School Grounds: A Guide to Good Practice. Building Bulletin 85

DOCUMENT RESUME EF 005 388 ED 431 294 AUTHOR TITLE Funnell, Keith; Alford, Valerie; Denegri, Don; Johns, Sally; Young, Bob; Lucas, Bill; Titman, Wendy; Wood, Joan School Grounds: A Guide to Good Practice. Building Bulletin 85 INSTITUTION ISBN PUB DATE NOTE AVAILABLE FROM PUB TYPE EDRS PRICE DESCRIPTORS IDENTIFIERS Department for Education and Employment, London (England). Architects and Building Branch. ISBN-0-11-270990-7 1997-00-00 140p.; Colored photographs may not reproduce clearly. HMSO Publications Centre, P.O. Box 276, London, SW8 5DT England; Tel: 0171-873-9090; Fax: 0171-873-8200 (19.95 British pounds). Non-Classroom (055) Guides MF01/PC06 Plus Postage. British National Curriculum; *Educational Environment; *Educational Facilities Design; Elementary Schools; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; Guidelines; *Outdoor Education; Recreational Activities; School Maintenance; Secondary Schools England; *Outdoor Recreation ABSTRACT Limited financial resources and increasing pressures of competing claims on school outdoor grounds have created the need for greater quality enhancement of these areas to ensure they are used efficiently. This document addresses the issues and principles affecting school grounds, provides an analysis of the benefits of using and developing these areas, and outlines the processes necessary for successful school ground management as advocated by Learning through Landscapes. Chapters examine why ground surveying is important; how the National Curriculum provides a framework for the need to teach in the outdoor classroom; and why schools should develop a clear justification for their management of breaks and lunch times, as well as the special nature of this experience and its connection with student behavior. Additionally explored are recent research on the hidden curriculum and how school ground design influences behavior, different options and their contractual arrangements for school ground maintenance, and resources for planning grounds changes. It discusses the importance of the process of developing school grounds and of student involvement. Concluding sections offer reference material that includes information for school site and zone development, sports facilities, maintenance scheduling, key staff responsibilities, and a list of informational sources. Contains an index. (GR) ******************************************************************************** * * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. ******************************************************************************** BUILDING BULLETIN 85 School Grou NO' A Guide to Good Practice \\ $0. .1 1 er U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educafional Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) 4his document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization originating it. & 0 Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality. Points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. a) efl) 1111) Architects & Building Branch PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY John Birch BEST COPY AM' LAELE TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Department for Education and Employment 2 Building Bulletin 85 SCHOOL GROUNDS A guide to good practice Architects and Building Branch Department for Education and Employment London: The Stationery Office 3 Acknowledgements This guide is based on the work of a team of landscape and educational consultants led by Keith Funnell, and comprising Valerie Alford, Don Denegri, Sally Johns and Bob Young. There was also a substantial input by the Learning through Landscapes team of Bill Lucas, Wendy Titman and Joan Wood. DfEE would like to thank all of them and also the following organisations and individuals for their help and advice: Organisations: Devon County Council Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council Kent County Council Learning through Landscapes National Playing Fields Association Oxfordshire County Council Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Sandwell Borough Council Sports Council Staffordshire County Council Tidy Britain Group Individuals: Ray Bullen, Edith Cave, Peter Dury, Pat Green, Kevin Harlock, Susan Humphries, Keith Loze, David Kirk, Jennifer Mil lest, David Oakley, Colin Parker, John Parker, Pam Payne, Judy Perkins, Madeleine Pickthorne, Trevor Smith, Tony Twigger, Jean Wenger, Colin Wilkes. DfEE Project Team: The Project was directed by John Brooke with support from: Mukund Patel Jeremy Wilson Head of Architects & Building Branch formerly Head of Architects & Building Branch Andrew Thompson, Diane Holt, Tom Carden, Kelvin English, Julia Ashford, Mike Bubb. © Crown Copyright 1997. Published with the permission of the Department for Education and Employment on behalf of the Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Applications for reproduction a should be made in writing to The Copyright Unit, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, St Clements House, 2-16 Co legate, Norwich NR3 1B0 4 2 Preface School grounds are a valuable resource. Their size and of schools which had improved their grounds and on the design, the features they contain, how they are used and advice of teachers, advisers, LEA officers, landscape the way they are managed can have a significant effect architects and managers. This and other contributions, on the life and work of the school and on the quality of together with the detailed measurement and description education its pupils receive. of outdoor resources, have helped to frame the guidelines for the planning and design of existing and The last decade has seen an upsurge of interest in new school grounds which are contained within this school grounds. As horizons have been extended, however, the consequent pressures of competing claims document. on the grounds have intensified. The smaller the site, The changes made to The National Curriculum (1995), and the more limited the financial resources, the greater and to The Education (School Premises) Regulations in the need to enhance the quality of the existing grounds 1996, make it timely for the Department to publish and ensure they are used to best advantage. guidance on good practice in the use, design, Recent changes in the management of schools and the development and management of school grounds. role of Local Education Authorities (LEAs) have This is an advisory publication. Its purpose is to help all significantly shifted responsibility for school grounds, schools understand more about the range of issues their use and management, from the LEA to the school's affecting school grounds and to interpret them according own governors and headteacher. This has focused to their own school's circumstances and priorities. It is attention on the need for efficient financial management particularly aimed at headteachers, governors and all and the strict ordering of priorities. At the same time it those within schools and LEAs who have a management has given schools greater flexibility to deploy available responsibility for school grounds. It is not a detailed resources as they choose and to involve parents in this guide to the process of school grounds development, process more closely. although it has been possible to include some technical One practical outcome of the growing interest in school grounds was the setting up, in 1990, of Learning information, especially that relating to Building Bulletin 28, Playing Fields and Hard Surface Areas, HMSO 1982 (now superseded). This information is contained in a through Landscapes (LTL), a national charity addressing all aspects of school grounds. This was a natural progression from a research project which had started four years earlier. One of the research recommendations was that official recognition should be given to the wider educational use of the grounds and making due section called Understanding Technical Requirements and in a separate reference section. Outline guidance on the main issues in the choice and design of school sites and area guidance is separately given in Building Bulletin 82, Area Guidelines for Schools, HMSO 1996. allowance for a greater variety of outdoor resources to The advice contained in this publication takes account of support the whole curriculum. It was further proposed The Education (School Premises) Regulations 1996.1t that a comprehensive guidance document should show amplifies messages contained in Building Bulletin 71, in more detail how this might be achieved. The Outdoor Classroom, HMSO 1990, and it provides advice in the context of the broad approach advocated In 1991, the Department commissioned a preliminary by LTL. research programme into outdoor resources in school grounds. This enabled them to draw on the experience 5 3 Contents Page No 1. Introduction 9 Interest in School Grounds - the broader context and role of Learning through Landscapes Previous Regulations - a summary Changing Emphasis the growth of a concern for quality The Present Position the latest regulations 2. Understanding the Issues 12 Benefits and Principles how schools can benefit if they develop their grounds in certain ways The Opportunities introducing the formal, informal and 'hidden' dimensions of the school curriculum, the importance of the School Development Plan and the importance of involving pupils in the development process 3. Managing School Grounds Development 17 Managing the Development Process explaining the elements of the process, including understanding the issues, sharing the concept, setting up appropriate management structures, surveying the grounds, identifying needs, identifying solutions, planning and implementing changes and evaluation 4. Surveying the Grounds 20 Carrying Out a Survey why this is an important stage Desk Study how maps, photographs and other data can help effective planning Site Investigations looking carefully at existing use, soil, local climate, pollution, wildlife, trees and other site features Categorising the Elements looking at the site in terms of the main areas, playing fields, hard surfaced games courts, informal and social areas, habitats and buildings and access and understanding the principle of multi-use of the grounds Use-zone Areas advice on the sub-division of the site into specific areas 5. Providing for the Formal Curriculum 28 A Rationale - how the National Curriculum provides a framework for the need to teach in the outdoor classroom Use, Design and Management Issues understanding what the landscape implications are for teaching science, physical education, geography, English, mathematics, design and technology, history, art, environmental education, and for meeting special educational needs 6. Providing for the Informal Curriculum 35 A Rationale - why it is important for schools to develop a clear justification for their management of breaks and lunchtimes, the special nature of this experience and connections with the behaviour of pupils Design Issues - looking at space, zoning, seating, shelter, the need for variety and diversity, and fixed play equipment Management Issues exploring strategies, and looking at managing supervisory staff 7. Understanding the Hidden Curriculum 39 A Rationale - understanding the hidden curriculum and exploring recent research Design Issues - understanding how design influences behaviour Management Issues - understanding the subtle ways in which management can affect behaviour and attitudes 6 4 Page No 8. 41 Understanding Technical Requirements Planning and Creating Habitats trees, woodlands, hedgerows, wild flower meadows, ponds, crops, animals and raised beds Layout and Construction of Pitches playing fields, orienteering courses, gradient, the range of summer and winter games, possible pitch layouts, sports surfaces and drainage Other Design Issues special schools, location of play and recreation areas, site furniture, shelter, surfaces, markings, walls, soft landscape, courtyards, earthworks, soil, microclimate, shelterbelts, shade, air and noise pollution, access, parking, pedestrians, supervision and safety 9. 68 Maintaining the Grounds Key Issues defining maintenance and its importance Organising Grounds Maintenance exploring different maintenance options and their contractual arrangements A Management Plan the need for a comprehensive plan and effective supervision, litter, vandalism, trespass and wear and tear 75 10. Planning for Changes Sources of Advice and Information - explaining the roles of local authorities, private consultants, the voluntary sector and community groups Material and Finanical Support grant schemes, business support, parental and community involvement, partnerships and the need for a fundraising strategy 78 11. Conclusion The importance of the process of developing school grounds and of involving pupils 7 5 Reference Section Page No A. School Site and Zone Development 79 Exploring options for site development zones for a primary school; looking at layouts and zones for a nursery, infant and junior school, secondary school and special school; looking at two examples of restricted urban sites B. Sports Facilities 88 Multi-games areas; archery; association football; athletics; basketball; cricket; hockey; lacrosse; netball; rounders; rugby league; rugby union; softball and stoolball; tennis; volleyball C. Maintenance Schedule 106 Fine sports turf; winter sports pitches; games courts and hard porous surfaces; synthetic sports surfaces; sandfilled carpet; athletics facilities; amenity grass areas; rough grass and meadows; shrub borders; hedges and fences; newly planted trees; mature trees; wetland; ditches and drainage systems; hard landscape areas and site furniture; litter; typical schedule of rates for actual pricing D. A Description of Key Staff Responsibilities 111 For teachers with responsibility for the grounds E. Extract from DfEE Circular 10/96 - The 1996 School Premises Regulations 112 F. Recommended Site Areas, including Allocation of Area for Use-Zones 114 G. Looking to the Future: Capital Costs 122 H. Health and Safety 123 Legislation and guidance J. Sources of Information 127 Organisations; publications; videos and computer programmes K. Publications 130 L. Definitions of Zones 134 Index 135 ( 6 8 List of Figures No. Title No. Title 92 1. Managing school grounds development 18 37. Athletics track 2. Tree protection 24 38. Basketball courts 93 3. The range of habitats 41 39. 4. Trees valuable for wildlife 42 Cricket square combined with winter games pitches 95 5. Sizes of nursery stock 43 40. Hockey pitches 96 6. Relative costs of nursery stock 43 41. Lacrosse pitch (men's) 97 7. Different boundary details 44 42. Lacrosse pitch (women's and girls') 8. Pond and marsh construction 46 43. 9. Detail of a tree nursery 48 44. Rounders pitch 100 10. Taking the garden up into the air 48 45. Rugby League pitch 101 11. Conversion of outdoor lavatory 50 46. Rugby Union pitch 102 12. Junior games court 51 47. Tennis courts 104 13. Pitch orientation in relation to aspect 52 48. Padder tennis court 105 14. Pitch orientation in relation to boundaries 53 49. Volleyball courts 105 15. Possible pitch layouts 55 16. Four types of turf construction 56 17. Reinforcement materials for high wear areas 57 18. Typical synthetic turf pitch construction (engineered) 57 Netball courts 98 99 List of Tables 1. When to collect tree and shrub seeds 49 2. Range of summer and winter games provision 54 3. Association football: recommended pitch sizes 90 4. Cricket pitch only: dimensions and areas 94 Typical synthetic turf pitch construction (dynamic) 58 5. Cricket pitch and winter games pitches 94 20. Shelterbelt design close to buildings 63 6. Lengths of pitches and boundaries 94 21. Details of different shelterbelts 64 7. Hockey: recommended pitch sizes 96 65 8. Lacrosse (men's): recommended pitch sizes 97 9. Lacrosse (women's): recommended pitch sizes 98 19. 22. A pollution screen 23. Zoning of outdoor uses to improve 67 10. Rugby League: recommended pitch sizes 101 24. Suggested model for ground maintenance 69 11. Rugby Union: recommended pitch sizes 102 25. A management plan 70 12. Mini-rugby: recommended pitch sizes 102 26. Costs of maintaining soft landscape 71 13. Tennis court sizes 103 27. Looking at site development options 79 14. Typical schedule of rates for pricing by others 109 28. Play provision for a nursery 81 15. Infant school: recommended areas 114 security and safety 29. Infant and junior school provision 82 16. Junior school: recommended areas 115 30. Secondary school provision 83 17. Primary school: recommended areas 116 31. Special school plan (primary) 84 18. 32. A primary school example of use-zone areas on a restricted site Middle deemed primary school: recommended areas 117 Middle deemed secondary school: recommended areas 118 33. A secondary school example of use-zone areas on a restricted site 34. Multi-games area 86 19. 87 20. Any secondary school: recommended areas 119 88 21. Special schools: recommended areas 121 22. Some common items of capital cost 122 35. Target archery range 90 36. Association football pitches 91 7 List of Photographs No. Title No. 1. Wider environment can be investigated 2. Strong messages are given out by the way a site is designed 10 3. Keeping livestock promotes a sense of care 10 4. Well designed woodland provides learning opportunities 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Activities in grounds help children understand difficult concepts Large scale demonstrations are possible outside 9 14. 15. 16. 13 Title Outdoor games are important in the curriculum 29 Outdoor games are important in the curriculum 29 Camping in grounds gives an introduction to adventurous activities 29 17. A maze affords mathematical possibilities 13 18. Murals provide opportunities for work in art 33 19. Weather watching is made interesting by wind activated sculpture 33 20. Static electricity can be explored outside 34 21. Varied landscape is likely to better meet needs of pupils 37 13 Surveying and mapping can be part of some studies 13 Play is important to children who have limited opportunity outside school 14 Trees as living things have ecological significance 15 Community involvement is important in grounds development 15 Pupils can play a useful part in grounds development 19 Maintenance and environmental education are mutually supporting 21 22. Shrubs can create natural dens 39 23. Children love harvesting 47 24. Well-designed seating encourages appropriate pupil responses 26. important outdoors 66 Even in winter it is possible to use grounds creatively 78 28 10 8 60 25. Access for disabled pupils is 13. A pond provides opportunities for teaching science 33 1. Introduction Interest in School Grounds 1.1 Interest in the benefits to be gained from greater educational use of school grounds has grown rapidly in recent years. Their value has been underlined by the National Curriculum (NC), by reports produced by the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) and by research carried out by other organisations such as Learning through Landscapes (LTL). It is generally recognised that pupils of all ages learn best from first-hand experience, from seeing and hearing, handling, measuring and investigating the 'real world' for themselves. The school grounds can support such activities and often provide a useful compromise between the limitations of the classroom and the cost and inconvenience of going further afield. The growth of interest in environmental issues has strengthened the cause of environmental education with its three interlocking strands of education about the environment, education for the environment and education through the environment. This has been enshrined in the most recent revisions to the National Curriculum (1995) which makes it clear that elements of a number of subjects in the National Curriculum can only be effectively taught outdoors. School grounds have become increasingly important to children in today's society at a time when their access to external environments appears to be decreasing. The way in which school grounds are designed and managed influences children's attitudes and behaviour to a considerable extent. LTL, since its inception in 1990, has been promoting the many benefits which schools developing their grounds can enjoy. Schools report on the development of an ethos of care and a sense of ownership by the whole community. They also describe reductions in the number of accidents and in the incidence of Previous Regulations 1.3 The recognition that school grounds are important is not new. As a result of the 1944 Education Act, minimum standards for the nature and extent of school grounds were established and set out in The Education (School Premises) Regulations. The size and layout of many of today's school grounds reflect these detailed provisions and their subsequent amendment. 1.4 During the period 1950 to 1955, the then Ministry of Education produced a series of Building Bulletins on the design of both primary and secondary schools. They saw 'children as the basis of design' and recognised the need for the 'closest co-operation between the people who design the schools and the people who are to live in them and are responsible for their organisation'. The desirability of retaining existing natural features `... trees or hedgerows, irregularities of the ground in the form of hollows or banks, a stream or a pond...' was identified, as were opportunities to enhance the local landscape and create sheltered environments. 1.5 The educational opportunities presented by the grounds were also emphasised: `The learning process will continue outside the classroom if conditions are varied and attractive and inviting to both learners and teachers... Children need wider opportunities to read and write, to collect and to invest:gate, to contrive and to construct... Outside are yet more learning areas sheltered courts where the children can build a model or act a play and pleasant places where they can stroll in the sun, converse and browse'. The implication was that these activities can be facilitated by the design and management of the grounds. a vandalism. 1.2 A school is a focal point for the community; its public image conveys messages about its aims, objectives and attitudes. With the increase in choice and diversity there is now a growing interest in the visual appeal of the school in its setting. Photo 1 The wider environment can be investigated by observing and recording at first hand 9 Changing Emphasis 1.6 r ate_ The regulations governing school grounds have varied in emphasis over the years. In 1972, they defined separate minimum areas for the playim fields and for the site, which contained all other statutory facilities. The overall land requirement for any type or size of school was determined by adding the two figures together. The 1981 regulations marked an important step forward by introducing a quality, as well as an area, requirement for playing fields. They provided for: mininnim recreation areas for all pupils, with a minimum proportion that must have a paved or hard porous surface; minimum areas of playing fields for pupils aged 8 or over that must be suitable for the playing of team games; grass playing fields to be capable of sustaining at least seven hours of play per week in term-time. Many planners interpreted the regulations to mean that the principal functions of the grounds were to provide facilities for physical education and give pupils an opportunity to let off steam. 1.7 Photo 2 Strong messages are given out by the way a site is designed In reality there was a broader agenda. DES Broadsheet 9 issued in 1982, explained that: 'In addition to pupils' play and outdoor physical education there are many aspects of the school curriculum that need outdoor provision. Facilities are required to support creative play and exploration in the younger age ranges and in the older age groups for subject-related activities such as art, craft, science, rural science and geography. The 1981 Regulations were intended to ensure that sufficient land was provided to meet this wide range of requirements.' There was recognition that physical 444 444 education is not the only subject to which grounds could make a contribution, and work to demonstrate this was pioneered by the Learning through Landscapes Consortium) As a result of that work, in 1990 the Department published Building Bulletin 71 The Outdoor Classroom. The Present Position 1.8 Photo 3 Keeping livestock on site helps to promote a sense of care. (Adult presence is needed when pupils are in contact with animals) 12 10 In 1991, the Department commissioned research into the current educational demands on school grounds and the design, management and use of existing curriculum-related outdoor resources. The aspects explored included their size and design, functions, management and maintenance; how they were created; the number of pupils they could support; their educational value; and any discernible impact they might have on the public image of the school. 'The Learning through Landscapes Consortium later became Learning through Landscapes (LTL). games court(s)' and 'informal and social areas'. The latter allows for both paved and soft areas for impromptu activities, leisure pursuits and, of course, Issues of vandalism, litter and site security were also considered. 1.9 1.10 As part of the preliminary research programme, teachers at a variety of schools were asked to rank a number of constraints affecting the educational use of the grounds. Safety and supervision were major considerations and trespass and vandalism were of particular concern (the latter especially at secondary level). At both primary and secondary schools, the design of the school grounds was felt to be very important. Noise pollution and climatic exposure were viewed as possible impediments to outdoor use. the 'outdoor classroom'. 1.12 Health and Safety considerations. The grounds significantly contribute to the mental and physical growth of pupils and their needs, and consequently, safety must be a key consideration in planning, use and supervision. It should be remembered that employers are legally required to ensure that those in their care are as safe as is reasonably practicable. Employers should ensure that employees are made familiar with the school's health and safety policy. This The research identified a wide range of good practice in both primary and secondary schools and it highlighted a number of messages for those establishing or improving school grounds: should reflect the legal requirements, the school rules concerning the use of the grounds and the appropriate course of action to take in an emergency. In The Education (School Premises) Regulations 1996 the general health and safety requirement covering school buildings was extended to cover school land. References to health and safety and to legal requirements, alongside general guidance, are given in Reference Section H. planning and design: a preoccupation with surface treatments and the allocation of space can often result in a narrow focus on site planning as a two-dimensional exercise. The aim should be to achieve a comprehensive landscape design; quantity and quality: landscape quality, 1.13 serviceability and the day-to-day usefulness of the outdoor environment as an educational resource are vital to the effective use of land; Security in schools. The school's attention is particularly drawn to the importance of security considerations on school premises. Managing School Facilities, Guide 4 Improving Security in Schools (HMSO 1996) includes advice on the management of security, and further design guidance is also planned. funding arrangements: financial provision needs to reflect a comprehensive view of all the functions that the school grounds can perform; 1.14 teamwork: thc greatest success is usually achieved Purpose of the Bulletin. This Building Bulletin contains guidance on what constitutes good practice in the use and development of school grounds. It is intended for use by headteachers, governors, others with responsibility for school grounds and LEAs, to help them ensure that schools make adequate provision for children in their grounds and to ensure that the process of developing school grounds is where those responsible for the design and care of the grounds and those directly involved in their educational use work closely together; sense of ownership: the changes in the management and funding of schools enable teachers to assume a greater sense of ownership. This should make it easier for them to see the managed as effectively as possible. grounds as a natural extension of the classroom. 1.11 Changes in legislation. The Education (School Premises) Regulations 1996 introduced a number of changes. In recognition of the greater autonomy enjoyed by schools, the regulations governing outside areas were relaxed, retaining the previous area and quality requirements for school playing fields, but omitting minimum requirements for recreation areas. LEAs and governors, however, will need to ensure that provision of recreation area is adequate. This Building Bulletin, therefore, includes an indication of appropriate areas for various types of school. Area recommendations are given in Reference Section F. However, what was formerly known as 'recreation area' is now embraced in two zones; 'hard-surfaced 1 11 2. Understanding the Issues 2.1 This section is concerned with understanding some of the issues about the ways in which the grounds can be used and developed as an educational resource. Understanding these principles and being aware of the full range of opportunities on a school site will enable schools to plan and implement changes more effectively. Benefits and Principles 2.2 The benefits. Schools which have used and developed their grounds report a number of benefits in addition to the obvious ones relating to the ways in which they are used as an educational resource and improvement to the quality of the environment. These include: The Opportunities 2.4 through the formal curriculum classroom; improved relationships with parents; through the 'hidden' curriculum the messages and meanings which children 'read' from the ways in which their school's grounds are used, designed and managed. enhanced image and greater popularity with the local community; reductions in the incidents of bullying, accidents and vandalism; In addition, there are extra-curricular and community opportunities, which most schools will want to more effective teaching and learning; more efficient use of existing resources; a great deal of fun! 2.3 The principles. However, Learning through Landscapes has established through its research that these benefits are only likely to be enjoyed if the process of developing school grounds is undertaken in a certain way. The most successful school grounds developments are those which stress the importance of the process of change and where this process of change is: holistic involving the whole site, the whole school community and all aspects of the curriculum; participative involving children with adults in as many aspects as possible; involving continuing consideration of the use, design, management and maintenance of school grounds as part of a school's ongoing development planning. sustainable Sustainability has a special relevance when applied to landscape development which needs to be explored in schools. It raises questions of biological diversity biodiversity. Without a wide variety of living things, life would be unsustainable. In the context of school grounds, this suggests opportunities for children to learn about this issue at first-hand. Schools may also want to take into account local and regional distinctiveness when considering the development of their grounds. 12 the outdoor through the informal curriculum the experiences which are offered during break and lunch-times; improved relationships between pupils and staff; development of an ethos of care and a stronger sense of ownership; Schools can use their grounds in three main ways: consider. 2.5 The formal curriculum. An obvious use of the school grounds is to extend the teaching area beyond the confines of the classroom, and this is illustrated in photographs 4-7. The grounds are a rich resource for learning right on a school's doorstep as has been shown in The Outdoor Classroom. There are many possibilities in science, English, mathematics, geography, history, design and technology, art and physical education and these are described in The National Curriculum (HMSO 1995) and in section 5 of this Bulletin. There are possibilities for the teaching of skills such as observation, communication, classification, estimation, surveying, analysis, comparison, design, investigation, mapping and recording. Broader issues related to environmental education and health can also be learned. While undeveloped sites can be used for some teaching activities, a greater variety of opportunities for teaching will be presented on a more developed site. A pond may provide a resource for teaching about life processes and living things in science or about contrasting environments in geography, while at the same time providing a real context for using and applying mathematics. An understanding of the range of opportunities inherent in certain features will lead schools to consider those which meet their needs in a number of areas of the formal curriculum. 14 environmental matters through the curriculum, (SCAA 1996) both support this view. Much of the process of involving pupils in surveying, analysing, designing and developing their grounds can be incorporated into the formal curriculum. In understanding the issues it is important to consider the fullest possible range of teaching and learning possibilities, including those which fall outside the statutory elements of the National Curriculum, in order to provide broad and balanced curricular experiences. Photo 4 Well-designed woodland areas can provide a range of learning opportunities School grounds give access to what has been termed the 'natural curriculum'. Plants, animals and soils can only be investigated thoroughly if pupils have direct experience of natural habitats. Changing weather conditions, the rotation of the seasons and the processes of growth and decay can provide a constantly changing context for learning. Indeed, the grounds can make a unique contribution to the development of an understanding of the natural world and the principles of biodiversity and sustainable development. Photo 5 ' Activities in the school grounds help children to understand difficult concepts such as biodiversity and sustainability 2.6 One powerful aspect of the learning process for which the grounds are eminently suited is the provision of first-hand experience letting pupils learn by seeing and experiencing for themselves rather than relying on textbooks, worksheets and the teacher's exposition. The grounds make available particular resources which cannot easily be reproduced in the classroom. Existing good practice in many schools and the non-statutory guidance provided by the School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA), especially Teaching 15 Photo 6 Large scale lessons about hot-air are best taught outside Photo 7 Pupils can undertake survey and mapping activities as part of design & technology or mathematics The informal curriculum. At least a quarter of children's school day is taken up with break and lunch-time. The term 'informal curriculum' is now widely used to describe the times of day when children are in school but not involved in lessons, like lunch-time, as well as what they do at those times, for example play and recreation. Much of this time, weather permitting, is spent outside. This time is part of the school day and part of children's education. During this informal element much important learning takes place. 13 Play is a complex subject and its significance is not always understood. It is sometimes confused with amusement, diversion or simply 'letting off steam'. It involves learning about the self, about other people and about the environment. It is essential to healthy human development. It is a process of doing, of exploring, of discovering, of succeeding and, of course, at times of failing. These issues are explored further in section 6. influence their attitude and behaviour. 3. Children read these messages from a range of signifiers. These frame thc cultural context of the environment and constitute the hidden curriculum. 4. The hidden curriculum has considerable influence, in a range of subtle but significant ways, on the operation of all schools. Play in school is different from play in a park because it is supervised and because of the environmental and educational context of the school in which it takes 5. It is within the power of those who manage schools to determine the nature of the hidden curriculum of their school grounds. place. These issues are taken further in section 7. What children can do at playtime is largely determined by the design and management of the school grounds. Even the most imaginative child will find it difficult to be creative and sociable in a bleak, sterile, largely tarmac place. The grounds need to provide diversity of places and habitats so that children have the maximum opportunity for interaction with other young people and other places. The actual nature of school grounds developments new features, new design or new management solutions are, of course, of immense benefit. It is the process of development, however, which causes the most wide ranging changes. This process can have considerable impact on the ethos of the school, changing the hidden curriculum of its grounds and providing a value-added factor which surprises many It is important for schools to understand issues connected with the use of space the degree to which football dominates some playgrounds is one obvious issue and the ways in which it can be most effectively managed. schools. It is not just at primary school level that play is important; older pupils need opportunities for informal recreation which need to be addressed. 