PORTRAYALS OF CHILDLESS WOMEN IN CONTEMPORARY U.S. WOMEN’S CINEMA

1 PORTRAYALS OF CHILDLESS WOMEN IN CONTEMPORARY U.S. WOMEN’S CINEMA A thematic analysis of The Forty-Year-Old Version, Nomadland and Promising Young Woman Student Name: Freeke van der Sterren Student Number: 496814 Supervisor: Emily Clark Theme: 4B – Popular Culture and the Mediation of Power International Bachelor Arts and Culture Studies Erasmus School of History, Culture and Communication Erasmus University Rotterdam Bachelor thesis June 11th, 2021 2 Abstract Gender studies and post-constructivist feminist theory are left with a gap in the literature when it comes to motherhood and childlessness. Where liberal feminism has increased the focus on women’s autonomy and individuality in society, in popular culture a post-feminist turn tells women to adhere to traditional gender norms and to believe that their struggle for equality is already over. This thesis explores depictions of childless female characters in contemporary North American ‘women’s cinema’: movies written and directed by women. More specifically, it thematically analyses the films The Forty-Year-Old Version, Nomadland and Promising Young Woman. It continues on a study conducted by Diana Ross (1998) which explores depictions of childless women in 67 popular American films. Her findings show that though the portrayals have become less stereotypical over time, they still hold certain tenacious preconceptions about childless women. These include the belief that childless women are lonely, cold-hearted, and mentally instable people. To see whether similar prejudices come up in the contemporary world of film which increasingly includes female writers, directors, and leads, this thesis asks the question: “How are childless women portrayed in contemporary American films directed by women?”. The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the meanings attributed to childlessness among women in American society. Through a thematic analysis, the shared patterns of each character portrayal are explored. Primary attention is paid to the protagonists’ behavior, environment, interaction with others, and appearance. It finds that female directors depict more of childless women’s reality, which includes judgments from their direct environment and a newly found freedom to become downwardly mobile in their careers. The childless protagonists are portrayed as strong, independent women, who value their freedom and autonomy. Still, they struggle with economic precarity, a lack of stable romantic relationships and mental instability as a result of grief. Regardless of their empowering individuality, prospects of them changing the system beyond their personal situation remain out of sight. Additionally, the protagonists’ own perception of their childlessness is only superficially discussed. These findings suggest that comparably to feminist academic literature, women’s cinema in the U.S. is liberally ‘avoiding’ motherhood. KEYWORDS: Childlessness, Popular culture, Cinema, Class, Gender, Thematic analysis 3 Acknowledgments Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Emily Clark, for enthusing me even more about the topic I chose and for recommending me plenty of literature: this guidance has been very helpful. I would also like to thank Victor Sol and Maarten Arnoldus for brainstorming with me at the initial stage of the writing process, when I was still struggling with the many different ideas I had. I also wish to thank my parents and friends for proof-reading and for inspiring me. Our discussions have created and shaped the perspective with which I approached my thesis. Then finally, I want to thank Bo Emmens for helping me with the frontpage, and for his endless support and much-needed distraction during these two intense months of writing. 4 5 Table of Contents Abstract .....................................................................................................................................3 Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................4 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................8 Chapter 1 i. Theoretical Framework .................................................................................11 Hegemony and ideology ......................................................................................................... 11 a. Fiction ................................................................................................................................................. 11 b. Culture as a powerful tool .................................................................................................................. 12 ii. Women in American society ................................................................................................. 12 a. Hegemonic femininity ........................................................................................................................ 12 b. Stereotypes ......................................................................................................................................... 13 c. Feminist critique ................................................................................................................................. 14 d. Post- and faux-feminist rhetoric ......................................................................................................... 15 iii. Meanings of motherhood ....................................................................................................... 16 a. Mothering and femininity ................................................................................................................... 16 b. Childlessness in film........................................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 2 Methods ...........................................................................................................18 i. Research method .................................................................................................................... 18 ii. The sample .............................................................................................................................. 19 iii. Data collection ........................................................................................................................ 21 iv. Operationalization ................................................................................................................. 23 v. Coding ..................................................................................................................................... 24 vi. Data analysis ........................................................................................................................... 25 vii. Validity, reliability, and limitations ................................................................................. 25 Chapter 3 i. ii. Results .............................................................................................................26 Findings ................................................................................................................................... 26 a. Childlessness ...................................................................................................................................... 26 b. Grief .................................................................................................................................................... 29 c. Precarity .............................................................................................................................................. 31 d. (In)Dependence .................................................................................................................................. 33 Comparing the findings ......................................................................................................... 35 6 Chapter 4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................37 Bibliography ...........................................................................................................................39 Appendix A: Ross (1998) questions for data analysis (p. 55) .............................................43 Appendix B: List of analysed films.......................................................................................44 Appendix C: Codebook .........................................................................................................45 7 Introduction The Celluloid Ceiling Report (2021) shows that women made up 18% of directors working on the top 250 grossing films in 2020. Despite this low number, compared to an 8% share of women directors in 2019, female representation in the film industry is actually experiencing historic levels of growth. In 2021, two women were nominated for “best director” at the Oscars: A first in history. It was also the year that for the first time ever, a Chinese woman won the Oscar for best picture. And yet, women still “do not receive star billing as often as men” (Kunsey, 2019, p. 28). Employing female directors is still considered a greater risk than hiring one of their male colleagues. Nonetheless, Kunsey (2019) shows that “films that employ at least one female director, executive producer, producer and/or writer garner approximately the same domestic box office sales as do films with exclusively male representation in those roles” (p. 29). With women increasingly joining the workforce, the patriarchal system that American society is built on (Walby, 1990) is under threat. This society simultaneously allows women no opportunity in the workforce because of the possibility of them becoming mothers (Becker, 2019), and expects them to do nothing else than being mothers. Ross (1998) illustrates this by discussing the terminology surrounding childless women in English language: “unlike the term bachelor that refers to male singlehood and male childlessness, there is no similar word to describe women without children other than childless, child-free, not-mother, infertile, or barren. All of these terms denote that the woman without child is missing or rejecting a portion of womanhood” (p. 4). These societal conceptions about women and their need to be mothers can be identified in film as a form of popular culture. Hollywood films “reflect, create, and maintain certain dominant ideologies within American culture” (Ross, 1998, pp. 3-4). Such ideologies influence how society perceives mothers and thus childless women. Looking at films directed by women allows for a closer look at women’s own understanding of what it means to be mothers (or not). Historically, childless women have notoriously been stereotyped as “villains, femme fatales, and whores” (Ross, 1998, p. 1). Such depictions do not only reflect society’s expectations of women to be mothers, but have also been interpreted as implicit critiques of the feminist movement, which caused more women to join the workforce instead of fulfilling traditional family roles (Faludi, 1991). 