Thermodynamics and result in:    The reported measurements of the incoming and outgoing radiation imbalance by CERES. The significantly increasing ocean heat content measured by NOAA and Cheng et al. Create life supportive habitats above and below the ocean separation layer. The sources of energy, and the methods the energy is gathered, results in the warming of the separation layer of the oceans i.e. the epipelagic zone and the thermocline. The separation layer supports/maintains the earth’s land-ocean surface average global temperature and causes alterations to regional climate conditions. The epipelagic layer captures the bulk of the directly incoming heat energy from insolation that strikes the oceans’ surface and also the heat energy harvested from the atmosphere and land and delivered to the oceans by the hydrologic cycle. The oceans expel some of their heat energy in the form of evaporation; the first part of the hydrologic cycle. The atmosphere acts, apart as the absorber of incoming irradiation and first release of the absorbed heat, as the biosphere’s stabilising medium and distributor of accumulated water vapour and its heat content. It is the biospheric mediator. The way the two (2) energy environments interact with the separation layer is shown in Figure 4.13. The epipelagic layer mixes its heat content throughout its depth and into the thermocline layer. 22 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The epipelagic layer will always be warmer than the layers below it. It shares its retained heat only with the thermocline layer in a heat exchange system that causes the epipelagic and thermocline layers to change in thickness in the passage of the season as described in section 4.2.5 of this article titled “The epipelagic zone and the thermocline” and in (R4.06) reference to P. Webb’s data. The temperature at the bottom of the thermocline layer will always be equal to the temperature of the top of the mass of water below it. The formation of the thermodynamic barrier, when two opposing sources of energy interact, is shown in Figure 4.14. Geothermal heat rising from the sea floor flows upwards through the oceans’ water transferring the heat into its surroundings in a hap-hazard chain reaction (entropy) until it reaches the bottom of the thermocline. Insolation reaching the surface of the earth transfers its heat into the epipelagic layer by wind, wave and the hap-hazard chain reaction of entropy until it reaches the beginning of the thermocline. The epipelagic layer continuously interacts with the thermocline as it heats and cools adding or subtracting heat from the thermocline. Entropy adjusts the distributed heat content into the thermocline and then adjusts the heat transfer with the deep ocean layer beneath it. When the temperature at the junction of the thermocline and the deep ocean layer (where the two (2) opposing heat sources meet) reach equilibrium, it stabilises the separation layer by creating a thermodynamic barrier between the base of the thermocline and the top of the deep ocean beneath it. In this situation the rising geothermal heat will be stopped from rising further by the thermodynamic barrier until the temperature of the thermocline lowers below that of the mass of water immediately below it. 23 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The geothermal heat in the mass of water below the thermocline distributes itself amongst the layers of water below it. This action will eventually elevate the heat content of the total mass of water in the ocean below the thermocline as the warmer upper layer distributes itself into the cooler layers below it in its attempt to achieve equilibrium. Note: The thermocline has heat transferred into it by the epipelagic layer. It is warmer than the water warmed by the geothermal energy. A colder matter can’t convect its heat into a warmer matter (the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics) so the geothermal heat is forced to disperse into the cooler mass of water beneath the thermocline (in accordance to the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy) as it rises from the sea floor. At the thermodynamic barrier the transfer of heat between the thermocline and the mass of deep ocean water below it stops unless there is a heat imbalance between one layer and the other. This aspect initiates a perpetual process where the depth of the epipelagic layer and the thermocline changes in accordance to the day/night cycle and the season, with repeatability, encroaching into, or retreating from, the bulk ocean below it. 4.4.2 - How geothermal heat contributes to global warming The ocean’s management of all its sources that direct heat to the biosphere is a perpetual process with variability based on seasons, the earth’s angle of obliquity, levels of heat emissions from both the sun and the mantle of the earth and the several other sources mentioned previously, including variations caused by weather events. The transfer of heat alters every day on every point on the surface of the earth. The earth is in a perpetual program of warming and cooling. The exception is geothermal heat emissions into the earth’s surface layers. Geothermal heat, potentially at varying rates, is continuously convected or emitted directly into the sea floor warming the ocean water whether the surface of the earth is warming or cooling, is progressing through the seasons or is experiencing the day/night cycle. A day-by-day account of how changes in OHC alters the environment is conveyed by the following general explanation of how the epipelagic zone, the thermocline and the deep ocean waters react to the heat content that is added or subtracted from their mass. In the following explanations the warmth gathered at the sea floor convects towards the surface of the deep ocean. In the absence of insolation:       The epipelagic zone dissipates heat into the cooler atmosphere. The loss of heat in the epipelagic layer alters the dynamics of the epipelagic and thermocline layers. The lowering heat content of the epipelagic zone draws heat from the thermocline. The thermocline begins to cool. The heat status of the thermodynamic barrier between the thermocline and the deep ocean water changes as the thermocline loses heat to the epipelagic zone. Heat from the deep ocean permeates into the thermocline. 24 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022    The thermocline increases in depth as the heat of the base of the thermocline and the top of the deep ocean reach a state of equilibrium. The action lowers the thermodynamic barrier as the thermocline’s depth increases. The depth of the epipelagic zone shrinks. In the presence of insolation:          The epipelagic layer is gaining heat from the direct injection of insolation. The warmth gathered at the sea floor permeates towards the surface of the deep ocean. Heat is transported into the epipelagic zone by the hydrologic cycle. The epipelagic zone transfers heat into the thermocline. The depth of the epipelagic zone increases. The thermocline warms. The thermodynamic barrier between the thermocline and the deep ocean water changes as the deep ocean water is colder than the water in the thermocline. Heat in the thermocline transfers into the deep ocean water until equilibrium is reached and initiates a thermodynamic barrier. The depth of the thermocline shrinks. When the geothermal heat increases in the presence of insolation:              The epipelagic layer is gaining heat from the direct injection of insolation. The warmth gathered at the sea floor permeates towards the surface of the deep ocean. Heat content greater than what established the thermodynamic barrier in place reaches the base of the thermocline. The heat alters the state of the thermodynamic barrier. The heat transfers into the thermocline. The additional heat in the thermocline disperses through the layer and interacts with the heat at the base of the epipelagic zone. Heat transfers into the epipelagic zone. Equilibrium is reached between the thermocline and the deep ocean water. The thermodynamic barrier between the two (2) establishes. There is a net gain in heat content of the epipelagic zone and the thermocline. The temperature of the thermodynamic barrier at the base of the separation layer is elevated in accordance to the increased rate of release of geothermal heat. The thermocline reduces in thickness and depth while the epipelagic zones increases in depth. The heat transferred into the separation layer remains until either the heat content rising from the sea floor or the intensity of the insolation reduces. Increasing quantities of geothermal heat add a portion of their annual heat to the separation layer while reducing quantities of geothermal heat deduct a portion of the separation layer’s heat. The amount of heat added or subtracted from the epipelagic layer is dependent on the geothermal heat quantity. 25 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The remainder of the geothermal heat is either distributed within the deep ocean waters or dissipated into space. The heat added to the epipelagic zone is further added to by heat generated by other sources, such as anthropogenic activities. Increases or decreases in the heat emitted by other sources cause a similar addition or subtraction of heat from the epipelagic layer and have a similar subsequent impact on global warming. The total OHC is elevated by all the heat sources that terminate into the biosphere. Together with OHC, the heat content of the land and atmosphere, promotes global warming. 4.4.3 – Heat gains and losses caused by the day/night cycle The seasons cause the epipelagic layer to gain or lose its heat content. This affects both the epipelagic and the thermocline layers. In summer the depth from the ocean surface to the bottom of the thermocline is less than it is in winter. The movement of the two upper layers of the oceans is a function of the heat transmitted into the oceans by insolation and the hydrologic cycle. Their behaviour is also in accordance to the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics and the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy. In summer the insolation striking the surface of the ocean intensifies. The epipelagic layer gains heat content and increases in depth as the heat gathered from the sun penetrates deeper into the water that was the top of the thermocline in winter. The top of the thermocline is lost to the epipelagic layer. The thermocline warms and the temperature differential between the thermodynamic barrier and the cooler mass of water beneath it increases. The cooler layer below the thermocline absorbs the heat in the lower portion of the thermocline. The exchange of heat continues until a state of equilibrium is reached once more. The depth of the thermodynamic barrier is closer to the ocean surface the warmer the epipelagic layer and the thermocline layer below it becomes. The reverse happens as the seasons change from summer to winter. The depth of the epipelagic layer lessens and the thermocline layer increases as the heat content of the separation layer is lost to the atmosphere and into space. If the earth is in a cooling trend, and the separation layer cools to a temperature below the temperature of the layer below the thermocline, the mass of water below the thermocline will dissipate heat into the thermocline and reach the epipelagic layer. An event that will conclude with the earth entering into ice age conditions of varying intensities, from a global freeze to only affecting the South Polar Region, depending on the extent of the reduction in the sun’s irradiation intensity. The changing heat pattern of the earth’s surface during the period of one (1) rotation of the earth about its axis at any one point on the earth’s surface at equinox is shown on Figure 4.15. 26 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 Note that the day shortens as the point on the earth approaches the winter solstice and lengthens as it approaches the summer solstice. Hence the amount of irradiation that any one point on the earth receives on any one day is constantly changing. The insolation/dissipation graph (A) on Figure 4.15 shows that the heat that is received at any one point during the day is dissipated at night. There is a difference in the amount of heat dissipated depending on whether the earth is following a warming trend or a cooling trend. When following a warming trend, a portion of the heat is retained by the ocean, whereas when following a cooling trend, a portion of heat is surrendered by the ocean. The Continental Plate and Open Ocean Outgoing LW and SW Radiation graph (B) have a constant release of heat throughout the day and night if the ocean is warmer than the atmosphere. However, little radiation is released during the day once the insolation strikes the surface as the surface has to first have heat added to it until it reaches a point when the heat content of the outgoing radiation is greater than the heat content of the incoming insolation that strikes the surface. The heat content increases during the daylight period from dawn and reaches a peak at a point in the afternoon prior to dusk. The surface then releases radiation based on the difference in heat content between the atmosphere and the surface. The intensity of the outgoing radiation increases as the atmosphere cools exhausting the accumulated heat into space. At a point, the rush of outgoing radiation begins to slow down as the surface cools and the temperature differential between the atmosphere and the surface reduces until the sun begins to rise again and the cycle begins once more. The Polar Region Open Ocean Outgoing LW and SW Radiation graph (C) shows that the Polar Region does not behave in the same manner as the surface of the earth that is subject to the 24 hour day/night cycle. The long periods of daylight and night result in a continuous release of LW and SW radiation into space. 4.4.4 – Earth’s input/output energy – sources and drains The earth’s primary and secondary sources of energy are the sun’s irradiation and the earth’s geothermal heat. They are opposing heat sources that radiate towards the earth’s surface. The sun is the greater heat source, at 5.5x1024 joules, whilst the earth supplies heat energy 27 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 currently in the region of 3 to 3.6x1022 joules. Other heat energy channels, although supplementary and important to the whole of earth’s heat content and energy management system, supply far less heat energy. The sun is the most important source of earth’s energy. Its energy is needed to lift the earth from a heat content of about 2°K to the level necessary for life, as we know it, to exist on the planet. Figure 4.16 shows earth’s opposing heat sources (day phase). The heat sources have a different effect on the:  Polar Oceans  Continental plates  Oceanic plates The application of the energy results in distinct layers that alter in their temperature and thickness on the passing of the seasons. An example of layers separated by a thermodynamic barrier are the Troposphere and the Stratosphere. The separation layer is called the Tropopause. This layer has a variable aperture. It acts as a thermodynamic barrier whilst the earth is intercepting heat from the sun during the day phase but loses that ability either once the earth enters the night phase or if there is a sudden entry of energy into the biosphere that alters the heat content of the Troposphere (or the Stratosphere) and alters their thermodynamic properties. For example, a volcanic eruption during the day phase will introduce a sudden burst of heat into the biosphere which will be quickly distributed about the immediate atmosphere and change the conditions that would normally prevent the dissipation of heat into the Stratosphere and into space. To recap: The manner in which the Tropopause, and other thermodynamic barriers, are created and maintained is based on the principle that two (2) opposing sources of heat create a layer of equivalent heat energy that forms into a thermodynamic barrier. The barrier prevents the movement of heat between adjacent layers creating a closed system environment within each layer. Entropy within each of the layers disperses the heat into the layer as the heat content of the closed system works towards a state of equilibrium. While in the closed system the heat content of a layer is prevented from transferring to the open system of the universe unless the heat content of one or the other layers changes. 28 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 Figure 4.17 indicates three (3) reference locations about the earth and that each location has different layers, boundaries (separation layers) and a different flow of heat during the day phase of the 24 hour cycle. The matters that determine how the layers are formed and maintained are:         The sequence of transfer of heat between one layer and another. The density of the matter in the layer. The heat capture capacity of the matter in the layer. Each layer’s heat content. Equilibrium heat values between layers that form separation barriers. Entropy that maintains the heat content in the distinct separation barriers. Variable apertures pertinent to the layers and the separation barriers where they apply. The epipelagic and thermocline layer that maintains a persistent separation of the heat energy delivered by the sun and by the earth. The principle difference between the layers is their mass, content of water and, in the case of the Polar Regions, the issues of insolation whilst being subjected to the earth’s obliquity. The previous discussion explained how the movement of the sun’s irradiation and the earth’s geothermal heat created the ocean separation barrier that, in turn, directed geothermal heat to be distributed into the layers of water below the thermocline. Also discussed was that the absence of an epipelagic and thermocline layer at the Polar Regions allowed for heat deposited into the ocean to be dissipated into space. 29 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The importance of the previous discussion is that the sun and the earth represent opposing energy sources that eventually meet at layer junctions such as the thermocline and the Tropopause. There is no escaping the fact that the Laws of Thermodynamics, together with the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy, dictate the conditions that persist on earth while the two (2) opposing forces (heat sources) are active. In each of the categories of Figure 4.17 (day phase) there are black and orange “+” and “–” signs. The black signs relate to geothermal heat and the orange signs to the sun’s irradiation. A “+” means that the heat content at the layer nearest to the sign is relatively higher than at the “–” sign. This allows for the transmission of heat from “+” to “–” for both sources of heat. Again, in the example of the Troposphere, the temperature at the junction of the earth’s surface and the Troposphere is greater relative to the Tropopause but incoming solar irradiation would see the layer as warmer at the junction of the Stratosphere than at the surface of the earth that it is travelling to. The geothermal heat dissipating into space would see the Tropopause as cooler than the surface of the earth. Each heat source applies its particular relativity to the passage it takes unless it meets an obstacle, like a separation layer, that causes the heat transfer to stop. Figure 4.18 shows the heat flow through the layers during the night phase of the 24 hour cycle. In the night phase there is no irradiation that can counter the flow of heat escaping into space. The atmosphere’s separation barriers cease to exist until the sun’s irradiation returns and supplies heat to reform them. 30 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 The heat content of the epipelagic zone and thermocline is not totally released during the night phase. The loss of heat to space may cause an alteration from the surface to the depth of the thermocline but the epipelagic/thermocline entity remains and their action as a separation barrier remains to stop the bulk of the geothermal heat delivered into the ocean from dissipating into space. Any loss or gain of heat will cause the continual readjustment of the depth of the epipelagic zone and the thermocline. Land behaves differently to ocean areas. Land has a great variability in the amount of water that it contains. Deserts, for example, contain very little water and the geothermal heat that reaches the surface, together with the heat accumulated by the land during the day, would be dissipated into the atmosphere once the sun ceases to shine onto the land. Plant cover also impacts on the manner in which land absorbs insolation and hence the amount of heat energy available for dissipation. 4.4.5 - The geothermal heat escape route The release of geothermal heat into the ocean’s sea floor, even at its lowest point, will never allow the deep ocean water to turn to ice while the internal workings of the earth generates heat and that heat is either convected or released directly into the oceans water mass. The geothermal heat accumulates in the deep ocean waters below the thermocline unless there is an opportunity for it to escape and be dissipated into space. In the situation we are in today, the intensity of the heat stored in the epipelagic layer will prevent most of the heat captured in the mass of water below the thermocline from escaping into the atmosphere except at the Polar Regions. There is no separation layer at the Polar Regions. The Polar Oceans have a surface temperature that permits sea ice to form (at about -2°C). Both Polar Regions still have vast permanent sea ice shelfs that are melting rapidly. This property of the Polar Regions performs as a thermal exhaust opening. It allows geothermal heat and heat delivered to the Polar Regions to be dissipated into space day and night throughout the year with only a small change in intensity in dissipation as shown on Figure 4.15 (C). 