2.7 The hidden curriculum. Whether or not school grounds are well used, their very existence affects and influences pupils, staff, parents and the wider community. Research has shown that the messages conveyed by the nature of the school grounds, what may be called the hidden curriculum, are very important. The hidden curriculum of school grounds is a concept which was introduced by the LTL Consortium in 1989 and developed in Special Places; Special People WWF/LTL 1994. The research suggested that a school's grounds are essentially signifiers of its ethos. The main findings of this research will help schools to understand the complexity of thc issues surrounding the use and development of school grounds. They are: 1. School grounds, as external environments, have become increasingly important to children in modern society. 2. School grounds, by their design and the way they are managed, convey messages and meanings about the ethos of schools to children which Photo 8 16 14 Play and recreation is very important to younger children who may have limited opportunities outside school ti jkal.,,x Photo 9 2.8 Extra-curricular use. Many schools run activities at the end of the school day, which may need to be taken into account when contemplating developments. After-school clubs can be a fruitful Nvay of involving pupils, staff, parents and the wider community in using and developing the grounds. 2.9 Photo 10 Children are keenly aware of trees as living things with great ecological significance Serving the community. Some schools have joint-use agreements with a local authority or with another outside organisation such as a local sports club. The implications of any possible changes will always need to be thought through very carefully with such bodies. In many schools there could be more shared use of the outdoor facilities. One major concern has often been the quality of grass pitches, which have not always been adequate to meet the increase in wear and tear which out-of-school use, often by adults, can impose. The greatest potential for shared use may well lie in the hard games courts or a multi-games area, especially where floodlighting is provided. The creation of a new synthetic pitch may depend on shared use, either through a financial partnership to create it in the first place or through the generation of income to reimburse the school for its investment. Questions of time allocation seldom cause conflict between the school and the club or community, where these have been considered thoroughly beforehand. The key issues are the quality, durability and viability of the facilities which need to be reflected in the design of both indoor and outdoor provision; this means good access, including parking, self-contained changing rooms and at least sufficient financial return to cover the marginal costs. Further guidance about the issues schools need to consider in approaching questions of community use is given in Our School Your School, published by the Department in 1995. 17 2.10 Community involvement is an important element of school grounds development School Development Plans. Whatever their potential impact on the work of the school, the grounds will do little to enhance the learning environment of pupils unless their use and development is carefully planned and effectively managed. This needs to be considered within the context of the School Development Plan (SDP), which is a schedule for action, both organisational and curricular, drawn up by the headteacher and the governing body. Once established, the broad objectives require the firm support of the headteacher, and clearly defined dayto-day responsibilities need to be exercised by designated members of staff. The resources in the school grounds will only be used effectively if teachers are convinced of their value and are motivated to use teaching approaches which, in the early stages at least, may seem complex and involve extra work. Some teachers may need to be persuaded of the benefits of first-hand observation and experience or to be shown how the school grounds can contribute to their pupils' knowledge, skills and understanding. Others may need to be assured about the practicalities: how to control pupils outside the classroom environment; what teaching styles and approaches are most effective in these conditions; how to cope with their own lack of expertise in unfamiliar territory. An unspoken assumption in some schools is that work outside the classroom is mainly for the academically less able pupils (who are assumed to need more first-hand experience than others and are unlikely to produce the highest grades in public examinations). Such assumptions and uncertainties need to be confronted openly. A suitable forum for their discussion and resolution may be found in the whole-school policy meetings which many schools now hold to discuss their SDP and as part of a regular programme of more general staff meetings. 15 2.11 Responsibilities. Responsibility for the production of the SDP, including whatever is proposed for the development and use of the site and the priority it should have, rests with the head in consultation with the governors. Subsequently it is the head's leadership which will determine how successfully the plans are translated into action. Styles of leadership differ. Some heads are, above all, entrepreneurs, adept at obtaining financial and material support for projects. Others are particularly skilled in using Local Management of Schools and the expertise of teachers to best advantage. Yet others excel as enablers, encouraging a leading member of staff, not always a teacher, to take responsibility for an initiative and giving that person practical and moral support. Whatever their individual strengths and styles, heads need to ensure that: the use of the grounds is clearly linked to the aims and objectives of the school as a whole; parent or member of the local community may also be a useful addition to the management group. A list of the kinds of duties and responsibilities which need to be apportioned is contained in the Reference Section D. An outline of the management process which needs to be established for successful school grounds projects is contained in section 3. 2.13 secondary level, and also in special schools, have much to contribute to school grounds projects. The best results are achieved when the pupils, whatever their age, are involved in the planning from the earliest stages. Their exclusion may make things quicker and easier but it will dilute the educational benefits and reduce the opportunities for changing attitudes within the school. Schools with pupil councils report that this can be an effective means of involving pupils. 2.14 the school's management structures give status, authority and essential resources to those who take responsibility for the care of grounds and for their educational use; the schemes of work for each department, or area of the curriculum, take account of the grounds in their treatment of teaching approaches and the resources available; individual members of staff are actively encouraged to make good use of the opportunities which the grounds present; the policies for safe use and development of the grounds, like all other policies, are regularly evaluated to ensure that their impact on the pupils' learning and behaviour matches the original intention. 2.12 16 Management structures. Except in the smallest primary schools (and even here this may not be desirable), it is unlikely that the head can take personal charge of each aspect of the grounds and their use. Staff with the necessary expertise, enthusiasm and persuasiveness to exercise day-to-day responsibility need to be identified and a small management group established. In many schools it may be helpful to base a school grounds development group on an existing governors' sub-committee such as one dealing with the school premises. The roles of those with responsibility need to be made clear and they should be given all the support they need. Inevitably, teachers may take a leading role, but the involvement of other members of the school community is essential. In many cases it is possible to have more than one person, provided that their responsibilities are clearly identified. A governor or Involving pupils. Pupils at both primary and Involving parents. Most schools have a Parent Teacher Association (PTA) of some kind. A PTA is likely to be a good forum for raising issues to do with school grounds. It is also a useful channel through which plans can be shared, resources raised and involvement sought. 2.15 Taking stock. Whether the school is well endowed with outdoor facilities or has only a restricted area, the first challenge is to make the most of what exists. It is not a question of having particular features or types of space before anything can be done, indeed, adapting the grounds to create new features before the school or department has accumulated some expertise in the use of outdoor resources can be a recipe for failure. With flair and imagination, supported by sound planning and careful implementation, teachers of any subject can make profitable use of existing provision. In doing so they will acquire the experience and skills that enable them to identify priorities for change. S 3. Managing School Grounds Development 3.1 3.2 3.5 This section describes the process of managing the development of school grounds. Development, as used here and throughout the rest of this Bulletin, includes changes to the physical design of a site and changes in the way it is managed. The quality of the design and development of school grounds will largely be influenced by the way in which the process is managed. The temptation to undertake changes as rapidly as possible needs to be resisted. While it is important to maintain the interest and commitment of those involved, it is more important still to be sure that valuable resources are not wasted as a result of poor management. most common reasons given for school grounds developments which are less than satisfactory is that they have not been properly managed. There is sometimes a temptation to get started on practical work rather than thinking through the management implications of quite complicated tasks, often involving outside organisations and new areas of expertise for teachers and other school staff. The need to establish a small management group with clearly defined responsibilities has already been mentioned in 2.11-2.12. 3.6 The development process involves the following key stages, summarised in Figure 1. Understanding the issues. It is important that schools understand some key principles and recognise that developments affect all aspects of management and of the curriculum (see section 2). Unless this point is grasped, there is the danger that a grounds development scheme will not serve the needs of the whole school and will, therefore, become marginalised. This does not mean that developments have to proceed on all fronts at the same time. Clearly this would be undesirable and unmanageable. It does, however, mean that decisions need to be made about the respective priorities of conflicting needs and opportunities. 3.4 Sharing the concept. There is always a danger in any developmental activity in a school that it becomes the special concern of a small vested interest group. The best way of preventing this and of involving the widest possible group of relevant people is to ensure that lines of communication are effective. This is particularly important at the start of any school grounds project. Staff, pupils, parents, governors and the wider community need to be informed of the benefits of developing grounds and the ways in which such developments may, in very general terms at this stage, meet their needs. Well-structured meetings of various kinds will need to be held. Some of the benefits of developing school grounds have already been covered in 2.2. When developing ideas on the use and development of grounds, the materials produced by LTL, the British Trust for Conservation Volunteers (BTCV), the Royal Society for Nature Conservation (RSNC), the Royal Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), the Tidy Britain Group and English Nature will be particularly helpful. At this stage, short videos are a useful way of selling the concept. 0 Surveying the existing site and the way it is used. Unless schools have good data about their site, they run the risk of making inappropriate changes to their grounds. This is the part of the process when pupils and their teachers really begin to familiarise themselves with the grounds. It is here, too, that a strong sense of ownership of the project begins to emerge in parallel with a growing sense of excitement. There are two main elements to this work. The first and most obvious of these is the need to know what kind of features trees, seats, ponds, sculptures, etc currently exist. This must also extend to what is hidden from view, such as the services which run underground. The second and equally important element is a survey of the ways in which the grounds are used and managed. It may be that perceived problems, for example relating to the organisation of the lunch queue in a secondary school, can be overcome by a combination of design and management solutions. Much surveying can be undertaken by pupils as part of design and technology and science. However they are sought, their opinions about the way the grounds are used, especially at break and lunch-times, are essential. By the end of this stage it should be possible to produce a detailed site plan which indicates what features exist. This stage is covered in section 4. Managing the Development Process 3.3 Setting up a management structure. One of the 3.7 Establishing needs. It is a frustrating fact that effective analysis of needs can only take place if there is a good degree of knowledge and understanding about the exciting ways in which the grounds can be used as an educational resource. While it is clear that schools need to provide for aspects of the delivery of physical education outside, they sometimes forget about those parts of science and geography, for example, which they can most effectively deliver in the grounds. Children have play needs, parents have needs, teachers have needs. It is important that all of these are carefully identified. This stage is dealt with in sections 5, 6 and 7, where the requirements of each element of the curriculum are examined. c\ 17 References Understanding the issues Sharing the concept Setting up a management structure Section Section 2 Section 2 Section 3 Section 2 Section 3 Benefits and principles Understanding the issues 2 Formal curriculum, informal curriculum, hidden curriculum, extra-curriculum, serving the community Sharing the concept School development plan and responsibilities. (Important: meeting the needs of the whole school and involving pupils) Setting up a management structure Surveying the site and the way it is used Section 4 Surveying the grounds Establishing needs Section 3 Section 5 Establishing needs Providing for the formal curriculum Providing for the informal curriculum Section 6 Section Understanding the hidden curriculum 7 Identifying possible solutions Section Section Planning for changes Some guidance given in sections 5, 6 and 7 Identifying possible solutions Understanding technical requirements (importance of sustainable solutions) 3 8 Section 3 Section 4 Planning for changes Categorising elements and identifying zone areas Taking a holistic view and incorporating intended developments into school development plan Section 10 Implementing changes Section Implementing changes Material and financial support. (Important: not rushing process and considering maintenance implications in section 9) 3 Section 10 Monitoring and evaluating changes Section Monitoring and evaluating changes Planning for changes (established systems should encourage constructive feedback) 3 Section 10 Fig.1 Managing school grounds development - Flowchart ,4 18 -0, - 1 3.8 prepared, budgets monitored, publicity arranged and a high level of communication maintained throughout. It will increasingly be possible to predict costs and to develop a fund-raising strategy. Technical information contained in section 8 will be important here and during the 'Implementing changes' stage. At the same time it will be essential to consider maintenance implications, see section 9. Identifying possible solutions. Projects which do not focus on solutions are unlikely to be sustainable. Once data from the survey has been gathered and needs have been clearly identified, it is important to come up with some possible answers. This is a complex part of the process because it involves prioritising and sometimes taking difficult decisions. For example, on an undeveloped primary school site it might be found that the creation of a wetland area with extensive seating meets the identified needs both for teaching science and for providing play and recreational opportunities. Solutions which meet more than one need will always be most useful. Those closely involved must then be consulted and consensus reached. There is not space in this publication to deal with this complex stage in depth, but some pointers are given at the end of sections 5, 6 3.10 allocation of responsibilities is essential. Often this will involve coordinating work parties of pupils, school staff and outside individuals or agencies. This is the stage for which most people will really have been waiting and the one where the fun can really begin. Sections 8 and 9 contain information which is relevant to this practical implementation stage. and 7. 3.9 3.11 Planning for changes. If planned changes are not built into a school's SDP, then they are unlikely to attract the long-term support which they require. Once a clear sequence of development activities has been established, more detailed plans of action can be made. At this stage it may be that advice is required from a professional such as a landscape architect, artist or in-service trainer. Contracts may need to be Photo 11 Implementing changes. For the implementation stage to be effective, meticulous planning and clear Monitoring and evaluating changes. It is important to establish systems which will encourage feedback from all the groups involved in a school grounds development project. This is covered in sections 10 and 11. More detail on all aspects of the process of developing school grounds is contained in LTL School grounds toolkit (LTL 1997). Pupils taking part in a survey of their grounds 0 11 19 4. Surveying the Grounds 4.1 This section examines the issues related to undertaking a survey of the grounds. It also contains guidance on the allocation of area within the site. Guidance on site area, and on statutory playing field areas as stated in The Education (School Premises) Regulations 1996, are given respectively in Building Bulletin 82 Area guidelines for schools and in an extract from DfEE Circular 10/96 in Reference Section E. information. Some or all of the following may be available: a current Ordnance Survey (OS) plan of the site at the largest possible scale; the original architect's site plan or an updated version, if available; the plan prepared for the school's landscape maintenance contract; Carrying Out a Survey 4.2 Before any changes are made to the design or management of a site, it is essential that a thorough survey is carried out. Ideally this should be carried out by school staff and pupils with outside help only if necessary. A survey will enable a school to begin at first-hand the important process of familiarisation with its grounds. In particular, it will: a new land survey, which is the usual practice on new developments. This should record all existing landscape features within and around the site, such as drainage, levels, trees and other significant vegetation, any buildings or services and all the different types of ground surfaces. 4.5 Ordnance Survey. OS plans are available at a scale of 1:1250 for the major urban centres and 1:2500 elsewhere. It is important to keep the original as a master and make copies for immediate use. Enlargements may be produced by photocopier for more detailed design work. LEAs have copyright licences from OS that allow them to make copies or enable schools supported or maintained by the LEA to do so. Schools not covered by their LEA must obtain prior approval from OS. Old OS maps often contain fascinating data about earlier use of the site and can stimulate work in history lessons. 4.6 Scale. The scale of plan required for survey and subsequent design work varies greatly with the type and size of school and the nature of the information to be conveyed: identify features within the site already being used effectively as an outdoor resource; identify those aspects of a school site which are special and unique to it its history, its flora and fauna, its geology, its culture; record those elements that may constrain future use, such as underground (and overground) services; provide the school with a number of reliable 'maps' of their site to use as a starting-point for discussions about possible changes. Much of this work can be undertaken as part of the National Curriculum, for example, the science of plant identification, the history of the local area and the geographical skills involved in map work. Some of it involves desk study of historic or published information about the site and its surroundings, some involves site investigations. a 1:1250 scale is usually adequate for large secondary schools in suburban or rural locations; for those within urban centres, a 1:500 scale might be more suitable; for primary schools, a scale of 1:500 may be preferred on large sites and in suburban or rural locations, with 1:200 for smaller or urban sites; Desk Study 4.3 4.4 20 A desk study of the grounds of an existing school always reveals fascinating new data, while on new sites, it gives a first indication of what to expect. Subsequent investigations on site are likely to be more successful when informed by a thorough grasp of the background data. Inconsistencies may arise, such as a service inspection cover which is evident on site but does not appear on plans of public service utilities, and it may bring about the necessity to check the accuracy of existing information. Even a full land survey should not be regarded as infallible, as mistakes can occur and such surveys become out of date. A base plan. Even at the desk study stage, it is advisable to have a base plan for the recording of even larger scales may be required for detailed proposals around buildings or for particular features. The choice of scale may be influenced by the area the school would occupy on a standard 'A' size sheet of paper. Pupils, parents and other participants involved in any of the planning stages will probably require individual copies of the plans and A3 size is probably best for cost and convenience. 4.7 Other plans and photographs. Geological maps will give a good indication of the geology of the site and its surroundings. Such maps also show the soil conditions likely to be encountered. Most of England 22 Competitive Tendering (CCT), arrangements for maintaining school grounds have changed considerably in the recent past. At the survey stage, it is important to find out: and Northern Ireland and slightly smaller areas of Scotland and Wales are now covered at a scale of 1:63360 or 1:50000; maps at 1:25000 are limited to a few areas of special geological interest. The number of soils maps is still restricted and this aspect is usually best tackled by site investigation. Vertical or oblique aerial photographs can provide useful information, particularly about earthworks, vegetation and land use. Central agencies such as OS and the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food have aerial photographic coverage of much of the country, and county and district planning departments often commission similar surveys of their own areas. 4.8 Legal and planning issues. Besides the issue of land ownership, it is important to establish in as much detail as possible: the designations and policies in the current local plan for the area these may affect any changes in the use of the site and information about them can be obtained from the local planning authority. The authority operates town planning control under the Town Planning Act 1990. Useful reference may be made to Planning permission a guide for Business, published by the Department of the Environment; which areas need maintenance and what they require; which member of staff deals with maintenance issues; whether the school has a maintenance contract with an outside body and if so, the nature of this contract. It will be important to examine any existing contract documentation; the annual costs of maintaining the grounds. 4.10 Services. Underground and overhead services, such as water, gas, electricity, telephone and drainage, may affect the design and use of the grounds, especially where any excavation or planting is planned. If the LEA cannot supply the information, a letter to all public utilities should explain that developments are proposed in the grounds and that these demand a prior knowledge of underground and overhead services on, and adjacent to the site. the existence of any Conservation Area or Tree Preservation Orders these will affect the management of trees as well as their retention; any plans for future highway improvements these may affect decisions on both access and design; the existence of any rights of way or access enjoyed by adjacent land users or public utilities; the presence of public rights of way these are usually, though not always, shown on the 1:25000 OS Pathfinder maps, but the county or district public rights of way unit should be consulted to establish their exact nature and alignment. Applications to stop, or simply to divert, public rights of way are often contested and it is important that this possibility is identified early on. The information about planning and highway issues can be obtained from the district or county council, although easements may only be included in legal documentation concerning the landholding. For all schools, there may be other valuable information in past reports or planning documents, including old site Photo 12 Maintenance and environmental education can go hand in hand surveys. 4.9 Maintenance issues. As a result of Local Management of Schools (LMS) and Compulsory 21 4.11 Meteorological data. The nature of the local climatic conditions affects outdoor use of the grounds. A site survey and information from the school weather station may help in analysing the local climate and the micro-climate within different parts of the site. The local weather station, whose location may be obtained from the Meteorological Office, can give schools an indication of longer-term trends. A charge is made for the information which may include temperature ranges, relative humidity, rain, sunshine and wind. There are many opportunities for this to form part of vantage points from which to record and assess the views across the site itself. A plan can be made to show the different spaces created by landscape features or buildings; whether they are contained or relatively open; and where there are valuable landscape features or possible eyesores. There is much scope for work in art lessons here. 4.15 school site is only really meaningful if it can be set in the context of the way in which the site is used. Areas which need to be explored include: geography lessons. 4.12 which subjects are currently taught outside, by whom and where; Flora and historical records. Maps of local or county flora will show the distribution of native and, in some cases, introduced species. By studying the distribution of particular plants and cross-checking with the local geology map, it may be possible to frame proposals which will reinforce or, if necessary, re-create the character of the local landscape. Such information might be published in book form or may be available at the local library or museum or county records centre. The latter may also hold historical records relating to the site and its surroundings. A sense of place and the continuation of a shared heritage can be achieved by responding to historical antecedents. An understanding of the classification of and variation between species is part of the science curriculum. what variety of sporting and recreational activities are specifically catered for and how; whether there are currently any gardening or cultivation areas; whether livestock are kept on site, and if so, where; what happens during break and lunch-times where pupils can and cannot go, what pupils like doing and where, how the informal aspects of the school day are managed, whether there is any play equipment and if so, what kind, where and what condition; how the site is used for extra-curricular activities; Local distinctiveness is increasingly an issue in relation to biodiversity and sustainable development. how the site is used by the wider community; Site Investigations 4.13 4.14 22 Setting. Changing the use of any part of the school site may affect neighbouring residents. An important early stage in the survey of the site is therefore to record and appraise the immediate surroundings, including the proximity of neighbours and the wider pattern of access and circulation for both vehicles and pedestrians. The type, appearance and intensity of surrounding land uses should be noted, together with the nature and height of existing site boundaries. The task cannot be carried out entirely from within the grounds. To fully appreciate the site's setting, it is necessary to walk through the surrounding areas in order to establish how neighbours or residents perceive the grounds and to what extent they might be affected by any changes. Visual record. Views into and out of the site should be recorded by photographs, video, sketches or written comments on plans. These provide a benchmark for 'before and after' comparisons with subsequent developments, and should always be dated. It is a good idea to select two or three crucial Existing use. Information about the features on a whether there is any recent history of abuse of the site vandalism which needs to be noted at this stage. It is important to distinguish between vandalism and wear and tear or neglect or patterns of use which can be attributed to poor design rather than negative behaviour. It is important to obtain pupil as well as staff and other user perspectives. 4.16 Landform and soils. The planning of new earthworks and the choice of plants and seeds will be influenced by existing landform and the type of soil. Significant topographical features such as changes of level, local ridges or valleys and high or low points should be noted, and the direction and degree of slopes measured or estimated. Clues to the nature of the underlying soils may be given by the pattern of existing vegetation and further information, covering soil colour, texture and structure, can be gleaned from samples taken at selected points in the grounds. Schools can purchase soil testing kits and do the work themselves. Where more detailed laboratory analysis is considered development. Certain species now have legal protection and existing habitats may need to be preserved. In any ecological study of new or old sites, an officer from a county wildlife trust or English Nature or in some cases, a local authority, may be able to help by explaining how this aspect of the survey can be tackled. necessary, it can be undertaken, for a small charge, by such bodies as the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food, the county analyst, private firms or local agricultural colleges. If trial holes are being dug for new building works, it may be possible to extend them to include the grounds; otherwise a soil auger or spade is necessary for a detailed study of soil layers. 4.17 4.20 Local climate. Since weather conditions are not constant, the amount of survey data that can be obtained from a single site inspection is limited, but: the prevailing wind is often indicated by the direction and pattern of growth of existing vegetation such as isolated trees or hedgerows and the degree of shelter may be shown by the relative height and form of vegetation; other factors may be deduced, such as the nature of the aspect, sunny and sheltered areas, air drainage, possible frost pockets, damp hollows, severely shaded or exposed areas and wind funnels. Existing schools have the advantage of being able to monitor the climatic conditions over time which could form part of a geographical project. 4.18 Pollution. Noise, fumes and visual disturbance caused by traffic and industry affect the educational value of many school sites. On a new school site it is possible to base the development of the whole area on an agreed pattern in which the various uses are carefully zoned to minimise the impact of pollution. With an existing school the creation of earth modelling and dense shelterbelts may help to combat the intrusion. Sight, sound and smell can assist in the detection of some of the more obvious forms of pollution during a Any school site containing trees needs to have a clear policy concerning their management. For young trees this needs to include control of weeds until trees are established, removal of any branches likely to injure pupils and an awareness of any poisonous berries or flowers. For larger trees, the following issues need to be considered: site survey. The exact levels of air, water and noise pollution may require measuring instruments and laboratory analysis. It is only after accurate measurement, often as part of a sustained monitoring programme, that arguments for a change in site planning or ameliorative measures are likely to succeed. 4.19 Tree surveys. The presence of trees may affect patterns of development on both new and established sites. Construction work can affect trees and, conversely, trees poplar, willow and oak in particular can cause damage to buildings where the soil is shrinkable clay. It is unwise to retain a large tree as a focal point if it is over-mature or inherently unsafe. A survey which takes account of tree preservation orders needs to take place before any changes are discussed or design work commenced. Survey plans tend to depict all tree canopies as round, whereas in practice this is often not the case. When a survey plan showing individual trees is not available, the exact location has to be measured from fixed points, such as the corner of a building, and rccorded on the plan. Where there are many trees, even if they form a single large group, each one should be numbered separately on the plan. Much of the measurement can be undertaken by pupils, who may also want to tell you about the relative merits of various trees for climbing. In many schools this is the moment when for the first time pupils and staff realise just what kind of trees they have on their site. Linked to exploratory work in science, history and art there are many opportunities for acquiring a greater understanding of the culture and history of the trees on the school site. loss of stability due to disease or root-damage; The district council's environmental health officer may be able to advise on, or even assist in, the measurement of different forms of pollution. damaged limbs likely to fall to the ground; Wildlife. It is valuable in any site survey to identify the various tree, shrub, herbaceous and wetland species and the type and extent of different habitats which may include hedgerows, ditches, wetlands, grasslands and woodland areas. At the same time, the numbers and types of fauna living on the site should be established, as their presence may affect future root loosening due to severe weather. the possibility of disease being spread to healthy trees nearby; It is important that members of the school community have the opportunity to put their views concerning the retention or removal of any tree suspected as being unsafe during the survey stage. It is also important that the school is aware of any Tree Preservation Orders which cover trees on their site. 5 23 Where building works are proposed close to trees, the location and extent of protective fencing needs to be decided at the outset, as it will affect how work is organised on the site. As a guide, it is important to protect the ground beneath the tree's canopy or within a radius equal to half its height, whichever is the greater (Figure 2). them, the position of service inspection covers and markers should be rccorded to ensure that they correspond with the plans supplied); the size and water quality of any streams, ditches, ponds, springs, wet spots and badly drained or marshy land; any features of the surface water drainage system such as outfalls, culverts or drainage falls on hard surfaces where there are already buildings on the site; any access routes around existing buildings for fire appliances and for maintenance; highway requirements for clear sight lines, either within the site or where vehicular or pedestrian accesses meet public highways. Fence Branch spread (Which ever is greater) Half height Fence Categorising the Elements (Zones) 4.22 (a) Alternative location for protective fencing around trees to be retained (b) All of the area, as defined in a) should be protected by fencing throughout the course of new works Tree protection Fig. 2 As part of the survey stage, schools need to identify their local tree warden and local tree or arboricultural officer, who may be able to give them advice and support. 