8 Various waves of feminism have impacted and changed the way that women perceive motherhood over time. The second wave of feminism in the 1960s took a critical stance towards the nuclear family and viewed motherhood as yet another symptom of the oppressive patriarchal system. Feminists focused on the liberation of women from such oppressive institutions and on women’s rights over their own bodies. The third feminist wave, starting from the 1990s onwards (Huang, 2014), continued the advocating of sexual liberation and control over one’s body, but left the critical stance towards the societal institutions behind. Ever since the 1970s, the number of childless women has been on the rise (Ross, 1998). Yet, Walters (1995) argues “America has entered a postfeminist era characterized by positive cultural images of family traditionalism and negative images of women who step out of the traditional domestic roles” (quoted in Ross, 1998, p. 1). Feminism has a complicated relationship with motherhood: the topic is often avoided by academics in the field of gender studies out of fear of being labeled a ‘gender essentialist’ (Westervelt, 2018). Childlessness appears to be a part of the ‘free’ and ‘independent’ woman that liberal feminism asks women to be. Lean In (Sandberg, 2013), for example, encourages women to simply adapt to the male-dominated workforce, telling them they can be successful if only they try hard enough. A similar liberal conception of feminism is often found in American films that have been perceived as feminist. Such films mainly focus on the empowerment of women that are free in terms of sexuality, appearance, and personal success, but who do not seek institutional change (Stache, 2013). With the number of childless women on the rise, portrayals of childless women have become more nuanced. Female characters are increasingly portrayed as independent, strong, smart, and ambitious women (Stache, 2013). But some biases surrounding childless women persist. Ross (1998) shows that childless women in popular film tend to be depicted as over-invested in their careers, allowing their career ambitions to overshadow their relationships with friends and family. Putting it briefly, women receive conflicting messages about their roles in family and society: they are understood to be essential for the care of children in their role as mothers, but are also expected to have careers, and, further, are told that they do not have the capacity to do a good job at both. Media stories such as those told in film help to shape and convey these changing ideologies and affect the choices individual women make in their lives. Especially those directed by women may convey the meanings that American women themselves attribute to childlessness. The purpose of this project is therefore to gain insight into the 9 underlying beliefs about childless women as expressed in films, directed by women. Employing a post-constructivist, intersectional framework, it seeks to deconstruct the ‘mother’ as a socially constructed idea that is reflected and shaped by mass media such as film. The central question posed is “How are childless women portrayed in contemporary American films directed by women?”. The first chapter gives an overview of the literature that has been consulted. It puts the research in perspective by discussing the theory surrounding social hegemony, feminism, and motherhood. Additionally, it introduces the study about childless women in film (Ross, 1998) that has strongly inspired and influenced this research project. The second chapter gives an overview of the methods used during the research. It illustrates the implications of performing thematic analysis and shortly introduces each of the films that were sampled (Nomadland; Promising Young Woman; The Forty-year-old Version). Further, it introduces the four themes that were identified, including Childlessness, Grief, Precarity and (In)Dependence. Then, the third chapter presents the findings that caused these themes to arise and embeds these within the existing literature. The findings are compared to those of Ross (1998), arguing that with the number of female directors growing, popular portrayals of childless women are still changing. The final chapter connects the identified themes back to the research question and offers suggestions for further research regarding childless women and motherhood. 10 Chapter 1 Theoretical Framework i. Hegemony and ideology a. Fiction Ideology, as defined by Althusser, is “the system of the ideas and representations which dominate the mind of a man or a social group” (Althusser, 1971, quoted in Paneva, 2008, p. 36). Fiction film is not “designed to prescribe social behavior”, but it does reflect “common understandings or stereotypes of social groups” (Ross, 1998, p. 6). Though films are less influenced by advertisements prescribing social behavior and gender norms than for example television shows and magazines (Ross, 1998), they still advertise certain ideologies. In fact, the lack of this specific type of advertising implies that beyond the surface level of the film, various messages can be hidden and thus copied by its audience without noticing. Film, therefore – and fiction film specifically – is a compelling topic for social research (Ross, 1998). The Art of Fiction (James, 1884) begins with an interpretation of the novel as an artform that bears resemblance to pudding: the audience’s only task being to swallow that pudding (p. 745). The same has been said for film by neo-Marxist critics such as Horkheimer and Adorno, who stress the “old experience of the movie-goer, who sees the world outside as an extension of the film he has just left (because the latter is intent upon reproducing the world of everyday perceptions), is now the producer’s guideline” (Horkheimer & Adorno, 1944, p. 45). In other words: film influences the way the audience perceives reality outside of the theatre. Adorno and Horkheimer here suggest that a smooth transition from the theatre back to the ‘real world’ has become a new ambition for film producers. Though fiction tries desperately to represent real life (James, 1884), the outcome of an artistic work depends on the discussion that takes place after it is created. James (1884) quotes Walter Besant who argues the “laws of fiction may be laid down and taught with as much precision and exactness as the laws of harmony, perspective, and proportion” (p. 749). This conclusion is met with critique: James argues the laws are “suggestive, they are even inspiring, but they are not exact” (p. 749). A screenwriter or director could not possibly predict all interpretations of both the production team and the audience. After all, intention and interpretation are two 11 separate areas of research. This thesis aims at a specific interpretation of film, understanding it as an ideological instrument. b. Culture as a powerful tool Gramsci (1971) argues that culture is indeed used by the ruling class to sustain their ideology. He understands culture – particularly the mass media – as a tool to reproduce hierarchical structures and power dynamics by representing what is understood by society as “common sense”. The process through which this common sense is established, and thereby the ruling class maintains their dominant social position, is referred to as social hegemony. The masses – or suppressed women – accede indirectly through the consumption of mass media products on a “voluntary” basis. Yet, Gramsci (1929-1933) elaborates, this consent is historically embedded in the prestige of the dominant class because of its global position in the production of cultural artefacts. Zizek (1989) states that the enjoyment with which the masses consume products such as film mainly conceals this true intention and distracts them from their material condition in society. Cultural artefacts could thus be considered threatening to the position of the lower classes – or oppressed women – since they create the illusion of free choice whilst the mass media simultaneously impose a ‘common sense’ onto them which is not their own. Films depicting childless women have the potential to shape the way such women feel about themselves, and how they are perceived by others. The fact that motherhood is still a largely evaded topic in feminist literature (Westervelt, 2018) suggests that more research on motherhood and childlessness as ideologically constructed ideas within American culture is necessary. This way, the position of childless women and (working) mothers in society can be better understood. ii. Women in American society a. Hegemonic femininity Though defined in various ways (Walby, 1990) the patriarchy is broadly understood as the “manifestation and institutionalization of male dominance over women and children in the family and the extension of male dominance over women in society in general” (Sultana, 2011, p. 3). This “institutionalized system of male dominance” (p. 3) is based in the material condition of men and women which allows for the men to dominate women through the hierarchical structure of society (Sultana, 2011). Like Gramsci denotes the violence used for 12 ideological and state power (1929-1933), different types of violence work to keep the patriarchy in place. Violence men use against women is therefore “systematically condoned and legitimated by the state’s refusal to intervene against it except in exceptional instance” (Sultana, 2011, p. 10). American society’s definition of ‘man’ and ‘woman’ depend on hegemonic beliefs surrounding these terms. These beliefs are supported by cultural images of the sexes. Hegemonic masculinity is the set of practices that allow for the domination of men over women – or: the patriarchy – to persist (Messerschmidt, Connell, & James, 2005). Hegemonic femininity, in contrast, is the dominant, badly conceptualized idea of ideal-type womanhood (Schippers, 2007). It refers to exaggerated feminine traits and is built upon traditional gender norms. Schippers (2007) states the conceptualization of this kind of a desired woman “works to maintain the status quo” (Walter, 2020). Though inherently the sign “woman” entails a plurality of interpretations, these are built upon “opposing and conflicting social interests” (Kotsopoulos, 1996). The interests compete to become a sign’s dominant reading, “marginalizing other interpretative possibilities” (p. 8) into a uniaccentuality of the sign. Connell (1987), for example, speaks about “emphasized” and “pariah” femininity (Hendriks, 2015). b. Stereotypes The workings of social hegemony in the United States can be examined by looking at character portrayals in film. Hollywood tends to underrepresent minority women and when minorities are represented, they are often exaggerated to the extent of becoming stereotypes (Sutherland & Feltey, 2016). Both men and women are depicted as stereotypes (Bussey & Bandura, 1999), enhancing certain personality traits, capabilities, and aspirations (Murphy, 2015). Women in film often bear an appealing appearance, short-sighted aspirations, and a longing for one-dimensional love (Smith & Cook, 2008). Men contrastingly are depicted as “heroic, strong, and brave” (Brown, 2016, p. 134). Research has found that “parents are frequently described as concerned, loving, hardworking, conventional, and patient” (Callan, 1983a and 1983b in Ross, 1998, pp. 175-176). Mothers especially are portrayed in the media as “gentle, kind, and loving women who seek self-fulfillment through bearing and rearing their children” (Kaplan 1992 in Ross, 1998 p. 175-176). Some films empower female characters or ‘liberate’ them from these expectations by ascribing them certain traits usually perceived by society as ‘masculine’, such as the use of 13 physical violence, or through other transgressions of social norms (Stache, 2013). Kotsopoulos (1996) argues that in Western culture, the reproduction of the woman through signs can therefore be quite contradictory and conflicting. Murphey (2015) echoes this belief: images of women in film are now “caught between competing demands to be strong and independent while retaining their femininity” (p. 9). This intricate battle is studied by intersectional feminists, who focus on the opposing of multiple identities, like for example “black” and “woman”. As a result of this development, further fragmentation of female stereotypes and portrayals in film has arisen. c. Feminist critique Hooks (2013) defines feminism as “a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation and oppression” (p. 662). In the United States, the second wave of feminism in the ‘60s and ‘70s, as well as the third wave of feminism in the ‘90s have influenced and shaped cultural representations of women (Karras, 2002). Though each feminist movement should be differentiated from the other, feminists commonly share a critical stance towards beauty and power structures. The second wave of feminism held critique on the social system keeping these structures in place. It combatted the patriarchy by formulating critique on marriage, motherhood, and the nuclear family. It conceived of these expectations of women as intertwined with female subordination (Sultana, 2011). Additionally, feminists advocated for women’s rights over their own bodies. It was argued by some that by becoming a mother, women in fact contributed to the reproduction of the “world of men” which kept women in powerless