4.4.6 - Heat dissipation from the Polar Ocean The Polar Regions differ in the manner in which heat delivered to them is managed as the epipelagic and thermocline layers (the separation layer) are absent. Accumulated heat is able to escape into the atmosphere from the Polar Oceans if they are free of sea ice and at a temperature above that which will allow sea ice to form but of insufficient warmth to allow the epipelagic and thermocline layers to form. In the case where there is a sea ice shelf, the rising geothermal heat acts on the colder ice and causes it to melt from below. Similarly, geothermal heat rising on land on which glacial ice is deposited causes the melting of the ice layer supported by the land. At the current rate of 31 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 geothermal heat release it will accelerate the melting of the sea ice and the warming of the Polar Regions at a rate greater than the remainder of the earth is experiencing. The separation layer is not of a consistent thickness and thins from the equator to the upper latitudes and merges into the colder ocean water at latitudes close to the Polar Regions. Figure 4.19 shows that the epipelagic and thermocline layers are not evident in the Polar Regions. The Antarctic, the colder of the Polar Regions, has a greater distance between the South Pole and the edge of where the separation layer ends (distance “A” in Figure 4.19) than the North Pole (distance “B” in Figure 4.19). The absence of a separation layer near the Polar Regions provides an opportunity for the heat to escape into the atmosphere and dissipate into space through a cooler channel - shown as the “geothermal heat escape route” on Figure 4.20. The geothermal heat escape routes are also utilised by warm ocean currents that deliver heat to the Polar Regions. The heat content of the warm ocean currents mix with the rising geothermal heat as the warm ocean currents lose their heat content to the colder ocean and atmosphere. However, the warm ocean currents will be a barrier to the rising geothermal heat until they lose their heat content by its dispersion into the colder Polar Ocean water, the melting of the sea ice shelf and, in the case of land in the Arctic and Antarctic, warming the adjacent land. The combined content of the warm ocean currents and geothermal heat will first disperse itself amongst the colder water but will consequently escape into the atmosphere if the atmosphere becomes relatively colder than the water. The Polar winter is a time that the release of heat from the Polar Oceans would be maximised. 32 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 What heat escapes into space will add to the outgoing radiation from insolation and other heat energy sources measured by CERES as LW and SW radiation. However, the bulk of the geothermal heat is stored in the mass of water below the thermocline, where the thermocline exists. The heat that makes its way to the atmosphere and into space through the geothermal heat escape routes is the sum of geothermal heat and heat captured by the oceans directly (from insolation) or deposited into them (by the hydrologic cycle) and transported to the Polar Regions by warm ocean currents when relative heat conditions between the warm ocean currents and the heat stored in the deep ocean waters allow the two sources of heat to combine. During a warming trend the distances between each of the Poles to the edge of their respective thermocline decreases progressively as OHC increases. This reduces the surface area available for heat in the oceans to escape into the atmosphere and into space. The area of warm water maintained by the thermocline and the epipelagic zone increases. Evaporation from the oceans increases. This action increases the turnover volume of atmospheric water and reduces the hydrologic cycle time; two (2) aspects of the hydrologic cycle that alter rainfall patterns and precipitation volumes. 4.4.7 - The Polar Regions’ hydrologic cycle The Polar Regions have environmental peculiarities that set them apart from the remainder of the earth. The eight (8) numbered steps in the energy transfer and absorption process particular to the Polar Regions are noted on Figure 4.21. The hydrologic cycle that operates at the Polar Regions moderates the acceleration of the warming phase by absorbing some of the energy injected into the earth’s environmental system, both from natural and anthropogenic sources. The absorbed energy warms the Polar Oceans and the land, and melts ice deposits on land and sea. Note: A study titled; Direct observations of submarine melt and subsurface geometry at a tidewater glacier (R4.22), (Sutherland D. A., et al, 2019), confirmed that the process of Polar ice melting and ocean warming was proceeding at a rate much faster than expected. The eight (8) steps particular to the Polar Regions are described as follows: 33 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 Step 1. Ocean currents from the equatorial and sub-equatorial regions deliver a layer of warm water to the Polar Region. The layer of ocean water in warm currents can be up to 1,000 metres thick. Step 2. Geothermal heat rises from the mantle. Step 3. The warm ocean current and the geothermal heat combine. Where there is no sea ice shelf stopping the heat it rises into the atmosphere eventually dissipating into space. The combined heat warms the sea ice shelf and melts the ice. The sea ice shelfs are not as thick as the layer of warm ocean water. The warm water contacts the edges of the sea ice shelf and causes them to melt. The warm water also travels below the sea ice shelf to melt the ice from below. The energy in the warmer water is absorbed as it melts the ice. The area and the thickness of the sea ice shelf reduces. Step 4. The warm ocean current reaches land below the sea ice surface. It warms the land in conjunction with the geothermal heat that rises through the earth’s crust (R4.23). The force of the ocean mass and current drives the warmer water between the junction of the sea ice shelf and the continental shelf at or below sea level. Step 5. The warm ocean water makes its way to the junction of the land and glacial ice on the continental plate. The transfer of heat to the junction of the land and glacial ice promotes ice melt and the acceleration of glacial ice flow. An aspect of ocean warming and sea shelf ice melt confirmed in the April 2021 article: “Pathways and modification of warm water flowing beneath Thwaites Ice Shelf, West Antarctica” by K. Wåhlin and co- authors (R4.24). There is a strong probability that the rising geothermal heat will also melt the base of the ice deposited on the land of the Antarctic continent. Step 6. As the ocean water warms it increases the amount of evaporation at the Polar Regions. The extent of the volume of evaporation is dependent on the temperature of the warm current and the extent the cooler Polar Oceans and sea ice can absorb energy and reduce the temperature of the mixed ocean waters. The warmer the mixed Polar Ocean water becomes the greater is the volume of evaporation resulting from its surface. The warmth of the evaporation elevates the temperature of the Polar Region. Step 7. The prevailing wind mixes with the warm wind currents. The prevailing winds drive the evaporation onto the area of glacial ice that is deposited on the continental plate. The winds exchange energy with the colder environment and warm the atmosphere. Step 8. The evaporation precipitates in a volume proportional to the extent of evaporation. If the atmospheric temperature becomes warm enough then the precipitation will fall as rain and help to melt the surface of the glacial ice. The continuation of the warming Polar Hydrologic Cycle causes a transitional change to the climate of the Polar Region. 4.5 –The Earth Energy System (EES) There are many models of the earth’s energy budget that show the imbalance of the input/output radiation based on measurements taken by orbiting monitoring satellites. The earth energy budget (EEB) models prominent in many publications take into account the incoming solar irradiation, cloud cover, reflections and absorption of the incoming irradiation and various factors of earth’s heat emissions, such as thermals and evaporation, balanced by back radiation from greenhouse gases (radiative forcing). 34 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 Figure 4.22 is an example of an EEB by L. Chambers in the article; “Energy Budget: Earth’s most important and least appreciated planetary attribute” (R4.25). The diagram is representative of all components that affect the earth’s surface in accordance to the EEB model but it does not take into account all the sources of energy that the earth is subjected to as noted in Table 4.2. The article implies that a standard EEB model requires an additional source of energy in order to balance the CERES satellite based measurements of incoming and outgoing energy. The earth energy system (EES) model is proposed as an alternative to the earth energy budget model. The EES model encompasses all known energy sources and drains that apply to the earth and describes the earth as a unique satellite of the solar system with a hot internal core and mantle, magnetic field protection and biospheric properties that promote carbon based life. The proposed EES model is based on the concept that the CERES monitoring satellite measures the incoming (the suns intercepted irradiation) and outgoing long wave (LW) and short wave (SW) radiation during a prescribed interval of time and that the net difference in the measurements states that either a greater or lesser amount of energy is dissipated than is received from the sun. Figure 4.23 shows the five (5) principle components of the earth energy system are associated with the biosphere. Each has the potential to impact the total energy in the EES and alter earth’s environmental and weather conditions. The earth’s heat energy associated activities, also noted on Figure 4.23, are associated with the biosphere, atmosphere, land and oceans. They are the elements that manage the total heat content uptake and storage from insolation and other sources that results in the residual heat energy that is dissipated to space in the forms of LW and SW radiation. 35 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 In the EES model global warming and climate change are consequent to the intercepted level of the sun’s insolation and the added energy of associated heat energy producing and consuming activities directly related to the earth. 4.5.1 – The five (5) biospheric components of the EES Each of the categories listed in the energy associated activities block contribute to the total of the energy that has a direct impact on the earth’s environmental conditions in accordance to the 5 biospheric components as follows: 1. Heat energy interception. There are two (2) major sources of heat that are intercepted by the biosphere; the sun and the earth’s geothermal energy as described earlier. Both are constant sources of heat but have a variability in the heat intensity that affects the earth based on: - The changing physical properties of the sun and its irradiation output. - The rotation of the earth on its axis. - The constant minimum level release of the internally generated geothermal heat and additional irregular releases of internal heat (by volcanos, fissure openings etc.) as the continental and oceanic plates move about the earth. - Cloud cover, aerosols and dust that can prevent the sun’s heat from reaching the earth’s surface. - The dynamic and orbital properties of the earth, known as the Milankovitch cycles, which alter the earth’s relationship with the sun. 2. Heat energy generation. - Heat energy is generated in the biosphere by natural events such as forest fires, life, naturally occurring chemical reactions and intercepted cosmic impact events. - There are also anthropogenic events such as the combustion of fossil fuels, the reaction of nuclear materials and the application of exothermic chemical reactions. 3. Heat energy consumption. - Life has a cycle. Life is born, grows and dies. It consumes the sun’s energy as it creates biomass. - Death subjects the life to decomposition which releases the stored energy back to the environment. - A comparison between the biomass from one period to the next gauges whether energy has been consumed or released. - Ice melt also consumes energy as the heat is absorbed and converts the ice to water although this will cease once all ice deposits are melted. 4. Heat energy storage. - Heat is stored in the atmosphere, the land and the ocean. - The ocean is the principle heat store. - The land and the atmosphere radiate their heat into cooler areas towards space. - Evaporation from the ocean releases heat from the ocean into the cooler atmosphere. - Evaporation volumes increase the warmer the earth becomes. - Evaporation heat losses radiate into cooler areas towards space. - Ocean currents transfer heat from a warm source to a cooler receptor. 36 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 - The hydrologic cycle assists insolation to add heat energy to the oceans heat store by gathering heat in the atmosphere and land. 5. Heat energy dissipation. - The atmosphere, land and the ocean each release heat that is dissipated into space both day and night. - A greater intensity of the rate of heat dissipation into space occurs during the night phase of the earth’s day/night cycle. - Cloud cover reduces the rate of heat dissipation into space. 4.5.2 – Differences between the EEB and the EES models The most significant difference between the EEB model and the EES model is that the latter does not include radiative forcing. Radiative forcing would imbalance the EES model. The EES model encompasses all the energy sources that affect the earth and meets all the criteria that defines the earth and its heat management mechanism as abiding by the Laws of Thermodynamics and the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy. The action of heat absorption by greenhouse gases (and other gases in the atmosphere) is an aspect of earth’s total energy complement and internal environmental cycles and controls. The dissipation of energy is representative of all activities. The measurement of the earth’s land and ocean surface temperature records the heat content of the atmosphere at the time the measurement is taken at the location that it is taken at. The EES model consolidates all the energy additions and subtractions that would cause the earth to experience a growing or reducing retained heating content that can be identified as causing global warming or global cooling. It could also be that two (2) or more energy associated activities are contributors to a warming or cooling trend or could influence the direction a trend the earth was following. The sun remains the prime contributor to the earth’s energy system. The level of irradiation intercepted by the earth would initiate a warming or cooling trend during a 150MY Solar Cycle. Note that when the CERES data is taken into consideration:   A Total Solar Irradiance of 1361W/m² represents the solar energy delivered by the sun at a trend turn point as per the article; “Variability of the Total Solar Irradiance” (R4.20). At this level of irradiation the sun maintains a steady level of heat without causing either a warming or cooling trend on earth. The Solar Constant, of about 1367W/m² (represented by the PMOD Composite TSI Time Series (Daily Means), is a value slightly higher than what it was measured to be by CERES (represented by the ACRIM Composite TSI Time Series (Daily Means) as reported in the article: ACRIM total solar irradiance satellite composite validation versus TSI proxy models by N. Scafetta and R. Willson (R4.26). 37 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 4.6 –Tectonic events that increased the earth’s AGT This section hypothesises that tectonic activity has the potential to cause an elevated release of the earth’s geothermal heat that then increases the earth’s average global temperature. The conceptual method of operation is described in the example associated with the South American Altoplano uplift event. 4.6.1 – Earth’s dynamics Tectonic activity is a persistent component of the earth’s dynamics. The continental plates move constantly at a slow pace that, over millions of years, changes the layout of the land masses and the oceans. The motion of the plates of land that “float” on the fluid magma below them, some with oceans above them, results in the creation of pressure that moves and alters the topography of the solid matter that is the basis of the earth’s crust. The water in the oceans moves about to fill depressions created by the three (3) dimensional movement of the solid matter. Fault lines delineate one plate from another where they join. The movement of the plates result in subduction and collision events that have the potential to cause rifts and cracks in the fault lines between them. The fault lines can manifest as earthquakes, volcanoes or as sea floor vents that release the earth’s internal heat into the biosphere. Note: In the context of this discussion the biosphere is considered to extend from the lowest point on the sea floor to the top of the Troposphere as all major events that impact the earth’s surface occur in this space. The heat that escapes from crustal openings into the mantle is one component of the earth’s total energy management system that adds to the heat delivered by the sun. In the paper, “Variability of the Total Solar Irradiance”, W. Fiori, March 2021(R4.20), reference was made to the work of C. R. Scotese, N. J. Shaviv and J. Veizer, that identified the existence of the 150 Million Year Solar Cycle, with defined “hot” and “cold” periods. The graph (Figure 2 in the article noted) represents the highly smoothed average global temperature variations in the cycle as per C. R. Scotese’s graph (Figure 1 in the article noted) converted to a linear form. The graph (Figure 2 in the article noted) shows that the earth intercepts a quantity of heat from the sun that varies in intensity during the cycle time. The graph, although representing a highly smoothed movement of the average global temperature, also shows that the cycle is not smooth as there is evidence of interruptions and deviations in both the cooling and warming trends that act on the trend for a period of time and then the trend settles back to the cycle path. 4.6.2 - The South American Altoplano uplift event The interruptions and deviations to the 150MY Solar Cycle trend evident in the mid to lateCenozoic Era were investigated in terms of the timing and events related to the uplift of the South American Altoplano. At this time the Pacific and Nazca Plates, largely responsible for the western North American and South American mountain ranges’ orogenies in the late Cretaceous, continued to apply subduction pressure against both the American continental plates altering the topography of the two continents. 38 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 This “recent” time frame was used as an example of a tectonic period that caused an increase in the average global temperature during a cooling trend induced by the 150MY Solar Cycle. The enormity of the earth’s capacity to cause significant topographic and environmental changes is shown during the period of time it took to uplift the Altoplano, situated in the Andes Mountains of Bolivia and Peru, to 4000m beginning in the late Miocene. This significant event was part of the subduction event that affected both the North and South American continents’ western coastlines. It resulted in several changes to the topography of the land to the western coastline of the North American and South American continents mountain ranges and coastlines. The Altoplano, today a plateau that has an area of about 103,600 km² (40,000 miles²), is more than 3,962m (13,000 feet) above sea level in places, as noted in several references (R4.27). The area of the Altoplano is second only to the area of the Tibetan Plateau, as noted by C. Wang (R4.28) (2,500,000km² in area) and would have required a corresponding relative magnitude of force to cause the uplift. The events particular to the uplifting of the Altoplano occurred in two (2) steps and is summarised as follows: 1. The first uplift to 2,000m above sea level began about 24 MYA. The Altoplano reached that height in a time of about 8MYs and stabilised for about 4MY. 2. A second uplift of the Altoplano took it to 4,000m above sea level in the following 5Mys. Figure 4.24 indicates the timing and the changes in the average global temperature as the Altoplano uplifted. It shows the two (2) characteristics that are related to the measurement of 39 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 global warming during the Miocene; the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (in blue) and the average global temperature (in red). The following discussion commences with the earth pursuing a cooling trend during the Eocene that terminated as the Quaternary Ice Age reached its low point in the Pleistocene, 2.1MYA. Note: When proceeding through the discussion below it is important to note that a subduction event was occurring between the Pacific plate and the North American plate, with significant changes to the land topography of North America, at the same time as the tectonic activity in South American continent uplifted the Altoplano. The two events created a fault line, and an area of subduction pressure, that extended for more than 12,000 km from the top of the western edge of the North American plate to the bottom of the western edge of the South American plate. Subduction pressure was intermittently applied about this fault line for about 18Mys as the land about the western perimeter of the two continents, some of which was submerged below the sea, was uplifted to various heights above sea level; the highest uplift being the Altoplano. The tectonic forces applied to both continents contributed to the movements of the average global temperature and the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. Subduction forces were intensifying on the western border of the Americas and, in particular, between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate during the early to mid-Oligocene resulting in a period of increasing tectonic activity that began to release internal (geothermal) heat into the ocean and land surrounding the fault line. As the heat spread about the oceans it caused a reduction in the rate of cooling the earth was following. About 24MYA tectonic activity strengthened. The increased release of geothermal heat at subduction fault lines warmed the oceans further and they