4.21 Other site features. The site survey should also encompass: fences, walls and gates in and around the site, and changes of level such as steps, ramps and retaining walls; the type and condition of hard surfaces on roads, paths and any paved areas, since this may be relevant to future use; the line of overhead cables and the location of all service inspection covers and markers (even when public utilities have provided information about 24 Schools need to provide as much variety as possible in their grounds in order to meet the needs of all those who use them. The survey stage will produce a mass of useful data which will create an overview of the site and how it is used, but which is not always easy to organise. It may be helpful to stand back from this data and analyse it in terms of the main elements or zones likely to be found on any site. These have been listed below. General guidance on recommended areas for these elements is contained in 4.24. It is most important to retain a sense of the overall picture of the site. Where site size is restricted the overall site area recommended for the particular type and size of school may not be achieved. In these cases, the buildings and play areas are likely to require a greater proportion, and playing fields (assuming that the alternative options in School Premises Regulations are taken up) and habitats a lesser proportion of the recommended areas referred to in 4.24. Playing fields. As well as the playing fields themselves, these areas contain marginal land which cannot be used for games pitches. Such land can include surrounding boundary areas. Smaller and more intimate spaces extend the range of recreational and social opportunities. A mix of hard and soft landscape areas is desirable, with the emphasis not just on convenience and robustness of use, but also on shade, shelter, site furniture and a landscape of high quality suited to its purpose. To cater for good practice, the specific demands of the NC, and the requirements of the 1996 School Premises Regulations, a grass area for games use should be available to all pupils aged eight or over (see Buildings and access. This includes access roads, service yards, car parks and other outdoor storage areas in addition to the building itself. Some soft landscape will fall within this zone where areas around and between these facilities cannot safely perform any of the functions listed. The proportion of the total site occupied by the buildings and access is likely to be higher in a small school than in a larger one of the same type. Reference Section E) and preferably for younger pupils as well. Its area need not be defined solely in terms of a particular number of full-sized pitches. On small sites a combination of grass and all-weather or synthetic turf pitches may be appropriate to allow for time-tabled and extracurricular games activities. Hard surfaced games court(s): All schools need some hard surfaces, but many need to review the balance between the amount of hard surfaced areas and the amount of softer, planted areas. In primary schools it is an advantage if the design provides for more than a rectangular tarmac playground and includes niches for less boisterous pursuits. For infants, this area is likely to be informally laid out for skill learning and small games, but for juniors there is a positive necd for a court for organised games. This development is taken further at secondary level which requires a range of multi-games courts with ball retaining fencing for such games as tennis, netball and fivea-side football. At the secondary level there is benefit in providing and retaining certain hard surfaces solely for physical education. This would preclude their functioning as additional car parking space or informal play areas, when damage to both the surfaces and the surrounding fencing may occur. Informal and social area. Pupils' needs will vary greatly according to their age. This category contains a combination of hard and soft areas for play and for social purposes, but of course, such areas may have uses in teaching the NC. In infant schools the hard and soft areas and grass play areas can merge to provide a continuous surface for organised small games where necessary. Secondary schools may find it more appropriate to provide opportunities for boisterous activities without impinging upon the organised games area. Habitat areas. There is a demand in all sizes and types of school for a proportion of the grounds to be developed for a wide range of activities, including outdoor theatres, wildlife habitats, garden areas, livestock enclosures, etc. Equally, different habitats can support particular subjects, for example a biblical garden or an orienteering trail. They can also enhance play or recreational time, for example, imaginatively placed seating located in a garden area can enhance the aesthetic appeal of a site, as can a sculpture or mural. Increasingly these areas are being given a central and accessible location, rather than being seen as optional extras. Pro Consideration of these five main features will help schools to establish an overview. The categories are not in themselves significant, but may help schools to determine their current provision in helpful ways, for example, by becoming aware that they do not have an adequate variety of habitat areas, while at the same time having too many hard-surfaced areas in relation to curricular demand. 4.23 Multi-use of the grounds. Land areas and landscape features need to satisfy a number of different demands. A shelterbelt of trees that improves climatic conditions on a playing field can also serve as a woodland habitat, and the meadow, pond or butterfly garden may form part of a social area near the buildings. The most successful solutions do not compartmentalise the grounds to create a separate nature or environmental area; they treat the grounds as a whole within which a variety of uses can be integrated. The term 'multi-use of grounds' can apply also to situations where due to restricted sites hard surfaced areas double as games courts and recreation areas (Reference Section A (iii) gives two examples). Use-Zone Areas 4.24 This section gives advice on the sub-division of the overall site into specific use-zones. It is to assist those wishing to review their existing sites and for those who are intending to do advance planning of new sites to be developed whilst taking account of the unique opportunities that exist on a site by utilising its landscape features to advantage. For advice on new sites, their recommended areas, their selection and their overall development, the listed publications may be consulted: for site areas for all schools and site selection Building Bulletin 82 Area Guidelines for Schools; for site development in support of the curriculum Building Bulletin 71 The Outdoor Classroom; BEST COPY AVAILABLE 25 for statutory playing field area The Education (School Premises) Regulations 1996 for an solutions are more fully investigated. The buildings, access and playing field layout are major factors in determining the size and qualities of the residual spaces or zones, which can vary considerably in the different options which are explored in Reference Section A(i), Exploring options for site development of zones for a primary school. extract of the DfEE Circular No. 10/96 refer to Reference Section E; for hard surfaced games court(s) and informal and social areas. These will be touched on, and area recommendations given in Reference Section F. It includes infant schools, junior schools, primary schools, middle deemed primary schools, middle deemed secondary schools, any secondary schools, and special schools. For nurseries (units and schools) see 4.29. 4.25 Considerations of safety will often dictate the separation of areas accessible to pupils from busy access or service areas. On large school sites there is often no clear definition between zones as one blends into another, but on small sites there is frequently the need for definition, for example by a change of level or by providing a fence, wall, or hedge to separate boisterous activities from quiet ones, for the separation of pupils by age, or to protect carefully nurtured plants or areas for scientific study. Illustrated general advice on the layout of use-zones is given for a number of school types in Reference Section A(ii) nursery provision, infant and junior school provision, secondary school provision, and special school provision (a primary school). Use-Zones. Before site survey data is used for more detailed planning, it may be helpful if the total site area is considered in terms of its use-zones. The site then may be sensibly divided on the basis of a proportion of the site being devoted to each zone as in tables 15 to 20 for the schools listed in 4.24. For illustrated examples of an area allocation for a primary school and a secondary school site refer to Building Bulletin 82. To underline the need for flexibility in interpretation, the tables take the form of a range band with an upper and lower recommended area figure consistent with the overall site area, hard surfaced games courts, and informal and social areas recommended in Building Bulletin 82. The range would not apply to restricted sites which need to be dealt with on their merits see 4.26 below. 4.26 Sites and boundaries between zones. 4.28 Restricted sites. Where land is scarce the drawbacks of a confined site may need to be balanced against the advantages of a good location. Where the site is below the recommended area range or band, the shortage of space can be offset to an extent by an increase in landscape quality to allow multi-use (see 4.23). In practice, it is likely that a hard surfaced area such as hard porous or synthetic surface may be needed for multi-use for PE and recreation. In some instances, there may have to be greater reliance on off-site PE facilities including playing fields with reference to options in the 1996 School Premises Regulations. For illustrated worked area examples of a primary school and a secondary school site refer to Reference Section 4.29 Nursery provision. Nursery schools and nursery classes have not been included in these guidelines for overall site area. The site area should be taken as 15m2 to 18m2 per pupil, but design issues can be found in section 6. Reference Section A(ii) includes an example of a nursery garden, and additional information is given in Building Bulletin 82. Further guidance is being prepared. 4.30 Special schools. Recommended outdoor areas are given in Table 21. This provides an all inclusive hard surfaced area for games, with an informal social area, and a separate area for informal activities on grass, and for creating habitats. The area guidance is intended to be considered against the particular needs of individual special schools. Overall site areas are not given as these will vary in relation to the type of special school and the need for playing fields, but where the size and age range of pupils is comparable to other schools, the following factors should be borne in mind: A (iii). the building area will occupy far more space than in other schools with the same pupil numbers on account of the larger teaching area per pupil and the greater range of support spaces required; 4.27 Layout of use-zones. In re-planning an existing site or planning a new school site, a flexible approach is essential if the objectives of the brief are to be achieved. This calls for the preliminary consideration of a wide range of options before the most likely 26 more extensive provision for vehicular access will be needed to cater for waiting and for a one-way traffic flow to avoid reversing when pupils are set down at the main entrance; t.. . many schools cover a wide age range and some additional space in the grounds is needed to provide for a degree of age separation and for a protected environment for certain pupils; the design may need to preclude pupils gaining immediate outdoor access to service areas or public roads, for example by including self-closing gates; a canopy at the main entrance can give shelter to physically disabled pupils who may take longer to get into or out of vehicles. More detailed consideration of the site requirements for special schools and of how these vary between schools for different needs is contained in Building Bulletin 77 Designing for Pupils with Special Needs: Special Schools (HMSO 1992) and in Grounds for sharing: a guide to developing special school grounds (LTL 1996). 27 5. Providing for the Formal Curriculum 5.1 This section outlines some of the ways in which the school grounds can provide for the National Use, Design and Management Issues Curriculum. It needs to be read in parallel with section 6, which explores the informal curriculum, and section 7, which deals with the hidden 5.3 curriculum. After reading these three sections it will be easier to identify the range of needs which a school might have. Each of these three sections offers: a rationale; some comments on possible use, and on design and management issues. Having read them, schools can look objectively at their survey data and at the analysis of needs for their site and so begin to identify possible design and management solutions. A Rationale 5.2 Science. Science is one of the three core subjects. It offers many opportunities in the school grounds. Scientific competence in the areas of claSsification, data-collection, data-analysis, experimentation, observation, analysis of evidence and environmental understanding can effectively be taught outside. The subject is divided into life processes and living things, materials and their properties, and physical processes, and all have obvious applications outside. It is difficult to see how understanding and classifying plants and animals in their environment, carrying out large-scale experiments with forces and working with materials like water can effectively be taught unless the lesson takes place outside. Science has much more potential including: understanding waste management and recycling; The National Curriculum. The rationale for teaching in the school grounds has been provided by The National Curriculum (HMSO 1995). It is also working with mini-beasts; evident in The Outdoor Classroom (HMSO 1990) and publications produced by Learning through Landscapes that there are opportunities for teaching outdoors at school in nearly every core and foundation subject within the National Curriculum. Aspects of some subjects can only be effectively taught outdoors. These include: understanding the ecology of ponds and wetland exploring trees and plants; areas; finding out more about grassed areas and learning about wild flowers; understanding the built environment. Features such as ponds, vegetable plots, orchards, copses, herb gardens, wild flower meadows, animal enclosures, compost heaps and bird-tables provide opportunities for teaching science outdoors. More detail about habitat creation is contained in section 8. science; geography; physical education. In developing the grounds it will be important to take into account the specific demands of the NC at each Key Stage. All school grounds have the potential to become exciting outdoor laboratories. As always, solutions which provide resources for a range of activities may well be the most useful. In other subjects there are elements which schools report can best be taught outdoors. These include: English; mathematics; design and technology; history; art. It is possible, with a little imagination, to teach any subject outdoors. The outdoor classroom of a school's grounds can provide a rich educational resource for teaching the formal curriculum right on a school's doorstep. The more school grounds are developed, the greater the opportunities for children to learn there. The fact that schools, especially at primary level, now have discretion to go beyond the NC, means that there are even more opportunities outdoors at school. A- Photo 13 28 '0 A pond provides rich opportunities for teaching science outdoors 5.4 Physical education. Physical education is a foundation subject which must be taught partly outdoors in the school grounds. Many secondary schools go beyond the minimum requirements to cater for GCSE and 'A' level examinations. Physical competence can be developed through participation in a range of activities, many of which rely on facilities within the school grounds. Such provision is all the more important where children have few opportunities to engage in physical activities near to where they live. It can extend beyond the necessary demands of team games into the provision of opportunities for outdoor and adventurous activities. The design of outdoor physical education facilities needs to begin with a clear understanding of: gymnastic activities and dance. In addition, for Key Stage 2, provision must also be made for athletic activities, outdoor and adventurous activities and swimming. Schools may, however, provide for swimming in Key Stage 1 if they prefer. Schools may choose to extend their physical education curriculum further as well as organising extra-curricular sports activities for their pupils. the Key Stage requirements of the NC and their implied demands for provision; organisational factors specific to the particular type of school the ages of the pupils, the number and size of teaching groups and the estimated number of teaching hours per week for which outdoor facilities will be required; 1 C. II a ., MIMI the extent of extra-curricular use such as team practices, school clubs, inter-school competition and community involvement and the standard of play and competition use regional, county or district; 1111111101111111111 . 5.5 re. 1.7,.. 6 ' 1-0 nas. the indoor facilities available for physical education including sports halls and dance studios, gymnasia and swimming pools and those facilities for indoor instruction in outdoor sports in accommodation provided to meet the shortfall in playing field area due to restricted sites; the feasibility of using off-site playing fields to alleviate a shortage of them, especially in urban areas. Whilst the quality of such provision may often be good, there is expenditure of time and money on travel, and pupils may lose the opportunity to practise skills and play team games in extra-curricular time. The potential for community use might also be reduced. " 00, Photo 14 Photo 15 Outdoor games on playing fields and on games courts are important in the curriculum. Junior through to secondary aged pupils will be involved in full-sided games, whilst younger pupils will benefit from small-sided games and skills practice PE in primary schools. The outdoor provision for physical education in primary schools should not be regarded as a scaled-down version of facilities normally found at secondary level. It has to take account not only of the physical needs of all the children, including those with disabilities, but also of their broader social and personal needs. It is necessary for primary schools to provide for the NC programmes of study for physical education. For Key Stages 1 and 2, provision must be made for games, Z Photo 16 Camping in the school grounds Is a good introduction to outdoor and adventurous activities 29 Some young children will have limited opportunities outside school to play outdoors and to develop physical skills, because they live in built-up areas with heavy traffic or their parents are reluctant to let them out of doors unsupervised. The same outdoor facilities will often serve for both 'lessons' and 'play', particularly in primary schools. This mix of physical education activities with more informal recreational activities presents a challenge for anyone designing school grounds. There must be explicit provision for the former during lesson time, but it should not be at the expense of a wide range of opportunities for play and recreation at other times. 5.7 A stimulating environment at primary level for both curriculum work and play demands more than a flat expanse of tarmac. For the youngest children in particular, outdoor and adventurous activities can include scrambling and climbing and can beneficially extend to orienteering courses. Certain types of play equipment demand safety surfaces. The hard surfaced and grass areas need to be sufficiently spacious to allow vigorous activities, as well as the freedom to run, jump and chase. By the time they reach junior school age, children need suitable spaces for a variety of small-sided games, including simplified versions of recognised games. Athletic activities afford opportunities for improving the basic skills of running, jumping and throwing. Outdoor provision might include courts and pitches for mini-games and practice areas. Flexibility of use and layout enables the school to accommodate a changing pattern of demands through the seasons. More technical information about games courts is contained in section 8. 5.6 30 For pupils with special educational needs, the potential of the school grounds for supporting and enhancing other aspects of the curriculum besides physical education can be particularly important. As well as the activities mentioned elsewhere in this section, the site can offer a stimulating environment suited to practical activities, including for example horticulture, from which many pupils with special educational needs can benefit. Sensory gardens and opportunities for mobility and independence training can also be useful. PE in secondary schools. A broad and balanced physical education curriculum is desirable for all secondary school pupils. Programmes of study are drawn up for six areas of activity; games, gymnastic activities, dance, athletic activities, outdoor and adventurous activities, and swimming. Pupils in Key Stage 3 (ages 11-14) must pursue games, at least one other full area of activity and at least two additional half areas of activity. At least one half area of activity must be either gymnastics or dance. Games should be taught in each year of the Key Stage. The breadth and balance offered by these requirements should extend beyond year 9 to cater for the continuing interests and needs of older pupils. In Key Stage 4 (ages 14-16), programmes of study for the same six areas of activity are drawn up. Pupils should be taught a minimum of two different activities, at least one of which should be a game. - Special schools. For some special school populations, appropriate outdoor provision will be similar to that for pupils of the same age in mainstream schools, for example where there are pupils with moderate and emotional and/or behavioural difficulties or hearing impairment without more complex disabilities. Relatively few special schools have playing fields suitable for large team games and few are big enough to make full use of such facilities. Where a special school lacks suitable playing fields of its own, those pupils able to participate in team games will need guaranteed timetabled access to provision elsewhere, such as that at a neighbouring mainstream school. Where playing fields are available, there will still be the usual need for paved and grassed areas for other activities. Where the school lacks playing fields of its own, this provision assumes even greater importance. All special schools require such facilities, including those for pupils with severe and profound and multiple learning difficulties and for those with physical disabilities. Most pupils will be able to participate in small-team games, and space is needed for races and boisterous games, whether on foot or in wheelchairs. For some pupils, alternative sports, such as archery, may be appropriate. 5.8 Pupils with special educational needs in mainstream schools. Mainstream schools are increasingly including pupils with a wide variety of special educational needs. They are expected to pursue, so far as it is possible for them to do so, the same curriculum as other pupils, but some of the additional considerations referred to in 5.7 and in greater detail in Building Bulletin 77 may also apply. 5.9 Geography. Geography is a foundation subject. Geographical skills, such as undertaking fieldwork activities, giving and following directions and mapping, are particularly suited to work outside. It is an essence of the subject that pupils should develop an understanding of their locality and their immediate environment. Indeed, as they must study the locality of their school, it is essential that they know and drama. Drama which began outdoors in Ancient Greece can enrich life outdoors at school, as part of both the formal and the informal curriculum; understand the grounds and the land nearby. Pupils also have to be taught to investigate the quality of the environment and to express their views on its attractive and unattractive features. The school grounds provide one of the best and most real writing. Constructing questionnaires, making a guide to the school grounds and recording play ground games are useful in English lessons. contexts for this aspect of study. Geography has potential for developing a wide range of skills when The provision of seating arranged so that it facilitates discussion will promote language development. Some schools have gone further and developed an amphitheatre in the grounds. Natural slopes and banking with additional earth modelling where necessary can form semi-circular and circular arenas 10-20 metres in diameter. Imaginative signage around the site can be a constant source of interest in the written word. studying: weather and climate; water and landforms on the school site; people and settlements the school community; the environmental quality of the grounds and how it could be improved; the development of a sense of place and local distinctiveness. More detailed information can be found in English in the school grounds (LTL/Southgate 1993). Features such as maps marked on the ground or walls, signposts, orienteering courses, toposcopes, weather- stations, ponds, streams, earth mounds, wildlife gardens, soil profiles, rock gardens, heathland and trees provide opportunities for the grounds to be used for the teaching of geography. Design and management issues like the pedestrian circulation, access for bicycles, car parking, traffic flows, littermanagement, the choice of place names etc, are worthy of study in geography. More detailed information can be found in Geography in the school grounds (LTL/Southgate 1996). 5.10 English. English is a core subject. The development of language is an essential part of education and this can be effectively learned outside. Something about the power of working with the natural world means that new words come tumbling out of children when they are faced with real experiences outdoors. Work in the school grounds can make a special contribution to the development of oral skills, to the stimulation of the imagination and to the encouragement of reading and writing for pleasure and for a variety of other useful purposes. There are opportunities to study: story. Children construct the world through story and if this is recognised then much which takes place outside can become useful stimulus material, from stories about mini-beasts, to what happened at play time; poetry. It is possible to explore the senses, to respond to the natural world, to write about climate and the seasons, even to enact poems like the cautionary tale 'Matilda' by Hilaire Belloc; 5.11 Mathematics. Mathematics is a core subject. Mathematical skills such as problem-solving, reasoning, estimating, calculating, understanding patterns, classifying, comparing, using charts and diagrams, and understanding scale can be developed very effectively outdoors. The concepts of number, shape, space and measurement are particularly important. The school grounds give a real context for using and applying mathematics. Almost all constructional tasks in the grounds involve mathematics. For example, a school making a pond will need to calculate the size of the pond, how much liner or clay will be needed, the volume of water which will be required and how long it might take to fill it up. Collecting and analysing data as part of a school grounds survey can largely be taught as part of mathematics lessons. The mathematics of space, shape and scale is of obvious relevance, especially at the stage when maps and models are being used in the planning process. Mathematics has the potential for developing necessary skills and for studying: number, for example, at primary level, by counting bricks, windows, mini-beasts, potatoes grown in the school garden. There are real opportunities for multiplication working out the amount of glass needed for six windows each with four panes of glass, and division, by working out whether a sum of money will be enough to buy animal food for a ten-week term; measurement, for example, establishing the girth of a tree, using standard and non-standard units from metres to the length of a child's arm; the space and shape of the grounds, learning how space and shape can affect use and quality; 31 data, especially developing an understanding of what needs to be known, how the information There are opportunities to: learn about aspects of the school's past, especially can best be acquired, how it should be presented and what it can tell. locally interesting stories, the development of local place names, including the name of the school itself and significant local activities in the At primary level, playground games can encourage the development of mathematical skills as part of the informal curriculum. The presence of some playground markings can act as a constant stimulus to mathematical activities. past; find out how information such as old maps and photographs can give clues about the earlier use of the site; More detailed information can be found in Mathematics in the school grounds (LTL/Southgate 1993). 5.12 learn about the ways in which evidence can be destroyed and can survive, for example by seeing what emerges from deep digging or from the careful burning in a bonfire and subsequent examination of a number of common everyday objects; Design and Technology. Design and Technology is a foundation subject. Much of the school grounds design and development process can be taught as part of this subject. Design and Technology involves identifying problems, designing solutions, making the solutions happen and then evaluating the results. Many schools have developed extended projects which are based in the school grounds. In particular there are opportunities to: develop a design capability through assignments outdoors, for example looking at why some areas of grass become worn down, looking at the effective storage of bicycles, and examining pedestrian circulation; work with a range of materials, including wood, water, concrete, bricks and recycled materials; generate and communicate ideas, considering communicate aspects of the school's past in a mural or pageant outside. Some schools have constructed a time-line in their grounds depicting key moments of international, national and local history in a memorable way. 5.14 Art. Art is a foundation subject. The grounds offer a number of opportunities for pupils to explore and develop their artistic potential on a scale and with materials which cannot be found indoors. Art offers a particularly exciting way of surveying the grounds in a visual way and of creating images and pictures which can be used as part of the design and development process. There are opportunities to: their strengths and weaknesses, especially as part of the stage of the development of school grounds when consultation is necessary; record outdoor experiences and features in a variety of media; making different structures outside, from living willow sculptures to mazes, trails to bird-feeders. find images and artefacts in the grounds to act as a stimulus for creative work; This subject offers particular scope for children and teachers to work alongside landscape architects, architects, artists and designers in the school grounds. 5.13 History. History is a foundation subject. It offers a number of opportunities in the school grounds, especially those related to the local history of the school's area and the development of a sense of place. A carefully planned mixture of indoor and outdoor experiences can be particularly effective in bringing local history alive. A study of history develops an understanding of chronology and enquiry which can be nurtured outside. Before any school grounds developments are undertaken, it is vitally important that children, staff, parents and the local community have a clear sense of the history of the site. 32 A !, experiment with techniques outdoors, such as ephemeral art using items found in the grounds, chalking on the playground, making large-scale murals and sculptures. There are obvious opportunities for pupils and teachers to work with artists and designers in the grounds. Some schools have created locally distinctive signs to celebrate their work outside. Others have created outdoor galleries with regularly exhibited items of sculpture, but this would only be possible where there was confidence that such works could be safely kept on site. More detailed information can be found in Arts in the school grounds (LTL/Southgate 1996). lessons on sustainable development, biodiversity and environmental design and management. When considering changes to the physical design of the grounds, it will be helpful to remember that some features, for example, ponds, mazes and trees can serve the needs of a number of different subjects and a number of different aspects of environmental education. Indeed, especially at primary level, it is often possible to manage lessons so that more than one subject is being taught at the same time. Photo 17 A maze affords endless attractive mathematical possibilities 1110.-- { III Photo 18 5.15 -I Murals provide opportunities for work in art Environmental education. Almost all of what has been described so far in this section could be studied as part of the cross-curricular theme of environmental education. Although in Teaching environmental matters through the National Curriculum (SCAA 1996) greater emphasis has been laid on the contribution of individual subjects to environmental education, all that was said in Curriculum Guidance 7 (National Curriculum Council 1990) remains valid. In particular, the description of this area as having three distinct elements is helpful: education about the environment (knowledge); education for the environment (values, attitudes, positive action); education in or through the environment (a resource). The school grounds can contribute powerfully to the development of a range of environmental competences in pupils. They can learn, at first hand, lit:jr. 5 Photo 19 5.16 Weather watching in geography is made more interesting by this unusual wind sculpture Experiential learning. The value of first-hand experience has already been described in section 2. Most work in the school grounds is of this kind. Much work outdoors is very different from work inside the classroom and teachers often need support in order to be able to deliver it effectively and with confidence. Whether a school decides to use its existing site resources for teaching or develop new ones there will be management implications for the in-service training of teachers and other staff. Wellplanned, and more active approaches to teaching and learning will often be more memorable and, therefore, effective. BEST COPY AVAILABLE 33 1.11.311111W.,1.7a , a f!' Photo 20 5.17 The science of static electricity can easily be explored outside Extra-curricular use. It is worth considering the range of extra-curricular activities which a school would like to offer before planning any changes in the grounds. Many schools offer activities including sports, science and gardening clubs. 34 6. Providing for the Informal Curriculum 6.1 curriculum requires consultation, investigation and consideration, ideally involving the whole school community. Whether or not this results in physical changes to the school grounds will depend upon the circumstances and needs of individual schools. However, the exercise will have inherent value if it achieves a greater understanding and clarity of purpose for this aspect of school life. This section outlines some of the ways in which the school grounds can provide for the informal curriculum. It needs to be read in parallel with section 5, which explores the formal curriculum, and section 7, which deals with the hidden curriculum. A Rationale 6.2 The informal curriculum. The term 'informal curriculum' is now widely used to describe both the times of the day when children are in school but not being taught ie, play and break times, and what they do at those times. Although the activities of pupils vary according to their age, the informal curriculum 6.5 curriculum. While the informal curriculum serves as a useful generic term for play or break times, there is no single word or simple definition which adequately describes the range of uses, activities, opportunities or experiences which are or should be provided for pupils during this time. Although the needs of pupils will differ according to their age, it is possible to identify a number of factors which have a bearing on the informal curriculum for all pupils. serves as a generic term across the nursery, primary and secondary age range. While there is much that has been written about this aspect of school life, there is not the same statutory requirement for it as for the formal curriculum. It is important, therefore, that schools consider this issue and develop their own rationale for dealing with the kind of issues raised in this section. 