positions. Third wave feminists placed the emphasis on individual responsibility, focusing more on the autonomy over one’s own body (Murphy, 2015), but left the critical stance towards oppressive institutions behind. As a critical response to feminism’s whiteness and one-sidedness, Kimberley Krenshaw’s intersectionality came into existence. “A social theory, born of the experiences of women of color, used to reveal and contest the multiple and simultaneous projects of oppression upheld by systems of domination” (Edwards & Esposito, 2019, p. 2). White, often middle- and upper-class straight women run the risk of applying a “universalist” feminism which is based upon the one-sided experience of women like themselves. It generalizes their experiences to all other women and surpasses the additional discrimination that black, lower-class, lesbian, and transgender women encounter. In fact, it devalues the experiences of any woman that 14 does not relate to the established idea of what it means to be female. Intersectional feminism has been essential for the development of gender studies, both within academia as well as in popular culture. It caused a discussion about how and if gender should be defined. In feminist academia, gender is now broadly understood as a spectrum, where there are combinations of identities, contradictions, and in-betweens. This development has liberated people that were previously excluded from the existing categories. However, the other side of the discussion has resulted in difficulties when discussing motherhood within a feminist context. d. Post- and faux-feminist rhetoric Post-feminists believe that the system oppressing women has already come to an end. They encourage women to take responsibility for their position in society and to utilize their newly granted opportunities (Murphy, 2015). Simultaneously, post-feminism advocates a return to more traditional gender roles, with women staying at home and taking care of the children. Lean-in (Sandberg, 2013) echoes the post-feminist sentiment in the sense that it encourages women to simply engage in the patriarchal culture if they want to be successful. It tells women to behave like men, and that if they are not willing to engage in that, they should not complain. Hooks (2013) critically terms Sandberg’s book “faux-feminist”, because it views female empowerment as an individual struggle. She writes that the “conservative white male dominated world of mass media and advertising” is in fact “reframing feminism” and is “threatening to the future of visionary feminist movement” (p. 673). The postfeminist dilemma is that women are given a choice between being either “leaning in” to behaving like traditional men, having a career, or women, having a family. So, successful women such as female directors have gained power in the industry, perhaps by stepping into the shoes and power structures of men. This position makes it interesting to evaluate how they choose to portray the dilemmas and expectations of women in the media they produce: “Rare are the stories of collective struggle for social justice; even rarer are stories about women’s collaborative efforts to challenge patriarchal social structures” (Sandberg, 2013, p. 11). Both globally and in the United States, women make up a large share of what is defined by Guy Standing as ‘The Precariat’. Standing writes the precariat is a new class, consisting of people employed in “short-term unsteady jobs, usually without insurance”. They lack prospects for their future, get paid irregularly and lack a “work-based identity” (Akın, 2017, p. 13). Women are more likely to belong to the precariat because they are institutionally 15 dependent on men for their economic position in society. In case of a separation, for example, women are more prone to become impoverished than men (Akın, 2017). Besides, pregnant women experience structural discrimination at the labor market in the U.S. (Greenberg, 1998). This reality shows that women are struggling to attain financially stable careers. In film, however, female characters tend to overcompensate for their precarious position through other characteristics that make them seem independent and strong. They come up with solutions to their precarious situation (Akın, 2017), where male characters by contrast either deny their situation or descend into an indifferent attitude (Akın, 2017, p. 17). iii. Meanings of motherhood a. Mothering and femininity The fact that the feminine is often perceived as inextricably linked with the maternal reveals the “universalist and essentialist histories of motherhood” that our society still depends on (Takševa, 2018, p. 179). Such conceptualizations of femininity cause the conceiving of gender as a binary opposition and result in the viewing of femininity as the counterpart of masculinity, rather than a concept in and of its own (Paechter, 2018). Stereotypes conveying this message are illustrative of the “postfeminist turn” in popular culture (McRobbie, 2004), which is supportive of traditional gender norms and does not critically question these. But where in popular film, motherhood is romanticized with the support of sexist stereotypes (Takševa, 2018), academic circles discussing gender theory have become avoidant of the topic. Only three per cent of gender-related publications mentions motherhood (Westervelt, 2018). Academia fear being labeled ‘gender essentialists’ – who see gender as a trait determining one’s identity (DiQuinzio, 1993) – because it “can end one’s academic career before it even begins” (Westervelt, 2018). Takševa (2018) adds that “normative, liberal, or academic scholarschip in women and gender studies” generally positions itself negatively towards motherhood (p. 179). Contradictions between views of motherhood within feminist critique and its cultural portrayals show that the relationship between motherhood and feminism is complicated. The matricentric feminism of Anderea O’Reilly therefore argues that both the understanding that gender is socially constructed, and the idea that mothering is an important part of women’s femininity are relevant to feminism (O'Reilly, 2021). 16 b. Childlessness in film Mothers in American film show conflicting identities of the loving, caring mother, and the strong, independent woman. Similarly, childless female characters represent an inner struggle between their personal choices and others’ expectations. Ross (1998) discusses the portrayal of childless women in popular films by applying a thematic analysis to 67 films distributed between 1980 and 1996. Her study finds a dichotomization between two types of childless women. Ross (1998) refers to these as “mothers” – potential future mothers, and “nonmothers” – women who are as far removed from children in their daily lives as possible. Ross (1998) elaborates: “Mothers and nonmothers differ in terms of personality characteristics and type of social roles they perform, with mothers assuming the responsibilities of caring for the future generation, while nonmothers, with the exception of nuns, are removed from personal contact with children” (pp. x-xi). The findings also show that childless women are not depicted as nuns or “spinsters”, but they still live lonely lives. Other negative stereotypes such as selfishness and mental instability also persist. With the number of female directors growing, portrayals of childless women may have become more nuanced and bound to reality. This research project aims to put the findings published by Ross (1998) side by side with an analysis of three more recent films that have been directed by women. It questions whether Ross’ her findings hold up for films made twenty-three determinative years later. Speculations for this thematic analysis are that representations have become more intersectional, and that the characters’ class identities in some way intersect with their childlessness. Based on the existing literature it remains likely that some remnants of the patriarchy are bound to be found in women’s cinema. Further themes expected to occur in the films are independence and individualism. Analysis of these themes may finally give insight into the the perspectives and dilemmas of the directors themselves, through evidence of the characters’ experience of being childless. 17 Chapter 2 Methods i. Research method The question “How are childless women portrayed in contemporary American films directed by women?” was addressed through a thematic data analysis of the visual and spoken language of three films. The research positioned itself as exploratory, seeking to find themes by means of a layered analysis of each film. The themes were considered as representative of socially constructed phenomena. Hence, a qualitative method of research was most appropriate. The study was unique in its approach by focusing on a small, specific sample of recent films. Further research could possibly build on this study and test the patterns that were identified to more films through a quantitative study. Thematic analysis is a specific type of data analysis within qualitative research. It closely resembles other methods of analysis such as (interpretive) textual analysis and qualitative content analysis – which also identify common themes within a body of text (Davidson, 2011). The results of thematic analysis, however, are usually presented in the form of a list of themes, rather than a quantification or visualization of the gathered data. Thematic analysis is often used to examine cultural products and to find which culturally held meanings and beliefs are present in such artefacts. Among the affordances of thematic analysis is attention to both latent and manifest content, in order to attend to both what is present and what is (meaningfully) missing (Ross, 1998). The research framework was guided by theoretical insights from post-structuralist feminist literature and criticism which are respectively influenced by psychoanalysis, semiotics, and Marxism. These frameworks view film as cultural texts worthy of study because of their potential to hold and transfer certain ideological beliefs (Davidson, 2011). Additionally, the study done by Ross (1998) attributed greatly to the data analysis process, as it also applied thematic analysis to a set of films depicting childless women. Her study followed a list of questions which were applied to each scene as a research tool. This set of questions – which can be consulted in appendix A – was used during this research to navigate towards elements of the film that held potential meanings. Particular attention was paid to intersections that appeared such as those between class, childlessness, and femininity. 