released more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The sun induced cooling trend was continuing but the geothermal heat was able to slow the rate of cooling that was taking the earth to the low point of the ice age. Note: The earth had been following a cooling trend that began in the late Cretaceous. The release of the geothermal heat by the subduction event caused an interruption of the trend. At a point in the late Oligocene, early Miocene, about 23MYA, the land mass that represents the present Bolivian and Peruvian shoreline and the Altoplano began to rise. It elevated a great mass of seawater with the Altoplano, contained in its natural depressions, on its journey to the first stage of the uplift to 2,000m. The tectonic pressure increased the rate of release of the earth’s internal heat. The average global temperature began to rise as the heat dispersed about the oceans. The oceans warmed and released more carbon dioxide captive in the ocean. The pressure abated about 14MYA but the release of geothermal heat continued. The rate of cooling caused by the reduction in irradiation from the sun was lessened by the tectonic and volcanic activity. The average global temperature remained steady for about 5 million years before the volcanic activity subsided, stabilised and the average global temperature once again began to decline in accordance to the reduced irradiation from the sun. The average global temperature increased by about 1.3°C in the 9MYs of elevated tectonic and volcanic activity. However, when taking into account the potential decline in the average global temperature(about -1°C), had the cooling trend not been interrupted by the tectonic 40 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 events, then the tectonic activity of that time would have increased the average global temperature by about 2.25°C, as shown in the portion of the graph coloured in orange, in Figure 4.25. The increase in the average global temperature represents a rate of change of about 0.25°C/MYs. However, there is no surety that the average global temperature trend that began just before the beginning of the uplift would have continued. Two (2) alternative possibilities of cooling trends that could have been influenced by the tectonic activity of that time have also been shown on Figure 4.25. The two (2) possible cooling trends (coloured in peach and blue on the graph) had the potential to decrease the average global temperature by about 1.25°C. Hence, the potential for the tectonic activity of that period to have interrupted the cooling trend was in the order of adding about 3.8°C to the average global temperature in a time of about 9MYs; a rate of change of about 0.42°C/MYs. This is a minor rise in average global temperature when compared to the last 100 years that has seen the average global temperature increase by 1°C (representing a rate of warming equal to about 10,000°C/MYs). A second bout of subduction pressure started about 12MYA. It released the earth’s internal heat for the next 7 million years. It slowed down the rate of cooling but could not prevent the average global temperature from steadily decreasing even though the Altoplano was raised a further 2,000m. The land stability was maintained from 5MYA to today. Evidence of the tectonic activity that raised the Altoplano from sea level to 4,000m is strewn about the Altoplano. Lakes have 41 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 dried and their sea salt content remains in the depressions in which the water originally laid. The eastern and western cordilleras of the Andes about the Altoplano show many extinguished volcanos as evidence of its geologically turbulent recent past. All in all the uplifting of the Altoplano to its final 4,000m above sea level repose hampered the rapid decline the average global temperature was following. However, it could not stop it from bottoming to an intense ice age that peaked 2.1MYA. A point to note is that the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide did not correlate consistently with the changes in the average global temperature throughout the Oligocene, Miocene and Pleistocene Epochs. The 140ppmv increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide happened in a time of about 9MYs (23MYA to 14MYA), at a rate of 15.56ppmv/MYs and about 125ppmv in 5MYs (10MYA to 5MYA), at a rate of 25ppmv/MYs. The increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide from 10 to 5MYA corresponds to a drop in the average global temperature of about 1.5°C. The rates of change in the two (2) occurrences of increases in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide during the Miocene are negligible when compared to the rate measured in the last 50 years. At no time were the intrusive sources of geothermal and volcanic energy of such an intensity that the rate of warming was more than in the possible range of about 0.25° to 0.42°C/MYs. This was despite the influence of aggressive subduction forces that acted to create mountain ranges on the western coastline of two (2) continents over a distance of about 12,000km. 4.6.3 – Temperature changes of the Arctic Ocean Reference to the temperature of the Arctic Ocean in Figure 4.24 indicates the amount of geothermal energy that was released during this period. In the article, “Evidence for ice-free summers in the late Miocene central Arctic Ocean”, by R. Stein et al, 2016 (R4.29), the researchers did not relate the northern Polar Oceans to a particular timing other than in the late Miocene. The arrow pointing backwards towards the early Miocene and into the Oligocene in Figure 4.24 relates the increase in the ocean temperature to the timing of the beginning of the second uplift to 4,000m and the precursor tectonic activities that initiated the uplift, including the first uplift that took the Altoplano to 2,000m. These events support the cause for the temperature measurements the researchers identified. A significant amount of the earth’s geothermal heat must have been injected into the earth energy system at that time. The rate of decline to the Quaternary Ice Age low point 2.1MYA did not accelerate until the end of the Pliocene. Had the sun’s intercepted irradiation not declined to a level that took it to the ice age low point, the second uplift would have added considerable heat content to the oceans and the average global temperature would have climbed substantially by perhaps an amount equivalent to the first uplift. At all times in the discussion above the average global temperature was directly related to the earth energy system’s volatile energy sources and responded to the content of energy in the biosphere in accordance to the intensity of the sun’s insolation and the intensity of energy other intrusive sources could deliver. The only energy source missing in the Miocene, when compared to today, was the heat energy and water vapour generated from potential energy 42 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 sources (fossil fuels, nuclear materials and human induced exothermic chemical reactions) exhausted into the earth energy system in several different ways, principally in the biosphere, and predominantly above sea level. 4.6.4 – Other events of collision and uplift The intensity of heat released from the earth’s mantle can be related to two (2) other events of significant collision and uplift of the earth’s tectonic plates that have occurred in the last 250 million years:   The Permian Mass Extinction Event. The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. Figure 4.26 indicates the timing of these events and their impact on the average global temperature. Both events share similarities to the South American Altoplano Uplift event:      They are events where land masses merged.  The uplift associated with the subduction and the collision was extreme in force and of a relatively short geologic time duration.  The movement of the tectonic plates and the uplift forces created: o A plateau in Asia when it collided with India (the Tibetan Plateau). o The final stage of the consolidation of all continental plates into one (1) landmass, Pangaea. Volcanic activity resulted from the subduction and uplift of the continental plates. Considerable sea floor activity occurred at the juncture of the moving tectonic plates with potentially high releases of the mantle’s heat directly into the oceans. The oceans’ additional heat content increased the earth’s average global temperature above the rate of irradiation received from the sun. The event, particular to the time of the Permian Mass Extinction, added about 2°C to the sun’s induced peak average global temperature prior to the turn point to a cooling trend. It was only during the time-frames of these two major collision events that the Arctic Region was found to have both land mass and a warm temperate climate in the last 600 million years according to the paleoclimate maps provided by C. R. Scotese (R4.30). 43 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 It suggests that, at those times, the Polar Ocean water temperature would have been well above 0°C as occurs at warm temperate regions today throughout the seasons. References R4.01 Drake, Gordon W. F., "thermodynamics". Encyclopedia Britannica, Invalid Date, https://www.britannica.com/science/thermodynamics. Accessed 22 January 2022. R4.02 Pharmatutor Pharmacy Encyclopaedia, Beer’s and Lambert’s Law, Available from: https://www.pharmatutor.org/pharma-analysis/analytical-aspects-of-uv-visiblespectroscopy/beer-lambert-law.html WikiLectures, Lambert-Beer’s law, Last modified 14 August, 2016. Available from: https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Lambert-Beer%27s_law PhysicalGeography.net, Atmospheric Effects on Incoming Solar Radiation. Available from: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7f.html Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited, sun angle, Duration and Insolation. Available from: https://www.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495555061_137179.pdf R4.03 Johnston, H., 19 July, 2021, Radioactive decay accounts for half of Earth’s heat, https://physicsworld.com/a/radioactive-decay-accounts-for-half-of-earths-heat/. The article was derived from the article by The KamLAND Collaboration, 2011, Partial radiogenic heat model for Earth revealed by geoneutrino measurements. Nature Geosci 4, 647–651 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1205 R4.04 Donev, J.M.K.C., et al. (2019). Energy Education - Geothermal gradient [Online]. Available: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Geothermal_gradient . Accessed: November 13, 2021. R4.05 Williams, D. R., NASA Goddard Space Flight Centre, Terrestrial atmosphere, Earth Fact Sheet, Last updated 21 December, 2021, https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html, Accessed 15 May, 2022. R4.06 Webb, P., Introduction to Oceanography, Chapter 6.2 – Temperature, Roger Williams University, https://rwu.pressbooks.pub/webboceanography/chapter/6-2-temperature/ Accessed 20 November, 2021. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Download this book for free at http://rwu.pressbooks.pub/webboceanography R4.07 Loeb, N. G., Johnson, G. C., Thorsen, T. J., Lyman, J. M., Rose, F. G., & Kato, S. (2021). Satellite and ocean data reveal marked increase in Earth’s heating rate. Geophysical Research Letters, 48, e2021GL093047. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL093047 R4.08 von Schuckmann, K., Cheng, L., Palmer, M. D., Hansen, J., Tassone, C., Aich, V., Adusumilli, S., Beltrami, H., Boyer, T., Cuesta-Valero, F. J., Desbruyères, D., Domingues, C., García-García, A., Gentine, P., Gilson, J., Gorfer, M., Haimberger, L., Ishii, M., Johnson, G. C., Killick, R., King, B. A., Kirchengast, G., Kolodziejczyk, N., Lyman, J., Marzeion, B., Mayer, M., Monier, M., Monselesan, D. P., Purkey, S., Roemmich, D., Schweiger, A., Seneviratne, S. I., Shepherd, A., Slater, D. A., Steiner, A. K., Straneo, F., Timmermans, M.44 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 L., and Wijffels, S. E.: Heat stored in the Earth system: where does the energy go? 2020, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 2013–2041, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-2013-2020 R4.09a Cheng, L., and Coauthors, 2020: Record-setting ocean warmth continued in 2019. Adv. Atmos. Sci., 37(2), 137−142, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-020-9283-7. R4.09b Carne, N., 2020, Ocean warming an increasing problem, https://cosmosmagazine.com/climate/ocean-warming-an-increasing-problem Accessed 17 January, 2020 R4.10 NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Earth Science Communications Team, California Institute of Technology, https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/ice-sheets/ , Accessed 13 December, 2021. R4.11 Helmenstine, Todd. 9 November, 2019, Heat of Fusion Example Problem: Melting Ice, ThoughtCo, Jul. 29, 2021, thoughtco.com/heat-of-fusion-melting-ice-problem-609498. https://www.thoughtco.com/heat-of-fusion-melting-ice-problem-609498 Accessed 13 December, 2021. R4.12 Nielsen, R., Solar Radiation, 2005, http://home.iprimus.com.au/nielsens/solrad.html, Accessed 16 December, 2021. R4.13 International Energy Agency, Global Energy Review 2019, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-2019, Accessed 16 December, 2021 R4.14 Australian Government, Department of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources, April 2020, Technical Update, Estimating greenhouse gas emissions from bushfires in Australia’s temperate forests: focus on 2019-20, https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/202004/estimating-greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-bushfires-in-australias-temperate-forestsfocus-on-2019-20.pdf Accessed 18 December, 2021 R4.15 Ritchie, H., Roser, M., CO2 and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Our World in Data, 2020, https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions Global CO2 emissions from fossil fuels data, for the year 2019, obtained from Annual CO2 emissions chart at https://ourworldindata.org/co2-emissions R4.16 National Centers for Environmental Information, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Global Ocean Heat and Salt Content: Seasonal, Yearly and Pentadal Fields. In particular, Chart 0-2000 m Global Ocean Heat Content 1955 to 2021, Reference: NOAA/NESDIS/NCEI Ocean Climate Laboratory, Updated from Levitus et al. 2012. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/global-ocean-heat-content/ Accessed 18 December, 2021 R4.17 Prăvălie, R., Nuclear Weapons Tests and Environmental Consequences: A Global Perspective, Ambio. 2014 Oct; 43(6): 729–744. Published online 2014 Feb 22. doi: 10.1007/s13280-014-0491-1, PMCID: PMC4165831 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4165831/ Accessed 20 December, 2021 R4.18 CTBTO Preparatory Commission, Nuclear Testing 1945 – Today, As at 2017, https://www.ctbto.org/nuclear-testing/history-of-nuclear-testing/nuclear-testing-1945-today/ Accessed 20 December, 2021 R4.19 Cheng, L. J, and Coauthors, 2022: Another record: Ocean warming continues through 2021 despite La Niña conditions. Adv. Atmos. Sci., https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-022-1461-3. 45 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 R4.20 Fiori, W., 27 March, 2021, Variability of the Total Solar Irradiance, published on academia.edu, https://www.academia.edu/45623010/Variability_of_the_Total_Solar_Irradiance R4.21 NOAA, National Centers for Environmental Information, State of the Climate: Global Climate Report for Annual 2016, published online January 2017, retrieved on October 31, 2017 from https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/201613 R4.22 D. A. Sutherland et al, Direct observations of submarine melt and subsurface geometry at a tidewater glacier, Science, 26 Jul 2019, Vol. 365, Issue 6451, pp. 369-374, DOI: 10.1126/science.aax3528 R4.23 Geology News, 2018, Discovery of High Geothermal Heat at South Pole, https://www.geologyin.com/2018/11/discovery-of-high-geothermal-heat-at.html . The article was derived from the article by Jordan, T. N., Martin, C., Ferraccioli, F., et al, , Anomalously high geothermal flux near the South Pole, Sci Rep 8, 16785 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-35182-0 , https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-01835182-0 R4.24 K. Wåhlin A. G. C. Graham K. A. Hogan B. Y. Queste L. Boehme R. D Larter E. C. Pettit J. Wellner and K. J. Heywood, 9 Apr 2021, Pathways and modification of warm water flowing beneath Thwaites Ice Shelf, West Antarctica, Science Advances, Vol 7, Issue 15, DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abd7254, https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abd7254 R4.25 Chambers, L., (NASA Langley Research Center) and Bethea, K., (SSAI), 2013, Energy Budget: Earth’s most important and least appreciated planetary attribute, Published in Universe in the Classroom No. 84 – Summer 2013, pp1-4. https://www.academia.edu/64327181/Energy_Budget_Earths_Most_Important_and_Least_A ppreciated_Planetary_Attribute Accessed 22 December, 2021 R4.26 Scafetta, N., Willson, R. C., ACRIM total solar irradiance satellite composite validation versus TSI proxy models, 21 November, 2013, Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014, Astrophys Space Science, DOI: 10.1007/s10509-013-1775-9 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10509-013-1775-9 R4.27 Sébrier, M., Lavenu, A., Fornari, M., Soulas, J. P., 1988, Tectonics and uplift in Central Andes (Peru, Bolivia and Northern Chile) from Eocene to present. Geodynamique Vol. 3 pp85-106, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/32982575_Tectonics_and_uplift_in_Central_Andes _Peru_Bolivia_and_Northern_Chile_from_Eocene_to_present Evenstar, L. A., F. M. Stuart, A. J. Hartley, and B. Tattitch (2015), Slow Cenozoic uplift of the western Andean Cordillera indicated by cosmogenic 3He in alluvial boulders from the Pacific Planation Surface., Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 8448–8455, doi:10.1002/2015GL065959 https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2015GL065959 Lamb, S., Hoke, L., 1997, Origin of the high plateau in the Central Andes, Bolivia, South America, American Geophysical Union, Paper number 97TC00495. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1029/97TC00495 46 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/7/2022 Dejoux, C., Iltis, A., Editors, 1992, Lake Titicaca - A Synthesis of Limnological Knowledge, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0-7923-1663-0 https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/2467487 https://books.google.com.au/books?id=WWjuCAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gb s_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Sundell, K. E., Saylor, J. E., Lapen, T. J., & Horton, B. K., 2019, Implications of variable late Cenozoic surface uplift across the Peruvian central Andes, Scientific reports, 9(1), 4877. DOI:10.1038/s41598-019-41257-3, Nature Publishing Group, Download 14/7/2020 10:31:04 Link to item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/633353 ZOLÁ, R. P., Bengtsson, L., 2006, Long-term and extreme water level variations of the shallow Lake Poopó, Bolivia, Hydrological Sciences Journal, 51:1, 98-114, DOI: 10.1623/hysj.51.1.98 Published on line 19 January, 2010. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1623/hysj.51.1.98 R4.28 Wang, C., Updated 29 December, 2021, The Tibetan Plateau, China Highlights, https://www.chinahighlights.com/tibet/the-qinghai-tibet-plateau.htm Arindom, Sourced 9 January, 2022, Tibetan Plateau: Definition, Location, Formation, and Interesting Facts, Earth Eclipse, https://eartheclipse.com/geology/tibetan-plateau.html R4.29 Stein, R., et al, 2016, Evidence for ice-free summers in the late Miocene central Arctic Ocean, Nature Communications, SP 11148, Vol 7, doi: 10.1038/ncomms11148. SN 2041-1723, https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11148, https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms11148 R4.30 Scotese, C.R., 2002, Plate tectonic maps and Continental drift animations http://www.scotese.com , (PALEOMAP website). Paleoclimate maps that show a warm temperate climate in the Arctic Region: The Triassic: http://scotese.com/etriascl.htm , http://scotese.com/mtriascl.htm , http://scotese.com/ltriascl.htm and the Early Eocene: http://scotese.com/earlyeoc1.htm 47 

Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 Earth’s Energy Balance and Thermodynamic Properties By: Walter Fiori, Revised: 16 July, 2022. (Revisions to sections 4.3 and 4.3.3 of original article: Earth’s Energy Balance, Heat Sources, Global Warming and Thermodynamic Properties of 8/7/2022) Abstract This article theorises that the earth is an entity in the solar system that has properties that promotes life supported by the level of warmth from two (2) principle sources of heat: 1. The sun – that, together with the earth’s biospheric properties, elevates the earth’s status above a black body and supplies the warmth that maintains the conditions for life. 2. The earth’s mantle and core supplying heat in a volume that is continuous but subject to variability dependent on the thickness of the earth’s crust, extent of fissures in seafloor ridges, the movement of the continental and oceanic plates and subduction (or obduction) events. The interactivity of the heat released from the two (2) sources is considered in terms of the Laws of Thermodynamics and the Conservation of matter and Energy as, together, they have an effect on the earth which initiates a reconsideration of the current concept of the Earth’s Energy Balance and causes of global warming. Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 1 4.1 - Introduction ............................................................................................................... 2 4.2 – The Earth’s heat sources and heat capture mechanisms ............................................. 4 4.2.1 - Insolation ............................................................................................................ 4 4.2.2 - Ocean currents .................................................................................................... 6 4.2.3 – Geothermal heat ................................................................................................. 6 4.2.4 - The atmosphere ................................................................................................... 7 4.2.5 - The epipelagic zone and the thermocline ............................................................. 8 4.3 – Earth Energy Imbalance (EEI) ................................................................................ 11 4.3.1 – Sources of heat energy that impact EEI............................................................. 12 4.3.2 – Glaciation and heat energy absorption .............................................................. 13 4.3.3 - Energy sources that impacted the earth in 2019 ................................................. 14 4.3.4 - Release of geothermal heat into the ocean ......................................................... 15 4.3.5 – The atomic age ................................................................................................. 17 4.3.6 – Ocean heat accumulation .................................................................................. 19 4.3.7 - Instantaneous evacuation of heat from the biosphere. ........................................ 20 1 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 4.4 – The earth’s energy management systems ................................................................. 20 4.4.3 – Heat gains and losses caused by the day/night cycle ......................................... 26 4.4.4 – Earth’s input/output energy – sources and drains .............................................. 27 4.4.5 - The geothermal heat escape route ...................................................................... 31 4.4.6 - Heat dissipation from the Polar Ocean............................................................... 31 4.4.7 - The Polar Regions’ hydrologic cycle ................................................................. 33 4.5 –The Earth Energy System (EES) .............................................................................. 34 4.5.1 – The five (5) biospheric components of the EES ................................................ 36 4.5.2 – Differences between the EEB and the EES models ........................................... 37 4.6 –Tectonic events that increased the earth’s AGT ........................................................ 38 4.6.1 – Earth’s dynamics .............................................................................................. 38 4.6.2 - The South American Altoplano uplift event....................................................... 38 4.6.3 – Temperature changes of the Arctic Ocean......................................................... 42 4.6.4 – Other events of collision and uplift ................................................................... 43 References ....................................................................................................................... 44 4.1 - Introduction The principle sources of heat, the sun and the earth, are accompanied by other sources of heat that associate with life, irregular natural events such as volcanic convulsions and forest fires and the energy released from potential energy sources by human (anthropogenic) activities. In addition to the injection of heat into the earth system there are systems in place that transfer heat from one point to another such as:      Ocean currents that deliver water warmed at the equator to the colder Polar Regions. Ocean currents that transport warmed water east to west about the equator. Convection of the earth’s heat into the atmosphere and into space. Wind and water systems that transport clouds, water vapour and heat about the earth. The hydrologic cycle that harvests heat in the atmosphere and land and returns it to the oceans. These variable component are of considerable importance in particular as to how they apply uniquely to continental plates, open oceans at latitudes below the Polar Regions and at the land and oceans of the Polar Regions. The most important of the Polar Regions’ particular properties is that they don’t have a 24 hour day/night cycle. Instead, because of the earth’s axial tilt, they have long periods of daylight followed by long periods of night. The absence of an alternating 24 hour day/night cycle, together with their high latitude, creates a situation that is particular to the Polar 2 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 Regions. They receive little life giving warmth from the sun and it leads to the possibility of them becoming ice bound during spells of reduced levels of insolation i.e. ice ages. The process that leads to ice age conditions begins with a deep cooling trend. Consequences of the cooling trend alter the environmental conditions of the Polar Regions that progress to land based glaciation and sea ice extent in a particular sequence. The South Pole is the first Polar Region to be affected during a cooling trend. The cooling trend progressively cools the surface of the sea and turns surface water to ice in the winter. The ice melts in the summer. This continues until the cold reaches an intensity that creates a permanent sea ice cover that persists year round. The area of the permanent sea ice cover increases the lower the average global temperature is taken to. The same process occurs in the Northern Polar Region as well if the cooling trend continues to lower the average global temperature. When this occurs the temperature of the northern oceans is taken to the point where their surface begin to turn to ice and the process continues as per the South Polar Region until the cooling trend ceases. Note that at a time of an extensive ice age, as occurred in the Pleistocene following the cooling path that began a few million years leading up to the Pleistocene, the extent of sea ice cover is also subjected to the earth’s dynamic circumstances related to the Milankovitch cycles. Glacial ice accumulates on land as the cooling trend progresses and the cold conditions of the ice age deepen. The oceans at the equatorial regions increase in their warmth when a warming trend begins. Ocean currents take the warm water to the Polar Regions. The heat in the water current merges with heat released by geothermal activity. The heat dissipates into the cooler Polar Ocean water warming it. The sea ice begins to melt. The continual flow of warm water and geothermal heat eventually warms the Polar Region’s ocean water sufficiently to melt all the sea ice and halts any further sea ice from forming. The glacial ice on land begins to melt as ambient temperatures and evaporation from the warming ocean increases. In time the continual flow of heat energy into the Polar Regions changes their climate status. Warm temperate climate conditions are reached if conditions drive the peak average global temperature to become high enough. This process follows the energy inputs into the earth’s biosphere, from various sources, which determine the average global temperature and the potential for climate change. Energy inputs and outputs that have an effect on the earth’s temperature and climate conditions identify the earth as part of the open system of the universe and subject to universal physical laws. The earth stands apart from a “black body” because of its content and state of fluids; the atmosphere and the water that are bound to the solid mass by gravity. The state of the fluids allow the creation of two distinct life supporting layers; the biosphere and the hydrosphere. 3 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The sources of heat energy the earth is subjected to regulate the environmental conditions that exist in the two life supporting layers of the earth in accordance to the laws of Thermodynamics and the Conservation of Matter and Energy. Each of the layers has a reserve of energy that maintains the environmental conditions of the respective layer. The earth adds or subtracts energy in its reserves from all its energy sources depending on whether the 150MY Solar Cycle trend is taking it either on a cooling or warming path. Global warming, climate change and the alterations to the earth’s habitats are all subject to sources of energy that abide strictly to the Laws of Thermodynamics. They apply particularly to an earth structure that can be viewed as an open system with variable layer apertures. The methods in which the laws apply to the heat energy in the earth system persist as the energy strives to reach equilibrium with the universe through entropy. A simplicity in the concept of thermodynamics was found in the concluding remarks in the Encyclopaedia Britannica’s article by G. W. F. Drake (R4.01) who wrote: “The 20th-century English scientist C.P. Snow explained the first three laws of thermodynamics, respectively, as: 1. You cannot win (i.e., one cannot get something for nothing, because of the conservation of matter and energy). 2. You cannot break even (i.e., one cannot return to the same energy state, because entropy, or disorder, always increases). 3. You cannot get out of the game (i.e., absolute zero is unattainable because no perfectly pure substance exists).” These explanations are observed throughout this discussion. 4.2 – The Earth’s heat sources and heat capture mechanisms Several aspects of the earth’s properties have to be considered when investigating the sources of heat that create the climate conditions and environments that exist around the earth. The natural heat sources each have their impact on the land and oceans of the earth. They drive the hydrologic cycle, the heat content of the oceans, the average global temperature and the atmospheric transfer of heat energy to space. 4.2.1 - Insolation The sun is earth’s primary source of heat. It provides a consistent amount of energy that maintains life supporting conditions on the earth. It does this in conjunction with earth’s primary properties of atmosphere, water and land. There are two (2) components of the earth’s properties that contribute to the variations in the irradiation as it makes its way to the surface:   The thickness of the atmosphere it has to travel through. Earth’s obliquity. 4 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The earth’s obliquity is particularly important. During the passage of an orbit of the sun the earth’s obliquity changes the point of the earth that is on the plane of the ecliptic. Only at equinox does the sun shine equally on the northern and southern hemispheres as it oscillates between today’s 23.5° angle of obliquity. The equinox provides each hemisphere with identical day/night timing and a level of irradiation that only differs by the small change in distance between the sun and the earth between the autumnal and vernal equinoxes. As the earth tilts about its angle of obliquity it alternately exposes the hemispheres to the direct incidence of the sun’s irradiation. The action causing each hemisphere’s opposite change in seasons. The earth’s obliquity also has a considerable effect on the Polar Regions. The further up the latitudes the less is the intensity of the insolation that reaches the surface of the earth. Currently the Polar Regions begin at a latitude of 66.5°. The 66.5° latitude receives about 40% of the warmth of the sun’s irradiation at equinox, decreasing to 0% at 90° latitude. The Polar Regions do not have a 24 hour day/night cycle of varying daylight and night-time hours but long periods of night followed by long periods of day. The earth’s axial tilt amplifies the Polar Regions’ lack of insolation during the winter season, when no insolation strikes the surface, and magnifies it during the summer season when the sun shines constantly. The reduction in insolation as latitudes climb from the equator to the Poles is in accordance to the Lambert and Beer Law (R4.02). The law defines the way the two (2) following aspects of the earth cause the sun’s irradiation to reduce: 1. The atmosphere absorbs and reflects the irradiation on its way to the surface in accordance to the distance the irradiation has to travel to get to the surface. 2. The greater the angle of incidence at any one point on the earth formed by the angle of obliquity and the plane of the ecliptic becomes, the greater is the depth of the atmosphere the irradiation has to travel through to reach the earth’s surface. Figure 4.1shows the way the irradiance intensity changes the further it has to travel to reach the earth’s surface. The indication of axial tilt on Figure 4 shows the times when the Polar Regions are either subject to continuous day or night conditions. The conditions prevalent at the Polar Regions work to both advance the earth into a warm state during periods of global warming and into a cold state, deeper towards ice age conditions, during periods of global cooling. The heat transfer mechanisms driving the local temperature of the Polar Regions are continuously in operation. 5 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 4.2.2 - Ocean currents The hydrologic cycle that applies about the earth manifests itself as a regional energy capture and inter-regional energy transfer mechanism. The equatorial regions receive considerably more of the sun’s heat compared to the Polar Regions. Insolation that strikes the oceans’ surface penetrates into the water and warms it considerably more at the equatorial regions than at the Polar Regions. The heat differential between the Polar and the equatorial regions form massive ocean currents that convey heat captured in the equatorial waters to the cooler Polar oceans. This action benefits both the Polar Regions and land adjacent to the warm ocean currents. The mechanism reduces the speed of advance of global warming while the earth is in the grips of ice age conditions as part of the heat delivered is used to melt sea ice. 4.2.3 – Geothermal heat The earth’s internally generated heat flux dissipates through the mantle into the earth’s crust, ocean waters, and atmosphere and into space throughout the surface of the earth’s sphere in a continuous process. It is the earth’s secondary heat source. Note that insolation is the primary source of warming of the oceans’ surface and the principle source of the epipelagic zone’s heat content, as discussed later. According to the KamLAND Collaboration in their 2011 article; Partial radiogenic heat model for Earth revealed by geoneutrino measurements (R4.03), the heat flux transmitted from below the earth’s crust was determined to be 44.2+/- 1.0TW (or 1.395 x 1021 +/- 3.156 x 1017 joules p.a.). The transmission of the heat energy from its source to the earth’s surface is measured and referred to as the geothermal gradient as shown in Figure 4.2. The gradient temperature of the earth increases in land, on average, by 25°C for each kilometre below the surface according to J.M.K.C. Donev et al. (2019) in their article; Geothermal gradient (R4.04) when measured from the surface to the base of the lithosphere. The heat generated at the earth’s core and in the mantle makes its way to the surface creating an additional heat source that applies to the surface of the earth. In the absence of any obstruction the heat enters the atmosphere and makes its way to space. However, there are obstructions as discussed later. 6 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 4.2.4 - The atmosphere NASA’s Earth Fact Sheet, 2021 (R4.05) describes the atmospheric composition (by volume, dry air) to be:     78.08% Nitrogen 20.95% Oxygen And by ppm: o 9340 Argon o 415 Carbon dioxide o 18.18 Neon o 5.24 Helium o 1.7 Methane o 1.14 Krypton o 0.55 Hydrogen Water content is highly variable and typically makes up about 1%. Figure 4.3 shows that the density of the atmosphere thins the further it is from the earth and forms into 5 distinct layers, each layer having particular properties. They have a defined termination boundary separating them. For example, the Troposphere terminates at the Tropopause and the Stratosphere terminates at the Stratopause. The creation and function of the boundaries are discussed in a later section of this article. The names and “thickness” of each layer are:   The Troposphere - The layer, 7 to 20km thick, closest to the earth’s surface.  The Stratosphere – The layer that begins at the boundary with the Troposphere and extends to about 50km above the earth’s surface.  The Mesosphere – The layer that begins at the boundary with the Stratosphere and extends to about 85 to 90km above the earth’s surface.  The Thermosphere – The layer that begins at the boundary with the Mesosphere and extends to heights from about 500 to 1000km above the earth’s surface. Within the Thermosphere there is a layer of ionised gases called the Ionosphere. The Exosphere – The layer that begins at the boundary of the Thermosphere and merges into space. The Troposphere contains about 50% of the gases that make up the earth’s atmosphere and nearly all the water vapour and dust that enters the atmosphere. Clouds form principally in the Troposphere. Life is supported by the properties of the Troposphere in an area about the surface of the earth defined as the biosphere. 7 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 4.2.5 - The epipelagic zone and the thermocline The oceans cover an area of 71% of the earth’s crust. Hence, based on the KamLAND data, 1.00 x 1021 joules of the earth’s internal heat flux is delivered to the ocean floor. Note: The value of the emitted heat based on the KamLAND data is a guide. The determined value of total annual emissions of the earth’s internal flux is discussed later. The constant release of the earth’s emitted heat into the oceans is the reason why:    The temperature of the water at the oceans’ floor is in the range of near 1 to 4°C. The water in the ocean depths is not a solid block of ice. The temperature of the water below the thermocline varies little within the noted range wherever it is measured, lowering the closer it is measured to the ocean floor. The principle heat capturing and retention components of the oceans are the epipelagic layer and the thermocline. The epipelagic layer can extend from sea-level to 200m below sea-level (generally in the range 100 to 200m in the open ocean at mid-latitudes) and the thermocline varies in depth from the base of the epipelagic layer to about 1000m below sea-level. This phenomenon is described in chapter 6.2, Temperature, of the book by P. Webb; “Introduction to Oceanography” (R4.06). Both the epipelagic and the thermocline layers behave in accordance to the Laws of Thermodynamics and in accordance to having four (4) sources of heat energy being injected into them:   Two (2) directly into the epipelagic layer (insolation and heat captured by the hydrologic cycle). Two (2) into the thermocline (transfer of heat from the epipelagic layer and rising geothermal heat). The variation in the depth of the epipelagic zone and the thermocline is predominantly noted in the seas at mid-latitudes that have an insolation variability based on the earth’s changing angle of obliquity throughout the year. The hydrologic cycle is one source of heat energy transfer into the epipelagic layer. The hydrologic cycle gathers:   The sun’s heat energy absorbed by the atmosphere as the sun’s irradiation passes through it. The sun’s heat transferred into the land and the heat that is created on the earth’s surface; a significant part of which is the heat released from the combustion of potential energy sources by humans. There are several natural events that create small quantities of heat that permeates into the earth’s atmosphere and land, such as decomposition of plants and animals, forest fires and random releases of the earth’s internal heat from surface volcanic activity. 8 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The temperature of the epipelagic layer is higher than the temperature of the thermocline. The temperature differential prevents the thermocline from transferring its gathered geothermal heat into the epipelagic layer until the epipelagic layer loses some of its heat and is able to absorb the heat content of the thermocline; a situation particularly evident at tropical regions. Figure 4.4 from P. Webb’s book shows the typical open ocean profile. The diagram indicates the dimensions of the mixed layer (the epipelagic) and the thermocline in a typical open ocean profile where the surface water temperature is about 18°C. The water temperature lowers the further it is measured up the latitudes. As the intensity of the insolation changes at any particular latitude (and as earth transitions through the seasons) so does the ability of the epipelagic zone to maintain a constant heat content. The lesser the intensity of the sun’s insolation the cooler the epipelagic layer becomes. The epipelagic layer has the greatest temperature variability. Its change in temperature causes a change in the temperature of the thermocline layer as more of the heat in the thermocline layer convects into the epipelagic until equilibrium is reached. The cooler the epipelagic layer becomes, the thicker the thermocline layer becomes as it absorbs heat from the layer below it. The thermocline is in receipt of the geothermal heat that may or may not be transferred to the epipelagic layer depending on each of the layers temperature. Figure 4.5, also from P. Webb’s book, shows the typical open ocean summer/winter thermocline layer thickness change. As the seasons change the amount of energy that any one point on the earth’s surface receives from the sun changes. The sun delivers less heat into the oceans during their respective winter period. As the heat delivered to the epipelagic layer reduces (and the temperature of the atmosphere reduces) heat in the epipelagic layer is convected into the atmosphere now colder than it (like it does at night but with a higher draw-off of heat during the winter period). When the epipelagic layer cools it draws the heat contained in the thermocline. The thermocline layer still contains heat that is protected by the epipelagic layer that is cooling from the top down and partly replenished by the receipt of its daily dose of insolation. What changes is the temperature of the barrier between the epipelagic and the thermocline layers and the rate of escape of the heat from the thermocline into the epipelagic layer. 