6.3 6.4 School grounds form a significant part of pupils' experience of the informal curriculum. Research has shown that children today have less freedom and independent mobility than previous generations. School grounds are the one external environment to which all children have regular access. For some, the informal curriculum may constitute the majority of their experience of being out of doors. Allocation of time. While individual schools may vary slightly, there is generally a correlation between the age of pupils and the percentage of the day allocated to the informal curriculum. Thus, it is common to find that, for nursery and infants, it may account for one third of each day, for juniors a quarter and for secondary pupils, one fifth. It is also usual for children to be required to spend the greater amount of this time, weather permitting, in the school grounds or that part identified as 'the playground'. The informal curriculum, therefore, accounts for a substantial part of each pupil's education at school. However, the existence of the informal curriculum is often merely traditional or driven by organisational and administrative considerations such as the need for 'breaks' of various kinds. Research has also shown that, especially to younger children, school grounds are important and different from any other type of external environment. They can represent a 'safe haven' in what is increasingly perceived as a dangerous world. They can offer a range of opportunities, experiences and activities unavailable anywhere else outdoors. Clearly, pupils require more than the simple presence of outdoor space in order to benefit from and enjoy the opportunities presented by the informal curriculum. The process of developing a rationale. Considerations about the amount of time spent by pupils are clearly an important element of any justification for such a substantial proportion of each school day. Often they serve to obscure the need to ensure that pupils gain real educational benefit from the time and the opportunity provided in the grounds. Such benefits are only likely to be realised where a clear rationale for the informal curriculum has been developed by the school. This should identify its purpose, value, aims and objectives, consider implications in terms of management practice and decisions relating to the design of the school grounds. The process of developing a rationale for the informal 37 Use of school grounds for the informal 6.6 Special schools. The grounds of special schools need to provide for similar activities to those of mainstream schools. Additional considerations have been mentioned under the formal curriculum such as the need for some pupils to practise mobility and independence skills. There may also be an additional need to allow for separation of the more vulnerable from those pursuing boisterous activities. Electric wheelchairs can be a particular hazard, especially where the pupil concerned is not yet very adept at manoeuvring. A space the size of a hard surfaced games court will usually be suitable, with adjacent 35 protected sitting areas. In all-age schools, the areas for primary and secondary age pupils should normally be separate. Security is important for all schools but it assumes even greater significance for pupils with special needs and there will often be a need to contain those spaces to which pupils have access at break times to avoid pupils straying, as well as to provide protection from vehicles and unauthorised visitors. This containment needs to be designed sensitively to avoid it appearing oppressive. 6.7 6.10 Pupils with special educational needs in mainstream schools. References to protected areas and containment in 6.6 may apply to some pupils with special educational needs in mainstream schools, particularly where there are those with severe and profound and multiple learning difficulties. 6.8 Learning opportunities. The informal curriculum provides a range of learning experiences and opportunities which are equally important as those provided by the formal curriculum. The main characteristic of the informal curriculum is that children are in school but not being taught. While they are supervised, pupils are expected to engage in self-directed and self-motivated activities. The nature of specific activities will differ according to the age of the pupils, but the absence of adult direction and organisation means that it constitutes a different form of learning experience. It provides opportunities for testing concepts, practising skills, confronting challenges, calculating risks, recognising capabilities and limitations and generally developing a sense of self-worth and self-confidence. The informal curriculum, therefore, provides for an essential element of every child's education and healthy development, especially if other opportunities are limited. In this regard, it is important to recognise that the quality of experience enjoyed by pupils is largely determined by the design and management of the school environment. 6.9 36 Design Issues 6.11 Design. There is no single solution to the design of schools for the informal curriculum since each school has different needs and particular opportunities and should use and develop its provision accordingly. Before embarking upon design changes, it is essential to undertake a survey of the site, to consult pupils, to consider the views of other sectors of the school community, especially supervisory staff and parents, and to develop a rationale for the informal curriculum. In this way, schools can be sure that they have identified the full range of their needs and opportunities. As a general rule, the type and range of activities undertaken by children and young people will be determined to a considerable extent by the design of school grounds. Whilst it is not possible to examine all the options and possibilities, a number of common problems and possible solutions are discussed. 6.12 The nature of the experience. The informal curriculum requires a pupil to spend time amongst large numbers of others. There can be few other situations where they are required to co-exist in such large numbers. While this can be a valuable experience, helping them to understand people who are both similar to and different from themselves in size, age, background, culture, likes and dislikes, it can also prove a daunting and difficult experience. Problems are exacerbated where resources, space and equipment are inadequate. This is also the case where it is not possible to engage in an activity without inconveniencing others or to find any personal space for solitude and reflection. Behaviour. In recent years much attention has focused on the informal curriculum because of a perceived increase in inappropriate behaviour and because of incidents and accidents across all age ranges. Schools expend considerable effort in devising strategies to modify unacceptable behaviour, in an attempt to reduce teasing, fighting and other forms of verbal and physical violence. Some of these strategies may prove effective in dealing with the manifestation of problems but they rarely address the underlying cause. Substantial evidence now exists to show that hostile school environments breed hostile behaviour. Many of the behavioural problems schools experience are, in short, caused or exacerbated by the way school grounds are designed and managed for the informal curriculum. 3g Space. The amount of space available for the informal curriculum is, in itself, a key factor. Schools may not be in a position to increase the amount of land they have, so it is important to consider how best to use available space. Frequently schools cite problems of over-crowding caused by too many pupils using a small area of tarmac. It is also common to find that additional space exists but, being grass, it is out of use for much of the year. It may be appropriate to consider extending the use of playing fields and sports pitches, when the weather allows, during informal curriculum. time. This will obviously have implications for the wear and tear of such spaces. However, if the problem relates to children bringing mud into the school, consideration can be given to improving drainage, providing paths or changing the nature of the surface. It is also possible that restrictions are borne of concerns related to the inadequacy of supervision. Faced with this kind of problem, some schools have employed additional supervisors, others benefit from a parents' rota and some have introduced a pool of wellington boots available for those using 6.16 grassed areas. 6.13 6.14 6.15 Zoning. Another means of increasing the range of activities and opportunities available to pupils is to segregate or zone the space. In primary schools it is common to find that pupils are segregated by age out of concern for the safety of younger children. However this may actually increase the levels of boisterous activity among older children. It also prevents children from playing with siblings and those younger and older than themselves which many enjoy doing. An alternative approach involves zoning by activity, though this requires the appropriate development of areas to support the intended activities. Schools have devised ingenious ways of defining and separating the areas, including markings on tarmac and positioning of planters or other features such as cones in place of walls or fences. Seating. The lack of places to sit, to read, to eat lunch and generally to socialise with friends is a major omission in many school grounds. Research has shown that the provision of places in which to sit is critically important and that due account needs to be taken of the environment, location and aspect as well as the design and quantity of seats. Children rarely use picnic benches as intended, while straight, linear seats positively inhibit social interaction. Seating should be positioned in sheltered rather than exposed places, on a scale relevant to the age and size of pupils. It should be formed so as to enable both small and large groupings. Attention also needs to be paid to the nature of the surface on which the seating is provided. This is to take account of the fact that it may be difficult to cut grass around uprights. Puddles will also form in areas prone to wear. Shelter. The provision of structures which provide shade and shelter can greatly enhance the quality of school grounds for both informal and formal curriculum use. The range of sizes, shapes and designs developed by schools varies from small houses for nursery age children, some even going up to two storeys, to purpose-designed gazebos and pavilions. Some schools have provided a range of smaller units in preference to a single large structure. Others have converted bicycle stores and outdoor lavatories or renovated old, often dilapidated, outdoor shelters. Variety and diversity. Whether provided by fixed elements, loose equipment, planting, sculpture or murals, it is essential that the environment offers as much variety and diversity as possible. Children and young people need, deserve and appreciate environments which engender a sense of joy and wonder. Their imagination and curiosity needs to be fed, as do their senses, in addition to providing opportunities to test and develop skills and talents. Having due regard to health and safety considerations, schools are continually discovering new and creative design solutions to the needs of the informal curriculum. Examples include musical play structures, planting to provide refuges and dens, mazes and puzzles incorporated into paving or painted on tarmac, seats designed as climbers and even the provision of 'personal planters' for those who like gardening. WM' 4, 7 .t ARAIL , \h / _LAMM Photo 21 6.17 A varied school landscape is most likely to better meet the different needs of pupils Fixed play equipment. The provision of fixed play equipment in school grounds is now common and can, if carefully selected, make a useful contribution to meeting the needs of some aspects of the informal curriculum, especially for younger children. It is imperative that schools considering the installation of fixed play equipment are fully conversant with health and safety legislation and with British Standards. Local authorities will be able to provide advice and guidance. While fixed play equipment can provide for a range of specific physical activities, its location within school grounds requires careful consideration. Issues related to cost, quantity, age, relevance, space, surfacing, supervision and maintenance requirements will need to be balanced against the opportunities which the equipment may afford. 37 Management Issues 6.18 derived considerable benefits from a variety of approaches, including: Different strategies. The allocation of time to the informal curriculum, as described in 6.3, can be considerable, even though, in recent years, there has been a trend towards reducing the time and number of breaks schools provide. This is often the result of concern over levels of inappropriate behaviour. It may also follow from difficulties arising during and after break or lunch-times. Some of the causes of such problems have already been mentioned. In many cases they can be solved by introducing new management strategies. For example, where space is very limited, staggering morning and afternoon break times can relieve pressure which results from the whole school using the grounds at the same time. Schools which encounter such problems often report that they occur only or mainly in the midday break where the environment, in failing to meet the needs of the pupils is the root cause of the problem. It follows that these increasing the number of staff; redefining job descriptions better to reflect the aims and objectives of the informal curriculum, and, possibly, making it closer to that of a playworker, emphasising participation as opposed to supervision; providing training to improve skills and confidence; organising regular meetings between teaching and non-teaching staff to improve communication and ensure a consistency of approach. It is essential that all supervisory staff are familiar with the school's health and safety policy and the procedures which must be followed in an emergency. All staff involved in supervisory duties should be given training so that they can fulfil the requirements of their job description. Local circumstances will need to be considered when determining appropriate levels and styles of supervision (see health and safety check list for governors and teachers in Reference Section H). will increase with time. 6.19 Supervisory staff. In primary schools, the management of midday breaks is usually undertaken by non-teaching staff and this will be a significant factor in the management of these times. Supervisory staff may be expected to supervise large numbers of pupils, be relatively unfamiliar with their charges and have little or no real authority. Equally, they may have received no training. Often, for reasons of expediency or incomplete understanding of the health and safety issues, this potentially very significant role is reduced to the level of policing the site. Some schools have 6.20 Loose equipment. There is considerable value to be derived from providing loose equipment at break and lunch-time at primary level. Its success depends upon the quality, quantity and variety of equipment. Ideally, pupils should be involved in its selection, organisation and care. 40 38 7. Understanding the Hidden Curriculum 7.1 they sit on other items which may not have been intended for that purpose. More profoundly, pupils' attitude to the school is potentially influenced negatively by the school's perceived lack of care. This section outlines some of the ways in which the school grounds can provide for the hidden curriculum. It needs to be read in parallel with section 5, which explores the formal curriculum, and section 6, which deals with the informal curriculum. Essentially, the design of school grounds determines the kinds of activities which are possible, but also it conveys messages about the intentions of those who manage the school. Where the only space provided for the informal curriculum is a rectangle of tarmac with some painted lines, some children will play football, others will 'rush around'. Pupils in this situation may be doing this because they like football or because the design prohibits other kinds of activities. Not unreasonably, they may also simply conclude that this is what they are intended to do. A Rationale 7.2 The hidden curriculum. The full significance of the hidden curriculum of school grounds was identified by research undertaken for the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) and LTL and is explained in Special Places; Special People the hidden curriculum of school grounds (WWF/LTL 1994). It has long been accepted that people make judgements about places based on appearance, and that design is a language which communicates. However, this research produced new knowledge because it found that school grounds, by their design and by the way they are managed, communicate messages and meanings which influence children's behaviour and attitude in a variety of ways. The fact that the environment exerts such influence and the way in which it communicates this, is now increasingly described as the hidden curriculum of school grounds. 7.3 Management Issues 7.6 The way school grounds are used, developed, maintained and managed has considerable significance. The importance of school grounds. To children, school grounds are unlike any other kind of external environment because they are part of school. This creates expectations that the provision will reflect and support the aims, purpose and ethos of their school. School grounds are often the most visible part of schools. It is important to recognise that parents and other adults may also be influenced by the hidden curriculum of school grounds and may form judgements about its ethos, values and attitudes based on the messages and meanings conveyed by the grounds. A,1 Design Issues 7.4 School grounds, like any spaces, are made up of a number of different elements, trees, tarmac, signs, etc. At its simplest level, if a school playground has no seats, children conclude that the school does not intend them to sit down outside. This example may convey other messages to children, the most obvious one being that the school disregards even the most basic needs of its pupils. Thus the absence of an element such as seats influences behaviour. In a practical sense, pupils do not sit down or, if they do, Photo 22 Shrubs can create natural dens for pupils to enjoy BEST COPY AVAILABLE 41. 39 7.7 The formal curriculum. Where school grounds are used for teaching, as a resource to deliver some element of the National Curriculum, the status of the grounds is changed. This means that teachers will use the grounds and that parts of them will be used for work in lesson time, which most children believe adults view as more important than 'play' time. Alternatively, the use of school grounds for teaching may bring about a range of interesting changes and improvements to the grounds. 7.8 The informal curriculum. Another important aspect of the hidden curriculum relates to the way school grounds are managed for the informal curriculum. While there may be good reason for designating playing fields and pitches 'out of bounds' during this time, pupils may draw harsh conclusions about the school's priorities if, as a result, lunch and break times have to be spent on cramped areas of barren, windswept tarmac. 7.9 40 Maintenance. Finally it is important to recognise that the way in which school grounds are maintained and cared for constitutes an important part of the hidden curriculum. The presence of litter, broken fences, damaged equipment and graffiti in school grounds, may lead pupils to conclude that the school cares little for the environment or for those who use it. It may encourage some to make a bad situation worse. The extent to which school grounds are valued and cared for needs to be evident if pupils are to collaborate in the development of the kind of responsible caring ethos which all schools would want to see developed. 42 8. Understanding Technical Requirements 8.1 This section provides technical information about planting and habitat creation, the layout and construction of pitches and other relevant design issues which will be of use to schools. 8.3 Planting and Creating Habitats 8.2 Creating new habitats is one way of providing for the school's needs. As always, habitats which meet the needs of more than one area will tend to be successful solutions to identified needs. For example, a map of the world painted on the tarmac could facilitate the teaching of geography, the extension of play opportunities and, at the same time, be making a statement about the ethos of the school as a multi-cultural community. It will also be important to consider how any new habitat will affect the school's sense of place, its aesthetic appeal and its implications for maintenance, see section 9. The siting of any new development is also an important design consideration. Existing habitats. It is easy to overlook, or even to destroy, existing features in the pursuit of something new. Moreover, the choice of habitats within the school grounds should be considered alongside the range of readily accessible habitats within the immediate vicinity of the school. One secondary school in the Midlands became involved in a conservation project along a natural valley and a stretch of canal, both of which passed immediately outside the school boundary. As the habitats were already available, and did not need to be established, this was an advantage. A number of schools have successfully taken on the tenure of adjacent allotments and have developed strong links with the local gardening community. Provided that the school has undertaken a thorough survey, it should be possible to avoid unnecessary duplication and be able to select habitats which are most likely to meet the needs of the school community. 8.4 Priorities. The unique characteristics of every school site means that, as for all aspects of grounds development, each school should set its own priorities for habitats to be included. SECTION Tall herbs and grasses \ \ \ Close mown grass The range of habitats can be extended by arranging them in tiers, and in linear bands of varying width 41 8.5 Approaches. It is worth stressing the need to take an overall, holistic approach to the development of the grounds. In the past, schools have often, sometimes unwittingly, adopted very different approaches on the same site, with highly ornamental planting at the entrance and a wildlife garden tucked away at the bottom of the NATIVE TREES Field maple Hornbeam Lime Rowan Ash Beech Hazel Crab apple Elm playing fields. Schools have sometimes Alder been unaware that they have been Blackthorn Scots pine advocating management according to Poplar conservation principles in one area, Hawthorn while in another, they have been Birch making heavy use of chemical Oak pesticides. In addition to taking an Willow holistic view of the whole site and its 100 200 300 400 potential for use by all aspects of the NUMBER OF INSECT AND MITE SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH EACH TREE curriculum, another useful approach is, Fig. 4 Trees valuable for wildlife as has been stressed throughout this C Kennedy & T Southwood. Journal of Animal Ecology 1984 Bulletin, the notion that any developments need to have many uses and functions. 8.8 Choice of species. School grounds are among the few For example, plants can be attractive and at the same places in urban areas where there may be room to time, be beneficial to wildlife. It is also worth plant large trees such as oak, lime, hornbeam or larch remembering that the view of the grounds from the that will ultimately grow beyond the height of classroom is important. Designing habitats in tiers is a buildings and provide a strong vertical feature. The useful technique in this respect. Such a linear opportunities may range from one specimen tree in a arrangement allows great variety of habitats over a tarmac yard to a small woodland in extensive grounds. relatively small area (Figure 3) and so has merit on Where choice is limited by the size and nature of the sites where space is constrained. site, great care needs to be exercised in the choice of I 8.6 42 Why trees? Trees provide contrast with buildings in form, colour and texture; they can be used to screen obtrusive elements, disguise abrupt changes of level, enhance landform features or define boundaries and routes. They may be used as individual specimens, in avenues, in informal groups, within hedgerows or in small woodlands. Their features shape, foliage, flowers, fruit, bark and the tracery of branches have a variety of educational uses. Leaves can be used for collage, bark for rubbing, tree products such as osier or hazel sticks for crafts, twigs for cuttings and seeds for sowing, blossom for insect attraction or simply the tree's stature or form to inspire an artistic or literary response. They can be sat under, climbed up and leaned on. In short, they can be enjoyed in a number of different ways. I 1 species. It is important that the trees selected have something to offer through the year, in terms of amenity and ecological value and of the opportunities for study. Aside from oak, which on good soils and with careful maintenance displays faster growth than it is given credit for, poplar, willow, birch, alder and cherry are all fast-growing pioneers that are good for wildlife over the short term. Native trees support a wide range of wildlife through their attraction to insects low down in the food chain (Figure 4). It may also be educationally important to explore the multicultural connections which exist with non-native species, making links with the family background of pupils wherever possible. Trees, woodlands and hedgerows. The role of trees as umbrellas, windbreaks, air filters and definers of space has already been highlighted. They have many other functions: to act as a resource for the curriculum, to provide opportunities for play and recreation and to enhance the appearance of the grounds. 8.7 I 8.9 Where to plant trees. There are many books on tree planting and it is only possible to set out the briefest of design guidelines below: natural factors such as soil and microclimate must influence the choice of both native and ornamental trees; the intended use of trees to be planted must be taken into consideration; trees are seldom successful in pairs; groups of three, five or seven are more attractive and have a greater chance of survival; while a formal or geometric approach should only be used where there is good reason for it, the use of a bold statement such as an avenue is worth considering; care should be exercised in planting close to the boundaries with neighbouring properties as the eventual spread of the canopy may require regular pruning; some species, such as birch, are far better in a large group, even ten or more, and more attractive in their natural 'feathered' form where the lower side branches have not been removed in the nursery; a 'one-of-each' approach can create a 'spotty' effect as trees of distinctive colour or form compete for attention; secretions by large leaves or fruits mean that certain trees, such as lime and horse chestnut, are less suited to car parks and pedestrian areas. Schools may wish to use the more ornamental varieties in formal areas and the native trees as forestry transplants in the wider grounds. With good aftercare, the latter grow quickly, are cheap and can be planted by pupils. It is essentially a forestry rather than a horticultural approach to planting that needs to be adopted (Figures 5 and 6). some species, such as poplar, willow, oak and ash, should not be used close to buildings or underground services, especially on certain clay soils, and all trees must be kept clear of highway sightlines, lighting columns and overhead services; METRES 5 4 3 2 1 TYPES HEIGHT m Light Standard Standard 2.5 - 2.75 235-3A MIN. STEM HEIGHT m 1.5 GIRTH cm 68 1.8 Selected Standard Heavy Ex. Heavy Standard Sta ndard 3.0 - 3.5 3.5 - 4.0 4.0 - 5.0 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 8-10 10 - 12 12 - 14 12 - 14 Sizes of nursery stock (in accordance with B.S.3936: Pt 1. 1980) Fig. 5 Light standard Standard LI Selected standard Heavy standard Extra heavy standard i 0 10 1 20 1 30 ao 50 60 70 80 90 100 COST IN L's PER TREE Note: These are typical price ranges for tree sizes related to B.S.3936: Pt 1. 1980. Costs include planting, a stake, tree ties and watering tube in the pit, but exclude VAT. The costs, however are only indicative and in practice they can vary considerably depending on factors such as location, site accessibility, and distance from the nursery. For more detailed information on capital costs refer to E & FN Spon's Landscaping and External Works Price Book 1997. (ISBN 0 419 22220 0). Fig. 6 Relative costs of nursery stock (1997) 45 43 Dry stone wall Fig. 7 8.10 Retained earth bank Hedgebank Different boundary details Woodlands. With more extensive tree planting, it is important to have a clear understanding of the type of woodland that is to be created and the kind of management it will receive. There are two main types: Coppice. This is cut on a regular cycle varying from 8 to 30 years depending on the species. Hazel, ash, sweet chestnut, alder, hornbeam and other species arc grown for small diameter poles, the stumps or stools shooting up after cutting to produce a fresh crop. Sometimes forest trees, particularly oak, are included in the mixture to provide larger timber; this is called coppice-withstandards. Some schools may also want to show children the effect of pollarding some trees, especially if livestock is kept on site. hedgerows. In the second, a single-species hedge of beech, hornbeam or a suitable conifer could be used. Hedging plants can be planted in a single row or in two rows, 250-500mm apart, with a total of between two and eight plants per linear metre. 8.12 Hedgebanks. These are a valuable variant of the hedge, offering more immediate containment and a taller screen. In certain regions, the hedgebank is a common landscape feature and its inclusion on school sites reflects and reinforces the local character. In other locations, such as against a busy road, a hedgebank can give immediate and effective screening. The greater exposure and potentially drier conditions for the young hedging plants on the bank are offset by increased protection from damage, especially trampling. In order to achieve a steep face, the bank may require a stone facing or the use of a geotextile material as a retaining structure. The latter follows the principle of sand bags, with earth-filled geotextile bags being used as building blocks. The bank inside the facing structure should contain a good growing medium with plenty of humus in the soil for water retention (Figure 7). It is important to take account of locally distinctive species and patterns of planting when introducing these features. 8.13 Wild flower meadows and heathland. A meadow need not be confined to one area, but could occupy a variety of locations displaying a range of sun and shade, aspect, soil moisture and fertility. The soil conditions in the grounds should be studied and analysed, as they are fundamental to the choice of plants and mixtures. Some meadow areas, and other wildlife habitats near classrooms and popular outdoor spaces, encourage incidental observation and are High forest. All the trees are derived from seed, either self-sown or raised in a nursery. The woodland may vary from a plantation of trees, all of the same age, to a wide range of ages from seedlings to mature trees. A study of woodlands in the locality of the school can assist the selection of trees to be planted and the proportions of the different species. If recent disturbance has resulted in an uncharacteristic mixture, reference to the county wildlife trust, or to books on the local vegetation, may assist in achieving the appropriate mix of species. 8.11 44 Hedgerows. Good, thick and regularly maintained hedgerows are valuable as a specific habitat type, as well as forming a boundary enclosure or low-level shelter. A dense thorn hedge can be as effective as chainlink fencing and far more attractive. Hedges do, however, need the initial protection of a fence to become established over a period of at least five years. The choice and mix of species depends on their intended function. A boundary hedge demands a different approach from one where the intention is to create an outdoor classroom. In the first case, hawthorn and blackthorn could form the major species, with more occasional hazel, dogwood, holly or field maple, depending on what is common in local immediately available for study. The suitability of local soils and climate, the ability to thrive in a competitive sward, and the likelihood of flowering during termtime are all important considerations in the choice of wild flower species. 8.14 46 Establishment. The close-mown sward on most existing school grounds is an extremely fertile and competitive environment. The most successful wild flower meadows are usually on sites of low fertility. Such an area creates valuable contrasts in colour and texture but often only a limited range of plants, predominantly the more aggressive grasses, do well. Whilst major earthworks on new sites can be used to leave subsoil at the surface, this is seldom an option for existing schools. The 'do-nothing-and-let-grow' option is useful as a control, for purposes of comparison, and it offers some prospect of success on less fertile soils. One danger is colonisation by less welcome species such as dock, thistle and nettle, which may take over an area and soon render it inaccessible. There are nvo main options. Create bare soil. Ideally, the turf is stripped and the topsoil removed to reduce soil fertility but where this is not possible, the sward can simply be rotovated and loose grass on the surface raked off. The choice is then between sowing a wild flower seed mix or spreading late-cut hay from a species-rich meadow. In the first case, the mix can either be a proprietary mixture or a noncompetitive grass seed mixture with a number of wild flower seeds, anything from 6 to 10 species, purchased separately but sown with the grass mixture. In the latter case, hay bales are opened up and spread over the surface by hand after it has been cultivated. This causes much of the seed to settle in or on the tilth, with the stalks acting as a valuable mulch. Diversify the existing sward. It is possible to rotovate strips in the existing sward and sow wild flower seed in the same operation, whilst leaving the area otherwise undisturbed. An alternative is to purchase wild flower seed in single species packs, germinate and grow on the young seedlings in pots and plant them in random drifts in the close-mown sward which can then be allowed to grow on. The aim is that these pioneer plants will then spread more widely over the meadow in succeeding seasons. The first option has greater application to new schools and the second to existing grounds. The purchase of packets of individual seeds and their germination and growing on for planting out offers both cost and educational benefits. Where a wild flower seed mix is to be used, autumn sowing is often more successful than spring sowing, especially in the drier parts of the country. The use of different techniques side by side will enable records to be kept of their respective development and comparisons to be made. Further opportunities are presented by sowing areas of bulbs 47 in the spring meadow, or creating an annual wild flower sward of cornfield species on a vegetable plot or a piece of bare soil. 8.15 Mowing. There is not one particular cutting regime, but rather a range from a lawn with wild flowers to a one-cut-a-year meadow. Conversion of gang-mown areas to wild flower meadows may not present significant cost benefits. Gang-mowing is very cheap compared to pedestrian mowing of smaller areas with difficult shapes or slopes. It is these more difficult areas that are often better locations for meadows. Whether the 'untidy' appearance of the meadow matters depends largely on the context and presentation of the area. If the boundaries of meadows adjacent to hard surfaces are regularly cut to a single mower width, the area appears better planned and cared for. The width of a gang-mower may also be necessary against boundaries where there could be complaints from neighbours about long grass and weeds. Similarly, mown pathways across larger meadows allow better access throughout the year, limit the need for wellington boots and afford a greater length of edge for study. They also create an interesting pattern of shapes that may offer more learning and play opportunities. 8.16 Wear and tear. With relatively free access, meadows may be subject to wear and tear from sitting, rolling, hiding and picking. If such use threatens the development of the meadow, it may need to be restricted, otherwise it should be permitted. Zoning could be used to identify quiet and active areas to accommodate various demands. 