18 To explore the question, how are childless women portrayed in contemporary American films directed by women, the characters’ own expressions and attitude towards life, ageing, children, relationships, and work were transcribed and watched several times. The characters’ environment and thus the judgments of other characters were also monitored. Siding the narratives of the film with the visual language, an attempt was made to identify contrasts between what was expressed by the characters verbally, and the beliefs that were suggested visually. To assure the interpretations of such visual intentions, preexisting interviews with the directors and actors were also considered. Connecting the observations back to preexisting research and literature, the results were placed within the realm of critique, revealing common patterns within American contemporary film. ii. The sample The research sample was chosen through a purposive sampling technique. The selection criteria required films to 1) be written and directed by a woman; 2) depict a female lead; 3) have been distributed between 2019 and 2021 and 4) have received critical acclaim. The fourth – perhaps most important – category was established by evaluating the nominees at film festivals and other film award shows to seek films meeting the first third criteria. Nomadland (Zhao, 2021) and Promising Young Woman (Fennell, 2020) have both been nominated for the ‘best director’ award at the 2021 Oscars. The Forty-year-old Version (Blank, 2020) was nominated for the ‘best directing’ award at the Sundance Film festival in 2020 and received the Critics’ Choice Award for best comedy film. Given the fact that female directors and leads are rare in Hollywood, the sample reflects a highly specific area of the film industry. This research therefore did not aim to attain generalizable results, but rather sought a more in-depth understanding of the portrayals. Nomadland Fern lost her husband to cancer and now also lost her job as a result of the financial crisis in 2008. She and her husband used to live a good life at Empire, a mine village in Nevada. She decides to buy a van and becomes a nomad, traveling from one place to another, working low-wage, temporary jobs. Even though she travels on her own, she finds community and friendship in the nomad lifestyle. Despite wanting to do it all herself, Fern is a newbie when it comes to her lifestyle. She learns from the other nomads and gets better at it as time passes. On her way, she processes the loss of her husband through conversing with people on the road. When visiting her sister to borrow money for her van, she faces what she has left 19 behind, yet realizes she does not fit in their world. She meets Dave, a fellow nomad who clearly fancies her, and she is once again confronted with other ways of living: having (grand)children, living in a home, and staying in one place. She visits him at his son’s home and is met with a very warm welcome. Though she enjoys it there, and considers possibly staying, she eventually leaves to be alone again. The Forty-Year-Old Version Radha is on the verge of turning forty and is uncertain about her career as a playwright and theater teacher to children in Harlem. One year ago, she lost her mother. Her brother keeps calling her to ask when they are going to clear out her mother’s apartment, but she is not ready for this confrontation, so she ignores his calls. Together with her students, she is preparing a school play. Most students are very supportive of her, except for Elaine, who confronts Radha with her ‘failed’ career during class. Radha starts writing lyrics to rap beats made by a young producer called “D”, who she eventually gets emotionally involved with. Her best friend and manager Archie tries to get her to produce a regional theater play with J. Whitman; an old, white, rich Hollywood producer. At first, she declines. She knows producing a play with Whitman will result in a highly compromised play that will no longer be her own. However, after enduring a nervous breakdown during her first rap show, she agrees to a collaboration with Whitman. She is immediately disappointed in the collaboration and keeps lingering between her ambition of becoming a rapper and gaining financial success and recognition in the theatre world. After finally facing the confrontation with her mother’s old apartment, she realizes she has been afraid. During the premiere night of her play, she confronts the audience with the reality of the theater world through one final rap performance. Promising Young Woman Cassandra is a 30-year-old woman, living with her parents, working at a coffeeshop. Her friend Nina has committed suicide after being sexually abused during her time in med school. Ever since this happened, Cassie has taken it upon herself to take revenge on all men who try to abuse women by going to the bar every week, pretending to be extremely drunk and letting herself be taken home by these men. She waits until they do something she did not consent to and then confronts them with the morality of their behavior. She additionally takes revenge on people from her past that she feels have contributed to the passing of her friend Nina. Her parents are worried about her and so is her boss and friend, Gail. Until she meets Ryan, an 20 old familiar from med school who she goes on a few dates with. They enjoy their time together and for a moment it seems like Cassandra might get over the traumatic experience of losing her friend. But then she finds out through a video that Ryan was there when her friend was raped. She goes to find Al Monroe, the person who raped Nina, to get her final revenge. Trying to hurt him, Al suffocates her with a pillow, and she faces a tragic death. Al and his friend burn her body the next morning, thinking for a moment nobody will find out. Until a montage is shown depicting a pre-planned text that Cassandra has sent the lawyer that represented Al in the past, who highly regrets his deeds. The police are informed and the men who did it are arrested. iii. Data collection The scripts from both Nomadland and Promising Young Woman were available for download online. The script from The Forty-Year-Old Vesion was not. Therefore, an automatic transcription of the spoken language of the film was utilized. These documents as well as the final versions of the films were analyzed to find any possible differences between the films and the scripts and to thereby take the filmmaking process from beginning to end into account. Much of the directors’ intentions for the visual language of the films were expressed textually in the script, which provided for a more detailed insight into what these intentions were. The data collection process was essentially divided into seven steps: a. Film selection The films were selected based on the sampling criteria. b. The first viewing During the first viewing, each film was watched in its entirety to gain a general impression of the character, setting, plot and storyline, and to discover any possible similarities or differences between the characters and their environment. This stage did not yet include the writing of analytical memos or notes. c. The second viewing The second viewing adapted a more active approach, delving further into the identified similarities between the main characters and the narrative structure of the films. Shared themes were written down and the characters’ motivations for earlier established similarities 21 were monitored. This was based on possible commonalities across the films that were established in the first viewing. d. Establishing themes As a result of these new observations, six exploratory themes were established: 1. Motherhood/childlessness 2. Trauma/loss 3. Emotional precarity 4. Class identity/status 5. Empowerment 6. Individuality e. Transcribing selected scenes Scenes explicitly dealing with or illustrating any of the established themes were transcribed and put side by side using schemes. The sections of the scripts depicting these scenes were consulted to find if there were any notable differences between the film and the script. The transcripts included both visual and spoken language and were coded using an initial coding strategy, breaking down the data into separate sections. This form of coding allows for similarities and differences to arise out of the selected data. Simultaneously, it keeps the possibilities open for new theories and interpretations to arise, suiting the thematic approach to data analysis (Saldaña, 2013). f. Connecting themes back to the data and further specifying During the analysis, the observed themes, code-categories, and codes were connected to preexisting research and the theoretical framework to draw conclusions from the observed codes. After consulting the literature, the exploratory themes were specified into four main themes: 1. Childlessness 2. Grief 3. Precarity 4. (In)dependence 22 g. Re-coding Guided by the newly specified themes, the established codes were re-evaluated. Some codes were merged to make them applicable to each film and the general themes that were identified. iv. Operationalization The theme ‘Childlessness’ was defined as any indication of the characters’ lack of children, or her relationship towards motherhood. This included contrasts that were made with other female characters, external pressure to have children or get married, as well as their own opinion about not having children. Indicators of childlessness included visual and physical characteristics such clothing (signifying either maturity or childishness), the use of comforting, lecturing, and caring language, and the taking care of, and worrying about other characters. The lack of such characteristics was coded ‘non-mother’. When the character expressed to relate to other (grand)parents or expressed excitement towards motherhood, it was also coded ‘motherly’. The theme ‘Grief’ was measured mainly through indications of the remembering of a lost person. Physical memories of a lost one, conversations about the loss, confrontation and avoiding of the grieving process and people sympathizing with their mental state were all indicators of this theme. Additionally, the character’s mental state (being a result of this loss) was measured through outbursts, people worrying about their mental state, the character expressing they did not feel well, and other characters expressing they should seek help. The grieving process was coded in terms of the ways the character dealt with the situation, either being avoidant or confrontational, and either opening up about the loss or keeping it to themselves. The theme ‘Precarity’ was measured mainly through indicators of class, such as the character’s living situation, their job, their financial (in)stability, the character depending on friends and family for financial aid, and the character expressing to struggle with getting enough money together to live a decent life. For this theme, other indicators were the extent to which characters’ environment formed a contrast with them in terms of financial position and career ambitions. Indicators were not being able to pay for rent, needing to look for new work, characters expressing dissatisfaction in their career, their career ambitions, and their 23 class background. Precarity was also expressed visually, through depictions of small, temporary, or unstable living spaces, work attitudes and things such as clothing and decoration. The theme ‘(In)dependence’ was indicated through the characters’ way of presenting themselves. This included the things such as the desire to be self-sufficient, their rejection of ‘normal life’ and society in general, declining help from others, keeping their emotions to themselves, and taking risky decisions as an indication of their freedom. Simultaneously, the contrasting environment with this attitude was indicated through the need for other characters to help them and ‘step in’ in order for them to be okay. Visually, indicators included frames suggesting loneliness, autonomy, freedom, pride, and fearlessness. v. Coding The research applied a mix of concept-driven and data-driven development of codes, starting with a deductively formed coding frame, to subsequently inductively code all data within specific main themes. This allowed for new themes to emerge during the process of data analysis. The guidelines for the coding process were partially drawn from prior research on expressions of femininity (Sutherland & Feltey, 2016) and pregnancy in film (Davidson, 2011). This allowed for the identifying of previously determined indicators of hegemonic femininity (revealing dress, sensitivity, warmth, empathy), childlessness (sexual attraction to youngsters, rejection of motherhood, relating to children) and empowerment (individuality, expressions of sexuality, confrontation). Figure 1: example of a coded visual section 24 vi. Data analysis Ross (1998) looked for shared themes among 67 popular films. Her study selected certain scenes that were relevant to the topic of childlessness. These were analyzed by means of various questions asked. The questions posed by Ross (1998) helped identify what to look for during the data analysis. These focused on sexual interactions, as well as Figure 2: example of a coded textual section other women and mothers portrayed in the films. In addition, meanings attributed to childlessness were found in the characters’ career, ambitions, freedom, relationships and living situation. As is shortly touched upon in the theoretical framework, race plays an important role in the intersecting of identities. In the sample of films, two different racial groups were represented by the main characters. However, because this research focused on questions of class and gender, and due to the small sample size, a proper assessment of race as an additional category could not be made. This category could perhaps be explored in future research. vii. Validity, reliability, and limitations Post-structuralist thematic analysis is a form of research that requests a high degree of interpretation. Merely the process of choosing themes to discuss, and the open-ended nature of the coding process give rise to several different ways by which this data could have been interpreted. The study only analyzed the creative output of the filmmakers and did not discuss the audience perception of the films. A study of the audience could have for provided for more insight into how the films were understood by their target audience and therefore provide for a more in-depth understanding of the way in which such films shape and affect their behavior. Yet, directing the attention towards the product and its mere creation suited the aim of the research which was to uncover the ideological beliefs about childless women, as reflected in films made by women. 