9 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The process, described in Figure 4.6, shows the contraction and expansion of the epipelagic and thermocline layers in the open ocean at mid-latitudes as the seasons change from summer to winter. The properties that influence the changes are the intensity of the insolation and the volumes of evaporation and precipitation. The geothermal heat rising to the surface is considered to be at a constant level in this example. The amount of geothermal heat absorbed by the thermocline depends on the temperature that the thermocline is taken down to. The escape of geothermal heat rising to the ocean surface, and continuing into space, is impacted by the thermodynamic forces that alter the heat content of the epipelagic layer. The variable intensity of the insolation also alters the heat content of the epipelagic layer. This action modifies the rate of escape of the heat from the thermocline into the epipelagic layer. The greater the intensity of insolation the greater is the amount of heat captured by the epipelagic layer and the depth that it reaches. The thermocline gains heat and rises in the ocean waters pushed up by the cooler water below as the temperature between the two increases. A similar process occurs on land but the land does not have the heat retention properties of the oceans’ waters and loses its heat very quickly once the strength of the insolation diminishes on a change of season from summer to winter in a proportion equal to the amount of ground water that is retained in the land. In effect the epipelagic and the thermocline layers act as barriers to the rising geothermal heat. They slow down the release of the heat to space. However, the epipelagic and the thermocline layers are not perfect insulators; although their thermodynamic properties and associations with heat sources induce entropy. The sources of heat, and that, 1. the thermocline is sandwiched between the colder water below it, and that 2. the epipelagic layer is the recipient of the higher intensity solar irradiation, causes the changing heat content that controls the release of the geothermal heat to space. The geothermal heat flow into the atmosphere and into space is shown from being a continual process, as occurs at the Polar Regions, to a minimal flow as occurs in the Tropics. This action explains why the rate of ocean heat capture is at the level that it has been measured over the last decade. The differences in the epipelagic and thermocline layers between the latitude conditions noted on Figure 4.7 are also from P. Webb’s book. 10 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The insulating and heat capture and transfer properties that the epipelagic and thermocline layers exhibit ensures that the geothermal heat will maintain the temperature of the water below them at a constant level dependent on the amount of heat that is delivered to the epipelagic layer by the sun and any anthropogenic or natural activities that result in emitted heat introduced into the natural system additional to the sun’s irradiation or earth’s geothermal heat. Geothermal heat travels through the oceans and is dissipated into space if the level of insolation diminishes in a cooling trend. This will cause a constriction of the epipelagic layer at lower latitudes hence providing a greater area of the sea to respond to the varying insolation in a manner that currently applies at the Polar Regions. 4.3 – Earth Energy Imbalance (EEI) In the 2021 article by N. G. Loeb et al, titled “Satellite and Ocean Data Reveal Marked Increase in Earth’s Heating Rate” (R4.07), it states: “Climate is determined by how much of the sun's energy the Earth absorbs and how much energy Earth sheds through emission of thermal infrared radiation. Their sum determines whether Earth heats up or cools down.” The explanation for the rise in the heat content of the oceans is centred on the irradiation received from the sun and various properties of the earth that manage the amount of the irradiation that is emitted back to space. The control applied to the amount of heat retained by the earth and absorbed by the oceans is based on the monitoring of the outgoing radiation from the earth as measured by earth satellites, in particular the “Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System’s (CERES)” data. K. von Schuckmann et al described, in their 2020 article, Heat stored in the Earth system: where does the energy go? (R4.08) that the Earth energy imbalance (EEI) was in the order of 0.87 W/m² (distributed per square metre) during the period 2010 to 2018, and only increasing. The energy captured in the oceans in 2019 was measured by Cheng et al (R4.09a) at 2.28x1022 joule as reported by Cosmos Magazine’s N. Carne (R4.09b). The cause of these findings has to be explained as the base data states that more energy is dissipated by earth into space than is delivered by the sun and intercepted by the earth. This represents the imbalance in the energy equation. There are two ways the amount of energy dissipated by the earth can be less than the amount of energy gathered from the sun. They are: 11 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 1. That the earth is in a warming trend where the irradiation energy received is less than the energy dissipated from the ocean heat store. 2. That the energy dissipated into space is the lesser portion of the total of the energy received from the sun added to other sources of energy generated on the earth less any energy that is consumed (e.g. applied in melting of the Polar ice). The first option is likely as the earth has been on a warming trend for the last 2.1 million years. The ocean heat content (OHC) has been increasing steadily since then. Option 2 was also investigated for its potential to both increase the OHC by 2.28x1022 joules of energy (in 2019), and for the earth to dissipate into space an amount of energy less than the amount received from the sun while a residual amount of energy is advancing the rate of global warming at the significant anomaly rate measured by several institutions. The value of the energy imbalance is detailed in Table 4.1. Table 4.1 – 2019 data on Incoming and Outgoing Irradiation On the plane of the ecliptic Distributed per square metre Energy Imbalance Sun Incoming Irradiation 1361.5 W/m² Earth Outgoing Irradiation 1357.9 W/m² Difference 340.4 W/m² 339.5 W/m² -0.9 W/m² 5.50x1024 Joules Incoming 5.485x1024 Joules Outgoing -1.454x1022 Joules Net Outgoing -3.6 W/m² The fact that the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, and that the earth is in a phase of warming at a rate that is unprecedented in earth’s geologic history states that the earth energy system is subjected to other sources of energy, the magnitude of which has to be determined. The difference in the energy imbalance of -1.454x1022 joules net outgoing, considered in terms of the rate that global warming is advancing, identifies the sun as being only one of the sources of heat energy that applies to the earth. 4.3.1 – Sources of heat energy that impact EEI The earth has several sources of energy that contribute to the content of heat energy measured in the biosphere’s oceans, land and atmosphere. They include:    Irradiation from the sun. Geothermal heat. Anthropogenic heat energy generation activities e.g. combustion of fossil fuels, nuclear fission reactions, exothermic chemical reactions such as munitions and specific non-carbon based fuels for propulsion. 12 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022       Natural instances of combustion, e.g. forest fires, molecular conversions (e.g. methane to carbon dioxide and water when combusted in the presence of oxygen e.g. possible permafrost pits of methane burning in Siberia. Deforestation and land clearing activities. Surface volcanic and tectonic expulsions of mantle heat. Sub-surface volcanic and tectonic expulsions of mantle heat. Natural life uptake and releases of heat energy, e.g. photosynthesis, endothermy, decomposition, and thermogenesis. Cosmic events e.g. the heat energy generated by cosmic and man-made matter as it travels to the earth’s surface through the atmosphere. The biosphere also experiences:   The release of heat energy to space (outgoing SW and LW radiation): The persistent outgoing radiation that is a function of incoming irradiation plus any additional energy in excess of what the biosphere can accommodate. The consumption of heat energy within the earth’s biosphere, in particular: The heat energy consumed annually as sea ice and glacial ice deposits are melted. The EEI quantifies the amount of energy that has to be added to the earth’s total incoming and outgoing energy difference to balance the energy equation and result in the current measured increase in global warming. The balancing of the equation is currently achieved by determining a value of radiative forcing. Also necessary to take into consideration when assessing the EEI is the consumption of the sun’s insolation by the processes of life that utilise the sun’s energy to create life matter. This aspect relates to the above categories:    “Natural instances of combustion”, “Natural life releases of heat” and “Anthropogenic activities” aspects of which represent human activities associated with the use of stored energy that can be released by combustion and fission. These three (3) categories represent the earth as an entity that has life properties that capture the sun’s heat and recycles it at volumes in accordance to the total biomass at any one instance in time. The amount of the sun’s energy held captive in living life matter is given back on the death of that life by one of several evolved recycling processes. As such, the energy gain/loss is a deviation from a state of energy equilibrium unless circumstances alter environmental conditions that either create or deter the opportunity for growth. 4.3.2 – Glaciation and heat energy absorption The current presence of glaciation is a controlling factor on the rate the earth is warming. The ice absorbs part of the heat energy that would otherwise be shown in the value of the EEI that needs to be balanced. 13 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The current rate of sea ice melt has been measured by the NASA Earth Science Communications Team (R4.10) at 276 billion metric tons per annum in the Arctic and 152 billion metric tons per annum in the Antarctic. The total of the Polar Regions sea ice melt requires 1.43x1020 joules of heat based on ice needing 334 joules per gram to melt as per the article by Todd Helmenstine (R4.11). 4.3.3 - Energy sources that impacted the earth in 2019 The detailing of the individual components of the earth energy system discussed in this section is concerned with the energy contributed by each of the energy sources in 2019. It includes the ocean heat energy added to the oceans as measured by Cheng et al (R4.09a) and the amount of heat energy emitted into space as determined by K. von Schuckmann (R4.08) from the CERES data. Other energy contributions to the earth energy system were determined from the sources with appended reference numbers. Five (5) measured categories of heat energy sources were tabled and summed to determine the total amount of known heat energy that affected the earth energy system in 2019. The categories and their values are shown in Table 4.2 Table 4.2 – Calculating the Earth Energy Imbalance (EEI) in 2019 Sources of Earth Energy Gains and Losses Incoming irradiation from the sun (R4.12) Primary energy derived from potential energy sources (R4.13) Determined Geothermal Energy – KamLAND group (R4.03) Energy needed to melt sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic (R4.11) Additional ocean heat content as measured by Cheng et al. (R4.09a) Total earth energy system gains during 2019 (1) Earth energy system losses - outgoing radiation (2) Difference between earth energy system gains and losses (3) Joules 5.50x1024 5.73x1020 1.40x1021 1.43x1020 2.28x1022 5.53x1024 5.49x1024 1.04x1022 Table 4.2 shows that in 2019 the energy (3) required to balance the total earth energy is equal to the sum of the total earth energy sources (1) less the outgoing radiation (2). The unknown factors that contribute to the calculated 1.04x1022 joules of heat energy to balance the EEI equation must come from a combination of earth based sources as noted previously. The difference in the “gains and losses” in the Total Energy Gains (3) represents 18 times the amount of primary energy produced by humans from potential energy sources noting that:  Natural instances of combustion, forest fires, deforestation and land clearing represents between 5 and 6% of the total of the carbon dioxide emitted by the combustion of fossil fuels in 2019. This is a conservative measure based on the Australian Government’s 2019/2020 assessment of carbon dioxide emissions from the Australian bushfires contributing an estimated 830 Mtonne (R4.14), the total of all other forest fires around the world making the same contribution and forest land clearing and burn-off contributing a further 1%. The value of the total of carbon dioxide emissions for 2019, 36.7 billion 14 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022  tonnes, was obtained from Our World in Data (R4.15). As carbon dioxide emissions are proportionate to primary heat generation the additional energy contribution by this category would be very small in comparison to the value shown in Table 4.2 (3). Exothermic chemical reactions, cosmic events, equilibrium factors regarding natural life uptake and volcanic activity, both terrestrial and sub-surface would also be minor contributors. The potential candidate for most of the additional heat energy summed in the earth energy system in 2019 is the earth itself in the form of geothermal energy released from the mantle into the sea floor. The geothermal energy in this category is additional to the geothermal energy determined by the KamLAND group. The determined geothermal heat injected into the earth energy system is shown in Table 4.3. Table 4.3 – Calculating the Energy gains from geothermal sources in 2019 Sources Difference between earth energy system gains and losses Determined Geothermal Energy by the KamLAND group Energy needed to melt sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic Additional Ocean heat content as measured by Cheng et al. Total calculated energy added to the earth energy system Less: Primary energy derived from potential energy sources 2019 Additional earth energy gains from geothermal sources Joules -1.04x1022 1.40x1021 1.43x1020 2.28x1022 2.43x1022 5.73x1020 2.41x1022 The data states that the total geothermal heat released by the mantle into the earth’s surface layers was equal to 2.41x1022 joules in 2019. The 2019 additional geothermal energy noted in Table 4.3, a persistent variable permeation of the mantle’s heat energy into the oceans, averaged about 1.72x105 joules/day/m2 (1.97W/m2 of power) throughout the 71% of the surface area of the earth the sea covers. It suggests that mantle heat permeates into the sea floor as a regular feature and at a variable rate. Heat is added or subtracted to a nominal released amount as tectonic activity moves the continental plates and opens and closes heat ejection apertures throughout the ocean floor, possibly at a rate of greater intensity about the ocean ridges and at the junctions of the oceanic and continental plates. The heat released into the oceans by geothermal transfer, together with warm ocean currents, flows heat throughout the oceans. 4.3.4 - Release of geothermal heat into the ocean The information reported by Cheng et al provided a glimpse of the heat energy added to the total heat content particularly in the latter years of the 2010 to 2020 decade. However, it was important to understand the change in the OHC in 2019 in order to be able to get a grasp of the components that add and subtract from the heat energy content of the earth. It became a way of explaining why the outgoing irradiation measured by CERES in 2019 was greater than the incoming irradiation from the sun while at the same time the earth is on a warming path. It proved that the sun is not the only energy contributor and that there are properties of 15 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 the earth that act in unison with the sun’s irradiation of a magnitude of heat greater than primary energy production. A further investigation was undertaken to identify the rates of change in the release of geothermal heat into the ocean. The purpose was to identify the consistency of the increase in the OHC for a longer period of time than the last 10 years. This investigation sourced data on the Global OHC, 0 to 2,000m, (measured by NOAA (R4.16)) shown as the insert on Figure 4.8. The rate of change in global OHC p.a. (0 to 2000 m) calculated from Figure 4.8 was based on regions of the curve that accommodated a simple line of best fit. (Note that Cheng et al’s 2019 data on OHC mentioned previously was for the whole of the ocean not just the top 2000m.) The results of the assessment showed that there were periods, numbered 1 to 5, which could be shown to have distinct rates of change in global OHC, 0 to 2,000m, during the period 1962 to 2020. The results of the assessment of the NOAA Ocean Heat data is as per Table 4.4. Table 4.4 – Rates of change in OHC 0 to 2,000m, 1962 to 2020 Time 1962 to 1966 1966 to 1968 1968 to 1975 1975 to 1990 1991 to 2020 2010 to 2020 Increased heat content -4.96x1022 joules 1.22x1021 joules 7.16x1022 joules 3.18x1022 joules 2.52x1023 joules 1.09x1023 joules Number of years 4.03 1.74 7.15 15.69 28.82 10 Average Rate of change p.a. -1.23x1022 joules 7.05x1020 joules 1.00x1022 joules 2.03x1021 joules 8.73x1021 joules 1.09x1022 joules A sixth (6th) rate of change assessment, reported separately in Table 4.4, for the period 2010 to 2020 was also made as there appeared to be an upturn during the latter part of the decade, offsetting a significant OHC loss early in the decade. The conclusion from the rate of change assessment in Table 4.4 is that the earth releases its internal heat energy into the sea floor at varying rates. Taken in combination with the CERES outgoing radiation assessment for 2019, together with all other heat energy components that add and subtract from the total energy, the data indicates that for each time period shown 16 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 geothermal heat energy released at the sea floor is partly dissipated into space and the remainder is stored in the ocean principally below the thermocline. When the rate of change was negative, as is the case in the period 1962 to 1966, it indicates that either no geothermal heat was released (an impossibility) or the ocean was caused to give up a quantity of its OHC. A possible explanation of the loss of heat energy relates to the nuclear testing activities that were being conducted post World War II as described in section 4.3.5 – The atomic age. OHC data for the period 1900 to 1960 was not available. An estimate of the average geothermal heat emitted into the biosphere was based on the movement of the average global temperature in the periods 1900 to 1960 compared to 1960 to 2020 and the relativity between the average global temperature increase and the 0 to 2,000m OHC for the time period 1960 to 2020 by the criteria shown in Figure 4.9. The reasoning for adopting this method was that the rate of growth of the OHC seemed to correlate to the rate of growth of the average global land and ocean surface temperature anomaly. An assessment of the two growth figures indicated that the OHC increased at a rate 7% faster than the temperature anomaly. An estimated average value for the geothermal heat emitted into the earth’s biosphere of 1.32x1022 joules p.a. during the period 1900 to 1960 was calculated by dividing the temperature anomaly growth ratio into the 2019 additional earth energy gains from geothermal sources (3.41x1022 joules) and multiplying the result by 1.07. The value calculated is about 9 times greater than the KamLAND geothermal heat release findings, and about 40% of the total geothermal heat determined in 2019. 4.3.5 – The atomic age The intensity of the nuclear detonations during the early to mid-1960’s, and that they occurred in the atmosphere and underwater, may have been the cause of the expulsion of OHC, particularly in the 0 to 2,000m depth, as represented by the negative rate of change in the years 1962 to 1966 (as per Table 4.4), and a return to normality beginning in the latter part of 1966. Nuclear testing in the atmosphere and underwater lessened after 1964. Prăvălie, R., wrote in his article of 2014 (R4.17): “…, countries like the United States, the USSR, the United Kingdom, France, and China became nuclear powers during 1945–1964 ... 17 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 During this period, a large number of nuclear tests were conducted in all global environments (atmosphere, underground, and underwater)”. He further noted that the Limited Test Treaty came into effect in 1963 but it was not signed by France and China who continued to test nuclear devices in the atmosphere. A graphical representation of nuclear testing events post World War II, indicating detonation intensity of each event, is shown in the article “Nuclear Testing 1945 – Today (R4.18). Following is a hypothesis based on the testing of atomic devices causing the negative OHC trend. It centres about the frequency and intensity of underwater and atmospheric detonations leading up to and including activities to the mid 1960’s. A quantification of this phenomena is complex as the data is difficult to obtain. It is offered as a possible explanation for the negative OHC trend 1962 to 1966, the rate of OHC warming from 1968 to 1976, a period of quiescence to 1990, and an advanced rate of OHC gain from then to today. One objective of an analysis in the circumstances leading to the negative OHC trend would be to determine the amount of heat dissipated into space. However, in the absence of an outgoing radiation monitoring device like CERES and other methods of determining heat capture and retention in the biosphere as available today, it is impossible to have measured data that could support an analysis. Whether more or less than the heat content of the water, the detonations and other factors that contribute to outgoing radiation into space can only be a calculated assumption based on what the total energy at that time could have been. Each detonation had an impact on a considerable area of water surface, to the depth the detonation blast reached. A significant volume of water, together with its heat content, was ejected into the atmosphere. The blast plume (the mushroom), together with the water vapour it contained, allowed the heat of both the blast and the OHC to rapidly dissipate into space. The functioning of the hydrologic cycle under such conditions would be limited. The short timing associated with any one detonation would prevent the hydrologic cycle from capturing the atmospheric heat content. Furthermore, the absence of the epipelagic zone and the thermocline following an underwater, and possibly an atmospheric detonation, leaves an opening for the geothermal heat to transfer to the atmosphere as the colder water at the oceans’ depth rushed to the surface and neutralised the epipelagic and thermocline layers. Geothermal heat transfer through a cold water layer is described in section 4.4 of this article titled “The earth’s energy management systems". The data in Table 4.4 implies that the ocean and atmospheric detonations created the opportunity for the heat held captive in the epipelagic zone and the thermocline, and the rising geothermal heat, to escape into the atmosphere and into space at a rate that resulted in a (negative) OHC rate of change equal to -1.23x1022 joules p.a. from 1962 to 1966. There is no other reason for it to happen. The earth did not stop its release of geothermal heat because humans wanted to test their atomic bombs and there was no event that absorbed that quantity of heat from the ocean. 