8.17 Heathland. Most, but not all, heathlands require an acidic soil; they can be dry or moist, with lowland and upland variants. Relatively few schools will have conditions that meet these criteria. Heathland habitats have, however, been lost over the last century and where impoverished and predominantly acidic conditions exist, or can be created, an area of heathland may be viable within the grounds. Some of the most successful heathland creation has used imported heathland topsoil which has been rotovated to a depth of 75-100mm before planting strippings from road schemes, mineral workings or similar developments, which would otherwise be lost. Other techniques include harvesting heathland seed or cutting turf Often these result from 'rescue' operations prior to a building development, and a first reference point is the county wildlife trust. Heathland can be lost over time to scrub invasion and sustained management is necessary to prevent this. 45 8.18 Ponds and wetlands. There are many booklets about the school pond which are a rich source of information on the different means of constructing and stocking them. The aim here is to highlight wider design issues and extend the options to other wetlands. 8.19 8.21 Safety. A major dilemma is whether to fence around a pond. The range of practice extends from the open plan approach, where there is good supervision, to tight enclosure by a fence. Fencing of a fairly light construction post and plain wire can be valuable in defining the area for supervision purposes. The enclosed area needs to be large enough to allow groups to study and may include other habitats. The decision about fencing depends on the unique features of the initial site, its management and its ease of supervision. Careful thought should be given to a location where buildings or walls already afford some containment. If additional demarcation is considered necessary, it can be less intrusive if accompanied by planting of shrubs or low hedging. Other wetlands. In the wider agricultural landscape, marshland, open ditches and wet meadows have declined in area and are still very much at risk. Their inclusion within school grounds demands a more imaginative approach to surface water drainage. Open ditches can be used to channel water in, and an area of impeded drainage can be formed to encourage marsh and wet meadow. A wet meadow can be created in a low-lying area of heavy soil. Marsh usually requires an artificial liner to retain sufficient water but this can be a cheaper polythene product rather than the butyl sheet commonly used for ponds. Where concerns about safety or vandalism discourage installation of a pond, marsh and wet meadow are alternatives well worth considering. They benefit from a board-walk 46 750 - 900mm 225mm POND SECTION A-A Position and design. A location close to the building makes the pond more available for study; it could also be safer, as it is easier to supervise. A courtyard site makes vandalism less of a problem. Above all, the pond should be near a source of water as it will seldom have sufficient catchment to balance the loss through evaporation. Tapping roof water from a downpipe is one means of reducing reliance on the mains supply and thereby contributing to water conservation. A raised pond can improve accessibility, especially for the disabled. If it is built into a slope, it will facilitate movement by amphibians and give a more natural appearance. Pupils will benefit if one part is edged with timber decking or paving slabs; this enables them to make a close study of the aquatic life in relative safety (Figure 8). 8.20 300 - 450mm Bog area Lip Shelf 750 - 900mm POND SECTION B-B Shelf 750mm 7 Shelf needs to be at least 450mm wide POND SECTION C-C 750mm Polythene liner with drainage holes BOG AREA SECTION IN DETAIL Paving slabs 450 x 450mm *so A 1 ('N \ Shallow water \ 300-450mm Lip / ( Shelf 225mm Deeper water j 750-900mm ------ I Bog area / Shelf 225mm CJ POND PLAN Fig. 8 Li / Pond and marsh construction I / A against the school wall. If too many shrub and rose borders, which are expensive to maintain, have been placed around the building, the school may be better served by converting certain of these convenient and visible plots to more productive use. The herb border is a partnership between the aesthetic and the culinary and can lead to difficulties over location. For example, one LEA decided that a herb garden should be sited close to the kitchen, but also required that the kitchen be sited on the north side of the building wherever possible. This arrangement condemned many herbs to a slow death in the shade. across them to assist access and provide more intimate contact with the fauna and flora. 8.22 Other habitats. With the exception of hedgerows, the habitats described above even if they have been deliberately constructed - are still essentially 'natural' in the sense that they function as ecosystems. Other habitats may be more obviously artificial, their prime aim being to attract specific wildlife or to provide homes or shelter. There are almost limitless possibilities to be creative in this area, from mazes to model landscapes, brushwood piles to earth mounds, iron-age huts to soil profiles. Gardens may be created for insects generally, for butterflies and bees in particular, and for birds. They can also be 'themed' in a number of different ways, for example, from the Bible, by smell, shape, colour, country of origin, etc. A dry stone wall, either free-standing or better still as a retaining structure, affords a habitat for mosses and lichens, and niches for fauna. Its inclusion where it is a regional feature or where it can be constructed with local stone, will enhance the link with the surrounding landscape character. Piles of logs that are allowed to rot and drainage pipes that provide homes or shelters, are both simple but effective options that can provide for the needs of small mammals, reptiles or insects. 8.23 Crops and animals. Gardens for growing food crops 8.26 Orchards and nutteries. A small orchard with vigorous and dwarf rootstocks offers shade and a setting for recreation. It also provides a resource for the study of contrasts in history and science, and has the potential to stimulate work in art and English. Where there is not the room or the need for a wood, orchard trees can create some of the same spatial qualities, the canopy of branches and leaves contributing to a feeling of containment and shelter. The establishment of a diverse grassland with wild flowers beneath the trees helps to recreate the historically and ecologically valuable orchards, in which species-rich grassland beneath the trees is grazed by sheep. and paddocks for keeping animals may also claim a share of the 'habitat' zone. It rests with the individual school to strike its own balance between competing uses and to decide whether the considerable demands of grazing stock can be accommodated. 8.24 Growing crops. Resources for gardening vary from a tiny chequer-board garden to a smallholding. Important considerations include the soil conditions, the location relative to the school, site security and access for machinery. On new sites, teachers and pupils should not strive vainly to turn subsoil into productive gardens, when good soil management (with importation of quality topsoil in the worst situations) is the right answer. Pupils like to see their plants grow and to tend them outside lesson time. A location, near the school, that can be supervised is desirable. Long narrow plots allow for rotovators to work more easily and for pupils to gain access from the side. Even if it cannot be provided initially, a site for a tool store is important, ideally with vehicular access. An emphasis on recycling is likely to increase the demand for compost bins nearby. 8.25 Using shrub borders. Where space is limited, some existing schools take over poorly stocked shrub borders and convert them to vegetable and flower gardens. Runner beans can be attractive climbers 42 Photo 23 Children love picking apples and other fruit or nuts 47 Fine wire mesh cover " 6mm grit covering 25mm John Innes seed mix 4 ,L1111. p IPS".ett414:ViiteZ.:4004-01ZIKVirMWS ulF74WW,r,6147:1-egvt: 50mm planting compost (non-peat) 175mm compressed leaf litter Railway sleeper 100mm clinker levelled off with ash 600 x 50mm stake Fig. 9 Detail of a tree nursery bed 8.27 Tree nurseries. Confined space, even on the colder north side of a building, can be put to good use as tree nursery beds. The best location is often adjacent to, or as part of, a school garden. At least two beds are needed so that they can be cleared and re-sown in alternate years. Timber sleepers make ideal surrounds and the width can vary between 1.0m and 1.5m, with extension to any length required. Suitable mature tree species are needed as sources for seeds and cuttings. Oak, hazel, ash and hornbeam are good native trees, and horse chestnut and sycamore are successfully introduced species. Birch, alder and willow may set seed after only 5-8 years but these are more difficult to germinate. Poplar and willow are excellent for cuttings, especially the common osier, which can be used for basket-making (Figure 9 and Table 1). 8.28 Keeping animals. Over recent years, a number of schools have chosen to keep animals within their grounds, because of the beneficial experiences they can bring to children. Schools are well advised to examine the educational arguments and the demands of animal husbandry before going ahead'. When they are kept in the school grounds, pets are suitably housed in hutches and small stablings, often as part of the garden area close to the school and main recreation areas. Keeping farm animals requires three or four small paddocks linked to indoor housing for effective management and security. In some cases, where crop and livestock husbandry is central to the school, the interest has extended beyond school hours and has spread into the community. This allows for deliveries to be made and livestock cared for at weekends and over holidays but a controlled independent access is necessary. The challenge is to make the enterprise an integrated part of school life, whilst at the same time ensuring strong links exist with the local community. Where animals are not present permanently, it can be useful to have a small corner for visiting pets or a paddock for visiting farm livestock. Such visits afford some experience of animals without the long-term commitments. 8.29 reconstruct historical features, such as hedgebanks or wood banks, wattle fencing or walls made from local stone. There may be links with the surrounding landscape which can be integrated into the design of the grounds. A more ambitious approach, that demands detailed planning and considerable application of time and resources, is to re-construct pre-historic dwellings, or former industrial or agricultural enterprises or small Third World village settlements. These can be integrated with other activities and may afford further habitats for wildlife. Outdoor displays often centre on sculptural works because of their durability; they may be the result of a specific initiative in art and design or form part of a longer-term programme. Some of the best initiatives in this area arise from collaboration between the school pupils and a professional artist. The relative permanency of such features and the threat from vandalism both need to be fully assessed. 8.30 Restricted sites. Where space is restricted, there is scope for mini-versions of a number of the habitats described earlier. Size is an important issue but not an overriding one, because miniature habitats can enrich the most austere tarmac yard. Multi-use may well be a prerequisite since the garden created for use within the curriculum is likely to serve also as a social area if carefully planned. Fig. 10 Taking the garden up into the air Historical reconstructions and outdoor displays. A further use of the habitat area is as a site to 'The RSPCA provides free: Animals In Education - making your school 48 50 animal friendly, which deals with all aspects of animal welfare. Department of Education and Science Administrative Memorandrum No3/90: Animals and plants In schools; Legal aspects. 8.31 handling is easier when plants are grown in a raised bed. The width should be restricted to 600mm where access is from one side only and 1200mm when from both sides. Suitable heights can vary between 400mm and 700mm depending on the age of pupils; a height Design of small habitats. The pressure of use often necessitates a change in level, if not a fence, to allow some soft landscape to thrive. Where access by pupils can be restricted, which means an area detached from the main play facilities, a mini-meadow as small as a few square metres is possible. A path of stepping stones will limit wear and assist the study of plants and wildlife. Further opportunities exist to elevate the garden by using walls, fences and trellises for climbing plants (Figure 10). 8.32 of 450 600mm is required for the wheelchair gardener. Features such as former outdoor toilets may be simply converted to meet these requirements (Figure 11). Troughs can be constructed from upright paving slabs or precast concrete fencing panels or they can be purpose-built in brick or timber as long as they are strong enough to retain the weight of the soil. Small gardens can also be made in plant containers, Raised beds. To limit the cost of beds, tarmac areas can sometimes be broken up with only the surface layer removed. Holes can be punched through the surface for drainage and a 600mm container wall and seat can be used to retain a depth of soil. This achieves a good growing medium. For those pupils with special needs, the cultivation of plants which require frequent Jan TREES Feb Mar Apr May sinks, tyres or barrels. Such raised or artificial planters do, however, require more care, especially with regular watering and in the use of fertilisers. Jun Jul Ash Aug ..seio wiess Sep Oct Nov Dec Alder Birch Beech Field Maple Lime Hornbeam Holly Oak Rowan Scots Pine Service Tree Sweet Chestnut 11. Whitebeam Wild Cherry SHRUBS Blackthorn Dog Rose Dogwood Elder Guelder Rose Hawthorn Hazel Privet Purging Blackthorn Spindle Tree Wayfaring Tree CUTTINGS Poplar 11111 Willow Table 1 When to collect tree and shrub seeds and take cuttings 51 49 = ... ir- lI- = 3-7---7 IN. w. 1 WO -5' -- ) ,' = Th. --., ?'".... \ . ..,-...,... ,...- .Th.......,..!5 NM MI -- - .. ... - ELEVATION Social area Pond with marsh Butterfly garden and growing plots ED, Hardwood seats on existing wall reduced in height; pergola over higher rear area with seats beneath Pond of reinforced plastic construction contained by welded mesh on timber uprights with gates for access Tree nursery Steps Climbers and butterfly plants to be set against wall with topsoil plots in chequerboard paving pattern for use by pupils PLAN Note: The conversion shown involved reducing the outer walls to 450mm in height to provide dwarf walls for sitting and to form planters for a butterfly garden and plots for growing plants. A tank pond and marsh were created in a rigid plastic pond liner and for reasons of safety welded mesh doors were included. Fig. 11 Conversion of outside lavatories provides a range of opportunities Layout and Construction of Pitches 8.33 dimensions. In 1993 the netball governing body introduced 'First Step Netball', a junior version of the game for younger pupils. It can be played across a third of the senior court or be marked out in its own right. Games courts for primary schools. Useful reference can be made to 5.5 on physical education when reading these paragraphs and area guidelines for hard surfaced games courts given in Reference Section F. Outdoor games need plenty of space. The first requirement is for a hard surfaced drained area with a near level and even surface that is free of obstructions, such as drain covers or protruding sockets or service covers. The traditional netball court remains popular because the 'grids' formed by the markings can also be used for mini-games such as short tennis; it also provides a basic minimum area for class games activities when extended as in Figure 12. A margin of at least 1.0m should be provided between court boundaries and walls, but this margin should be increased where there are changes of level. Ballretaining fencing might be required in order to protect buildings, nature resources, and neighbouring property. At least one tarmac full-size senior netball court, 32.0 x 16.75m, including minimum overall margins might be appropriate at all but the smallest primary school. Where spacc is limited netball can be played on a slightly smaller court by scaling down the Any other hard surfaced areas need to be close to the court to enable the teacher to maintain effective supervision. 8.34 Curriculum, which makes games compulsory for all primary year groups, reinforces the need for suitable grass areas in every primary school. For junior pupils, marked pitches will be needed. The maximum size of a grass pitch is usually 80 x 50m; smaller versions, such as 70 x 40m, or 65 x 37m, can be provided where space is limited or as a second pitch. On smaller pitches the centre line can be used to divide them into two for mini-games, while on larger pitches a division into quarters can be beneficial. It should be possible to mark out a straight running track with six to eight lanes with a length of 60-80m for summer use. 8.35 52 50 Playing fields for primary schools (1996 School Premises Regulations apply). The National Games courts for secondary schools. It is now recommended that, in order to provide for the needs of the physical education curriculum at secondary chosen by the school. It is possible to alternate these sports on a termly basis, although this involves greater cost in moving goal posts and marking pitches. As a result, however, of changing types of games on pitches termly, for example rugby to soccer and hockey may have the consequence of not being able to prepare pitches to the necessary standard for the particular type of game to be played safely due to surface roughness making ball play hazardous with reference to hockey. Table 2 in this section shows the respective range of provision that can normally be accommodated within a minimum statutory area. Some possible pitch layouts for summer and winter games for schools of 600, 900 and 1,200 pupils are shown in Figure 15. In addition to games, the grounds can support preparation for outdoor and adventurous activities, such as orienteering, adventure training and camping. For these activities, it is an advantage to have varied terrain and some cover with level, a minimum of four tennis courts is desirable on new sites. This is to allow for effective class or group games tuition, and allows the four courts to be combined as a multi-games area. This clearly has implications for any secondary school redesigning its site or facilities; useful reference can be made to area guidelines for hard surfaced games courts given in Reference Section F. If games courts are to be used effectively, ballstop fencing is essential and kickboards or rebound walls are highly desirable. Wherever possible, the courts should be combined to form a multi-games area. The area guidelines for informal and social areas given in Reference Section F allow space for a separate paved area that can be used for kick-about and other boisterous games during breaktimes, so that they need not therefore take place on the hard surfaced games courts. 8.36 Playing fields for secondary schools (1996 School Premises Regulations apply). The playing field area limited visibility. For area recommendations, Reference Section F can be consulted. at secondary level should ideally provide a 400m running track and games pitches for other sports 30.5m 0 X 4.9m 15.25m 27 5m maximum X 0 o 0 El 39.5m maximum MARKINGS GAMES 1 1 Netball Rounders (using rounders bases marked X) Skittleball (using pairs of circles) Rota ball games (using small squares as batting plates) 6 Circle dodge ball 1 6 Court football grid or 3 court area for 3 small sided team games Note: For 5-a-side football rebound boards will be needed 3 Fig. 12 Rounders batting and bowling plates 1.8m and 2.4m square Small circles 1.2m radius Small squares 1.5m side Large circle 2.4m radius Junior games court for 8-11 year olds r. 3 51 8.37 Orienteering courses, trim trails and fitness have devised smaller and simpler layouts for minigames, with consequent reductions in team-size and duration of play. These encourage fuller involvement of all pupils and provide for a greater range of activity within a given area. They also reduce the risk of skeletal and muscular stress injuries in younger pupils. The smaller team-sizes can be a particular advantage in schools where pupil numbers are small. circuits. These facilities can be a useful resource for both physical education and geography. Orienteering courses can have uses in many subjects which demand physical activity and direction-finding or observation skills. Trim trails can offer a very useful extension to physical education activities, especially when other facilities are out of use. They give scope for individual challenge and achievement, which may prove attractive to some pupils, as well as for team events. They need to be as well designed and efficiently managed as any other sports facility. 8.41 Where they are to be used predominantly by parents and the wider community, they are better suited to a sports centre or public open space, since access to them at the weekends or evenings can present Margins. For effective use and safety, pitch layouts should include adequate margins around the playing area, often a distance of at least 6.0m at the ends and 4.5m at the sides will be needed and, a further 9.0m to one side allows winter games pitches to be moved in alternate years. In some layouts it is possible to undertake more radical re-planning, especially where mini-pitches are included in the layout. difficulties. 8.38 School and community. To meet the needs of the physical education curriculum, any Best common orientation f accessible public and private sports and recreation facilities in the neighbourhood deserve to be considered. It is better for the school and the community if what is already available can be supplemented rather than replicated. When new facilities are being planned, local community and sports associations should be consulted about both indoor and outdoor provision. The Sports Council has stressed the importance of careful planning and assessment of needs, for the school's own pupils, and for the local community and local sports bodies. 8.39 52 3450 360° 20. Layout of pitches. Careful attention should be given to the layout of pitches, courts and practice areas; their location, size and shape; the margins required around them; their orientation and gradient; and the possibilities of shared school and community use. Practical considerations include the flexibility of the facilities regarding summer and winter activities, accessibility for maintenance equipment and the availability of a water source if irrigation is needed. Safety considerations may well influence the direction of play and the proximity of different activities. 8.40 Practical limits for preferred direction of play for all facilities Reciprocal bearings shown dotted Sizes. Pitch markings and court sizes for the major sports are given in Reference Section B. For many sports activities, the full-size pitches or courts should be scaled down progressively to suit younger pupils. Some national sports Hockey pitches may be sited in any direction as in this game the ball seldom rises sufficiently for the sun to be a nuisance Pavilion should avoid the SW to NW aspect (225°-315°) Fig. 13 54 Pitch orientation In relation to aspect National Playing Fields Association Alternative arrangement for pitches dotted Alignment at an angle to boundries gives a greater depth behind the goal and creates triangular pockets of land for wider curricular use. Fig.14 8.42 Pitch orientation in relation to boundaries gradients for the different facilities are as follows: Orientation. The orientation of courts and pitches raises two issues. winter games and cricket outfield surfaces should have a gradient of between 1 in 60 and 1 in 80 on average, preferably across rather than along the line of play. It may be increased to a maximum of 1 in 40 where existing levels present problems; The most familiar is the alignment of pitches and courts in relation to the position of the sun. This is less critical for games such as hockey, where the ball is on or close to the ground, but for soccer, rugby, netball, tennis and cricket it is an important consideration. Problems are caused not only by the early morning and evening sun in summer, but also by the low angle of the winter sun throughout much of the day. The general preference is for a north-south orientation for pitches so that players are faced with the sun at its highest and least troublesome (Figure 13). Where pitches are parallel to boundaries or buildings, there is often a narrow margin which is of little use for other activities and balls may continually have to be retrieved from neighbouring land. Orientation at an angle to boundaries can reduce this problem by creating a greater depth behind the goal area and at the same time these pockets of land can be used for the wider curriculum (Figure 14). 8.43 Gradients. A slight gradient rather than a level plateau is advisable, even where the soil is exceptionally free draining or where there is a 'permeable' synthetic surface that allows water to percolate. A gradient will assist surface water drainage and it may become more important when soils become compacted as a result of use. Existing topography may sometimes conflict with the preferred orientation of pitches and in such cases, the cost and convenience of constructing pitches to a suitable gradient may take precedence. The recommended cricket tables should preferably be level between stumps with 1 in 100 as a maximum slope, and there should be a slight crossfall of 1 in 80, with 1 in 60 as the maximum; tennis, netball and basketball courts should have a crossfall of between 1 in 80 and 1 in 100, with courts level in the direction of play. A change of level from the building to a lower plateau can often afford a terraced viewing area for spectators. 8.44 Seasonal changes. Summer and winter games facilities share the use of the playing field area. The more efficient the layout is, the less space is required. Winter pitches usually form a substantial part of the cricket outfield and the 400m running track. Because of their greater overall dimensions and lesser flexibility in terms of size, summer facilities are often crucial in determining the design and layout of playing fields. The extension of the season in some sports has made multi-use of areas more difficult. Hockey is a game where there are changing attitudes to turf due to the difficulty in achieving the surface quality required for safe play. There is now an increasing preference for synthetic turf with its high quality and reliable surface but its use may reduce opportunities of overlapping pitches with the cricket outfield owing to surface differences. The choice will depend on the popularity of individual sports within the school and the standards to which they are played. t: BEST COPY AVAILABLE 53 8.45 8.46 Deciding on location. Choices for playing field layout can be drawn on plans and compared, and templates of the main facilities made to an appropriate scale will assist the process. If winter and summer layouts are printed on acetate they can be superimposed. Such an exercise helps not just to decide on the best layout, but it will also show how much flexibility exists to overcome severe wear and tear by a different arrangement of pitches. The location of both athletics field events and cricket nets should reflect the need for effective supervision and group teaching. Spreading them about the playing fields in left-over corners can frustrate educational use and may impede movement of winter pitches from season to season. The relationship of the pitches to the buildings in general, and to the changing rooms in particular, is fundamental to good planning. To prevent mud being deposited over other sports areas or in buildings, the routes to grass pitches should avoid other games or play areas and allow direct access to changing facilities. A number of possible layouts have been illustrated to highlight how to provide for winter and summer games (Figure 15). variety of use. This has made them particularly attractive on confined urban sites, where use by the school may exceed 20 hours per week, as opposed to the 3 to 15 hours that may be possible on grass. They can ensure that at least one area is available for physical activities soon after heavy rainfall. At the primary level, synthetic surfaces can also function as the main playground on restricted sites. Capital costs. The high capital outlay for most synthetic surfaces, approximately £300,000 at 1997 prices for a football pitch, depending on soil type and excluding fencing and floodlighting, has meant that they have been used where restrictions on playing field area justify abnormal costs. Their 'installation in school grounds may depend on some form of joint venture with a local authority or sports club. Running costs. In addition to capital costs for the initial installation, there is considerable variability in the maintenance and replacement costs for different surfaces. This is particularly relevant at a time when schools are increasingly responsible for maintenance. Sports surfaces. The familiar combination of grass pitches and tarmacadam courts has been extended over recent years with the introduction of a variety of synthetic sports surfaces. Each has its advantages and disadvantages and the final choice of surface will depend on which of the criteria below are regarded as most compelling. A number of factors can influence the choice of sports surfaces. Suitability for different sports. The choice of surface is also dependent on the major sporting activities within the individual school. Synthetic turf is unsuited to rugby, yet it is increasingly preferred for hockey. For some sports it is ideal for practice but it should be accompanied by natural grass for major team events. The age groups involved, the standard of play and the type of footwear necessary may influence the final choice. Space and availability. One of the reasons for the increasing use of synthetic surfaces has been their ability to accommodate a greater intensity and Statutory area Possible team games and sports provision on statutory area Cricket facilities Grass pitches Number of pupils in school Minimum total 401 to 500 25,000 1 1 1 501 to 600 30,000 2 1 601 to 750 35,000 2 2 751 to 900 40,000 3 901 to 1,050 45,000 3 1,051 to 1,200 50,000 3 3 1,201 to 1,350 55,000 4 1,351 to 1,500 60,000 4 Table 2 54 Small Medium Athletics facilities Cricket Pitch (non-turf) Cricket 1 - 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 2 3 4 Large Cricket Square 400m 6 lane High Long Pole Jump Jump Vault 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 in m2 Nets track Range of summer and winter games provision for secondary schools that can be accommodated within statutory playing field area (refer to Figure 15 for pitch layouts for a number of sizes of schools) 56 / ,, 1 I 7 1 ` I \ I/ r' 7 I 1,- - - - - -- A t -- -11 I / / //' , I 1 i I L--- --'-I 5 , 19 I . \ \ I- 6 / I i' \ '-' --, - \L. I \ I . III L I ri 1.----1 \\ 4 1 1 I 8 1 1 , . \ , I '1-1T / / I \\ ' \ \ / 1 I 4 I i I I L----1 1 I / / I/i / '-1-4-- -- --e----7 I s.. , L2=-3 4 1 , 5 i 1 -... k I I 1 I I \I I 1( I \I I --r-----k--7---7.-- -1 I , ., 'I \\ \ \ r- II ,1 \\ -.:.4. I -\ `. . +---=-=-..- - -\- - -1-1 pi- ,f 1---------H---1 i \I _ 17 ri ,-------1-"---1-----..... \ \\\ fa , / 1/ i / = ...., -------,-7 2 r----------1 , A------- I -I 4-1 / 1 11 r I ,/ // r I H 2____ / r--7.-\-- --s--77-'7-7.... - -1,-,11. 9_____ - // 1 8 1 I `, .. \_ _ ./ '--_____--- 1 ,I 1 I i 1 , 1 L______ ____I 1 1 1 1 "- --7 _/___ ____1. 1 1 J L_ __..-- Four form entry mixed secondary school for 600 pupils aged 11-16 years 30,000m2 all grass 7 i I i I I 7 I I I KEY Six form entry mixed secondary school for 900 pupils aged 11-16 years 40,000m2 all grass Summer games facilities 1 2 High jump 1 I I 3 400m 6 lane track marked out in summer 2 /3 // I , / I i 1 i 4 Grass square and out-field 1 . ...... i Artificial wicket and out-field 6 Cricket nets Small 8 Medium 9 Large i \ i / i / . I 1 . '1I \ : 1 1 \ I\ / 1 I % 1 lit - , 1 I I!-7.-----='=-1.- II I I\ I I\ 61_ 9 ....... Ij \I . I i ; I ,-- -- , Section B is , // --__I i / I , I\ I i ...., --- ___ __--- l/ A / I L_______J Eight form entry mixed secondary school for 1200 pupils aged 11-16 years 50,000m2 all grass catchment area surrounding the school, then a synthetic surface might become a cost-effective option. Prevailing soil conditions and climate. Poor soil conditions and severe local climatic factors can be as significant as space limitation in determining choice of surface. It might in these circumstances be better to invest in higher quality provision over a smaller area than to provide extensive grass playing fields that may be unusable in winter. Possibility of shared use. Adult use will increase the rate of wear of grass pitches. Where the additional wear becomes significant, the individual school may wish to invest in a better quality natural turf or a synthetic surface, possibly a mini-pitch or the refurbishment of an existing hard surface, and to achieve some remuneration through lettings to local clubs or groups. If a large market demand is expected from the i -1: `..L.. Some possible pitch layouts for summer and winter games for different sizes of secondary schools. I I 1 1 - -- - ---'- For sizes refer to Association Football Table 3 For further information on games facilities refer to Reference Fig. 15 5 i 1 / // / /1 t_ __L,,__ ..t _17_ J '-'-' .7_----7 _r--... n....4: .--:_17, ----'-. r- Winter games facilities based on association football pitch sizes 7 I I__ _ ____ _.s-_.....,- - - - -, - - _A - - 1 5 . , . _..1 __ L\___ __\_), 1 1 I--7 1 r --1---1 Cricket 1 L_L__________i 1--7----1-T-1 I 1 Note: Pole Vault is not shown ---- __ - - - 1,1. 1. / ,.I- Long jump 7 Indoor facilities. The range of indoor facilities such as sports halls, especially in urban schools, can influence priorities for outdoor sports provision where space is limited. 8.47 Natural grass. Grass is still the preferred surface for many sports, but it is vulnerable to wear if over-used, a situation that will be exacerbated by poor or inadequate initial construction. Grass is particularly susceptible to bad weather when pitches may be out of use for long periods in winter. Recent research shows that pipe drainage on its own offers little improvement to playability on poorly draining soils; it is only with the addition of 'slit' drainage that 55 significantly greater hours of use can be achieved. The stripping, storage and placement of topsoil and subsoil during playing field construction are crucial to the formation of a high-quality grass playing surface. Topsoil and subsoil depths vary considerably and this should be taken into account when specifying soil stripping. Such strippings should be stored quite separately during earthwork operations. To achieve the best possible natural turf surface it is essential to use machinery with low ground bearing capacity to avoid tracking over topsoiled areas, and to use a subsoiler to relieve ground compaction. Additionally, good supervision is necessary and only working when ground conditions are suitable will help to improve the end result. 8.48 grass topsoil (a) Undrained pitch subsoil grass topsoil grit Drainage. There are four main categories of natural grass pitch construction that deserve a mention. Undrained. Normally only considered where the prevalent soil conditions are unusually freedraining, as may be the case with sand or chalk. Piped drainage. A drainage system is installed, usually on a grid or herringbone pattern; it is only effective where sound construction techniques and soil type ensure adequate movement of surface water down through the soil. gravel (b) Pipe drained pitch pipe drain grass 'Slit' drainage. In addition to the pipe drainage system, sand slits are cut across the slope in the overlying soil layers, normally across the main slope or at least at such an angle that the surface water will shed quickly to the slit drains. Sand carpet. Whilst the 'slit' drainage system can itself incorporate a sand dressing of 25mm, in this case the depth of sand is increased to as much as 100mm or more to form a carpet over the soil. An irrigation system is essential in many parts of the country to ensure a good quality grass playing surface is established and sustained. subsoil 25mm medium fine sand top dressing topsoil grit gravel (c) 'Slit' drained pitch subsoil pipe drain The most cost-effective solution on heavier or poorer draining soils is the 'slit' drainage system which offers worthwhile benefits by extending the hours of play that a pitch can sustain. Catchwater drains may also be necessary around pitches of any type to stop water from getting on to the playing surface from surrounding higher ground (Figure 16). However it must be remembered that such systems require regular maintenance. grass 100-150mm medium fine sand top dressing topsoil grit gravel (d) Sand carpet pitch subsoil pipe drain Fig. 16 56 Four types of natural turf construction Sports Council, Natural Turf Pitches Prototypes Advisory Panel Report No 3 - 1989 8.49 Reinforcement materials. Synthetic reinforcement materials can be used to protect the grass and the soil on playing field surfaces. They offer greater advantages on topsoil pitches than on those of sand construction and are most effective in high-wear areas such as goalmouths and centre circles (Figure 17). The cost tends to preclude their use over the whole pitch. If problems of wear are widespread, it is better to install 'slit' drainage with a sand dressing or a sand carpet. Certain products have displayed poor traction or caused problems with grass establishment. Semirigid geotextile membranes need to be installed below stud depth and their anchorage should be regularly checked. Reinforcement materials can have beneficial effects on ground cover, surface ponding, ball rebound and ball roll, although the effect varies between the different products available. It is possible to spike through most reinforcement materials, although the long-term consequences of spiking have yet to be evaluated. 