25 Chapter 3 Results Because each film from the sample told a different story, depicting women of different ages, backgrounds and ambitions, data analysis generated contrasting results when it came to character traits and other specificities. Still, four general themes were found that were applicable to each of the three characters. The findings and a brief discussion of each theme are provided in the section below. i. Findings a. Childlessness Childlessness was not the main topic of any of the chosen films, even though the female leads were all above the age of thirty and did not have any children. In each film, the protagonist only expressed their lack of children to another character once. The attention paid to childlessness was therefore especially coming from the characters’ environment. Radha (The 40-Year-Old Version) and Fern (Nomadland) both did not verbally express whether they would have liked to have children. Cassandra (Promising Young Woman) did express her opinion towards her childlessness by saying she did not desire that lifestyle: CASSANDRA (to GAIL) Look. You’re making the assumption that I want any of it. If I wanted a boyfriend and a yoga class and a house and kids and a job my mom could brag about I’d have done it. It would take me ten minutes. I don’t want it. All three characters employed several “not-mother” characteristics (Ross, 1998). Examples of such characteristics were singleness, not knowing how to hold a baby, dressing childishly, disregarding others’ feelings, and being sexually attracted to minors: RADHA (to ARCHIE) I’m either gonna kill or fuck one of these damn kids. Each of the characters lacked sexual and romantic activity at the beginning of the film. Though no desire to engage in such activity was expressed, their romantic status was judged by their environment: 26 SUSAN (to CASSANDRA) My friends all ask about you and I don’t know what to tell them. All their children are getting married, having kids. I don’t know what happened... WOMAN ON THE STREET (to RADHA) When a single woman turns forty, she’s like fruit from the tree that falls to the ground for the bugs to eat. In the case of Fern, who lost her husband to disease, other characters did not frown upon her situation, but rather affirmed the eternal nature of her previous relationship: GRANDMA (to FERN) That ring is a circle, and it never ends. That means that your love never ends. His love for you never ends. And you may not be able to take it off if you tried. FERN (to GRANDMA) I don’t think I could. Where Cassandra employed almost no ‘motherly’ characteristics, Radha and Fern both employed a variety of such traits. They taught children, used motherly language1, lectured (younger) people on how to live their lives, cared and worried for others and noticed resemblances between themselves and their own mothers: RADHA (to BUS DRIVER) You just made your mother proud. FERN (to DEREK) Where are your mom and dad? … think they worry about you? You don’t get lonely? Got a girlfriend anywhere? Finally, the characters’ childless status was constantly contrasted with their environment by showing other characters getting pregnant or sharing their joys about being a mother: DAVE (to FERN) this is his wife, Emily, she’s pregnant. MADISON (to CASSANDRA) I thought I’d be literally bored out of my skull watching the kids. But it’s been great actually! Even more, the childless characters were often referred to as childish and told to “grow up”: 1 Consult appendix C for examples of ‘motherly language’ 27 ARCHIE (to RADHA) We are not in high school anymore. MRS. FISHER (to CASSANDRA) Oh come on, you can’t. don’t be a child, CASSIE. The protagonists’ lack of children was communicated using character-traits, dialogue, dress, behavior, and environment. Though it was made clear the characters were childless, not much importance was paid to this aspect of their lives. Such portrayals of childlessness could thus further normalize childless women in American society. Further research would be necessary to find out the motivations behind female writers’ and directors’ choices to portray women without children in their leading roles, rather than mothers. It seems likely that by doing so, female filmmakers oppose the postfeminist return to traditional gender norms. Ross (1998) similarly finds that positive portrayals of childless women occur as a response to the “postfeminist cultural backlash to feminist views” (p. 354). Emphasizing choice and autonomy when it comes to having children and generally rejecting motherhood aligns with the liberal feminist stance on motherhood in the United States. Much like in academic feminist discourse, motherhood is basically avoided. Though liberated from their role as mothers, the protagonists were not fully liberated because their environment still confronted them with their life choices and still expected them to ‘settle down’. By exposing this environmental pressure to the audience, the directors incorporated the reality of childless women in American society. The emphasis that was placed on this social pressure suggests that the women working on the films have either dealt with similar issues themselves or have seen it happen in their social circles. Two of the three female leads employed ‘motherly characteristics’ but when they expressed themselves in this way, it often felt either unnatural or unaccepted. This observation suggests that mothers are expected to employ characteristics such as nurturing, caring, and physical comforting more naturally than women who do not have children. The women employing these characteristics (Radha and Fern) were also at a later point in their lives than Cassandra, who showed none of such traits. Motherliness therefore seemed to intersect with what could be understood as female maturity, more so than with young women and fertility. Finally, the characters each lacked ‘stable’ romantic relationships: they were either single or dating. This finding suggests that in the eyes of the female filmmakers, a lack of children still 28 goes hand in hand with the lack of a serious relationship. Further research could offer more insights into this assumption: what about (married) couples who decide not to have children? The protagonists’ inconsistent romantic lives and their lack of children intersected with their freedom and loneliness simultaneously, indicating that childlessness correlates with instability in other areas of women’s lives. b. Grief The second theme that was identified was grief. The characters had each lost a loved one and still found themselves processing this loss. Though they dealt with their situation differently, a similarity between the narratives was that they each sought an escape at the beginning of the film, avoiding confrontation with their true emotions. Towards the end of the film, they confronted their grief in some way or another, suggesting personal growth whilst simultaneously accepting the need to ‘integrate’ back into society. The main characters were repeatedly reminded of their loss by people and material objects and showed to have difficulty with the situation even though they were reluctant to express their sadness honestly. The loss impacted the characters’ mental health, mainly suggested through emotional breakdowns and an environment that worried about them: BRANDY (to FERN) You can stay with us. I mean at least while you’re looking around here. We’re worried about you. ARCHIE (to RADHA) You should talk to someone. MRS FISHER (to CASSANDRA) You need to stop this. It’s no good for any of us. It’s no good for NINA. It isn’t good for you. Look, I know you feel bad you weren’t there. But you’ve got to let it go. Another characteristic that suggested their instable mental state was the use of physical violence. Both Radha and Cassandra employed excessive physical violence as a result of their emotional condition. Further, Cassandra and Fern were both reluctant to let a romantic partner into their lives: CASSANDRA (to RYAN) I’d like to see you again, but we need to take it slow. 29 Lastly, the characters did not immediately turn to their family for help. They were even avoidant of them, seeking an escape staying busy in other areas of life. Instead, they sought answers in their work, newly acquired friends and romances: STANLEY (to CASSANDRA) Didn’t hear you come in last night. Everything alright? CASSANDRA (to STANLEY) I had to work late. STANLEY (to CASSANDRA) The coffee shop closes at nine. CASSANDRA (to STANLEY) We had to do inventory. SUSAN (to CASSANDRA) You have to do a lot of inventory at that place. You should speak to the manager. … DOLLY (to FERN) It’s always “out there” that’s more interesting. You left home as soon as you could. You married Beau after knowing him just a few months, and then you moved into the middle of nowhere with him. And then even after Bo passed away, you still stayed in Empire. I just didn’t get it. I mean, you could have left…FERN (to DOLLY) Yeah… See, that’s why I can’t come here. In summary, grief functioned as a catalyst for mental instability in each of the films. The belief that grief can turn into a mental disorder when not processed ‘soon enough’ is a widespread belief within society and modern psychology. It is then referred to as “potentially pathological” (Granek, 2014, p. 107). The bereavement following the passing of a close one is here seen as an emotion disturbing the efficiency needed to be a part of the late capitalist American society. Though there was little room for grief in the lives of the protagonists, the films were not necessarily critical of this fact. It was assumed throughout the films that the characters were in need of this final confrontation with themselves, rather than structural change: their grieving merely symbolized this fact. The way their direct environment responded to their grieving can be associated with how this environment responded to their childlessness. None of the characters were understood in their choices or way of living, and were therefore positioned as ‘malfunctioning’ in society. 