18 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 Figure 4.10 compares the Global Surface Temperature Anomaly and OHC (0 to 2,000m) from 1955 to 1980. The graphs show a similarity in the trends of both data sets and the particular increase and reduction in the data elements about the 1960 to 1965 years. Both segments of the graphs in Figure 4.10 also show that from about 1965 onwards the rate of ocean warming began to increase, moderately at first, but then at a rate as shown in Figure 4.8. The correlation between the two (2) datasets suggests: 1. The consequence of the atomic detonations carried out in the ocean and the atmosphere resulted in significant ocean heat losses. 2. There is a possibility that the force of the terrestrial, oceanic and atmospheric detonations had an effect on the stability of the earth’s continental plates, oceanic plates, ocean ridges, subduction and obduction zones thereby deteriorating the bonding of the crustal matter and creating an opportunity for the earth’s internal heat to increase in its leakage into the oceans’ floor. In this way geothermal heat contributed to the steadily increasing rate of ocean heating since the late 1960’s. 3. The atomic events represent a cause for total OHC increasing from an estimated 8.5x1021 joules p.a., on average, during 1900 to 1960 to 2.28x1022 joules in 2019 (about 2.7 times p.a. more in 2019 than in 1900 to 1960). 4.3.6 – Ocean heat accumulation The water in the oceans stores heat energy that has been directed into it by the sun’s insolation, the hydrologic cycle and geothermal heat. The sea floor is warmed by heat conducted or vented into the ocean from the mantle. The 2021 rate of growth in the oceans’ heat content is in the order of 1.5x1022 joules p.a. according to L. Cheng et al in their 2022 article: “Another Record: Ocean Warming Continues through 2021 despite La Nina Conditions” (R4.19). The value of warmth added to the oceans is far greater than the amount of geothermal energy said to be rising through the geothermal gradient or the residual delivered by the sun. This presents itself as a quandary that, added to other questions on this matter, led to further investigations into the imbalance in the earth’s input output energy content in an attempt to 19 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 explain why the earth is warming if the stated energy imbalance indicates that more energy is dissipated from the earth than is delivered by the sun, and where the heat came from that increased OHC as reported by Cheng et al. 4.3.7 - Instantaneous evacuation of heat from the biosphere. The observation from the negative rate of ocean warming that occurred between 1960 and 1964 infers that any intense short term expulsion of intense heat into the atmosphere, such as a volcanic release of geothermal energy or the detonation of an atomic device, will allow entropy to quickly take control and distribute the emitted heat into the Troposphere. That action promptly changes the heat relativity between the layers of the atmosphere and allows the excessive heat to pass directly into space. There would be no opportunity for the prevalent biospheric heat management mechanisms associated with the hydrologic cycle and the ocean heat store to recapture the heat. The emission of heat in both a volcanic eruption and nuclear detonation creates intense heat for a relative short time. The intensity of the heat would disrupt the thermodynamic barriers set up by the incoming irradiation and the biospheric content of released heat. The released heat would be promptly evacuated into the cooler Stratosphere and consequently through the atmospheric layers to space as each of their boundaries buckle to the sudden upsurge in each layer’s heat content. The hydrologic cycle would not be able to capture the instantaneous release of heat from these sources. The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process that, depending on the average global temperature and latitude, repeats in less than 12 days. There would not be time for the volume of water vapour or precipitation in the atmosphere to gather all the heat that is emitted by these localised events that may last from minutes to hours. Any heat gathered would have a negligible effect on the overall heat content of the earth. Even a percolating volcanic event may not have sufficient heat content to cause any significant disruption to the average global temperature. 4.4 – The earth’s energy management systems The ocean heat accumulation data provided by Cheng et al represented a significant increase in the earth’s heat accumulation but it appeared not to have an impact on the earth’s average global temperature of the magnitude expected with the amount of heat retained. The rate of advance of an average warming trend, as described in the article Variability of the Total Solar Irradiance (R4.20), states that the earth needs to retain a small part of the incoming insolation in order to proceed in a warming trend. The amount of heat energy necessary to advance a warming trend at 1.3°C/MYs was estimated to be 1.14x1016 joules p.a. On this basis it suggests that the earth should be adding about 1.5x1020 joules p.a. to maintain the rate of warming of 0.017°C p.a. reported by NOAA in their Global Climate Report – Annual 2016 (R4.21). 20 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 However, what the 2019 OHC measurement by Cheng et al is stating is that the amount of heat energy added to the oceans is about 150 times more than the amount necessary to maintain the rate of warming of 0.017°C p.a. This data makes the measurements of the incoming and outgoing thermal radiation measured by CERES even more confusing. The assessment of the incoming and outgoing radiation (in Table 4.3) showed that, apart from the anthropogenic energy created by the combustion or consumption of potential energy materials, there must have been an additional 2.41x1022 joules of energy added to the earth energy system to balance the total energy in 2019. The additional energy must be principally supplied by the earth’s internal heat generating mechanism as it is the only other source that could generate heat of this magnitude. The need to balance the earth energy system to the value previously noted and the determination of the magnitude of the geothermal energy released from the mantle raised the question: “How can the earth emit considerable geothermal energy and it not have a strong bearing on the average global temperature?” 4.4.1 – Earth’s energy processing environments An examination of ocean heat accumulation, its sources, the amount of heat dissipated into space and the rate of global warming introduced the idea that the earth had two (2) energy processing environments, driven by two (2) opposing heat energy sources, and a layer of ocean that separated them as shown in Figure 4.11. The primary heat source is the sun. It delivers to the earth 5.5x1024 joules of energy each year. The earth’s rotation about its axis causes the sun to strike any one point on the surface during the day but it is absent from that particular point at night. This allows the point affected by the sun to warm and cool in the 24 hour day/night cycle. Both the warming and cooling cycle apply themselves in variable intensities at that one point from the start of the day/night, to a peak point during the day/night and to the conclusion of the day/night cycle. The earth’s obliquity also comes into play as mentioned earlier. Geothermal heat is a generally constant flow from the earth’s core and mantle although it may vary one year to the next subject to movements of the earth’s crustal mass. The 700m thick top ocean layer contains, according NOAA (R4.16), about 74% of the heat content of the top 2000m of the ocean as shown in Figure 4.12. 21 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 This layer, considered to be the epipelagic and thermocline layers, serves as the earth’s “biosphere energy processing environments separator layer” where one energy processing environment is above sea level (comprising the energy sources of insolation, anthropogenic energy, geothermal energy, any other energy released as heat into this environment and the hydrologic cycle as the harvester of heat energy) and the other is the mass of water below the sea’s thermocline layer (comprising of geothermal energy, insolation that reaches the sub-thermocline layer, and any other energy released as heat into this environment). The proposed energy processing environments above and below the ocean separation layer work in accordance to the Laws of Thermodynamics and result in:    The reported measurements of the incoming and outgoing radiation imbalance by CERES. The significantly increasing ocean heat content measured by NOAA and Cheng et al. Create life supportive habitats above and below the ocean separation layer. The sources of energy, and the methods the energy is gathered, results in the warming of the separation layer of the oceans i.e. the epipelagic zone and the thermocline. The separation layer supports/maintains the earth’s land-ocean surface average global temperature and causes alterations to regional climate conditions. The epipelagic layer captures the bulk of the directly incoming heat energy from insolation that strikes the oceans’ surface and also the heat energy harvested from the atmosphere and land and delivered to the oceans by the hydrologic cycle. The oceans expel some of their heat energy in the form of evaporation; the first part of the hydrologic cycle. The atmosphere acts, apart as the absorber of incoming irradiation and first release of the absorbed heat, as the biosphere’s stabilising medium and distributor of accumulated water vapour and its heat content. It is the biospheric mediator. The way the two (2) energy environments interact with the separation layer is shown in Figure 4.13. The epipelagic layer mixes its heat content throughout its depth and into the thermocline layer. 22 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The epipelagic layer will always be warmer than the layers below it. It shares its retained heat only with the thermocline layer in a heat exchange system that causes the epipelagic and thermocline layers to change in thickness in the passage of the season as described in section 4.2.5 of this article titled “The epipelagic zone and the thermocline” and in (R4.06) reference to P. Webb’s data. The temperature at the bottom of the thermocline layer will always be equal to the temperature of the top of the mass of water below it. The formation of the thermodynamic barrier, when two opposing sources of energy interact, is shown in Figure 4.14. Geothermal heat rising from the sea floor flows upwards through the oceans’ water transferring the heat into its surroundings in a hap-hazard chain reaction (entropy) until it reaches the bottom of the thermocline. Insolation reaching the surface of the earth transfers its heat into the epipelagic layer by wind, wave and the hap-hazard chain reaction of entropy until it reaches the beginning of the thermocline. The epipelagic layer continuously interacts with the thermocline as it heats and cools adding or subtracting heat from the thermocline. Entropy adjusts the distributed heat content into the thermocline and then adjusts the heat transfer with the deep ocean layer beneath it. When the temperature at the junction of the thermocline and the deep ocean layer (where the two (2) opposing heat sources meet) reach equilibrium, it stabilises the separation layer by creating a thermodynamic barrier between the base of the thermocline and the top of the deep ocean beneath it. In this situation the rising geothermal heat will be stopped from rising further by the thermodynamic barrier until the temperature of the thermocline lowers below that of the mass of water immediately below it. 23 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The geothermal heat in the mass of water below the thermocline distributes itself amongst the layers of water below it. This action will eventually elevate the heat content of the total mass of water in the ocean below the thermocline as the warmer upper layer distributes itself into the cooler layers below it in its attempt to achieve equilibrium. Note: The thermocline has heat transferred into it by the epipelagic layer. It is warmer than the water warmed by the geothermal energy. A colder matter can’t convect its heat into a warmer matter (the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics) so the geothermal heat is forced to disperse into the cooler mass of water beneath the thermocline (in accordance to the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy) as it rises from the sea floor. At the thermodynamic barrier the transfer of heat between the thermocline and the mass of deep ocean water below it stops unless there is a heat imbalance between one layer and the other. This aspect initiates a perpetual process where the depth of the epipelagic layer and the thermocline changes in accordance to the day/night cycle and the season, with repeatability, encroaching into, or retreating from, the bulk ocean below it. 4.4.2 - How geothermal heat contributes to global warming The ocean’s management of all its sources that direct heat to the biosphere is a perpetual process with variability based on seasons, the earth’s angle of obliquity, levels of heat emissions from both the sun and the mantle of the earth and the several other sources mentioned previously, including variations caused by weather events. The transfer of heat alters every day on every point on the surface of the earth. The earth is in a perpetual program of warming and cooling. The exception is geothermal heat emissions into the earth’s surface layers. Geothermal heat, potentially at varying rates, is continuously convected or emitted directly into the sea floor warming the ocean water whether the surface of the earth is warming or cooling, is progressing through the seasons or is experiencing the day/night cycle. A day-by-day account of how changes in OHC alters the environment is conveyed by the following general explanation of how the epipelagic zone, the thermocline and the deep ocean waters react to the heat content that is added or subtracted from their mass. In the following explanations the warmth gathered at the sea floor convects towards the surface of the deep ocean. In the absence of insolation:       The epipelagic zone dissipates heat into the cooler atmosphere. The loss of heat in the epipelagic layer alters the dynamics of the epipelagic and thermocline layers. The lowering heat content of the epipelagic zone draws heat from the thermocline. The thermocline begins to cool. The heat status of the thermodynamic barrier between the thermocline and the deep ocean water changes as the thermocline loses heat to the epipelagic zone. Heat from the deep ocean permeates into the thermocline. 24 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022    The thermocline increases in depth as the heat of the base of the thermocline and the top of the deep ocean reach a state of equilibrium. The action lowers the thermodynamic barrier as the thermocline’s depth increases. The depth of the epipelagic zone shrinks. In the presence of insolation:          The epipelagic layer is gaining heat from the direct injection of insolation. The warmth gathered at the sea floor permeates towards the surface of the deep ocean. Heat is transported into the epipelagic zone by the hydrologic cycle. The epipelagic zone transfers heat into the thermocline. The depth of the epipelagic zone increases. The thermocline warms. The thermodynamic barrier between the thermocline and the deep ocean water changes as the deep ocean water is colder than the water in the thermocline. Heat in the thermocline transfers into the deep ocean water until equilibrium is reached and initiates a thermodynamic barrier. The depth of the thermocline shrinks. When the geothermal heat increases in the presence of insolation:              The epipelagic layer is gaining heat from the direct injection of insolation. The warmth gathered at the sea floor permeates towards the surface of the deep ocean. Heat content greater than what established the thermodynamic barrier in place reaches the base of the thermocline. The heat alters the state of the thermodynamic barrier. The heat transfers into the thermocline. The additional heat in the thermocline disperses through the layer and interacts with the heat at the base of the epipelagic zone. Heat transfers into the epipelagic zone. Equilibrium is reached between the thermocline and the deep ocean water. The thermodynamic barrier between the two (2) establishes. There is a net gain in heat content of the epipelagic zone and the thermocline. The temperature of the thermodynamic barrier at the base of the separation layer is elevated in accordance to the increased rate of release of geothermal heat. The thermocline reduces in thickness and depth while the epipelagic zones increases in depth. The heat transferred into the separation layer remains until either the heat content rising from the sea floor or the intensity of the insolation reduces. Increasing quantities of geothermal heat add a portion of their annual heat to the separation layer while reducing quantities of geothermal heat deduct a portion of the separation layer’s heat. The amount of heat added or subtracted from the epipelagic layer is dependent on the geothermal heat quantity. 25 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The remainder of the geothermal heat is either distributed within the deep ocean waters or dissipated into space. The heat added to the epipelagic zone is further added to by heat generated by other sources, such as anthropogenic activities. Increases or decreases in the heat emitted by other sources cause a similar addition or subtraction of heat from the epipelagic layer and have a similar subsequent impact on global warming. The total OHC is elevated by all the heat sources that terminate into the biosphere. Together with OHC, the heat content of the land and atmosphere, promotes global warming. 4.4.3 – Heat gains and losses caused by the day/night cycle The seasons cause the epipelagic layer to gain or lose its heat content. This affects both the epipelagic and the thermocline layers. In summer the depth from the ocean surface to the bottom of the thermocline is less than it is in winter. The movement of the two upper layers of the oceans is a function of the heat transmitted into the oceans by insolation and the hydrologic cycle. Their behaviour is also in accordance to the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics and the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy. In summer the insolation striking the surface of the ocean intensifies. The epipelagic layer gains heat content and increases in depth as the heat gathered from the sun penetrates deeper into the water that was the top of the thermocline in winter. The top of the thermocline is lost to the epipelagic layer. The thermocline warms and the temperature differential between the thermodynamic barrier and the cooler mass of water beneath it increases. The cooler layer below the thermocline absorbs the heat in the lower portion of the thermocline. The exchange of heat continues until a state of equilibrium is reached once more. The depth of the thermodynamic barrier is closer to the ocean surface the warmer the epipelagic layer and the thermocline layer below it becomes. The reverse happens as the seasons change from summer to winter. The depth of the epipelagic layer lessens and the thermocline layer increases as the heat content of the separation layer is lost to the atmosphere and into space. If the earth is in a cooling trend, and the separation layer cools to a temperature below the temperature of the layer below the thermocline, the mass of water below the thermocline will dissipate heat into the thermocline and reach the epipelagic layer. An event that will conclude with the earth entering into ice age conditions of varying intensities, from a global freeze to only affecting the South Polar Region, depending on the extent of the reduction in the sun’s irradiation intensity. The changing heat pattern of the earth’s surface during the period of one (1) rotation of the earth about its axis at any one point on the earth’s surface at equinox is shown on Figure 4.15. 