8.50 Synthetic turf surfaces. The original synthetic turf consisted of an open pile made of ribbons or blades intended to simulate the appearance of natural grass. More recently a different system incorporating a sandfilling between the pile has been introduced. Since 1981, when the first such pitches were established in the UK, this alternative form of construction has become the more popular, primarily because of its lower cost. Most proprietary systems consist of a carpet with a shockpad beneath which is laid on a prepared base. Sand-filled carpet. The pile is longer (20-28mm) and less dense than the original type and is tufted rather than knitted or woven. Sand is dressed into the pile to the top of the ribbons. The carpets are installed as strips which are seamed together onsite by adhesive bonding; line markings can be installed similarly. The carpet should be regularly topped up with sand to avoid wear and stress to seams. Shockpad. Both types (Figs 18 and 19) of synthetic turf are laid on a resilient underlay or shockpad which was developed from the original thin foam base. The thickness ranges from 640mm; thinner pads, particularly, may incorporate complex irregular shapes to enhance shock absorption. High wear areas where reinforcement materials might be considered, centre circle and goal mouths Fig. 17 Location of reinforcement materials for high wear areas on games pitches Base construction. The base below the shockpad started out by copying the techniques used in road building and it is generally known as 'engineered'. Unbound 'dynamic' and static constructions were introduced subsequently and some suppliers have now completely replaced the bound macadam layers with a blinding of small stones with bituminous spray. The thinner and Synthetic turf Shockpad Fine course asphalt (30mm) Base course asphalt (60mm) Note: Material thickness is Fine broken stone (30-50mm) only given to provide a general idea of the construction. Actual thickness would depend on Coarse broken stone (150mm) site conditions. Consolidated soil Fig. 18 Typical synthetic turf pitch construction (Engineered base) G Tipp & V Watson National Turf Grass Council Report Nol 1988 50 57 Synthetic turf Shockpad Hard porous material (25mm) Fine broken stone (25mm) Note: Material thickness is only given to provide a general idea of the construction. Actual thickness would depend on site Coarse broken stone (150-200 mm) conditions. Geotextile as stabilising membrane Consolidated soil Fig. 19 Typical synthetic turf pitch construction (Dynamic base) 6 Tipp & V Watson National Turf Grass Council Report No 1 1988 less robust the construction, the lower the cost but the greater the risk of damage from frost and the lower the life expectancy. Dynamic bases are intended to be more yielding and may not require such an elaborate shockpad to produce thc required performance characteristics. By their nature, however, they may not maintain the evenness of the engineered version (Figure 18). 8.51 8.52 Applications. The development of synthetic surfaces has led to a reduction in the area of fine sports turf, especially for hockey and cricket. This trend has been encouraged by the high maintenance costs of fine sports turf and the difficulty of sustaining standards which has led to concerns about safety. Non-turf cricket pitches and surfaces within cricket practice nets can be set semi-permanently on a hard porous surface, with the synthetic turf anchored at the edges. In larger secondary schools the combination of a synthetic cricket pitch and a grass cricket pitch with separate outfields is a useful mix. For smaller schools, a synthetic cricket pitch is a cost-effective choice. Another valuable application of synthetic materials is as a multi-games surface, and a number of schools that have found the cost of a full-sized pitch beyond their reach have installed a mini-pitch version for small games and practices. surface constructions as shown in figures 18 and 19. The material thickness ranges from 10-20mm according to its use, its colour can vary but usually red or green is chosen either as a total body colour or as an applied finish. The disadvantages in use of the material are in its cost, its impermeability (which demands accurate engineering), and its tendency to become slippery in wet weather. Efforts have been made to reduce this disadvantage by introducing rubber or mineral granules into the surface. Generally these surfaces support a narrower range of sports, though they have proved useful for multi-games courts, and where games courts serve for both play and sport activities. The material can also function as a safety surface when used in appropriate thickness. Refer to Broad Sheet (BS) 7108: Method of test for impact absorbing playground surfaces, and BS 5750: Quality systems; and for the material generally BS 7044: Artifical sports surfaces Part 4 BSI London (1990). 8.53 developed more than 50 years ago as multi-sports surfaces which, because of their permeable properties, could be used in most weather conditions. They consist of finely crushed or graded stone, 40-50mm thick, which is laid over a pipe-drained coarse stone base 150mm thick. The main drawback is that the surface can be unplayable during a thaw after frost or after prolonged heavy rain. The maintenance requirements entail frequent raking, brushing, rolling, spiking and watering, which are expensive and demanding. Hard porous surfaces can nevertheless accommodate intensive use and have been particularly popular for hockey until the recent growth in synthetic turf pitches. Polyurethane bonded rubber. There are a number of forms and purposes for polyurethane (PU) resin used as a binder in combination with granular rubber. It can be laid in-situ using a wet-pour system on prepared concrete or tarmacadam bases set to precise tolerances and gradients. It can be laid on similar bases either in sheet or tile form as athletics tracks or in small areas, or as shockpads for synthetic turf 58 Hard porous (waterbound) surfaces. These were 60 8.54 Hard games courts. Coated macadam and asphalt remain the most popular choices on school sites for tennis and netball courts. They can also be used for 5a-side football and basketball. Although the macadam can be laid as an open textured permeable surface, the pores tend to get blocked with grit and dust over time. Gradients of up to 1 in 80 may be required to ensure adequate surface drainage. A surface coating can be used to reduce abrasion and to provide alternative colours to black. Netball is the only sport for which these surfaces are the preferred choice of the governing body. The use of hockey or shinty sticks is not encouraged because of the risk of damage to the surface and wear to the sticks. 8.55 Upgrading existing surfaces with a synthetic a netball-sized hard surfaced games court plus a grassed area, in total equal to the recommended figure set out in Reference Section F table 21. More extensive use of safety surfaces may be necessary than at other schools. Careful consideration should be given to the design of, equipment within, and access to, areas for use in both the formal and informal curriculum. Particular aspects to consider are the height of equipment and garden boxes, the textures of different areas, spaces between equipment, and opportunities for several members of staff to work at the same time. Providers should create surfaces and spaces that allow for varying degrees of activity and vulnerability. Different special needs make a range of demands, for example: sensory impairment requires greater reliance on the senses that are unaffected. For visually impaired pupils colour, texture, smell and sound have an increased importance as they move about the school environment; surface. This is usually done to improve the surface for play, to extend the hours of use, and to reduce the cycle of regular maintenance of hard porous pitches. Generally, synthetic turf surfaces are beyond the financial reach of most schools but they might wish to consider organising a joint venture, with major funding from a partner, as part of a shared use arrangement. However before any decisions can be reached it is essential to take professional advice as much will depend on the quality of the surface as to whether it is suitable for upgrading. physical disabilities demand considerate design to ensure access to all areas to encourage the development of greater independence, and to provide safe simulations of hazards pupils might meet outside school. Detailed information about designing school grounds for children with special needs is contained in Grounds Other Design Issues 8.56 for sharing: a guide to developing school sites (LTL 1996). The same considerations will apply when Designing for children. Adult perceptions of play and recreation provision can easily be out of tune with those of the pupils. Young children have a capacity for vivid sensory experience which becomes weaker as they grow older. Contrasts in scale and minor changes in level can seem more prominent. A wide open space may seem intimidating and objects are perceived differently, a table may be a shelter and large shrubs can be trees. Sensitive watching and listening to children can help to bridge this contrast in perception. Ideally, the pupils should be involved in all stages of the grounds development process, so that their needs and ideas can be accommodated. In the case of a new pupils with special needs are integrated into mainstream schools. 8.58 ease of access and supervision. At the same time, care has to be exercised over the proximity of ball games to windows. One answer is to have a patio close to the building, acting principally as a social or teaching area, and put the active play areas just beyond it. To promote a choice of facilities and encourage pupils to engage in a variety of activities during break times, it is better if the areas for different types of play are clearly indicated. Quiet bays beside the larger spaces used for boisterous play enable separate activities to take place without isolation. school, it is important to ensure that a proportion of the budget for external works is withheld so that the new school's pupils can take part in the design process. 8.57 Special schools. Those special schools with pupils who are able to participate in team games and other outdoor activities pursued at mainstream schools should have, either on site or readily accessible, suitable provision as described elsewhere in the section. At schools with pupils who would be unable to make use of these facilities, there should be at least 61 Location of play and recreation areas. The location of play and recreation areas presents the designer with a number of potentially conflicting requirements. A position near to the building is generally desirable for 8.59 Social areas. Some schools already have spaces around the building which could serve admirably as social areas if site furniture were provided. The school garden, the outdoor classroom, the amphitheatre or the wildlife area could all accommodate such use. BESTCOPYAVAILABLE 59 Small social areas are especially valuable for the peace shingle or sand are natural materials and initially less expensive, problems are often encountered in their use. These include more difficult access for pupils with and solitude they afford. Bays situated off the games court area are a popular option, but there is still a need for other, more self-contained, separate spaces. special needs, the problem of keeping the area clean and safe from hazards, such as broken glass, and the scattering of the material over adjacent areas. Regular Terraces in hard surfaced materials or even wide steps beside hard surfaced play areas may encourage social groups as well as provide for spectators. Such social raking and topping up are necessary to ensure a depth of at least 300mm is sustained. The alternative safety areas can be used for story telling or discussion groups during lesson time and be made available to parents surfaces are moulded rubber tiles or wet-pour rubber crumb, the quality of which can vary greatly between different manufacturers. Where fixed play equipment has been installed recently in schools, it has been over a limited and confined area. There is an increasing preference for high specification rubber crumb safety surfaces, although the capital cost is far greater than for loose-fill surfacing, but when the capital and maintenance costs are taken together over ten years they become more economic. waiting for pupils at the end of the school day. 8.60 Site furniture and shelter. A common complaint from teachers and pupils concerns the lack of site furniture, especially for use in breaks and lunch hours. How the grounds are used at these times depends to a considerable extent on what seating is available, how it is designed and where it is located. For example, a line of wooden benches along the edge of the playground may well be ignored by pupils, as has already been pointed out in section 6. If this is all that is provided, many pupils prefer to gather in doorways or on steps. Groups of seats in circles, squares or triangles facing inwards are often more attractive. , ".4 . 8.62 most widely used, are the German DIN 7926 standard and the British Standard (BS) 5696. Part 3, the latter gives recommendations on siting and layout, surfacing materials, equipment, etc. The dangers from swings and the positioning and relationship between equipment, fixings and fastenings, steps of the wrong height or width and steep gradients are examples of potential problems. The movement patterns around and between equipment should be allowed for in the design to limit head-to-head and other collisions. Fixed play equipment should not frustrate access to and around the buildings by emergency or maintenance vehicles, impede surface water drainage or services, or interfere with other activities. Three categories of inspection, to be carried out on a daily, a 1-3 month and a 6-12 month cycle are set out in BS 5696. These inspections should cover the whole play area and not just the equipment. Safety is of the highest importance, but it does not mean that school grounds cannot be made more interesting and more challenging places. k fti Photo 24 Well-designed seating encourages a range of appropriate responses A number of schools have successfully included picnic tables, as well as seats, in sheltered surroundings. Where vandalism is severe or where sufficient seating cannot be provided in other ways, low walls integrated into the design of outdoor spaces can increase the opportunities for pupils to sit down. The inclusion of covered areas and shelters with good hard surfaced access can extend use through the seasons. 8.61 Impact absorbing surfaces. These should be installed where the fall height from the equipment is greater than 600mm. They should extend 1.75m beyond static equipment and the same distance beyond the maximum travel of moving equipment. Although loose-fill safety surfaces such as bark, pea 60 Other safety issues. In Europe, the two standards which are accepted as the most comprehensive and are 8.63 Playground markings. The more complex playground markings are, the greater the time and the cost involved in applying them. Paint suppliers now guarantee their products over a one or even a two year period. The pupils themselves are sometimes put off by the limited choice of playground markings available to them, and this is a salutary reminder that selection by adults alone can be ill-advised. Beyond the more familiar shapes and games, some schools have developed their own markings, often as a response to curricular needs or as a result of games or activities 62 conceived by the pupils. Where there are only games court markings, pupils often invent their own games within the framework or markings provided. The drawback is that this can bring them into conflict with more boisterous activities taking place on the court. They would respond better to a greater variety of choice in a location set apart from the main games court. Having too many markings, with a great variety of colours, can itself prove distracting and confusing. Where a school has two playgrounds, one can be designated for active pursuits, the other reserved for more passive pursuits, and appropriate markings provided for each function. A large playground might be divided up to achieve the same ends. The markings which work most effectively in schools tend to be those in which pupils have been most closely involved in designing and, therefore, which meet their needs most effectively. Information about playground markings can be obtained from The National Playing Fields Association (NPFA). 8.64 8.65 Rebound walls. The use of specially constructed walls for rebound ball games should be considered for both skill coaching and casual play. The marking of walls is not recommended unless the walls are in good condition, structurally sound and do not form part of a building as there may be noise transmission problems. The NPFA multi-games wall provides good opportunities for training and play. Hard surface treatments. Much of the hard surfaced area will inevitably be tarmac, for reasons of cost or use for games. There are different specifications, colours and textures which allow the hard games courts to be distinguished from pedestrian, and vehicular areas. Different hard surfaces can reflect particular uses, such as arrival and congregation points near entrances, sitting areas and routes. The edges and trim to surfaces such as tarmac can make use of local materials. The patterns, textures and sizes of hard surfaces are a significant teaching resource. Where surfaces have to be relaid, any changes in use need to be reflected in new proposals. 8.66 Integrating hard and soft landscape. Wet ground conditions often prevent pupils gaining access to areas of grass, shrubs and woodlands for more than a few weeks each summer. Pathways into soft areas can open up far greater access. Such integration may also create better cohesion in the design of outdoor spaces and avoid problems of wear on the margin where hard and soft surfaces meet. Conversely, wide expanses of tarmac can be broken up with planters or planting. Close to the building at least nvo-thirds of the surface treatment may need to be hard, whereas further away, the proportions may well be reversed. 63 8.67 Soft landscape. The treatment of soft landscape areas around the buildings may be at odds with the pattern and intensity of use. Shrub borders perform the helpful, if passive role of filling left-over spaces or reducing hazards where windows open outwards. There are design considerations when planting under windows, for example, rain shadow from the eaves, underground services, the need for access to clean windows and building security. Schools should consider the wider range of functions of soft landscape areas; attracting wildlife, creating visual stimuli for writing or drawing, and supplying materials for display, crafts and cooking. These are all sound reasons for soft landscapes provided the plants will thrive in their location. The use of grass is not recommended wherever there is heavy foot traffic, such as close to entrances where it is likely to be reduced to mud that will then be carried into the building. 8.68 Planting around activity areas. While sustained aftercare is fundamental to the establishment of trees and shrubs, the initial design is often the key to success. In developing ideas for planting around and within play areas, it is worth remembering that: plants with thorns or prickles should never be used to direct or prevent movement as there is risk of injury, especially to eyes; plants are seldom capable of restricting movement where there is an existing footpath problem as, without a change of level, they are trodden down before becoming established; poisonous plants should not be used; robust native plants, such as shrubby willow or dogwood can respond to damage by sending out new shoots; a sense of smell is important and it is good to include a range of scented plants and flowers; a proportion of evergreens will ensure that any necessary shelter or screening around activity areas is continuea through the winter months; large shrubs or small trees with a spreading form, such as hazel or elder, can provide dens underneath; new planting in activity areas needs to be protected by fencing until it becomes established; trees with dense foliage such as maple or lime are useful because they cast shade throughout the day in summer and allow more light penetration in winter after leaf-fall. 61 8.69 The relationship between indoors and outdoors. a building extension or digging a pond may be able to use any resultant spoil to advantage elsewhere on the site, and save the cost of having it carried away. The location, configuration, layout and servicing of the school buildings fundamentally affect the creation and effective use of external space. When the indoor and outdoor spaces are planned together, the effect that different building locations and orientations have on the design of the remainder of the site should be appraised before a final decision is reached. If later extension of the building is envisaged, it is better to identify from the start where this could be sited (see Reference Section A (i) Exploring options for site development of zones). 8.70 Gradients in the new landform are critical not just to subsequent aftercare but to the use itself. Where the slope on a tarmac playground is inadequate (less than 1:80), puddles result and the consequence is wet shoes and socks after a rain shower. Where it is too steep, ball games may be inhibited. Often it is beneficial to divide the earthworks for a new school into two stages. As playing fields take 18 to 24 months to establish, their construction, together with related habitats and grass recreation areas, should ideally take place in tandem with, or even before, building works. They can usually form an initial contract and the landscape surrounds to the building itself can be completed later as part of the main building contract. Courtyards. These can make an important contribution to outdoor use by providing unique spatial and protective qualities. A small courtyard of under 20m2 can be used as a viewing area from within the building for sculpture, other outdoor displays or beehives. In the last case, pupils can survey activity from indoors without the need for protective suits, providing the windows are 8.72 Soil. Good topsoil is a valuable and, in terms of the unique characteristics of the site, an irreplaceable resource. Its depth may vary from under 150mm to beyond 300mm and will have to be established by site investigation for every project. Excavated soils need to be handled with care, a pick and drop method using a backactor attached to a tractor or a dumper truck being preferred to a scraper box or a bulldozer which can cause excessive compaction of the subsoil. Storage should be for the shortest possible time, in stockpiles no higher than 2m for topsoil and 4m for subsoil. Resoiling should reflect new uses, with 300mm depth of topsoil over shrub borders, 150mm over lawns and the poorest soil over wild flower meadows. It is rarely possible to rectify inherent problems of soil structure or drainage after completion, because of the excessive cost and disturbance. The additional time involved in careful stripping, soil replacement and cultivation is a wise investment. 8.73 Microclimate and design. The effects of the microclimate within the site should be taken into account in the location, orientation and juxtaposition of new buildings, in patterns of access and circulation and in the uses of the grounds themselves. sealed. Larger courtyards, (150-700m2 or more) may be used for informal recreation and for habitats such as butterfly borders or for vegetable gardens. Outdoor furniture, greenhouses, clOches or experimental plots are less likely to be damaged by vandals in a fully enclosed courtyard than elsewhere in the grounds. Access to water and electricity may be required. Where an existing school has a space contained by the building on three sides, it is sometimes possible to create many of the advantages of a courtyard, especially an improved microclimate, by enclosing the space with a fence, wall, hedge or even a temporary building. Buildings higher than a single storey will produce more shade, so courtyards need to be large if sunlight is important. When considering courtyards, it is important to be clear about priorities of use to avoid conflict with social and other needs. 8.71 Earthworks and levels. Building construction always involves some earthworks and further modelling of the land around the building is often required to achieve a suitable fit with the surrounding topography. In addition, the creation of nearly level surfaces is necessary for playing fields. The design of landform should be approached on a comprehensive, The first aim is to achieve the best match of new uses to the existing microclimatic conditions. This avoids having to rely on new landscape features designed to modify the climate, which will need time to establish. The second aim is to modify the school grounds over a period of time so as to improve the more extreme conditions. Action may include the planting of trees and shrubs to provide wind shelter, shade or pollution control. Fences and walls, earth modelling, ground whole-site basis. Earthworks afford an opportunity to re-shape the landform to accommodate new uses. A school having 62 s-' - 64 Clipped ornamental hedge (2-3m) School Building Farm Farm hedge boundry hedge (5-6m) with small to medium sized trees Woodland (18-20m) Height of shelter uIJI 7 (10-12m) IF eVri° Prevailing wind Min. 5-10m 10-20m maximise angle 9% to solar gain --------------- 50-60m 30-40m Distance from building SECTION Fig. 20 Shelterbelt design close to buildings height of the shelterbelt, of which about 25% is towards the windward direction and 75% to leeward. surface treatment and drainage all influence the microclimate in varying degrees. Some provide not merely shelter, but also habitats and amenities as extra The optimum density of foliage is one which allows about 40-50% of the wind to filter through. Where the type of use for example, a sitting area or outdoor classroom demands the maximum degree of shelter, a greater density of foliage with more evergreen benefits. 8.74 Shelter and energy conservation. Where they minimise heat loss through exposure and yet still allow good solar penetration, shelterbelts can reduce energy use in the building by between 5% and 20%. They also serve to make the grounds themselves more attractive and extend the outdoor uses through a greater part of the year. For maximum benefit, shelterbelts should take account of local exposure conditions and normally form an arc from west through north to east, with more distant shelter to species can be used. While even a single row of trees can be beneficial, the use of three or more rows allows individual trees to be removed when necessary, without a temporary loss of shelter, while their replacements become established. Planting distances vary between 1.5m and 3m, with an average of about 2m. the south-west. Shelterbelts may restrict visibility and raise problems of site supervision and security; these need to be addressed at the design stage (Figures 20 and 21). A predominantly evergreen screen can hold warmer air around the building where there are cold winds. For maximum effect, the distance between windbreak and building should not exceed twice the height of the shelterbelt. To avoid excessive shading to the south, the distance between shelterbelt and building should be at least five to six times the height of the shelterbelt. To reduce this, it is also possible to tier down the shelter towards the building with hedges or shrubs, to accommodate the low winter angle of the sun and afford shelter close to ground level. To ensure Nvar m air is held in a courtyard it should not be wider than about three times the height of the surrounding buildings. 8.75 Design of shelterbelts. Any obstacle which impedes windflow creates a zone of shelter, mainly on the leeward side and to a lesser degree on the windward. The effect can extend to a distance of 40 times the 65 8.76 Providing shade. A roof or tree canopy can provide a valuable umbrella against the heat and brightness of high-summer sun. Few schools have sufficient outdoor shade, partly because the establishment of trees close io play and social areas, where it is most desirable, is fraught with problems but they are not insurmountable. However: the use of large standard trees is an expensive, yet robust answer that will afford some shade in the short term and can form an immediate focus for imaginative play. Careful location and the use of tree grilles or circular seating can reduce damage around the trees and stop undue soil compaction; a larger group of trees \vill cast shade over a wider area and may avoid the concentration of wear that can occur with individual trees; BEST COPY AVAILABLE 63 20m 10m 3m ELEVATION SECTION .: I Composition per 50m r:"'" 1 Om .o main tree species subsidiary species 140 no. shrubs 10 no. 30 no. PLAN 10m 3m ELEVATION SECTION . . . . . . . . . 5m subsidiary species 150 no. shrubs 25 no. PLAN 3m ELEVATION SECTION 225 no. shrubs : 2m PLAN 50m Fig. 21 Details of different shelterbelts Shelterbelts and Windbreaks J M Caborn. Faber & Faber 1965 some tree species provide a heavy shade which is cooler, others a lighter, more dappled, and thus 'warmer' shade. The foliation periods of deciduous trees also need to be taken into account. 8.77 a band 30m in depth of planting will achieve almost complete dust removal. In most schools this depth would not be possible, yet even one row of trees can make a difference: tree-lined streets in cities have been found to have 25% lower concentration of dust (Figure 22); Air pollution. Tree and shrub screens can be highly effective in combating air pollution. For maximum alleviation, they should be as close as possible to the area requiring protection. Thought should be given to spaces within the shelterbelt allow settlement of particles by gravity and a rough canopy outline discourages aerodynamic sliding of air over the top; the following: 64 66 8.79 leaf surfaces which are fine and fibrous in car parks all fall within that proportion of the gross site area classified as buildings and access anything from 3% in a large secondary school to 7% in a primary school may be taken up by such features. (These percentages exclude the building which also forms part of the 'buildings and access zone'.) The temptation is to regard such features as purely functional necessities. They do, however, affect the quality and use of the grounds as a whole and need proper consideration. structure are the most effective. Larch, which grows rapidly in poor soils, is a good choice, being deciduous, it is more tolerant of air pollution than pine, although pine is a more effective filter as it acts all the year round; broadleaved trees with narrow, small or pinnate leaves such as willow, hawthorn or rowan are better than those with larger, entire leaves such as maple or lime. Ash has the advantage of a high surface area, while oak and hornbeam often retain their leaves well into winter. 8.78 Access and security. Access roads, service roads and 8.80 Entrances and boundaries. First impressions are important and lasting. Noise pollution. Trees and shrubs can screen views of busy roads or other sources of noise but they do little to lower the actual noise levels. A solid barrier is more effective; the options are earth modelling, walls and fences, or a combination of the three. Modelling The route through the grounds and the area around the entrance to thc building make an impact on visitors, parents and pupils. At their best, they convey favourable messages about the ethos of the school, its approach to learning, and its regard for its members as requires steep slopes as close as possible to, and individuals. facing, the noise source. A hedgebank with a stone facing, or geotextile bags filled with soil, can be used The same is true of site boundaries the most immediate statement the school makes to the wider community. Here, however, public impressions have to be weighed against the realities of site management. Nevertheless, where the prime requirement is for an effective barrier, careful design and additional planting may be able to soften its to form a low screen that affords another habitat and does not occupy too much space. If fences are to achieve significant noise reduction, they must be to a high specification and designed for the purpose, although even a simple close-boarded fence will bring some reduction. A combination of a mound with fencing on top can achieve greater height and effectiveness, but the stability and appearance of the fence needs careful consideration. If the noise barrier itself is visually intrusive, planting adjacent to it will benefit from the wind shelter and eventually improve impact. Useful reference may be made to 2.7 The hidden curriculum and, 7 Understanding the hidden curriculum. screening. Air turbulence generated by vehicles Porous shelterbelt assists close contact between polluted air and plants Spaces in shelterbelt allow gravity settlement of particles Rough outline to shelterbelt discourages sliding of air over top 30m depth of planting removes nearly all dust 1r,4Fig. 22 A pollution screen M. Madders & M. Lawrence Landscape Design August 1981 67 65 8.81 Vehicular access and parking. Children's freedom of movement in the wider community is already restricted by heavy traffic, and this pattern should not be repeated within the school grounds. Thought should be given to the following: a valuable and visible extension to the classroom. 8.83 vehicles should not dominate the spaces around the building or the grounds in general. The aim should be to keep vehicular movement within the grounds to a minimum and to segregate vehicles and pedestrians; Ramps should conform to the Department's parking design should be as economical of space as possible; this usually demands right-angled parking bays. Overflow car parking on games areas should be avoided because of the risk of damage to the surface itself, including spillage of oil, and to the surrounding fencing; recommendations in DN 18, Access for disabled people to educational buildings or its replacement. Surfaces should be firm, smooth but non-slip; suitable materials are tarmac, in-situ concrete with a non-slip finish and non-slip paving slabs. Smooth paving slabs and brick surfaces which become slippery should not be used. provision for parents' cars at the beginning and end of the school day can be a major issue and there is no universal answer. Where appropriate, a drop-off facility can be included within the site, using a one-way system, but collection frequently involves parking on the public highway. In certain circumstances, traffic calming measures may be permissible to alert motorists and reduce speeds. Routes for the physically disabled need not be seen as extra provision. The paths provided for their use will also improve access for other pupils to parts of the grounds, which, in the winter months, or whenever there are wet conditions underfoot, might otherwise be unused. Detailed information about special schools is contained in Building Bulletin 77 and in Grounds for sharing: a guide to developing school sites (LTL 1996). Whatever the provision, subsequent traffic management within the site and at all access points needs to be reinforced by clear signs and regular supervision. 