30 Additionally, the characters’ grief symbolized their victimized position. Because they were grieving, the audience could understand their position and struggles better. In other words, their grieving could for example have caused other instable areas of their lives, such as their lack of children and their economic precarity. But this was merely suggested, and not clearly discussed. c. Precarity The third theme that was identified was the economic precarity shared by each of the main characters. Even though the main characters were all smart, highly educated, (previously) ambitious, and talented women, they found themselves in positions where these ambitions were not met, and their living situation was either unstable or low in standard. Their income did not suffice to pay for their living, and they were dependent on friends and family for financial support. In addition, the characters lacked a sense of identity and recognition in their career: RADHA (to D) I’m a teacher. I teach playwrighting. I’m a playwright, but I don’t really feel like one these days. BRANDY (to FERN) “You’re working at Amazon again?” FERN (to BRANDY) Yep. BRANDY (to FERN) How is it? You like it? FERN (to BRANDY) Yes. Great money. Though financial stability was the main incentive for both Fern and Cassandra to work, Radha was also driven by a desire for peer-recognition and success. Still, it was suggested that each character could do better, and deserved better, than what they were doing now. This was suggested through for example their high level of education, knowledge of art, previous success in their career, serious work attitude and other talents: FERN I studied theatre and literature. … 31 Fern works, taking her job so seriously it’s almost comical RYAN (to CASSANDRA) “You were so good though. You knew everything.” RADHA (to PRODUCER) I've done the 30 Under 30... Yes, it was quite a couple years ago, but I... I did win that award. Because the characters were struggling with, or still finding their position in their career, people they encountered gave them unsolicited advice. Much worse, the protagonists were ridiculed and underestimated, predominantly by white men: GEORGE (to FERN) Fern, that’s a rather limited view on what we do – FERN (to GEORGE) Is it limited, George? GEORGE (to FERN) I mean, we’re not all in a position to just chuck everything and hit the road! RYAN (to CASSANDRA) God. What are you doing working here? … Wait. No. I’m so sorry. That was so rude. I didn’t mean- In addition to the low recognition, satisfaction, and sense of identity the protagonists obtained from their work, they did not earn enough money to be as economically independent as they wished: RADHA (to PRODUCER) And, uh, for a fee that, I don't know, is enough to pay my rent... would be nice. Maybe. CASSANDRA (to GAIL) I can’t afford it, Gail. Not on what you pay me. Not even a weird guy’s basement. The childless women portrayed in the films each belonged to Guy Standing’s definition of the ‘precariat’. They struggled balancing their personal lives with their work, but paid attention to both, and did not place their career above their personal relationships – even though sometimes their work was used to avoid these personal relationships. The portrayals therefore contradicted the assumption that childless women are career-obsessed businesswomen. By seeing the characters as victims of the system they operated in, rather than women fully responsible for and in charge of their fate, the directors were critical of the capitalist system, and allowed for the audience to sympathize with the protagonists. 32 The characters did not want to sacrifice their autonomy, but sometimes needed to, in turn for (financial) stability. At times, this also happened the other way around. When, for example, Radha took a leap into her unexplored rap talent, or Fern decided to leave her home and travel, the characters did sacrifice their stability for autonomy. Still, each character was met with the financial boundaries of their freedom. They either tried to escape the system (Fern), died (Cassandra) or kept doing the same thing as they were doing before (Radha). These narratives hint at a sense of ‘capitalist realism’ as coined by Mark Fisher (2009), inspired by theorists such as Slavoj Zizek and Frederic Jameson. Essentially, capitalist realism is used to describe society’s inability to imagine the end of capitalism, as a result of what late capitalism has grown into. The way that precarity connected with the other themes is that perhaps if the characters would have had more stability, they would have had children. Yet, in two films, the viewer was not told whether the protagonist even wanted to. Besides, they each lacked the stability of a partner to raise this child with. Their precarious situation was additionally influenced by their (emotional) inability to participate in the social structure in a ‘successful’ way, which caused them to value their own freedom over the respect of those that were more prosperous. d. (In)Dependence Individuality and independence played an important role for all three of the women portrayed. They went through life without children, were processing the loss of a loved one, and sought independence in both their careers and social lives. Despite occasional financial pressure, the characters tried to centre their lives around freedom and authenticity: RADHA (to ARCHIE) No, I mean... do I want to compromise my play for some arrogant asshole? They rejected the life their environment was living, and distanced themselves from what such other characters attributed value to: FERN (to DOLLY) I can’t live here. I can’t live in this room. I can’t sleep in this bed. Thank you but I can’t. This environment simultaneously perceived the characters as ‘free’ individuals, who took risks and did not care for other people’s opinions: 33 ARCHIE (to RADHA) You do what you want anyway, you fucked that 25-year-old. And you did that rapping shit. DOLLY (to FERN) You know when you were growing up you were eccentric to other people. You maybe seemed weird but it was just because you were braver, and more honest than everybody else. Their freedom did have a counterpart of loneliness which was visualized by framing the character on their own, in contrast with other characters who had families, children and relationships. Simultaneously the characters were visually depicted as fearless, proud, strong, and independent women. These contradictive characterizations also appeared when it came to their ability to be independent. On the one hand, they did not ask for help, and were insistent on taking of themselves. On the other hand, however, other characters had to step in to make sure they were okay. SWANKIE (to FERN) You don’t have a spare. (stares) You’re out here in the boondocks and you don’t have a spare? You need to take this lifestyle seriously. This is not a holiday. You can die out here. You know that? The childless characters rejected their direct environments and were therefore perceived by this environment as strong and free individuals. They strived to maintain a high degree of independence, either through travel, choosing paths they were advised not to, taking big risks in terms of career and lifestyle, or confronting others with behavior they did not agree with. Individuality is a theme in close association with empowerment. Lara C. Stache (2013) states that this kind of empowerment belongs to a third-wave feminist rhetoric, which focuses on the embracing of ‘girl power identities’ and making the ‘choice’ of empowerment. Simultaneously, however, their social circles worried about them and felt that the character was in need of help. This contradiction was also present in the visual language of the film. The characters were sometimes depicted as strong, fearless women. At other times, they were portrayed as lonely, without friends and romance: especially in contrast with other couples and families. The characters wanted to be self-sufficient and succeeded to a certain extent, but, like everyone, could not do it on their own. This finding suggested once more that the women in question were understood as unable to ‘beat’ the system because they were still living within the boundaries of it and were dependent on it for financial stability. This 34 portrayal reflects the reality of childless women in American society: allowed to move around freely, but only within the realm of possibilities inside the patriarchal society. ii. Comparing the findings The childless protagonists were portrayed as layered and contradictory characters. They could not be labelled stereotypical portrayals of childless women, because they showed reallife contradictions and struggles between multiple identities and expectations that such women encounter. Ross (1998) attributes these contradictions to the ‘field of meanings’ associated with childlessness (p. 336), suggesting that rather than one hegemonic meaning, childlessness inherits multiple contrasting meanings when it comes to women. The fact that the films were made by female directors may have contributed to this more nuanced portrayal. Research (Lauzen, Dozier, & Horan, 2008) found that for popular television shows, episodes written by at least one female writer contain a significantly higher number of comments about the characters’ appearance. ‘‘Writers bring their life experiences to the scripts they create” (p. 435). The attention paid to the social pressure to have children could therefore be a result of female writing and directing. Ross (1998) found that portrayals of childless women in film can be divided into those characters who are ‘mothers’ (possible future mothers) and ‘not-mothers’ (women with no prospects of becoming mothers). The analysis of films directed by women resulted in a similar distinction. However, it did not so much have to do with the possibility or prospect of the character having children. Instead, older characters were found to employ more ‘mother’ characteristics, such as the caring and worrying about others, the use of physically comforting gestures, and bearing resemblance to their own mothers. This finding suggests that motherhood is put in close association with maturity; more than with the female fertility which young women symbolize. Additionally, (physical) attempts of the protagonists at comforting others were sometimes rejected or seemed unnatural, implying that childless women are not fully capable of expressing these ‘instincts’ yet, without having had children themselves. The childless characters hereby formed a stark contrast with women who did have children. Ross (1998) found a similar trend, adding that ‘not-mothers’ did not even appear in scenes centering family life. 35 Much like Ross (1998) found female characters to experience pressure to get married and have children, in this study, the characters’ environment seemed to care more about their relationship status and childlessness than the characters themselves. In return, however, the women held a freedom to travel and work jobs that did not necessarily provide them with much stability nor future. The finding that childless children are portrayed as “money-driven workaholics” (Ross, 1998, p. 293) in popular films was therefore not supported when applied to films made by women. Instead, the characters reflected a reality mentioned by Ross (1998) of childless women becoming downwardly mobile in their careers rather than upwardly mobile (p. 294). Where Ross (1998) suggests that such a position is an indication of freedom, an in-depth analysis of the characters’ position showed they were not necessarily free in making this decision. The result of their temporary, low-wage, uncertain, and futureless work leaned more towards economic dependence than it did to freedom. Other negative character traits found by Ross (1998) to be attributed to childless women are “Selfishness, narcissism, cold-heartedness, mental instability, compulsive lying, overt sexuality and homicidal tendencies” (p. 173). This thesis found that the personality trait most present in women’s cinema was mental instability, particularly expressed through grief as a potentially pathological disorder. The character employing most of the not-mother characteristics (Cassandra) also showed additional negative attributes such as coldheartedness, compulsive lying, and homicidal tendencies. Ross (1998) additionally states that childless women are depicted as lonely – either because they are defined by others as such, or because they are of old age. Among each of the childless characters that were studied in this study, loneliness was identified mainly as a counterpart of their freedom and resulting from their grief. Modern portrayals of childless women share characteristics such as financial independence, freedom, confidence, and ambitious work attitudes (Ross, 1998). This research project supports such findings partially; especially when it comes to the characters’ outwardly behavior. The childless women that were portrayed were perceived by their environment as free, opinionated women, who do not adhere to society’s rulebook. However, they were not fully financially independent. The film narratives suggested that the characters had fallen victim to their situation and to the emotional process of grief. They desired to be financially independent but were held aback by the limits of their freedom, depending