26 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 Note that the day shortens as the point on the earth approaches the winter solstice and lengthens as it approaches the summer solstice. Hence the amount of irradiation that any one point on the earth receives on any one day is constantly changing. The insolation/dissipation graph (A) on Figure 4.15 shows that the heat that is received at any one point during the day is dissipated at night. There is a difference in the amount of heat dissipated depending on whether the earth is following a warming trend or a cooling trend. When following a warming trend, a portion of the heat is retained by the ocean, whereas when following a cooling trend, a portion of heat is surrendered by the ocean. The Continental Plate and Open Ocean Outgoing LW and SW Radiation graph (B) have a constant release of heat throughout the day and night if the ocean is warmer than the atmosphere. However, little radiation is released during the day once the insolation strikes the surface as the surface has to first have heat added to it until it reaches a point when the heat content of the outgoing radiation is greater than the heat content of the incoming insolation that strikes the surface. The heat content increases during the daylight period from dawn and reaches a peak at a point in the afternoon prior to dusk. The surface then releases radiation based on the difference in heat content between the atmosphere and the surface. The intensity of the outgoing radiation increases as the atmosphere cools exhausting the accumulated heat into space. At a point, the rush of outgoing radiation begins to slow down as the surface cools and the temperature differential between the atmosphere and the surface reduces until the sun begins to rise again and the cycle begins once more. The Polar Region Open Ocean Outgoing LW and SW Radiation graph (C) shows that the Polar Region does not behave in the same manner as the surface of the earth that is subject to the 24 hour day/night cycle. The long periods of daylight and night result in a continuous release of LW and SW radiation into space. 4.4.4 – Earth’s input/output energy – sources and drains The earth’s primary and secondary sources of energy are the sun’s irradiation and the earth’s geothermal heat. They are opposing heat sources that radiate towards the earth’s surface. The sun is the greater heat source, at 5.5x1024 joules, whilst the earth supplies heat energy 27 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 currently in the region of 3 to 3.6x1022 joules. Other heat energy channels, although supplementary and important to the whole of earth’s heat content and energy management system, supply far less heat energy. The sun is the most important source of earth’s energy. Its energy is needed to lift the earth from a heat content of about 2°K to the level necessary for life, as we know it, to exist on the planet. Figure 4.16 shows earth’s opposing heat sources (day phase). The heat sources have a different effect on the:  Polar Oceans  Continental plates  Oceanic plates The application of the energy results in distinct layers that alter in their temperature and thickness on the passing of the seasons. An example of layers separated by a thermodynamic barrier are the Troposphere and the Stratosphere. The separation layer is called the Tropopause. This layer has a variable aperture. It acts as a thermodynamic barrier whilst the earth is intercepting heat from the sun during the day phase but loses that ability either once the earth enters the night phase or if there is a sudden entry of energy into the biosphere that alters the heat content of the Troposphere (or the Stratosphere) and alters their thermodynamic properties. For example, a volcanic eruption during the day phase will introduce a sudden burst of heat into the biosphere which will be quickly distributed about the immediate atmosphere and change the conditions that would normally prevent the dissipation of heat into the Stratosphere and into space. To recap: The manner in which the Tropopause, and other thermodynamic barriers, are created and maintained is based on the principle that two (2) opposing sources of heat create a layer of equivalent heat energy that forms into a thermodynamic barrier. The barrier prevents the movement of heat between adjacent layers creating a closed system environment within each layer. Entropy within each of the layers disperses the heat into the layer as the heat content of the closed system works towards a state of equilibrium. While in the closed system the heat content of a layer is prevented from transferring to the open system of the universe unless the heat content of one or the other layers changes. 28 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 Figure 4.17 indicates three (3) reference locations about the earth and that each location has different layers, boundaries (separation layers) and a different flow of heat during the day phase of the 24 hour cycle. The matters that determine how the layers are formed and maintained are:         The sequence of transfer of heat between one layer and another. The density of the matter in the layer. The heat capture capacity of the matter in the layer. Each layer’s heat content. Equilibrium heat values between layers that form separation barriers. Entropy that maintains the heat content in the distinct separation barriers. Variable apertures pertinent to the layers and the separation barriers where they apply. The epipelagic and thermocline layer that maintains a persistent separation of the heat energy delivered by the sun and by the earth. The principle difference between the layers is their mass, content of water and, in the case of the Polar Regions, the issues of insolation whilst being subjected to the earth’s obliquity. The previous discussion explained how the movement of the sun’s irradiation and the earth’s geothermal heat created the ocean separation barrier that, in turn, directed geothermal heat to be distributed into the layers of water below the thermocline. Also discussed was that the absence of an epipelagic and thermocline layer at the Polar Regions allowed for heat deposited into the ocean to be dissipated into space. 29 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The importance of the previous discussion is that the sun and the earth represent opposing energy sources that eventually meet at layer junctions such as the thermocline and the Tropopause. There is no escaping the fact that the Laws of Thermodynamics, together with the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy, dictate the conditions that persist on earth while the two (2) opposing forces (heat sources) are active. In each of the categories of Figure 4.17 (day phase) there are black and orange “+” and “–” signs. The black signs relate to geothermal heat and the orange signs to the sun’s irradiation. A “+” means that the heat content at the layer nearest to the sign is relatively higher than at the “–” sign. This allows for the transmission of heat from “+” to “–” for both sources of heat. Again, in the example of the Troposphere, the temperature at the junction of the earth’s surface and the Troposphere is greater relative to the Tropopause but incoming solar irradiation would see the layer as warmer at the junction of the Stratosphere than at the surface of the earth that it is travelling to. The geothermal heat dissipating into space would see the Tropopause as cooler than the surface of the earth. Each heat source applies its particular relativity to the passage it takes unless it meets an obstacle, like a separation layer, that causes the heat transfer to stop. Figure 4.18 shows the heat flow through the layers during the night phase of the 24 hour cycle. In the night phase there is no irradiation that can counter the flow of heat escaping into space. The atmosphere’s separation barriers cease to exist until the sun’s irradiation returns and supplies heat to reform them. 30 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 The heat content of the epipelagic zone and thermocline is not totally released during the night phase. The loss of heat to space may cause an alteration from the surface to the depth of the thermocline but the epipelagic/thermocline entity remains and their action as a separation barrier remains to stop the bulk of the geothermal heat delivered into the ocean from dissipating into space. Any loss or gain of heat will cause the continual readjustment of the depth of the epipelagic zone and the thermocline. Land behaves differently to ocean areas. Land has a great variability in the amount of water that it contains. Deserts, for example, contain very little water and the geothermal heat that reaches the surface, together with the heat accumulated by the land during the day, would be dissipated into the atmosphere once the sun ceases to shine onto the land. Plant cover also impacts on the manner in which land absorbs insolation and hence the amount of heat energy available for dissipation. 4.4.5 - The geothermal heat escape route The release of geothermal heat into the ocean’s sea floor, even at its lowest point, will never allow the deep ocean water to turn to ice while the internal workings of the earth generates heat and that heat is either convected or released directly into the oceans water mass. The geothermal heat accumulates in the deep ocean waters below the thermocline unless there is an opportunity for it to escape and be dissipated into space. In the situation we are in today, the intensity of the heat stored in the epipelagic layer will prevent most of the heat captured in the mass of water below the thermocline from escaping into the atmosphere except at the Polar Regions. There is no separation layer at the Polar Regions. The Polar Oceans have a surface temperature that permits sea ice to form (at about -2°C). Both Polar Regions still have vast permanent sea ice shelfs that are melting rapidly. This property of the Polar Regions performs as a thermal exhaust opening. It allows geothermal heat and heat delivered to the Polar Regions to be dissipated into space day and night throughout the year with only a small change in intensity in dissipation as shown on Figure 4.15 (C). 4.4.6 - Heat dissipation from the Polar Ocean The Polar Regions differ in the manner in which heat delivered to them is managed as the epipelagic and thermocline layers (the separation layer) are absent. Accumulated heat is able to escape into the atmosphere from the Polar Oceans if they are free of sea ice and at a temperature above that which will allow sea ice to form but of insufficient warmth to allow the epipelagic and thermocline layers to form. In the case where there is a sea ice shelf, the rising geothermal heat acts on the colder ice and causes it to melt from below. Similarly, geothermal heat rising on land on which glacial ice is deposited causes the melting of the ice layer supported by the land. At the current rate of 31 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 geothermal heat release it will accelerate the melting of the sea ice and the warming of the Polar Regions at a rate greater than the remainder of the earth is experiencing. The separation layer is not of a consistent thickness and thins from the equator to the upper latitudes and merges into the colder ocean water at latitudes close to the Polar Regions. Figure 4.19 shows that the epipelagic and thermocline layers are not evident in the Polar Regions. The Antarctic, the colder of the Polar Regions, has a greater distance between the South Pole and the edge of where the separation layer ends (distance “A” in Figure 4.19) than the North Pole (distance “B” in Figure 4.19). The absence of a separation layer near the Polar Regions provides an opportunity for the heat to escape into the atmosphere and dissipate into space through a cooler channel - shown as the “geothermal heat escape route” on Figure 4.20. The geothermal heat escape routes are also utilised by warm ocean currents that deliver heat to the Polar Regions. The heat content of the warm ocean currents mix with the rising geothermal heat as the warm ocean currents lose their heat content to the colder ocean and atmosphere. However, the warm ocean currents will be a barrier to the rising geothermal heat until they lose their heat content by its dispersion into the colder Polar Ocean water, the melting of the sea ice shelf and, in the case of land in the Arctic and Antarctic, warming the adjacent land. The combined content of the warm ocean currents and geothermal heat will first disperse itself amongst the colder water but will consequently escape into the atmosphere if the atmosphere becomes relatively colder than the water. The Polar winter is a time that the release of heat from the Polar Oceans would be maximised. 32 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 What heat escapes into space will add to the outgoing radiation from insolation and other heat energy sources measured by CERES as LW and SW radiation. However, the bulk of the geothermal heat is stored in the mass of water below the thermocline, where the thermocline exists. The heat that makes its way to the atmosphere and into space through the geothermal heat escape routes is the sum of geothermal heat and heat captured by the oceans directly (from insolation) or deposited into them (by the hydrologic cycle) and transported to the Polar Regions by warm ocean currents when relative heat conditions between the warm ocean currents and the heat stored in the deep ocean waters allow the two sources of heat to combine. During a warming trend the distances between each of the Poles to the edge of their respective thermocline decreases progressively as OHC increases. This reduces the surface area available for heat in the oceans to escape into the atmosphere and into space. The area of warm water maintained by the thermocline and the epipelagic zone increases. Evaporation from the oceans increases. This action increases the turnover volume of atmospheric water and reduces the hydrologic cycle time; two (2) aspects of the hydrologic cycle that alter rainfall patterns and precipitation volumes. 4.4.7 - The Polar Regions’ hydrologic cycle The Polar Regions have environmental peculiarities that set them apart from the remainder of the earth. The eight (8) numbered steps in the energy transfer and absorption process particular to the Polar Regions are noted on Figure 4.21. The hydrologic cycle that operates at the Polar Regions moderates the acceleration of the warming phase by absorbing some of the energy injected into the earth’s environmental system, both from natural and anthropogenic sources. The absorbed energy warms the Polar Oceans and the land, and melts ice deposits on land and sea. Note: A study titled; Direct observations of submarine melt and subsurface geometry at a tidewater glacier (R4.22), (Sutherland D. A., et al, 2019), confirmed that the process of Polar ice melting and ocean warming was proceeding at a rate much faster than expected. The eight (8) steps particular to the Polar Regions are described as follows: 33 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 Step 1. Ocean currents from the equatorial and sub-equatorial regions deliver a layer of warm water to the Polar Region. The layer of ocean water in warm currents can be up to 1,000 metres thick. Step 2. Geothermal heat rises from the mantle. Step 3. The warm ocean current and the geothermal heat combine. Where there is no sea ice shelf stopping the heat it rises into the atmosphere eventually dissipating into space. The combined heat warms the sea ice shelf and melts the ice. The sea ice shelfs are not as thick as the layer of warm ocean water. The warm water contacts the edges of the sea ice shelf and causes them to melt. The warm water also travels below the sea ice shelf to melt the ice from below. The energy in the warmer water is absorbed as it melts the ice. The area and the thickness of the sea ice shelf reduces. Step 4. The warm ocean current reaches land below the sea ice surface. It warms the land in conjunction with the geothermal heat that rises through the earth’s crust (R4.23). The force of the ocean mass and current drives the warmer water between the junction of the sea ice shelf and the continental shelf at or below sea level. Step 5. The warm ocean water makes its way to the junction of the land and glacial ice on the continental plate. The transfer of heat to the junction of the land and glacial ice promotes ice melt and the acceleration of glacial ice flow. An aspect of ocean warming and sea shelf ice melt confirmed in the April 2021 article: “Pathways and modification of warm water flowing beneath Thwaites Ice Shelf, West Antarctica” by K. Wåhlin and co- authors (R4.24). There is a strong probability that the rising geothermal heat will also melt the base of the ice deposited on the land of the Antarctic continent. Step 6. As the ocean water warms it increases the amount of evaporation at the Polar Regions. The extent of the volume of evaporation is dependent on the temperature of the warm current and the extent the cooler Polar Oceans and sea ice can absorb energy and reduce the temperature of the mixed ocean waters. The warmer the mixed Polar Ocean water becomes the greater is the volume of evaporation resulting from its surface. The warmth of the evaporation elevates the temperature of the Polar Region. Step 7. The prevailing wind mixes with the warm wind currents. The prevailing winds drive the evaporation onto the area of glacial ice that is deposited on the continental plate. The winds exchange energy with the colder environment and warm the atmosphere. Step 8. The evaporation precipitates in a volume proportional to the extent of evaporation. If the atmospheric temperature becomes warm enough then the precipitation will fall as rain and help to melt the surface of the glacial ice. The continuation of the warming Polar Hydrologic Cycle causes a transitional change to the climate of the Polar Region. 4.5 –The Earth Energy System (EES) There are many models of the earth’s energy budget that show the imbalance of the input/output radiation based on measurements taken by orbiting monitoring satellites. The earth energy budget (EEB) models prominent in many publications take into account the incoming solar irradiation, cloud cover, reflections and absorption of the incoming irradiation and various factors of earth’s heat emissions, such as thermals and evaporation, balanced by back radiation from greenhouse gases (radiative forcing). 34 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 Figure 4.22 is an example of an EEB by L. Chambers in the article; “Energy Budget: Earth’s most important and least appreciated planetary attribute” (R4.25). The diagram is representative of all components that affect the earth’s surface in accordance to the EEB model but it does not take into account all the sources of energy that the earth is subjected to as noted in Table 4.2. The article implies that a standard EEB model requires an additional source of energy in order to balance the CERES satellite based measurements of incoming and outgoing energy. The earth energy system (EES) model is proposed as an alternative to the earth energy budget model. The EES model encompasses all known energy sources and drains that apply to the earth and describes the earth as a unique satellite of the solar system with a hot internal core and mantle, magnetic field protection and biospheric properties that promote carbon based life. The proposed EES model is based on the concept that the CERES monitoring satellite measures the incoming (the suns intercepted irradiation) and outgoing long wave (LW) and short wave (SW) radiation during a prescribed interval of time and that the net difference in the measurements states that either a greater or lesser amount of energy is dissipated than is received from the sun. Figure 4.23 shows the five (5) principle components of the earth energy system are associated with the biosphere. Each has the potential to impact the total energy in the EES and alter earth’s environmental and weather conditions. The earth’s heat energy associated activities, also noted on Figure 4.23, are associated with the biosphere, atmosphere, land and oceans. They are the elements that manage the total heat content uptake and storage from insolation and other sources that results in the residual heat energy that is dissipated to space in the forms of LW and SW radiation. 35 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 In the EES model global warming and climate change are consequent to the intercepted level of the sun’s insolation and the added energy of associated heat energy producing and consuming activities directly related to the earth. 4.5.1 – The five (5) biospheric components of the EES Each of the categories listed in the energy associated activities block contribute to the total of the energy that has a direct impact on the earth’s environmental conditions in accordance to the 5 biospheric components as follows: 1. Heat energy interception. There are two (2) major sources of heat that are intercepted by the biosphere; the sun and the earth’s geothermal energy as described earlier. Both are constant sources of heat but have a variability in the heat intensity that affects the earth based on: - The changing physical properties of the sun and its irradiation output. - The rotation of the earth on its axis. - The constant minimum level release of the internally generated geothermal heat and additional irregular releases of internal heat (by volcanos, fissure openings etc.) as the continental and oceanic plates move about the earth. - Cloud cover, aerosols and dust that can prevent the sun’s heat from reaching the earth’s surface. - The dynamic and orbital properties of the earth, known as the Milankovitch cycles, which alter the earth’s relationship with the sun. 2. Heat energy generation. - Heat energy is generated in the biosphere by natural events such as forest fires, life, naturally occurring chemical reactions and intercepted cosmic impact events. - There are also anthropogenic events such as the combustion of fossil fuels, the reaction of nuclear materials and the application of exothermic chemical reactions. 3. Heat energy consumption. - Life has a cycle. Life is born, grows and dies. It consumes the sun’s energy as it creates biomass. - Death subjects the life to decomposition which releases the stored energy back to the environment. - A comparison between the biomass from one period to the next gauges whether energy has been consumed or released. - Ice melt also consumes energy as the heat is absorbed and converts the ice to water although this will cease once all ice deposits are melted. 