8.82 Access for the physically disabled. Access to outdoor facilities has often lagged behind the provision within the building. While it may not be possible for the disabled to have access to every niche in the grounds, their opportunities for recreation and learning should not be compromised. Disabled children and adults should be able to engage in all group activities in the grounds. Pedestrian routes. Separate access for pedestrians and vehicles is both more pleasant for the walker and safer for everyone. Additional pedestrian access points may also avoid damage to boundary fencing. Within the grounds, it is as well to acknowledge the realities: that pupils are gregarious and rarely walk in single file; that parents collecting young children often bring prams; and that most people will choose the shortest route between two points. For well-used paths within the grounds, widths of 3m or more may be necessary. Pedestrian routes should avoid abrupt changes of angle and follow direct lines which are integrated into the overall design. Where sharp corners are unavoidable they should be taken off at a 45° angle or a quarter circle. A particular need is for areas around important access points to the building where pupils may congregate. Better than a path linking to classroom entrances is a hard-surface area, 4m or even 6m wide, which can also function as a usable space. It might vary in form, with bays for local meeting places, patios or simply small niches with seats. During lesson time it can form 66 Photo 25 8.84 Access for the physically disabled pupils to move safely round the grounds and to share equally in the facilities is important. Supervision and safety. The design of outdoor spaces must allow for effective supervision, often over more than one activity at a time. This does not mean that the teacher should be able to see all pupils all the time. A key issue is the zoning of outdoor facilities; the concept of an inner 'core' of play and social areas surrounded by playing fields and habitat areas has much to recommend it (Figure 23). Safety is closely linked to security and management, for example to ensure the youngest pupils cannot wander off site or be abducted. Reference MEE Managing School Facilities Guide 4 Improving Security in Schools (HMSO 1996). Safety considerations include not just the question of suitable sports and play surfaces and equipment but also the relationship of facilities one to another, pitch margins, surrounding enclosure, and site furniture. (Buildings . ri . Woodland or shelterbelt (Habitat area) I Paved play area (Informal and social area) and access zone) OM. I I S. NOM MOO 1 Garden or wildlife Leisure area (Informal and social area) \.. habitats 2 Playing fields Hard surfaced games courts Grass play area (Informal and social area) Playing fields 1 Fig. 23 Zoning of outdoor uses to improve security and safety (similar activities are grouped for better supervision) 69 67 9. Maintaining the Grounds 9.1 This section deals with some key issues relating to maintenance and outlines some options for organising grounds maintenance. consultants. The advice can cover both specifying and organising the work on the school's behalf and it may also extend to implementing it. Work which is particularly suitable for this option includes specialist sports maintenance, large-scale grass-cutting and routine garden maintenance works. Dealing with any contractor will involve a member of the school's staff in areas where an understanding of technical matters will be important. Key Issues 9.2 Traditionally the local authority was responsible for the overall management and maintenance of school grounds. The introduction of Local Management of Schools (LMS)' and Compulsory Competitive Tendering (CCT) have led to widespread changes in the ways in which maintenance is carried out in schools and placed the prime responsibility for care of the grounds on the school itself. 9.4 Under the Local Government Act 1988, maintenance is defined as: 1. the cutting and tending of grass (including returfmg and reseeding but not initial turfing); 2. the planting and tending of trees, hedges, shrubs, flowers and other plants (but excluding new landscape works); 3. the control of weeds. Clearly this is a very rcstricted definition and any school which is considering using and developing its grounds will need to carry out a much more complex range of management and maintenance tasks. While there has been very considerable progress in the use and development of school sites, grounds maintenance practices have not always been completely in harmony with this. Schools need to recognise the importance of nurturing and maintaining their investment in school grounds by setting up appropriate maintenance regimes. Organising Grounds Maintenance 9.5 9.6 Volunteers. These may be drawn from a school's parent group or from the wider community, and may also include pupils. While it is unwise to rely on volunteers for large scale and extensive maintenance tasks, this kind of arrangement can be an extremely useful way of involving people in the maintenance and care of school grounds. Typical tasks appropriate for volunteers include wildlife and habitat maintenance, gardening, planting, work with animals, work in greenhouses, and small area grass cutting. 9.7 Implementation. The Local Government Act 1988 requires that school grounds in the state sector, along with parks and other open spaces, be subject to CCT for maintenance. Subsequently it has been confirmed that schools can be exempt from CCT for cleaning the buildings and grounds maintenance where three or (LTL/English Nature 1996). Private contractors and local authority Direct Service Organisations (DSOs). LEAs now offer different levels of landscape advice with a range of professional fees. This allows the school to take on as much of the supervision as it wishes. There are also a number of commercial contractors to which schools can turn for services. Grant Maintained (GM) schools may choose the services of their former LEA or other LEAs which offer professional advice, or use private Community-based organisations. Organisations such as local wildlife trusts, groundwork trusts, British Trust for Conservation Volunteers groups and other local environmental groups are, in some cases, undertaking maintenance work with schools. Some can provide training and also advise on the creation and use of habitat areas. Some groups may do work for no charge; others will require payment. This kind of arrangement is especially suited to wildlife habitat and garden work, painting of murals or outdoor structures and infrequent tasks such as shrub pruning. There are four main groups which schools may choose to involve in their maintenance, and these are described below. For more detail, refer to A guide to management and maintenance of school grounds 9.3 Directly employed ground staff. Sonic schools have returned to employing full-time or part-time ground staff directly as it gives them greater control over their work. In some cases, a site ranger has been appointed whose job remit includes involving pupils, school staff and parents in maintenance where appropriate. Such a person may also have a role in helping staff to make greater use of the grounds as a teaching resource. This kind of arrangement is particularly suitable for small areas of grass cutting, general and specialist routine garden work, line marking for sports, wildlife habitat work, litter control and minor repairs. This may be of particular interest to independent and CCT exempt schools (see 9.7). ' Within the Governor's school budget under LMS or the annual maintenance grant in the case of Grant Maintained Schools, schools have considerable flexibility to determine their own spending priorities. They can decide what proportion of their budget to designate to school grounds use. 68 Headteacher School grounds management group2 Staff member with responsibility for the school estate' Types of organisations3 -11111111/ -"1111111111/ Private contractors and direct service providers Directly employed (para 9.3) (para 9.4) Community based organisations (para 9.5) staff Volunteers (para 9.6) Note: Fig. 24 1. It is important that at least one member of school staff has day to day responsibility for management of the grounds. (Reference Section D has a description of the key duties.) The staff member is likely to be the point of contact for the grounds maintenance contractor. 2. The group is likely to include the governor's committee for school grounds and premises, staff, parents and pupils involved in grounds management and development. 3. The organisation or combination of organisations chosen will depend upon the extent and type of maintenance work to be undertaken. Suggested model for organising grounds maintenance fewer full-time equivalent staff are employed on the two activities together. This means that primary schools, most middle schools and a few small secondary schools can either employ ground staff or a DSO directly. 9.8 9.9 Types of agreement. There are four main types of agreement appropriate to the carrying out of maintenance tasks. Each of these has its strengths and weaknesses: it is important to choose the appropriate one for the way in which grounds maintenance is organised. Types of grounds maintenance agreement. Just as Contract. This is the simplest form of agreement between two parties to discharge certain obligations, see 9.15-9.20. every school has a unique character, so there are a variety of grounds maintenance agreements. The type of agreement chosen will depend on a number of factors. Schools should ensure that: Service-level. This specifies the service to be provided, the costs involved and the timescale. It is often used by local authority DSOs. the type and content of the agreement meets the school's needs and takes into account site features, site use, soil and climatic conditions and the budget available; all parties are aware of their particular role where more than one agreement is in place for grounds maintenance; Informal. This varies from a verbal agreement to an exchange of letters. It is often used by local conservation groups. However, even a verbal agreement can constitute a legally binding contract. pupil and staff safety has been taken into account, including checking staff or individuals who will be working on site; Direct labour. This involves the direct employment of a grounds person or other individual. 9.10 insurance provision has been made, where necessary; arrangements for authorising payments for work done will stand up to scrutiny by auditors. 71 Using direct labour. Direct labour appears on the surface to offer the greatest degree of control. Employees directly engaged by the school can be more thoroughly and directly checked to test their suitability for working in the school environment. Their ability to undertake extra tasks can also be a 69 1. Planting on frontage of site is designed to screen out traffic on Small open space for informal recreation and social gathering adjacent road and reduce pollution. A 50/50 mix of evergreen with mix of hard and soft areas. Litter needs to be picked up as and deciduous species should be sustained with an overall it arises and hard surfaces checked regularly for surface quality height of 4-6m. Regular formative pruning will be required with and level; site furniture should be inspected weekly. Grass some thinning after 3-7 years and gradual replacement of shrub needs to be cylinder mown on a regular basis. species after 10-15 years. 2. 4. 5. Patio areas immediately outside classrooms are intended as Close mown fine lawn area for occasional small team or ball overflow space in fine weather, for small group work and to games and for outdoor teaching groups. Important to retain and attract wildlife. Shrubs have been selected to encourage insects maintain fence separating area from car park and to cylinder and birds and require regular formative pruning and gradual mow lawn on a regular basis with cuttings boxed off. replacement as necessary after 10-15 years. 6. A mixed coppice woodland area with hazel and sweet chestnut cut on a 7-10 and 15-18 year cycle respectively. Cycle to be arranged so that 1-3 coppice stools of each species are cut annually. 7. Summer meadow area to be cut in April and again in October with cuttings removed for animal feed or composting. Species to be regularly monitored and recorded, and greater diversity encouraged with gradual introduction of individual wild flower plants after first cut. 8. Area of standard trees to create open, shady areas beneath. Trees to be thinned by 30-50% after 10 years and as necessary thereafter and to be inspected at least annually for any signs of defects. Bulbs on periphery and within parts of area require grass cutting to be delayed until 7 weeks after flowering has ceased and thereafter at monthly intervals. 9. Spring meadow area with some areas of bulbs. Paths and gathering areas within area to be close mown and meadow to be cut in July and again in September. Wild flower plants to be set in sward as necessary after second cut to increase diversity. 10. Mixed shelterbelt of shrubs and small to medium-sized trees with 30% evergreens. lm weed-free ring to be sustained for at least 5 years with fertiliser in years 2 and 4 and regular watering as necessary, especially in year 1. 11. Area of oak/ash/hazel high forest with subsidiary species and mixed understorey. Maintenance during establishment as for 10 and woodland wild flowers to be gradually introduced after woodland has started to form closed canopy in 7-10 years. Thinning to take place as necessary after year 5. 12. 0 metres 50 Playing field area to be close mown to a height of 20-50mm during growing season with pitches alternated annually as shown on plan to spread wear. Sports markings to be sustained throughout season of use and any excessive wear to be rectified 3. A wildlife area close to the school with a pond and marsh area, immediately after term ends. butterfly plants and log piles. Post and rail fence defines area where pupils are only allowed under supervision. Paths and Eastern boundary hedge to be watered and fertilised as 10 during establishment phase and thereafter to be laid on 7-10 to be cut in July and September and pond to be cleared of any year cycle in such a manner as to allow an equal portion to be litter on a weekly basis and excessive vegetative growth on an completed each year once the hedge has established. annual basis (in the autumn to minimise disturbance to wildlife). Fig. 25 70 13. gathering area around pond to be close mown, meadow areas Part of a grounds management plan - see 9.12 great bonus. Direct labour demands a high degree of day-to-day supervision on the part of the school and it can rarely offer the range of skills or the variety of tools and machinery available to the landscape contractor. For example, gang-mowers allow very competitive rates for large areas of close mown turf, but the high cost of the machinery makes them an unwise investment for a single school. Where schools have purchased machinery this is frequently underutilised and the small size of the workforce means there is little cover for sickness and holidays. As with most appointments, much depends on assessment of character, aptitude and attitude to the work. A verbal reference from a former employer is valuable and initial appointment on a temporary basis for 6 months is advisable. An independent landscape assessor at the interview can help and his or her subsequent advice on job performance by means of quarterly visits could be combined with technical guidance on the enhancement of outdoor resources. 9.12 Aims and objectives. In the first place, the key objectives for the grounds as a whole should be identified. A useful approach is to plan up to five years ahead. Anything less is too short to be meaningful and anything more invariably means increased uncertainty about the issues involved, which may include: aims and objectives for the school grounds; existing site features (data obtained after carrying out tasks described in section 4); constraints and relevant regulations affecting the site (data obtained after carrying out tasks described in section 4); planned site developments (data obtained after carrying out tasks described in sections 5, 6 and 7); current and intended educational use of the site (data obtained after carrying out tasks described in sections 5, 6 and 7); A Management Plan 9.11 grounds maintenance work; Just as it is difficult to develop the grounds successfully without an overall development plan, so it is hard to organise annual maintenance without a landscape management plan. This is true whatever means are used to implement the work. Such a plan is of most value if it records both the design objectives and the type of management that is required to sustain them. It needs to allow for changing demands on the grounds and for the variability of plant growth. Recent legislation concerning health and safety, environmental protection, pesticides and tendering procedures has a direct bearing on how the grounds are managed. Measures for monitoring, updating and revising proposals, supervision, inspections and annual review need to be addressed. Gang mow community use; overall landscape character and quality; the skills and available time of teachers and pupils; the financial resources available. Once these issues have been resolved, it is possible to look in more detail at individual resources and areas. This should be done before maintenance schedules are drawn up. An example of part of a management plan is included in Figure 25. 9.13 Costs. The various landscape areas within the school grounds differ widely in the demands they make on materials, manpower, and the annual costs of their upkeep (Figure 26). These continuing costs need to bc assessed as part of the management plan and are oo Meadow/rough grass Woodland and native shrubs Ground cover Shrub borders Rose borders Fine turf Herbaceous borders 0.00 I I 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 Annual cost in Es per m2 Note: These are typical price ranges for various types of soft landscape maintenance. They are, however, only indicative, and, in practice, they can vary considerably depending on factors such as location, site, accessibility and scale of work. For more detailed information on landscape maintenance costs, refer to E & F Spon's Landscape and External Works Price Book 1997 ISBN 0 419 222200. Fig. 26 Costs of maintaining soft landscape areas (1997 prices) 71 also a factor in the long-term development or adaptation of the grounds. Hard surfaced areas are relatively cheap to maintain until it comes to the time for refurbishment or replacement. Regular financial provision for this inevitability is advisable. Shrub borders and fine sports turf arc expensive to maintain properly when compared to the maintenance of extensive grass areas. In many schools, the option of reducing the frequency of mowing has already been pursued. It is often possible to change the pattern of maintenance by increasing the proportion of woodland, meadow or rough grass. This requires investment of capital to facilitate change and may have to be phased over a number of years. If it is undertaken, the prime motivation should be specific educational advantages rather than simply cost money is withheld for other areas that were completed satisfactorily. 9.16 exactly what they have to allow for in their tender, they will need to be supplied with: a comprehensive and precise specification of what is required, with all the relevant materials and dimensions, for every type of maintenance so that each item can be priced; a detailed site plan at a sufficiently large scale to define clearly the different types of maintenance required. This is often coloured to show the various categories and, if each individual area is given a code number, subsequent reference is much easier; savings. 9.14 a bill of quantities at the end of the documentation which sets out the dimensions for all the various items of work. Relevant sizes or numbers are usually measured from the plans and may have to be checked on site before quantities Organising maintenance work. Detailed specifications of all maintenance works can reduce the time spent on day-to-day supervision, supply a common basis for competitive tendering, and permit the establishment of performance targets for direct labour. A distinction needs to be made between performance and operations criteria. The former focuses on what is to be achieved (such as height of grass cut) and the latter on how the work is to be implemented (such as the number of cuts per year). Concentrating on the operations themselves can obscure exactly what has to be achieved; the means become more important than the ends. An alternative is to set clearly defined performance targets for each type of maintenance by laying stress on fitness for purpose. The two approaches can be used together but they must not contradict each other, otherwise there will be confusion about which standard prevails. 9.15 are finalised. 9.17 of current market rates. It is unusual to seek a fixed price for a contract extending beyond one or two years; many provide for fluctuations of price after the first year on the basis of a nationally recognised index. Monthly payments are often a proportion of the annual lump sum for landscape maintenance; they can allow for the summer peak of work by setting a higher than average proportion for the months of April to September and a lower one for October to March. This prevents payment in excess for work completed during the slacker months of the year. 9.18 Variations. Payment on the basis of the annual lump sum demands that maintenance remains as originally specified through the year, although it can be varied from one year to another. Changes within the year are often better dealt with by means of separate instructions. This highlights the need for both a management plan to set out the objectives over the term of the contract and an annual planning meeting ri 72 Timescale and payment. Preparing new contract documents demands expenditure of time and money and these outlays have to be weighed against the need to test the market at regular intervals by competitive tendering. A three-year term is about the minimum desirable; one or two year terms are generally too short but a four year contract gives more scope (four years is the maximum permitted under CCT legislation). Even though GM schools are exempt from this requirement, a term in excess of five years might mean annual costs becoming less representative Contract arrangements. Where a contract for landscape maintenance is used, it should state the exact responsibilities of both employer and contractor. These are usually in the form of 'General Conditions' and may be prepared by an LEA or by professional bodies. They define the responsibilities of the parties and set out the requirements and procedures governing insurance, payments, claims and termination in the event of default and for compliance with legal provisions. The contract also needs to address the issue of deduction of monies for defective work and, if this persists, for the termination of the contract. Penalty points are a means of dealing with poor workmanship or non-completion. When the number of points reaches a particular figure over a defined period it results in non-payment for an item or area. Such a system can be unduly punitive, if Specification and bills. So that contractors know to determine the maintenance for the coming year. A contract start date of 1 January allows the contractor time to get organised in advance of the main growing period. It is wise to include within the contract a schedule of rates for additional work (see Reference Section C for unpriced example). These rates are not to be totalled, but they do mean that such prices are set competitively rather than quoted subsequently. Finally, the school's budget may vary year on year and it is important to allow an element of flexibility in the landscape maintenance contract. This can be done by including provision for an annual increase or decrease of 10-20% of the total value of the works. 9.19 9.20 Tendering. If too few contractors are invited to tender, prices may not be representative of current market rates. If there are too many, it places a heavy burden on whoever is organising the work. It is also unfair on contractors who are required to do a great deal of preparatory work with a smaller prospect of success. The most appropriate number is between three and six, although the number will vary with the size and complexity of the work. It is unwise and inappropriate to rely solely on personal contact or recommendation in selecting tenderers. References must be sought and insurance provision checked. The willingness of contractors to tender should be established beforehand to avoid invitations being declined. Pre-tender meetings with contractors allow schools to ensure that the contractors are familiar with both the work and the site. They also provide contractors with an opportunity to raise any concerns or queries they may have. Such meetings are more feasible for the individual site than for a combined contract for a group of schools. Points raised at these meetings can then be clarified before the closing date for receipt of tenders. Contract staff should be required to report or sign in on arriving at and leaving the grounds, so that contact may be established at each visit. The contractor should have one point of reference for all queries, either a member of staff or a landscape manager, who should be responsible for issuing all instructions. Some contracts require a formal monthly site meeting with the contractor's supervisor; this is useful because it sets a regular progress check for the contractor. 9.21 Clarifying the objectives. Sports facilities are one of the most difficult areas in which to achieve and sustain an acceptable standard. School grounds are like some parks in having a mix of recreation and sports facilities. The more relaxed attitude towards amenity turf can lead to a dilution of standards for sports turf. At the other extreme, ground staff versed in maintaining fine turf to a high standard find the move to managing a variety of grasslands hard to accept. Often good housekeeping has become ingrained and is difficult to dislodge. The style of maintenance is determined by the desired uses and it helps if these are made clear to everyone involved in the care of the grounds. The maintenance schedule in Reference Section C highlights the basic requirements for different outdoor facilities and features. 9.22 Litter. The Environmental Protection Act 1990 places a duty on schools to ensure that their grounds are kept free of litter as far as is practicable. The code of practice accompanying the legislation (the Code of Practice on Litter and Refuse, HMSO 1991) stresses the role of environmental education in schools in shaping positive attitudes towards environmental protection. On the basis that prevention is better than cure, the establishment of a caring and responsible attitude amongst pupils is a key to success. This can be supported by providing sufficient litter bins with Supervision. The maxim that a job is only as good as the supervision it receives certainly holds true with grounds maintenance, since the length of the contract means that standards can fall over time and attitudes become more lax. Contract compliance must be sustained through effective supervision to ensure value for money. Schools have always been involved in the supervision of works and their role has increased with greater autonomy. A contractor's performance cannot be judged from the classroom window. At least a weekly inspection of the grounds should be undertaken during term time. The division of responsibility for this lies between the school and its advisers and this needs to be made clear. lids, especially near areas where packaged food or refreshments are sold. As a last resort task forces have been used to clear accumulated litter. An emphasis on recycling and the implementation of an environmental audit of the grounds can also enhance caring attitudes. Evidence suggests that once the grounds are cleaned, and then diligently maintained free of litter, the problem declines as general respect for the condition of the site increases. 9.23 Vandalism. Whilst vandalism to the grounds is often less financially damaging than vandalism to the buildings, it is nonetheless extremely disheartening and can become an excuse for not using, let alone 73 improving, outdoor resources. The example of new tree planting has been adopted to show some of the ways in which vandalism can be combated: Possible initiatives include: clear signs indicating private land and forbidding trespassing; plant very large or very small nursery stock that are respectively difficult to snap, or easy and cheap to replace; involve youngsters from the local community, not just thc pupils, in design, planting and aftercare; good boundary fencing, which in the most difficult cases should be welded mesh, as chainlink is insufficient; wrought iron railings are once again increasing in popularity though costs are high; appoint tree wardens and undertake regular inspections; a good thorn hedge, though this needs the protection of a fence while it becomes do not advertise the presence of a small transplant with a cane and a rabbit guard, since in urban areas the risk from rabbits may be far outweighed by that from vandals; established; choose a good proportion of bushy and thorny species, such as blackthorn or wild rose, and those that respond to damage by sending out new shoots, such as willow, alder or poplar; a leaflet or visit to residents who overlook the site to ask for co-operation and assistance on a neighbourhood watch basis; an education programme involving pupils, parents and neighbours to emphasise the problems and ask for their support; regular liaison with the local police force; avoid planting trees that have a long single stem, such as whips of ash or standard trees that can be snapped by hand pressure; legal action in cases of persistent abuse. Some LEAs have used the provisions covering nuisance under Section 40 of the Local Government (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act to prosecute trespassers on school land under their control. Indirect approaches by the school and persuasion are more effective and less costly, and the appearance of the site can also be a deterrent to the trespasser, as it is to the vandal. immediately rectify any damage and remember that as most trees can shoot from the base it is worth cutting back larger nursery stock if the stem has been broken; make young nursery stock less visible by cutting back all shrubby species after planting to a height of no more than 300mm above ground level; 9.25 do not mow the grass outside of the weed-free ring; merely tread tall grass down around the young trees in June and September; replant all uprooted stock in the next planting season; consider the sowing of tree seeds, such as acorns, as an alternative to young plants. 9.24 Trespass. Many head teachers regard trespass as a major issue in the management of the grounds. In the worst cases, the health and safety hazards created can deter all use of the grounds other than the hard play surfaces which can be regularly swept. Dog mess can be a particular hazard. Problems arise from the fact that LEA schools in particular are regarded as 'council land' wherc residents assume a right of access. It is, therefore, as important to change public perceptions by educating neighbours as it is to take direct action. 76 74 Wear and tear. All landscape designs have some raw edges, none more so than school grounds where the nature and intensity of use do not match original expectations. Whilst experience reduces errors, it cannot eliminate them, and the essential criterion is to respond to wear and tear quickly. Often there is no point in resowing or replanting a soft landscape feature when its vulnerability or location means that damage will be repeated. It is better to adjust the layout to suit the actual pattern of use. This situation provides a good opportunity to discuss issues and options with pupils and, where appropriate, for them to instigate change. A positive design solution is preferable to an immediate palliative, such as an area of tarmac or concrete. 10. Planning for Changes 10.1 10.2 they feel unqualified. Some of the options are described in 10.5-10.8. This section outlines the need to turn possible solutions into a clear, long-term plan for the development of school grounds. 10.5 Local authorities. Before the plans for the grounds have been finally incorporated into the SDP, the school should prepare at least a broad outline of its needs and priorities, and the district and county councils should always be consulted about a school's plans. Expert advice on their viability can also be sought from the best placed and most cost-effective source at any stage in the planning process, although as has been stated earlier, it is important for schools to retain control of their needs and proposed solutions. In most local authorities there are a large number of people who may be able to help with school ground developments. Schools should in particular contact the Education and Planning Departments, although, in some cases, it may be necessary to consult other departments. 10.6 Private consultants. After the initial stages, it may be that professional advice will be useful to schools. In this case, it is important to use landscape, educational and design consultants who are sensitive to the needs of pupils and teachers. The first steps are to establish that the prospective adviser has the necessary skills by asking about his or her work with other schools, and determining what the cost of such advice will be. It is always important to take up references from other schools with which they have worked. Taking a holistic view. It is likely that, as a result of the work which has been undertaken in understanding the issues, surveying the site, identifying needs and possible solutions, most schools will have collected a huge amount of data and ideas. That is the moment to produce clear plans in the light of available resources. It is vital that schools gain a strong sense of the overall purpose of their grounds and that they are confident that any proposals meet the needs of the school community. It is important to ensure that pupils are consulted at this stage. There is the danger that, as the project moves into the realm of school management, children's voices are heard less often. Most schools have inherited their grounds, layout, and landscape. In this context, and following the guidance given in the publication, they may wish to make the best of what they have. There may be opportunities to review the existing estate, or to plan an extension to the grounds, or to plan a new site. This could involve consolidating the site to a better configuration by means of land swaps and/or disposals where receipts can be directed to the enhancement of facilities. Unusable land, surplus land and awkward parcels of land could be used positively in this way. 10.3 One way is to agree a ceiling figure, on a 'not to be exceeded' basis, against a detailed brief or description of the work to be undertaken. Up to four separate fee proposals may be advisable on large schemes. Interviews with the consultants offering the two lowest tenders can assist in making a more effective judgement of their suitability and of the comparative value for money before awarding the work. Incorporating intended developments into the School Development Plan (SDP). All schools are required to produce an SDP and most already contain an element devoted to the school premises. If the school's SDP does not, or if it is not fully developed, this is the moment to incorporate plans for the grounds. An alternative, for projects such as providing a synthetic sports surface, is to seek tenders from private contractors on a 'design and build' basis. In this case, the drawback is that the advice may not be totally impartial and comparison between tenders can be more difficult. Sources of Advice and Information 10.4 Even before the Education Reform Act 1988, the sources of advice and support to help schools at this stage were extending beyond the LEA. Since then, more powers have been devolved to schools, and the responsibilities of governors have been further extended. It is important that schools know just what assistance is available, where and when to buy in expert advice, and how best to implement both dayto-day maintenance and any new development proposals. The danger in seeking any form of outside help is that the educational objectives may be overshadowed by those of the outside agent. On the other hand, most schools will want to benefit from any relevant source of help, especially in areas where 77 LTL maintains a data-base of active contacts in local authority areas. 10.7 The voluntary sector. LTL, county wildlife trusts and some BTCV groups give advice about developing school grounds. Many county wildlife trusts have an education officer and their details can be obtained from the Royal Society for Nature Conservation (RSNC). In addition, a number of towns and cities have urban wildlife groups that are involved in habitat BEST COPY AVAILABLE 75 creation and direct action to promote nature conservation in their area. Other organisations such as the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) have regional or local officers, or networks of members' groups. The Regional Sports Council and the governing bodies of the individual sports may similarly be able to assist with advice on facilities for physical education. 10.8 Community design. There is an increasing number of community landscape design practices in major cities, with funding from government grant or sponsorship. They may be in a position to give lowcost or free advice to schools. In addition, many landscape design and management courses in higher education stress the importance of community involvement and are keen to collaborate with schools on 'live' projects, not just in preparing proposals but in some cases in implementing them as well. While such schemes can be extremely beneficial to all involved, it is very important that schools establish exactly what is involved before committing themselves to a project. A number of voluntary organisations have also established local or regional initiatives for schools. Material and Financial Support 10.9 Even when advice can be obtained without cost, many projects to develop the grounds will need machinery, tools and materials as loans or gifts, or the funds to buy them. In addition to direct fundraising by the school itself, potential sources of funds include grantaiding bodies, business and commercial sponsors, parents and the local community. Useful advice is given in the Department's publication Our School Your School. Limited capital cost advice is provided in Reference Section G, Looking to the future capital costs. 10.10 Grants. At any time, there is a bewilderingly large number of national and local grant schemes. LTL keeps information about these. 