on their environment for financial aid. 36 Chapter 4 Conclusion As feminists have historically argued, reproduction rights are crucial to women’s liberation from patriarchal suppression. Obtaining autonomy over their own bodies, women increasingly choose for themselves by refraining from having children. But with the growing number of working and childless women in the United States, society should also be capable of supporting such decisions. There is a lack of proper discussion around motherhood and childlessness amongst feminist academics, which illustrates some of the difficulties that are encountered when studying gender. In the meantime, women are finally gaining stage in Hollywood, accommodating positions in which they have the power to influence the discourse of both popular culture and feminism in the United States and globally. The films they produce are representative of their own experiences, fears, and hopes for this society. This development has caused conflicts to arise between their personal interests as women, and the interests of the capitalist film industry which remains to be run by men. Such conflicts tend to hide beneath the surface of cultural products that are produced. The aim of this dissertation is therefore to identify the ideological beliefs and conflicts beneath character portrayals of childless women in U.S women’s cinema. Nomadland, The Forty-Year-Old Version and Promising Young Woman are examples of films that have received institutional praise partly because of the increased attention to inclusivity and diversity in the industry. To facilitate a thematic analysis of the portrayals of female childlessness, a selection of scenes directly relevant to the characters’ childlessness was made. Then, an analogy was drawn between each protagonist’s behaviour, appearance, and interaction with others. The findings show that depictions of childless women do not conform to standard ‘hegemonic femininities’, reflecting postfeminist and traditional gender norms. Instead, the portrayals are more realistic, revealing women’s multiple identities that are constantly at conflict with each other. Childless women are suggested to be resilient, strong, smart, and talented, but are simultaneously assumed to be incapable of taking proper care of themselves and attaining success in their careers. Instead of being fully responsible of this position, the 37 characters are victims of the late capitalist patriarchal system. Even in films directed by women, childless women are portrayed as mentally instable. The understanding of grief as a potentially pathological disorder substantially adds to such depictions. Grief, however, is also used to victimize the character, distancing them from people that are unable to sympathize with this process. Further research into portrayals of grief and the intersection between grief and childlessness could be interesting paths of research to be explored. The characters’ childlessness additionally is found to intersect with independence and economic precarity. Further research could possibly provide more insight into what makes women on- and off-screen come across as ‘independent’ even when they are not in economic terms, and how childlessness attributes to these portrayals. Results additionally reveal that women’s cinema seems to parallel the liberal turn in feminist academia which has caused theorists to avoid motherhood as a topic of discussion. Female writers and directors of film avoid the conversation about motherhood; perhaps trying to separate the term ‘woman’ from the term ‘mother’. Sexist stereotypes often seen in popular culture are sidestepped, resulting in more realistic portrayals of female characters. However, by not letting the characters speak much about their own childlessness and instead giving voice to the judgments of their environment, the women are still stuck in a position without complete authority over their own decisions. This study has shown that women directors in Hollywood contribute to the further fragmentation of female stereotypes and thus to the intersectionality of character portrayals by depicting lower class, black, and older women without children. These portrayals naturally include American society’s persisting judgments, laying bare what childless women deal with daily. Revealing this reality to a global audience could potentially influence the way people perceive of childless women, yet further research would be necessary to come to such a conclusion. Most importantly, motherhood and childlessness should no longer be arenas of individual struggle and environmental judgment, but rather catalysts for mutual and systematic support. To achieve this, Hollywood needs to steer away from depictions of individuals relentlessly fighting the system without any success, towards stories about people that brought change to that system; characters discussing motherhood and childlessness, because it is a part of life. Not only for women, but for everybody. 38 Bibliography Addison, H., Goodwin-Kelly, M. K., & Roth, E. (2009). Motherhood Misconceived. SUNY press. Akin, K. (2017). WOMEN AND PRECARITY IN CONTEMPORARY CINEMA . Ankara: THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION AND DESIGN ĠHSAN DOĞRAMACI BĠLKENT UNIVERSITY. Akın, K. (2017). WOMEN AND PRECARITY IN CONTEMPORARY CINEMA. Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences. Becker, S. O. (2019, August). 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Is This 1920 or 2020: The Effects of Hegemonic Femininity on Diversity & Inclusion within the Panhellenic Community. Essentials. Zhao, C. (Director). (2021). Nomadland [Motion Picture]. Zizek, S. (1989). The Sublime object of ideology. Verso. 42 Appendix A: Ross (1998) questions for data analysis (p. 55) The Childless Character: 1. 2. 3. 4. Why is she childless? What is her reaction to her childlessness? Other people’s reaction? What evidence is there of her mental stability or instability? Does she have any childless women as role models in her life? Childless Woman’s Love Relationship: 1. Describe any romantic interests that this woman has and the characteristics ofthe relationship (i.e. long-term, one night stand, mistress). 2. If her partner has a family other than the childless woman, what is his relationship with his family (i.e. his wife and children)? 3. If she does not have any love relationship, why not? Childless Woman’s Job Performance: 1. What type of job does she have, and how well does she perform her job? 2. How do her co-workers or boss assess her job performance? What is her own assessment of her job performance? 3. Does she have any career goals? 4. What is her personal relationship like with the people she works for/with? Childless Woman’s Family and Friends (trauma): 1. Does she have any living family members? What is her relationship with these family members? 2. Does she have any friends? What is her relationship with these friends? Childless Women. Children, and Mothers: 1. 2. 3. 4. How does the childless woman interact with other childless women? How does the childless women interact with or describe women who are mothers? How does the childless woman interact with children? Does the childless woman have any feelings about families and domesticity? Characteristics of Anv Mothers in the Film: 1. What is the mother’s social circle, including friends and family? What is her relationship with her family and friends? 2. Does the mother have a job? 3. How does she handle having a job and a family? (Ross, 1998, p. 57) 43 Appendix B: List of analysed films 1. Nomadland (2020) directed by Chloé Zhao 2. Promising Young Woman (2020) directed by Emerald Fennell 3. The Forty-Year-Old Version (2021) directed by Radha Blank 44 Appendix C: Codebook Note: parts written in orange are derived from the film scripts. THEME CATEGORY CODE Childlessness Motherly characteristics Asking for other people’s opinion about age EXAMPLE RADHA “What do you think of a woman turning 40?” Bearing resemblance to own mother FERN “The other day I looked in the mirror and saw my mother” Comforting children RADHA “Now, Elaine, your poem was great. Okay?” Curiosity for parenthood 45 Defending/helping children RADHA “They’re good kids, okay?” Encouraging other parents FERN “Don’t think about it too much, Dave. Just go. Be a grandfather.” Excitement for other (grand)parents Lecturing youngsters DAVE “That’s his wife, Emily. She’s about to have a baby.” FERN “You’re going to be a grandfather! When’s she due?” RADHA “So, don’t think if you don’t get what you want Elaine, that the world should stop for you.” FERN “Smart man. Letters are good.” Physical comforting gesture Physical condition going backwards Putting others in the spotlight FERN “Got a little trouble with my knees, there, though.” RADHA “It’s much harder to lose weight when you get older” RADHA (on stage) “Before I go on, let’s give it up for D, who awesomely crafted all the beats that you’re hearing here tonight.” Relating to other parents RADHA “You just made your mother proud.” Responsibleness NEIL “You do coke, right?” CASSANDRA “Not really…” NEIL “Oh come on!” CASSANDRA “I got work in the morning.” 46 Non-motherly characteristics Taking care of other people Teaching children FERN “You need to eat something. I made soup.” FERN “You remember anything we worked on when I tutored ya?” Worrying about others FERN “Where are your mom and dad? … think they worry about you? You don’t get lonely? Got a girlfriend anywhere?” Youngsters/children appreciating her ROSA “Wow, she’s like queen Latifah and judge Judy rolled into one, yo.” Childish appearance Lack of sexlife/romantic encounters Leveling more with younger people Sexual attraction between her and minors Other people declining caring gesture VOICE “How old are you..? Old enough, right?” RYAN (to CASSANDRA) “You won’t kiss me, you’ll barely touch me.” LAMONT (to RADHA) “Maybe you’ll finally get a n***** to go home with you tonight.” DEREK “Would you like a beer?” FERN “Sure, trade you for a sandwich.” RADHA “I’m either gonna kill or fuck one of these damn kids.” LAMONT (to RADHA) “Nope. I ain’t that n*****. And maybe next time, if it don’t kill you, could you put some mayonnaise on both sides of this dry-ass bread? Trying to cut my throat the slow way.” RADHA “You’re welcome…” 47 Physical awkwardness FERN “Don’t be gone long, Dave. Okay?” Pride in being single Saying she does not have children Unsympathetic towards other mothers Contrasting with environment Irresponsible moms ‹ Other people asking about children [music] God bless mother nature. She’s a single woman too. She took off to heaven And did what she had to do. RADHA “Not my kids, I don’t have kids. I mean my students.” FERN “Beau never knew his parents and we never had any kids.” MADISON “Do you have kids?” CASSANDRA “No.” CASSANDRA “Three hours ago I picked your daughter Amber up from school and introduced her to the boys who live in that dorm now.” … “She is really pretty, huh? And she looks much older than she is.” CASSANDRA “I don’t seem to remember you were such a good girl in college.” MADISON “Well, Fred didn’t know me in college. He met me when I was working at L’Oréal.” MADISON (to CASSANRA) “Do you have kids?” Positivity towards marriage RYAN (to CASSANDRA) “Oh yeah, Al Monroe is marrying some kind of model. Small part- but still! Classic Al. Landing on his feet.” Other people caring about age CASSANDRA “You look exactly the same.” MADISON “You’re sweet. I look so OLD. That’s what having twins will do to you. Tragic.” WOMAN ON THE STREET (to RADHA) 48 Other people judging character’s way of living “When a single woman turns forty, she’s like fruit from the tree that falls to the ground for the bugs to eat.” (in spanish) GEORGE (to FERN) “I mean… we’re not all in a position to just chuck everything and hit the road!” STANLEY (to CASSANDRA) “You know how strange that is? You still living at home, working in that stupid coffeeshop?” Other people suggesting a change in lifesytle DOLLY (to FERN) “Why don’t you move in with us?” Other people telling character to grow up ARCHIE (to RADHA) “Honey. We are not in high school. We are almost forty.” Other women giving approval Other women being mothers Other women being more ‘reasonable’ Sexual attraction from younger men towards older women DAVE (to FERN) “That’s his wife EMILY. She’s about to have a baby.” RYAN (to CASSANDRA) “You know MADISON MCPHEE just had twins?” OLD LADY (to RADHA) “Look. I ain’t saying that you couldn’t. but you shouldn’t! Not some rapping pipe dream at your age. Hell no! We gots to be sensible.” RYAN (to CASSANDRA) “Your mom… AH your mom is hot. Your mom is extremely hot.” 49 THEME CATEGORY CODE EXAMPLE Grief Lone grieving Avoiding of the grieving process BROTHER (to RADHA) “The storage people are ready to pick up stuff, but I waited… because maybe you want to look through her stuff? Come on! What’s the fucking deal?” Other people not remembering lost one CASSANDRA “You don’t remember her?” Other people telling character to move on from the loss Keeping vulnerability / emotions to herself DEAN WALKER “We have so many students. I wish I could remember them all by name, but-“ MRS FISHER (to CASSANDRA) “You need to stop this. It’s no good for any of us. It’s no good for NINA, it isn’t good for you. Look, I know you feel bad you weren’t there. But you’ve got to let it go.” D You good? RADHA - Yeah, I'm good. D - Are you sure? RADHA - Yeah. I'm good.I'm good. I'm good. Mental instability Not feeling well Forgetting important things CASSANDRA “What’s this?... Mom, what’s this?” SUSAN “What do you mean?” CASSANDRA “This gift!” Lying to close ones SUSAN “It’s your birthday, Cassie.” CASSANDRA “Oh, yeah.” CASSANDRA “He must have seen someone else. I’ve never been there.” 