4. Heat energy storage. - Heat is stored in the atmosphere, the land and the ocean. - The ocean is the principle heat store. - The land and the atmosphere radiate their heat into cooler areas towards space. - Evaporation from the ocean releases heat from the ocean into the cooler atmosphere. - Evaporation volumes increase the warmer the earth becomes. - Evaporation heat losses radiate into cooler areas towards space. - Ocean currents transfer heat from a warm source to a cooler receptor. 36 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 - The hydrologic cycle assists insolation to add heat energy to the oceans heat store by gathering heat in the atmosphere and land. 5. Heat energy dissipation. - The atmosphere, land and the ocean each release heat that is dissipated into space both day and night. - A greater intensity of the rate of heat dissipation into space occurs during the night phase of the earth’s day/night cycle. - Cloud cover reduces the rate of heat dissipation into space. 4.5.2 – Differences between the EEB and the EES models The most significant difference between the EEB model and the EES model is that the latter does not include radiative forcing. Radiative forcing would imbalance the EES model. The EES model encompasses all the energy sources that affect the earth and meets all the criteria that defines the earth and its heat management mechanism as abiding by the Laws of Thermodynamics and the Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy. The action of heat absorption by greenhouse gases (and other gases in the atmosphere) is an aspect of earth’s total energy complement and internal environmental cycles and controls. The dissipation of energy is representative of all activities. The measurement of the earth’s land and ocean surface temperature records the heat content of the atmosphere at the time the measurement is taken at the location that it is taken at. The EES model consolidates all the energy additions and subtractions that would cause the earth to experience a growing or reducing retained heating content that can be identified as causing global warming or global cooling. It could also be that two (2) or more energy associated activities are contributors to a warming or cooling trend or could influence the direction a trend the earth was following. The sun remains the prime contributor to the earth’s energy system. The level of irradiation intercepted by the earth would initiate a warming or cooling trend during a 150MY Solar Cycle. Note that when the CERES data is taken into consideration:   A Total Solar Irradiance of 1361W/m² represents the solar energy delivered by the sun at a trend turn point as per the article; “Variability of the Total Solar Irradiance” (R4.20). At this level of irradiation the sun maintains a steady level of heat without causing either a warming or cooling trend on earth. The Solar Constant, of about 1367W/m² (represented by the PMOD Composite TSI Time Series (Daily Means), is a value slightly higher than what it was measured to be by CERES (represented by the ACRIM Composite TSI Time Series (Daily Means) as reported in the article: ACRIM total solar irradiance satellite composite validation versus TSI proxy models by N. Scafetta and R. Willson (R4.26). 37 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 4.6 –Tectonic events that increased the earth’s AGT This section hypothesises that tectonic activity has the potential to cause an elevated release of the earth’s geothermal heat that then increases the earth’s average global temperature. The conceptual method of operation is described in the example associated with the South American Altoplano uplift event. 4.6.1 – Earth’s dynamics Tectonic activity is a persistent component of the earth’s dynamics. The continental plates move constantly at a slow pace that, over millions of years, changes the layout of the land masses and the oceans. The motion of the plates of land that “float” on the fluid magma below them, some with oceans above them, results in the creation of pressure that moves and alters the topography of the solid matter that is the basis of the earth’s crust. The water in the oceans moves about to fill depressions created by the three (3) dimensional movement of the solid matter. Fault lines delineate one plate from another where they join. The movement of the plates result in subduction and collision events that have the potential to cause rifts and cracks in the fault lines between them. The fault lines can manifest as earthquakes, volcanoes or as sea floor vents that release the earth’s internal heat into the biosphere. Note: In the context of this discussion the biosphere is considered to extend from the lowest point on the sea floor to the top of the Troposphere as all major events that impact the earth’s surface occur in this space. The heat that escapes from crustal openings into the mantle is one component of the earth’s total energy management system that adds to the heat delivered by the sun. In the paper, “Variability of the Total Solar Irradiance”, W. Fiori, March 2021(R4.20), reference was made to the work of C. R. Scotese, N. J. Shaviv and J. Veizer, that identified the existence of the 150 Million Year Solar Cycle, with defined “hot” and “cold” periods. The graph (Figure 2 in the article noted) represents the highly smoothed average global temperature variations in the cycle as per C. R. Scotese’s graph (Figure 1 in the article noted) converted to a linear form. The graph (Figure 2 in the article noted) shows that the earth intercepts a quantity of heat from the sun that varies in intensity during the cycle time. The graph, although representing a highly smoothed movement of the average global temperature, also shows that the cycle is not smooth as there is evidence of interruptions and deviations in both the cooling and warming trends that act on the trend for a period of time and then the trend settles back to the cycle path. 4.6.2 - The South American Altoplano uplift event The interruptions and deviations to the 150MY Solar Cycle trend evident in the mid to lateCenozoic Era were investigated in terms of the timing and events related to the uplift of the South American Altoplano. At this time the Pacific and Nazca Plates, largely responsible for the western North American and South American mountain ranges’ orogenies in the late Cretaceous, continued to apply subduction pressure against both the American continental plates altering the topography of the two continents. 38 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 This “recent” time frame was used as an example of a tectonic period that caused an increase in the average global temperature during a cooling trend induced by the 150MY Solar Cycle. The enormity of the earth’s capacity to cause significant topographic and environmental changes is shown during the period of time it took to uplift the Altoplano, situated in the Andes Mountains of Bolivia and Peru, to 4000m beginning in the late Miocene. This significant event was part of the subduction event that affected both the North and South American continents’ western coastlines. It resulted in several changes to the topography of the land to the western coastline of the North American and South American continents mountain ranges and coastlines. The Altoplano, today a plateau that has an area of about 103,600 km² (40,000 miles²), is more than 3,962m (13,000 feet) above sea level in places, as noted in several references (R4.27). The area of the Altoplano is second only to the area of the Tibetan Plateau, as noted by C. Wang (R4.28) (2,500,000km² in area) and would have required a corresponding relative magnitude of force to cause the uplift. The events particular to the uplifting of the Altoplano occurred in two (2) steps and is summarised as follows: 1. The first uplift to 2,000m above sea level began about 24 MYA. The Altoplano reached that height in a time of about 8MYs and stabilised for about 4MY. 2. A second uplift of the Altoplano took it to 4,000m above sea level in the following 5Mys. Figure 4.24 indicates the timing and the changes in the average global temperature as the Altoplano uplifted. It shows the two (2) characteristics that are related to the measurement of 39 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 global warming during the Miocene; the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (in blue) and the average global temperature (in red). The following discussion commences with the earth pursuing a cooling trend during the Eocene that terminated as the Quaternary Ice Age reached its low point in the Pleistocene, 2.1MYA. Note: When proceeding through the discussion below it is important to note that a subduction event was occurring between the Pacific plate and the North American plate, with significant changes to the land topography of North America, at the same time as the tectonic activity in South American continent uplifted the Altoplano. The two events created a fault line, and an area of subduction pressure, that extended for more than 12,000 km from the top of the western edge of the North American plate to the bottom of the western edge of the South American plate. Subduction pressure was intermittently applied about this fault line for about 18Mys as the land about the western perimeter of the two continents, some of which was submerged below the sea, was uplifted to various heights above sea level; the highest uplift being the Altoplano. The tectonic forces applied to both continents contributed to the movements of the average global temperature and the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. Subduction forces were intensifying on the western border of the Americas and, in particular, between the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate during the early to mid-Oligocene resulting in a period of increasing tectonic activity that began to release internal (geothermal) heat into the ocean and land surrounding the fault line. As the heat spread about the oceans it caused a reduction in the rate of cooling the earth was following. About 24MYA tectonic activity strengthened. The increased release of geothermal heat at subduction fault lines warmed the oceans further and they released more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. The sun induced cooling trend was continuing but the geothermal heat was able to slow the rate of cooling that was taking the earth to the low point of the ice age. Note: The earth had been following a cooling trend that began in the late Cretaceous. The release of the geothermal heat by the subduction event caused an interruption of the trend. At a point in the late Oligocene, early Miocene, about 23MYA, the land mass that represents the present Bolivian and Peruvian shoreline and the Altoplano began to rise. It elevated a great mass of seawater with the Altoplano, contained in its natural depressions, on its journey to the first stage of the uplift to 2,000m. The tectonic pressure increased the rate of release of the earth’s internal heat. The average global temperature began to rise as the heat dispersed about the oceans. The oceans warmed and released more carbon dioxide captive in the ocean. The pressure abated about 14MYA but the release of geothermal heat continued. The rate of cooling caused by the reduction in irradiation from the sun was lessened by the tectonic and volcanic activity. The average global temperature remained steady for about 5 million years before the volcanic activity subsided, stabilised and the average global temperature once again began to decline in accordance to the reduced irradiation from the sun. The average global temperature increased by about 1.3°C in the 9MYs of elevated tectonic and volcanic activity. However, when taking into account the potential decline in the average global temperature(about -1°C), had the cooling trend not been interrupted by the tectonic 40 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 events, then the tectonic activity of that time would have increased the average global temperature by about 2.25°C, as shown in the portion of the graph coloured in orange, in Figure 4.25. The increase in the average global temperature represents a rate of change of about 0.25°C/MYs. However, there is no surety that the average global temperature trend that began just before the beginning of the uplift would have continued. Two (2) alternative possibilities of cooling trends that could have been influenced by the tectonic activity of that time have also been shown on Figure 4.25. The two (2) possible cooling trends (coloured in peach and blue on the graph) had the potential to decrease the average global temperature by about 1.25°C. Hence, the potential for the tectonic activity of that period to have interrupted the cooling trend was in the order of adding about 3.8°C to the average global temperature in a time of about 9MYs; a rate of change of about 0.42°C/MYs. This is a minor rise in average global temperature when compared to the last 100 years that has seen the average global temperature increase by 1°C (representing a rate of warming equal to about 10,000°C/MYs). A second bout of subduction pressure started about 12MYA. It released the earth’s internal heat for the next 7 million years. It slowed down the rate of cooling but could not prevent the average global temperature from steadily decreasing even though the Altoplano was raised a further 2,000m. The land stability was maintained from 5MYA to today. Evidence of the tectonic activity that raised the Altoplano from sea level to 4,000m is strewn about the Altoplano. Lakes have 41 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 dried and their sea salt content remains in the depressions in which the water originally laid. The eastern and western cordilleras of the Andes about the Altoplano show many extinguished volcanos as evidence of its geologically turbulent recent past. All in all the uplifting of the Altoplano to its final 4,000m above sea level repose hampered the rapid decline the average global temperature was following. However, it could not stop it from bottoming to an intense ice age that peaked 2.1MYA. A point to note is that the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide did not correlate consistently with the changes in the average global temperature throughout the Oligocene, Miocene and Pleistocene Epochs. The 140ppmv increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide happened in a time of about 9MYs (23MYA to 14MYA), at a rate of 15.56ppmv/MYs and about 125ppmv in 5MYs (10MYA to 5MYA), at a rate of 25ppmv/MYs. The increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide from 10 to 5MYA corresponds to a drop in the average global temperature of about 1.5°C. The rates of change in the two (2) occurrences of increases in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide during the Miocene are negligible when compared to the rate measured in the last 50 years. At no time were the intrusive sources of geothermal and volcanic energy of such an intensity that the rate of warming was more than in the possible range of about 0.25° to 0.42°C/MYs. This was despite the influence of aggressive subduction forces that acted to create mountain ranges on the western coastline of two (2) continents over a distance of about 12,000km. 4.6.3 – Temperature changes of the Arctic Ocean Reference to the temperature of the Arctic Ocean in Figure 4.24 indicates the amount of geothermal energy that was released during this period. In the article, “Evidence for ice-free summers in the late Miocene central Arctic Ocean”, by R. Stein et al, 2016 (R4.29), the researchers did not relate the northern Polar Oceans to a particular timing other than in the late Miocene. The arrow pointing backwards towards the early Miocene and into the Oligocene in Figure 4.24 relates the increase in the ocean temperature to the timing of the beginning of the second uplift to 4,000m and the precursor tectonic activities that initiated the uplift, including the first uplift that took the Altoplano to 2,000m. These events support the cause for the temperature measurements the researchers identified. A significant amount of the earth’s geothermal heat must have been injected into the earth energy system at that time. The rate of decline to the Quaternary Ice Age low point 2.1MYA did not accelerate until the end of the Pliocene. Had the sun’s intercepted irradiation not declined to a level that took it to the ice age low point, the second uplift would have added considerable heat content to the oceans and the average global temperature would have climbed substantially by perhaps an amount equivalent to the first uplift. At all times in the discussion above the average global temperature was directly related to the earth energy system’s volatile energy sources and responded to the content of energy in the biosphere in accordance to the intensity of the sun’s insolation and the intensity of energy other intrusive sources could deliver. The only energy source missing in the Miocene, when compared to today, was the heat energy and water vapour generated from potential energy 42 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 sources (fossil fuels, nuclear materials and human induced exothermic chemical reactions) exhausted into the earth energy system in several different ways, principally in the biosphere, and predominantly above sea level. 4.6.4 – Other events of collision and uplift The intensity of heat released from the earth’s mantle can be related to two (2) other events of significant collision and uplift of the earth’s tectonic plates that have occurred in the last 250 million years:   The Permian Mass Extinction Event. The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. Figure 4.26 indicates the timing of these events and their impact on the average global temperature. Both events share similarities to the South American Altoplano Uplift event:      They are events where land masses merged.  The uplift associated with the subduction and the collision was extreme in force and of a relatively short geologic time duration.  The movement of the tectonic plates and the uplift forces created: o A plateau in Asia when it collided with India (the Tibetan Plateau). o The final stage of the consolidation of all continental plates into one (1) landmass, Pangaea. Volcanic activity resulted from the subduction and uplift of the continental plates. Considerable sea floor activity occurred at the juncture of the moving tectonic plates with potentially high releases of the mantle’s heat directly into the oceans. The oceans’ additional heat content increased the earth’s average global temperature above the rate of irradiation received from the sun. The event, particular to the time of the Permian Mass Extinction, added about 2°C to the sun’s induced peak average global temperature prior to the turn point to a cooling trend. It was only during the time-frames of these two major collision events that the Arctic Region was found to have both land mass and a warm temperate climate in the last 600 million years according to the paleoclimate maps provided by C. R. Scotese (R4.30). 43 Earth’s EB, heat sources, GW and Thermodynamic properties, W. Fiori, Rev 1: 16/ 7/ 2022 It suggests that, at those times, the Polar Ocean water temperature would have been well above 0°C as occurs at warm temperate regions today throughout the seasons. References R4.01 Drake, Gordon W. F., "thermodynamics". Encyclopedia Britannica, Invalid Date, https://www.britannica.com/science/thermodynamics. Accessed 22 January 2022. R4.02 Pharmatutor Pharmacy Encyclopaedia, Beer’s and Lambert’s Law, Available from: https://www.pharmatutor.org/pharma-analysis/analytical-aspects-of-uv-visiblespectroscopy/beer-lambert-law.html WikiLectures, Lambert-Beer’s law, Last modified 14 August, 2016. Available from: https://www.wikilectures.eu/w/Lambert-Beer%27s_law PhysicalGeography.net, Atmospheric Effects on Incoming Solar Radiation. Available from: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/7f.html Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited, sun angle, Duration and Insolation. Available from: https://www.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0495555061_137179.pdf R4.03 Johnston, H., 19 July, 2021, Radioactive decay accounts for half of Earth’s heat, https://physicsworld.com/a/radioactive-decay-accounts-for-half-of-earths-heat/. The article was derived from the article by The KamLAND Collaboration, 2011, Partial radiogenic heat model for Earth revealed by geoneutrino measurements. Nature Geosci 4, 647–651 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1205 R4.04 Donev, J.M.K.C., et al. (2019). Energy Education - Geothermal gradient [Online]. Available: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Geothermal_gradient . Accessed: November 13, 2021. R4.05 Williams, D. R., NASA Goddard Space Flight Centre, Terrestrial atmosphere, Earth Fact Sheet, Last updated 21 December, 2021, https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html, Accessed 15 May, 2022. R4.06 Webb, P., Introduction to Oceanography, Chapter 6.2 – Temperature, Roger Williams University, https://rwu.pressbooks.pub/webboceanography/chapter/6-2-temperature/ Accessed 20 November, 2021. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Download this book for free at http://rwu.pressbooks.pub/webboceanography R4.07 Loeb, N. G., Johnson, G. C., Thorsen, T. J., Lyman, J. M., Rose, F. G., & Kato, S. (2021). Satellite and ocean data reveal marked increase in Earth’s heating rate. 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Sci., 37(2), 137−142, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00376-020-9283-7. R4.09b Carne, N., 2020, Ocean warming an increasing problem, https://cosmosmagazine.com/climate/ocean-warming-an-increasing-problem Accessed 17 January, 2020 R4.10 NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Earth Science Communications Team, California Institute of Technology, https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/ice-sheets/ , Accessed 13 December, 2021. R4.11 Helmenstine, Todd. 9 November, 2019, Heat of Fusion Example Problem: Melting Ice, ThoughtCo, Jul. 29, 2021, thoughtco.com/heat-of-fusion-melting-ice-problem-609498. https://www.thoughtco.com/heat-of-fusion-melting-ice-problem-609498 Accessed 13 December, 2021. R4.12 Nielsen, R., Solar Radiation, 2005, http://home.iprimus.com.au/nielsens/solrad.html, Accessed 16 December, 2021. 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