50 Other people suggesting she needs help ARCHIE (to RADHA) “You should talk to someone.” Other people worrying about her situation BRANDY (to FERN) “You can stay with us. I mean at least while you’re looking around here. We’re worried about you.” Unproportionate physical violence Processing of loss Confrontation with loss Eternal love as source of hope Realizing impact of loss on life Opening up about the loss BROTHER “About fucking time.” RADHA “I’m here. When did she do this one?” OLD LADY That ring is a circle and it never ends. That means that your love never ends. His love for you never ends. And you may not be able to take it off if you tried. FERN I don’t think I could. RADHA My, um... mother raised me to be fearless, and, um... I guess when she died, I... that's when I started getting afraid. CASSANDRA I’m just trying to fix it. MRS FISHER Oh come on, you can’t. don’t be a child, CASSIE. CASSANDRA (Crying) I’m so sorry I didn’t go with her. Other people sympathizing with character’s situation MRS FISHER No. I’m sorry too. BOB WELLS (to FERN) I can’t imagine what you’re going through. The loss of your husband. The loss of your whole town and friends. That kind of loss is never easy. Receiving advice on grieving D (to RADHA) “You ain’t ever try to… talk to her?” BOB WELLS (to FERN) “I think that connecting to nature and to a real true community and tribe will make a difference for you. I hope so.” 51 THEME CATEGORY CODE EXAMPLE Precarity Selfdissatisfaction in career Uninterested work attitude CASSANDRA is looking after the coffee shop, reading an old copy of ‘Careful How You Go’ by Lily Ann Frith. She yawns. The bell jingles and a customer comes in- she ignores it. Lack of recognition in career WHITMAN “Well, theater misses you.” RADHA “Does it? Has it been looking for me? Because I’ve been here.” FERN My husband worked at the USG Empire mine and I worked for their HR department for a few years. That was my last full-time job, I did a lot of part-time jobs, I cashiered at the Empire store, I was a substitute teacher at the school for 5 years, andRECRUITER That’s... all very good. But you’re not specialized in anything? A moment. Fern shakes her head. Questioning place in career RADHA “I’m a teacher. I teach playwrighting. I’m a playwright, but I don’t really feel like one these days.” Low career ambitions BRANDY “You’re working at Amazon again?” FERN Yep. BRANDY How is it? You like it? FERN Yes. Great money. RYAN So, yeah, you didn’t want to... CASSANDRA What? RYAN Carry on with med school? CASSANDRA Nah. RYAN 52 Why not? CASSANDRA I wanted to do something else. RYAN Really? What? CASSANDRA I don’t know. High potential Serious work attitude Seeking new work Rejecting opportunity for the sake of staying true to herself High education Fern works, taking her job so seriously it’s almost comical FERN I’m trying to find a job around here. RADHA See, this is about creating something that is mine. Something that doesn’t rely on critics or gatekeepers. RADHA “J. Whitman only does Black poverty porn plays of which mine are not. Great, so I stopped masturbating, got dressed, and resisted those succulent ribs for nothing?” FERN I went to college. I studied English and theatre. RYAN (to CASSANDRA) “You were so good though. You knew everything.” (in med school) Knowledge of art Fern practices playing the flute. She is out of tune. Past recognition in work 53 Financially struggling Getting around with little money RADHA “They don’t pay me enough for this shit.” ---GAIL “Then why don’t you?” CASSANDRA “What?” GAIL “Get out of their house? Just...I don’t know...go on Zillow, or Single White Female some girl, or get a basement room in a weird guy’s house. Anything!” CASSANDRA “I can’t afford it, Gail. Not on what you pay me. Not even a weird guy’s basement.” --KEN This is what you’re looking at. Parts and labor twenty-three hundred dollars with tax. FERN Yikes. Fern looks mortified. JEREMY I just looked up the value on your van. A 2004 E150. With that high milage, you’re at best looking at five thousand dollars. KEN So, I would recommend taking that money and putting it towards another vehicle instead – FERN (distressed) No, well, I can’t do that! I can’t do that! See... I spent a lot of time and money building the inside out. Negotiating for financial aid RADHA “I've done the 30 Under 30... Yes, it was quite a couple years ago, but I... I did win that award. He feels that I should maybe have a regional production of the play, instead of a workshop production. And, uh, for a fee that, I don't know, is enough to pay my rent... would be nice. Maybe.” 54 FERN What about a discount if I don’t use the electrical and dump? I just got my van. Other people declining character’s request for financial aid FORREST The ancestors, they're always with us, always watching, I trust them. They told me, despite the numerous challenges, that I must preserve this theater. And now, they're reminding me that what we create here - is imbued with a spirit of cause. RADHA - Yes. FORREST Not commerce. PATTY No sorry. We’re set up for RVs. If you live in a van, why not just go somewhere warmer? Precarious living FERN No... I’m not homeless. I’m just... houseless. Not the same thing, right? MAN (O.S.) You can’t sleep here! There’s no overnight parking! FERN Sorry! I’m leaving! CASSANDRA calmly opens her present. It is a large, beautiful suitcase. … GAIL Woah. That’s direct. CASSANDRA Yeah. A reaaal kick in the cunt. GAIL Is it a nice suitcase, at least? CASSANDRA Oh yeah it’s definitely the fanciest “get the fuck out of our house” metaphor I’ve received so far. Precarious work Fern lines up with SEASONAL WORKERS. Faces of all types, some tired and others excited GAIL This is a summer job for a stoned teenager, it’s not a career move. I’m pushing you out of the nest, honey (not in the film). Environment “knowing better” Other people condescending RYAN (surprised) 55 about career / judging career choices God. What are you doing working here? … Wait. No. I’m so sorry. That was so rude. I didn’t mean- OLD LADY (to RADHA) “You know you’re not going to be satisfied until you’re living in a box like that fool over there.” Other people “doing better” LINDA MAY “You know how much money is sitting here?” FERN “It’s like they’re dinosaurs.” Other people judging her way of living Other people suggesting how she should handle her career SUSAN (to RYAN) “I heard you are a doctor. Your parents must be very proud.” ARCHIE (to RADHA) “Look, you got yourself here, okay? No one forced you to do anything.” ARCHIE “You’re in mourning. But you’re not done with theatre.” GAIL You know, I was actually talking to Graham earlier. He says there’s a position opening up over there. And- don’t freak out- I want you to know I recommended you for it. … GAIL So take this other job then. Take any job. CASSANDRA Are you firing me? GAIL Maybe I should. Not fitting in with other classes Contrast with higher-class people Identifying with lower-class people Contrast with lower-class people ARCHIE There may be an opportunity RADHA To drown in a sea of old white women? RADHA Look, um... I don't know you... and you damn sure don't know me to pull some ghosting shit like you did, but, um, N*****, I'm from Brooklyn, too. Okay? I grew up on Mother Gaston in the '90s. By aroma alone, I can tell the difference between three grades of crack, so don't go treating me like I'm some white, newbie hipster exploring the Black terrain when I'm fucking from here, okay? ARCHIE You got me waiting in your not-gentrified-enough-forme part of Harlem getting harassed by Homeless Harry over there. 56 Identifying with higher-class people 57 THEME CATEGORY CODE EXAMPLE (in)dependence Desire to be independent Declining “other” lifestyle FERN I can’t live here. I can’t live in this room. I can’t sleep in this bed. Thank you but I can’t. Declining of offered help CASSANDRA Look. You’re making the assumption that I want any of it. If I wanted a boyfriend and a yoga class and a house and kids and a job my mom could brag about I’d have done it. It would take me ten minutes. I don’t want it. I don’t want it. RACHEL I don’t want to overstep my boundaries here, but there is a church down by Seven-Eleven. A Baptist church and they do have open bed – FERN I’m gonna be good! Thank you. Disappointment in other people / environment CASSANDRA “I was hoping you’d feel differently by now.” FERN I don’t want to disagree with you, but I have to say I do. It’s strange that you encourage people, to invest their whole life savings, go into dept, just to buy a house they can’t afford. GEORGE Fern, That’s a rather limited view on what we do – FERN Is it limited, George? Environment perceiving her as “free” ARCHIE Look, you got yourself here, okay? No one forced you to do anything. You always do what you want. You fucked that 25-year-old. GRANDMA You are one of those lucky people who is from the Unites States. FERN Yes ma’am. The U.S. Of A. GRANDMA And you can travel anywhere. And they sometimes call you ‘nomads’ or ‘people who don’t have a home’. I see that you have this ring. Are you married? 58 Fearlessness / pride in individuality Fern finishes screwing a new panel to the impressed by her handy work. She looks completely remorseless, calm and, honestly, pretty cool. Whatever the hell she’s done, it’s made her feel great. Fern walks around the cliff in the heavy wind and rain. She takes off her hat and lets the rain wash down her face. A bird soars on the gale. Alone, fragile, but free. Needing others to be happy Eternal or monogamous love as a source of happiness GRANDMA (to FERN) Are you married? FERN I am. But my husband died. GRANDMA That ring is a circle and it never 59 ends. That means that your love never ends. His love for you never ends. And you may not be able to take it off if you tried. FERN I don’t think I could. They eat together on the cliff of a breathtaking overview. A silent comfort between them. It works He kisses her. It’s wonderful Finding community / friendship as an answer to characters’ struggles in life MONTAGE: CASSIE, RYAN, and GAIL are eating cupcakes. GAIL immensely relieved to see CASSIE so happy. CASSANDRA But I like it here! GAIL No you don’t. CASSANDRA Well, no, I don’t. But I like you. FERN We be the bitches of the Badlands. (both laugh) 60 Loneliness Without her friends, the work is becoming more lonesome. Other people helping character without her asking DAVE I think it’s better if you don’t drive through the park at night, just for cigarettes. So, I got you these licorice sticks – FERN I can’t smoke licorice sticks. DAVE I know... But you can chew them. It helps with the urge -ARCHIE Do you have any idea what i…… Jiggled his balls, a little, yes. Anything for a friend. 61 62 63