10.11 Business and commerce. Support for environmental initiatives by schools enables business and commerce to create a tangible and beneficial public reminder of their commitment to the local community. Awards and competitions are generally run by national or international businesses such as oil companies, banks and the public utilities. Thorough planning and research by the school are essential since a successful application often depends on the quality and presentation of the arguments. Some schemes reward what the school has already achieved. They 76 may not be appropriate for the funding of new initiatives but can provide support for further phases of existing projects. Local businesses usually provide support in kind, such as the loan of machinery, the gift of tools or the supply of trees and shrubs. Some form of public recognition of the firm's contribution is usually all that is necessary, and the related publicity is often as important for the school as for the benefactor. 10.12 Parents and the local community. These groups are potential sources of valuable help. While they can, of course, be a source of direct labour, they may also have a variety of valuable skills that will need to be carefully and tactfully supervised. Parents, where they are willing to help, not only bring a direct commitment to the school but often assist with the participation of pupils by working alongside them. Local groups may include the armed forces and their cadet corps, the scouts and guides, the BTCV and community service groups. Whatever the available labour it is more readily directed towards new works of some magnitude than to long-term maintenance. 10.13 Forming a partnership. Some projects such as the creation of sports facilities could best be delivered through a partnership; perhaps a joint venture with a local sports club, local authority, or a private sector partner. The use, and possibly the funding, would be shared between the partners, with the school having priority during school hours. This approach may be more suited to the secondary sector because of the type and scale of the provision. A number of projects to provide all-weather outdoor facilities and sports halls have been successfully completed under the Private Finance Initiative. For example, a project at a secondary school in partnership with an enterprise company, the North West Regional Sports Council, and the Foundation for Sports and Arts, provided a new sports facility for the school's use during the day at 110 cost to the school or LEA. Partnership projects will need to take account of the attractiveness of a potential project to the private sector and the effect of the new facilities on the wider community. 10.14 Creating a fundraising strategy. There are many individuals and organisations which will provide help for development in school grounds. The only effective way to walise these resources is to plan a programme of applications and fundraising intitiatives very carefully. Some schools have set up a separate charitable trust to deal with this aspect of their affairs. 78 10.15 Reference organisations. Details of those organisations giving advice or material assistance to schools are to be found in Reference Section J. Information on other local groups may be held by the public library, by Citizens' Advice Bureaux, and by LTL. 10.16 The importance of not rushing. Schools which have carried out the early stages of planning, those outlined in sections 2-9 of this bulletin, and who have turned these into costed, long-term plans are much more likely to reap many exciting benefits from this investment of their time, than schools which have moved too quickly and ignored key stages of the process. 79 77 11. Conclusion 11.1 The importance of school grounds. School grounds are increasingly important childhood environments. Over the last ten years, there has been a considerable growth of interest in their use, design, development and management. 11.2 Meeting the needs of the whole school. All schools have needs in: the formal curriculum; the informal curriculum; the hidden curriculum. Many schools have a programme of extra-curricular and community use. 11.3 The process of managing school grounds development. While it may seem that it takes a long time to consider carefully the options, the benefits of doing so are very great. Many schools are now enjoying their grounds as a rich educational resource, and all the more so on account of their hard work and persistence. Such developments are likely to endure. In total, it is considered this bulletin will be a stimulating and valuable resource for grounds development and will encourage and facilitate schools to open exciting opportunities for pupils, staff and the community. The process determines the outcome. How the process of using and developing the school grounds is managed is at least as important as what is actually developed. An expensive scheme, carried out at great speed to an outside agency's agenda will certainly change the environment, but it is unlikely to meet pupils' or staff needs and, therefore, will not be successful. In the case of new schools, much can be achieved by the intelligent anticipation of needs, by the involvement of school staff at the earliest possible time and by witholding the budget for some external works until the school is opened, and can make educationally useful adjustments. 11.4 11.5 Photo 26 Involving pupils. It is critically important to involve pupils at every stage of the process; the benefits in tefms of behaviour, attitude, performance, and developing a genuine sense of ownership are very real. 80 78 Even in winter it is possible to use school grounds creatively A(i). Layout of Use-Zones Exploring options for site development of zones (Reference 4.27) In re-planning or planning a school site a flexible approach is essential if the objectives of the brief are to be achieved. This study explores some of the planning options which need to be considered in relation to the main zones on any site when major development is being undertaken. Effective planning of the major zones on site (the location and relationships of building(s), access and service areas, parking; playing fields; hard surfaced games courts; informal and social areas; and habitat areas) is vital to the successful development of school grounds. All the most useful options need to be considered. The preferred option should be the one which meets most needs within the space and cost constraints. The main consideration is the overall site layout and achieving a sensible and practical relationship between zones, and allowing for the location of essential features rather than any detailed preconceived landscape design. To avoid the loss of useful existing features it is essential that any substantial work on site is not undertaken until the preferred option has been agreed. Figure 27 explores some of the options for the expansion of a primary school. An existing infant school on a shared site is to be replaced with a new building. The existing junior school building is to be retained. The urban site is fairly flat, with a busy distributor road to the north presenting potential problems of noise and air pollution. There are existing habitat areas and tarmac playgrounds around the junior school building that merit retention. The accompanying diagrams consider four options for the position of the new building. In each case, varying the location of the main elements produces a different arrangement of outdoor resources, and different relationships between them. Option C is possibly the closest to the past provision with a sharp distinction between the buildings, playgrounds and playing fields; it lacks variety in the size and type of spaces and is in many ways the least attractive. Option A KEY fffil 11111 !!!!, Playing fields Hard surfaced games courts Informal and social area (hard) E Informal and social area (soft) E Habitat areas III Buildings and access 111 Existing building outline Proposed building -6o maks 100 Option B Flg. 27 Exploring options for site development zones. Example: school for 270 Infants and 360 juniors on an urban site 79 Options B and D both achieve a sunny and secure core area of play and recreation facilities contained by buildings and playing fields. The need to provide parking for the existing junior building does however extend vehicular access well into the site in these options. In contrast Option A segregates all parking and service access, retains a core area for play and recreation, but is not so attractive in terms of the spaces created by the playing fields. By locating parking areas next to the main road and then using the building to separate them from the most important outdoor spaces the environmental impact of urban traffic is restricted. There are often options within options, and the best points can be selected from each; in this case, a layout derived from a combination of options A and D was finally adopted. Option C KEY n 11111 Playing fields Hard surfaced games courts Informal and social area (hard) g Informal and social area (soft) Habitat areas Buildings and access IT Existing building outline Proposed building 0 Fig. 27 80 ndias 100 Option D Exploring options for site development zones. Example: school for 270 infants and 360 juniors on an urban site. A(ii). Site and Boundaries Between Zones (Reference 4.28) As well as looking at options and zones for site development, it is helpful to look in more detail at the boundaries between zones. A number of illustrated examples are given in this section for those undertaking major re-organisation of their grounds and seeking further guidance (see 4.27 and 4.28). 1. Nursery provision (under 5 years) (Reference 4.29) Over a quarter of children aged under five are being taught in maintained nursery schools or nursery classes in maintained primary schools. A similar number are being taught in infant classes, including reception classes, in maintained primary schools. They arrive at school with different levels of competence, confidence, knowledge and experience. A well-planned range of equipment in a stimulating outdoor environment provides valuable opportunities for assessing their development and identifying problems. Usually the nursery forms an integral part of a school and uses it's car park and services. The example Figure 28 illustrates a typical nursery garden which shows most of the essential features. The outdoor play facilities extend the indoor play area to provide a different range of experiences, especially in the areas of physical, observational, investigative and imaginative play. The siting of the toy and equipment store gives convenient access for use of equipment inside and outside. The garden consists of a sitting area for story telling, informal gatherings and picnics, a climbing and play feature with safety surface, sandpit with removable cover to keep it clean and free from animals, a construction area with play kits, circuit for wheeled toys and tricycles, and a planted area where children can hide, get away, and build dens. To meet the demands of this age range the garden needs to be lively, imaginative, challenging, easy to supervise and above all safe and secure. Although the example shows only the garden, it is highly desirable to have a gate between the nursery entrance door and the street for safety and security reasons. The site boundary (not shown) is secure from intruders, and the low fence round the play area prevents the children straying. Playroom Tap Hutches Covered area Store pTricycles Paved area Sitting area Playwall Construction u 0 Fig. 28 metres 10 Play provision for a Nursery for 39 (provided: 380m2 outdoor area of which 205m2 is paved) 83 81 2. Infant and junior school provision (Reference 4.28) These schools need both hard and soft surfaces and varied opportunities for noisy and quiet, active and sedentary, lone and social play. Figure 29 shows how integrated provision can be arranged for these age groups. The figure shows a primary school site bounded by the town's roads and a railway, which has a short drive to the building making economic use of the site and releasing as much land as possible to outdoor educational, recreational and leisure use. Priority was given to the separation of infant play from boisterous junior play areas. The infant accommodation opens immediately on to their outdoor hard play area for organised and informal group and individual activities. It contains a sitting enclosure for small groups, play features, and playground games markings for formal and informal group and individual play during breaks. Leading off this area an alcove provides a climbing play feature with safety surface. Also off the hard play area lies their grass play area for small games, skills practices, and informal activites. Rail track iIIIlIilIlltLlttlflhlliiji miquillti .:--.-.1cSCK)17----7-77---7-77z -7:COO Nature trail J_L11LL, Car park Rebound wall,' Sitting area Picnic area -- Junior hard surfaced games court _- -- ,, \ "\ \ ,I \ \ 1 \ (Informal and social Infant grass play rea) area area Infant hard play Habitat I : I 1 \t Playing field I, 1 f \ 1 Sitting ) I i I,, v ,1 \ --1,1 Play feature and safety surface area rr-YE .) 0 metres Fig. 29 Infant and Junior play provision for 210 pupils (provided: playing fields 2500m2, hard surface games court 630m' and informal and social area 1890m2) The junior play facilities, as infants, adjoins directly their teaching accommodation. Again, an informal recreation area for sitting and for socialising is available for small groups and quiet activities, and further away lies a hard surfaced area for team games; a ball rebound wall having goal posts and targets is incorporated into the ballstop fencing. Beyond the infants grass play area is the junior grass pitch area which allows for summer and winter games and informal group activities. 82 4 50 All these features are encircled by a continuous planting feature which includes a nature trail for study and quiet strolls through mixed woodland. It includes an orchard and nuttery giving opportunity for study and enjoyment of harvest. Separately provided are a wild flower meadow, herb gardens, pond and wetland, and a shaded group picnic area. The example shows how with careful planning, imagination and knowledge of educational need, a relatively small site can immeasurably increase opportunity and give immense pleasure to pupils, staff, parents, and be a benefit to the community. 3. Secondary school provision (Reference 4.28) These schools, unlike primary schools have to cater for the varied demands of developing teenagers so consequently what is needed to cope with the age range has more in common with a higher education campus. Attitudes to play and recreation differ widely through the agc range, younger pupils appreciate boisterous games during breaks, some continue to do so through the school years, but increasingly teenagers seek more social and sedentary activities. The example shows how educational, recreational and leisure demands were met. Although the site is not shown in total, the school buildings are located immediately off the town's road, pedestrian access is segrated from the two vehicular accesses catering for car parking for school and community use of facilities and for service needs. The teaching blocks form two protected quadrangles and whilst facilitating access between curriculum areas, create a focus for educational and social outdoor activities for groups and individuals. One quadrangle provides for quiet study and an amphitheatre with seating for 60 pupils. Paths are arranged to take account of desire lines between buildings, steps were avoided to give free circulation for the disabled. The other quadrangle allows for more robust activities whilst still having a shaded seating area. Habitat ,r :, i i ft ' )1 ifc Nts ,I t 1 Kickabout area (Informal and social area) Picnic The two courtyards are primarily social spaces and are totally enclosed by buildings and metal fencing Wall seats Patio area (Buildings and access) Sitting areas Sitting areas Meeting and gathering area Sitting areas beneath trees (Informal and social area) Multi-games area Boules pitch Viewing/sitting area (Buildings and access) (Hard surfaced games courts) Car park Entry Service entry 0 Fig. 30 metres 50 Secondary provision for games play and recreation for 1600 pupils (provided: playing fields 6500m' (not shown), hard surfaced games courts 3500m' and informal and social area 6400m2) 85 83 Close to the buildings and quadrangles lie a range of educational facilities, a floodlit multi-games area with its close link to the sports hall, a paved kickabout area marked for court games, and a quiet shady area for outdoor classroom, sitting and picnicking. Beyond the immediate buildings the grounds contain a mixed woodland shelter belt protecting playing fields, the belt doubling as a nature trail which also creates opportunity for cross-country running. Linked with the mixed woodland arca a pond and wetland support science, and additionally give opportunities for sketching and painting. The setting has taken account of the need for the safety and security of pupils and staff and the need for good supervision. The surface treatment and site furniture are robust, and overall the landscape quality allows pupils to feel they are valued, bringing in turn their respect and caring for the created green and pleasant environment. 4. Special schools provision (References 4.30, 5.7, 6.6 and 8.57) Figure 31 illustrates a layout suitable for a primary school with a nursery, for pupils with severe learning difficulties or physical disabilities. The building area would be appropriate for about 60 pupils, following the guidelines given in Building Bulletin 77. The grounds available for the formal and informal curriculum are generous and in excess of the recommended areas set out in Reference Section F table 21. 1. Line denotes the safe side of the site for pupils' play and outdoor learning, separated from traffic access by walls and fencing 2. Shelter belt of trees and shrub planting along the site boundaries 3. Outdoor extension of class bases including some covered space (hard surfaced area) 4. Established copse 5. Deliveries to kitchen, and bins caretaker and workshop 6. School bus garage 7. Staff and visitors' car parking 8. Nature trail along footpath suitable for wheelchairs 9. Sheltered hard surfaced play area 10. Greenhouse and garden 11. Play equipment in protected area with safety surface Hard surfaced games court (Netball size) 12. Covered area to nursery/infants' protected play area 13. Canopy over entrance and drop off/pick up point for taxis, cars and buses 14. Footpath to school entrance separated from access road by planting strip 15. Parking laybys off access road for visitors 0 Fig. 31 84 metres 50 Special school plan suitable for a primary school for about 60 pupils (provided: hard surfaces for games and informal and social area 1200 m2, and soft area (grass), and generous habitat as site contains a copse) Those areas accessible to pupils throughout the school day are enclosed and separate from pedestrian and vehicular access to the school, and from the parking area. The latter allows for the high staff to pupil ratio and the greater number of visitors to be expected at a special school. Provision for vehicular access to the main entrance takes account of the large number of cars, taxis and mini-buses which will need to queue at the beginning and end of the school day. It illustrates the one-way traffic flow recommended to avoid congestion and the need to reverse where pupils are embarking/disembarking. Area guidance for hard surfaces for games and informal and social areas, and soft area (grass and planted) is given in Reference Section F table 21. 87 CI= A(iii). Restricted School Sites A Primary School and a Secondary School Two examples, a primary school and a secondary school, are provided to demonstrate what is possible on restricted sites (reference 4.26). The area percentages in the two examples shown are given for information but are not comparable with sites whose area lies within the recommended area range. A primary school example (Figure 32) This example illustrates a 5-11 primary school for 315 pupils. The total site area of 7860 m2 is below the recommended range (12922 14725m2). The statutory playing field area for 135 pupils over the age of eight years is 5000m2. However, the regulations offer flexibility where synthetic surfaces are provided, and in this example a synthetic surfaced pitch provides a multi-games area which can additionally be used for the informal curriculum. As sufficient PE and games can take place on site, off-site playing fields would not normally be needed, except where the use of grass pitches is required. Although all the grounds are available to pupils, separate informal and social areas (hard and soft) are designated for infant pupil use. Zone 1. Playing fields Actual Percentage area of total area from area Table 17 Recommended 2100m2 27 5000m2 (statutory) 1200m2 15 867-1199m2 2500m2 32 1757-2033m2 (synthetic surfaced multi-games area). 2. Hard surfaced games courts, also used instead of grass for infants' play (synthetic surfaced area also provides games courts for juniors). 3. Informal and social areas. 1250m2 is paved, part of which provides an all-purpose infants' area with 'street' games, play features, activities space and leisure area. The rest is grass providing for an 80m running track and informal games practice and a leisure area for juniors. 4. Habitat area. 260m2 3 What can be provided Owing to the very restricted site, habitat area is confined to limited but highly developed areas on the boundaries to support the curriculum; incidental habitat would be possible in the form of isolated groups of trees and shrubs. 5. Buildings and access. 1800m2 23 Will depend on each individual case 0 A single entrance leads to a car park and a compact service area. The pedestrian site entry is separate from vehicular access. Fig. 32 Example of an urban site for a 315 place primary school For an example of a site layout for a similar sized primary school developed by using the recommended guideline areas refer to Building Bulletin 82, Section 5. . 80 50 A secondary school example (Figure 33) This example illustrates a secondary school for 1000 pupils. The total site area of 24300m2 is well below the recommended range (70000 76000m2). The statutory playing field area for 1000 pupils is 45000m2. A synthetic surfaced pitch and games practice area are provided on site, and there is also access to sufficient off-site playing fields. Zone 1. Playing fields Actual Percentage Recommended area of total area from area Table 20 7700m2 32 45000m2 (statutory) 2600m2 11 2100 -2500m2 6000m2 24 4600-5000m2 1200m2 5 What can be provided Synthetic surfaced pitch 6700m2 (full size football pitch) plus a practice area 570m2. 2. Hard surfaced games courts. Multi-games area providing four tennis courts or three netball courts or small-sided games. 3. Informal and social area. All the paved areas, with the exception of service areas, are used for recreation and leisure. Planted internal courtyards with seats and external terracing lead onto grass and planted areas for informal activities. Boisterous breaktime activities are confined to the games courts and the games practice area. 4. Habitat area. As in the previous example, habitat areas are confined to highly developed areas on the boundaries. Incidental habitat would be possible in isolated groups 0 100 of trees and shrubs. 5. Buildings and access. 6800m2 28 Will depend on each individual case A single entrance leads to a car park and a compact service area. The pedestrian site entry is separate from vehicular access. Fig. 33 Example of an urban site layout for a 1000 place secondary school For an example of a site layout for a similar sized secondary school developed by using the recommended guideline areas refer to Building Bulletin 82, Section 5. 8s 87 B. Sports Facilities Multi-games Areas Multi-games areas can be used more flexibly, economically, and can be better supervised if they are laid out in multiples of netball sized courts, allowing additionally for tennis and 5-a-side football as well as other games. Most major sports have 'mini' versions, and these can also use multi-games areas; these are described later. Such areas can reduce the pressure on indoor physical education facilities and fulfil the ongoing demand for practice and skills training that do not need to occupy or wear out full-sized pitches. In the past, the most common solution for multi-games areas has been a tarmac surface marked out for three or four tennis, netball courts and a mini-pitch for 5-a-side football. Whilst this is still an extremely versatile facility, both synthetic turf and in-situ polyurethane bonded rubber are now attractive alternatives, depending on the financial resources available. As well as the choice of surface, other considerations include the variety of potential uses, and the number of pupils that can be accommodated at any one time. Size. A multi-games area can range in size from a netball court 32 x 17m to a full-size pitch 90 x 60m; the consequent range of area, from 544-5400m2, has considerable cost implications. A common solution in secondary schools is to opt for an area approaching a half-sized pitch, 1925-2600m2, where three or four tennis and netball courts and 5, 6 or 7-a-side pitches can be included. These are shown in Figure 34. Ball walls, fencing and gates. The blank wall of a sports hall can form one side of the multi- games area and function as a ball wall. It should be at least 5.5m, and preferably 8m long, with a height of at least 3m. A perimeter fence, minimum 2.4m high (welded mesh in preference to chainlink) is essential and a full 3m is desirable where the courts abut a main transport route. Maximum mesh of fencing for tennis should be 45mm x 45mm. Timber or masonry rebound walls, 1-1.5m high, will increase both the potential use and the durability of the facility. Access gates should be fixed in a corner position wherever possible and internally lined with timber in cases where they are included in a rebound wall. Gate handles and latches should be recessed. Floodlighting, line marking and equipment. Full utilisation outside school hours can only be achieved with the installation of floodlights. They can, however, be a contentious planning issue in a residential area and considerable forethought should be given to the initial siting of the multi-games area and the relationship to neighbouring properties. At least two lighting columns, and on larger facilities four, are necessary to avoid one-sided illumination and dark shadows. Line markings should be a minimum of 50mm wide and conventionally colour-coded for the various games. Specialist suppliers provide a range of mobile and portable equipment, which avoids anchor holes in surfaces and allows larger areas to be divided up. --j a) 3 tennis courts, 3 netball courts, 1 pitch area 50 x 30m - 1500m2 (overall 55 x 35m - 1925m9 s 88 90 r 1 r /I -1 -r I ' I t -117-f -ri-t I I Illis--- -11- -irl -r 11\ -H7----i: 71 I -1- ---H----1--1---; I I 1 1 I I " 1-_-1, I I 1 I il I I :11 1 '1 1 11011 I 1 Li_ 4__ .._.../.77_' -.1_J / I 1---/- I I I I pi I i 11 11_, 1 I I 1 I 1j1 I I ,I 1 1 , i I I I I I \ I j _ II \ ,...J/ ii I I._____1.1 L..\._ ,L__J I I 1 II 11 1 I I I 1 I I I ,--14, t-a -- - 1--i -J ___..lr, --1-1,, II.- : I I .1 L. / 'I1 \ 'L I .J 1 I b) 4 tennis courts, 3 netball courts, 1 pitch area 60 x 35m - 2100m2 (overall 65 x 40m - 2600m2) Fig. 34 Multi-games areas I j I Archery This should be sited in a secluded corner of the playing fields away from other activities. Strict safety precautions must be observed and the area roped off. A responsible adult must be present at all times and in control during shooting. The shooting range should be an area of flat, close-mown grass away from the overhang of trees. It should preferably be orientated in a northerly direction for shooting, but if this cannot be achieved the layout should avoid archers having to shoot into the sun, ie towards the south or south-west as school archery might take place after midday. The shooting line is permanent, the targets being moved up and down between the limits given. Ranges shorter than 90m are possible, but the targets must never be moved into the safety overshoot zone of 46m beyond the longest distance. Space for five to six targets is usually ample for school use. Governing body. The Grand National Archery Society, Seventh Street, National Agricultural Centre, Stoneleigh, Kenilworth, Warwickshire CV8 2LG (Tel. 01203 696631). Association for Archery in Schools, Bloxham School, Banbury, Oxfordshire OX15 4PE (Tel. 01295 721463). S1 89 No pitches or play areas here 22.86m 100m width for archery club 150m min. width for championships (depending on number of targets) -'0- 22.86m N/NE Targets at 2.5m centres for two archers shooting at once Target line Targets are moved towards shooters who remain on shooting line CO Chl CD ...... 03 .crIg CD A 0 al 0 0.71/4ja 1 7s3, 3 3 *-1 0. 0. CJI ero. oo a Cli CO Cli a a Shooting line rn .= 9.14m CO CO 7 CD Fig. 35 GO = 7 CD CD UI -1 a C3 CD CD-c a CD 0 CD "0 = CD DC 0 co Target archery range Association Football Full-size pitch. The game is played by teams of 11 players. The field of play should be level and rectangular, and for a senior pitch, the length should not be more than 100m nor less than 96m and its breadth not more than 64rn nor less than 60m. The size is reduced for younger age groups and the penalty area for primary school pitches is two-thirds normal size with the penalty spot 9m from the goal line and the goal 6.4 x 2m. Table 3: Recommended age related pitch sizes Age group Type of pitch Length Width End Margins Side Margins 8-13 years Small 70-80m 40-50m 6.0m 4.5m 13-15 years Medium 75-82m 45-55m 6.0m 4.5m 15-17 years Large 91-96m 50-59m 6.0m 4.5m (18 years and over) 96-100m 60-64m 9.0m 6.0m Adult 100-110m 64-75m 9.0m 6.0m Senior It is considered that primary aged pupils should play small-sided games on 5-a-side sized pitches. Five-a-Side. Age Group 8-14 years. The game is played by teams of five players on a pitch of 30-40m in length and 18.5-28m in width. The markings differ from the full-size pitch by having semi-circular penalty areas based on a radius of 7.5m and a centre circle radius lm. Four 5-a-side pitches can be fitted on to a full-size football pitch, or even a rugby pitch. 90 - 92 a Governing body. The Football Association, 16 Lancaster Gate, London W2 3LW (Tel. 0171 402 7151/0171 262 4542). For Football in Schools: English Schools' Football Association, Chief Executive, 1/2 Eastgate Street, Stafford ST16 2N0 (Tel. 01785 251142). Variable lengths according to table 3 r5.5m Penalty area K 9.15m radius 9.15m radius ) 11 Om 16.5m a) Full-size pitch 0 Centre circle 1.0m dia. 10.97m b) Fig. 36 c) 5-a-side pitch Penalty area for 8-13 year olds Association football pitches 93 91 Athletics Track events. A 400m six or eight lane running track requires a minimum area of about two hectares, which is roughly equivalent to three winter games pitches. The layout should permit as many other activities as possible to be carried out safely within the track. The radius of semicircles should be between 32 and 42m for a 400m track, although where playing field space is not sufficient for a standard layout, alternative radii are possible, or a 300m track could be provided but this would be less satisfactory for running events. For pupils up to Year 6, straight tracks of 80-100m should be provided, with a minimum of six 1.2m wide lanes; as many as 20 lanes or more may be required depending on the needs of the individual school and the space available. Field events. There are advantages in combining high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vaulting in teaching areas which are capable of conversion to competitive use when necessary. Consideration might also be given to accommodating some field events on a multi-games area. Throwing events may take place within the central space formed by the athletics track or elsewhere on the playing field, provided such areas are safely cordoned off from those not involved in the event. Safety cages should be provided for hammer throwing in competition and are strongly recommended for hammer and discus practice. Setting out. Athletics facilities should be marked out in accordance with the current BAF handbook, normally prior to the commencement of the summer term. Governing body. British Athletic Federation, 222A Bristol Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham B5 7UB (Tel. 0121 440 5000). Straight 133.0m overall 20.0m 10.0m 3.0m 100.0m 110.0m hurdles 100.0m Finish line for all races El 3N: CO start 84.39m Water jump hurdle Minimum 6 lanes 7.32m 49.0m 36.50m radius 172.03m (Lane width 1.22m per runner) Fig. 37 92 start Athletics track For further information on athletics refer to Facilities for Athletics (track and field) 2nd Edition. National Playing Fields Association 1980. 4 Basketball Full-size court. The game is played by two teams of five players. The English Basketball Association encourages the development of the game as an outdoor activity; the court layout is similar to the indoor game. Where the facility shares a hard paved surface such as for tennis, it is suggested that court dimensions should be 28.0 x 15.0m but there can be variations on these up to minus 4.0m on the length and 2.0m on the width, such variations being in proportion to each other. Mini-basketball is a recreational activity for boys and girls under the age of 12 years in teams of ten players, but only five players can be on the court at any time. It is designed to encourage children to discover the game as an enjoyable pastime and to develop the basic skills. The court markings are similar to the frill-size game and the dimensions should be 28.0 x 15.0m. Other dimensions are possible providing thc variations arc proportional to each other such as: 26.0 x 14.0m; 24.0 x 13.0m; 22.0 x 12.0m and 20.0 x 11.0m. The baskets are set 2.6m above the floor. Governing body. English Basketball Association, 48 Bradford Road, Stanningley, Leeds, West Yorkshire LS28 6DF (Tel. 01132 361166). a) 1.0m 28.0m 1.0m Full-size basketball court 4.0m H L b) Mini-basketball court * 1.0m *1 28.0m 1 Om Not to scale Fig. 38 Basketball courts BESTCOPYAVAILABLE 93 Cricket A cricket table is usually combined for economy of land use with winter games pitches, often football or hockey pitches, and is constructed approximately 27m square to accommodate the 22 yd (20.12m) long full-sized pitch. The total width is determined by the number of gamcs to be played and the need to rest pitches to avoid excessive wear. For example, to allow for a rotation of 18 positions for a pitch 20.12 x 3.05m, plus a spare pitch for practice and wet weather, a table of 10 pitch widths would bc needed covering 27 x 30.5rn. The minimum gross area required for a combination of a cricket square plus a large sized and medium sized football pitch is approximately 1.5 hectares. The overall cricket table dimensions and those of the outfield arc presented in Figure 39 and tables 4 and 5. Table 4 Cricket pitch only: Dimensions and Areas No. of Pitches Rotation Width A Width 1 Length Approx. area 6 11 18.29m 98m 99m 1.0ha (2.4 acres) 9 17 27.44m 107m 99m 1.1ha (2.7 acres) Junior with 37m boundary Senior with 46m boundary 6 11 18.29m 116m 119m 1.4ha (3.4 acres) 9 17 27.44rn 125m 119m 1.5ha (3.7 acres) Table 5 Cricket Square Cricket and Winter Games Pitches: Dimensions and Areas Football Football Width 2 Length Approx. area 27.44 x 18.29m 96 x 60m 82 x 46m 142m 114m 1.6ha (4 acres) 27.44 x 27.44m 100 x 64m 90 x 55m 164m 118m 2.0ha (5 acres) Table 6 Lengths of pitches and boundaries For senior and junior games of cricket the lengths of pitches and the boundaries of play may be reduced as recommended by the National Cricket Council. Age Group Pitch Length Under 7 years 14.63m Under 9 years 15.54m Under 10 years 16.46m Under 11 years 17.37m Under 12 years 18.29m Under 13 years 19.20m Under 14 years 20.12m Under 15 years 20.12m Adult 20.12m Radius of Outfield 30m or to fit available space 35-37m Junior 40-46m Senior Non-turf cricket pitch. In recent years it has not always been possible to maintain grass cricket squares, this led to the growth of non-turf cricket pitches of 27-30m long and 2-2.75m wide laid between winter games pitches. These are usually synthetic turf carpets laid on various types of substructures to simulate normal ball bounce. 94 Cricket practice nets. An area of 31 x 15m can provide for four practice nets and their run-ups. The surface formation is similar to that of non-turf pitches. Their location might be on the field boundary to avoid interference with other activities, and they might usefully be sited near to games courts to keep practice areas together for reasons of supervision and safety. Governing body: National Cricket Council, Lords Cricket Ground, London NW8 8QZ (Tel. 0171 286 4405). Hockey or Junior football / Senior football Radius 46.0mm min seniors 37.0m min juniors 3.05m Return crease Bowling crease \ Boundary V ^(--) Popping crease / N. 6.0m 6Dm Cricket table 1\ width A 1 Width 1 Width 2 Fig. 39 Cricket square and field combined with winter games pitches 95 Hockey Full-size pitch. Hockey is played by teams of 11 players on grass or on non-turf pitches, but the full-size pitch is scaled down for pupils aged 14 and under. A smooth and level pitch with adequate margins is essential for safe play, and usually to avoid playing on a damaged surface a pitch is permanently reserved for the game. Table 7 Recommended age related pitch sizes Age group Type of pitch Length Width End Margins Side Margins 11-13 years Small 73.2m 45.7rn 4.55m 2.75m 13-15 years Medium 82.3m 50.3m 4.55m 2.75m 15-16 years Large 91.4m 50.3m 4.55m 2.75m 91.4m 55.0rn 4.55m 3.0m 16 and over Adult club Mini-hockey and 6 or 7-a-side hockey Mini-hockey and 7-a-side hockey arc played on half-sized pitches by teams of seven players, but the games are played to different rules. 7-a-side hockey is similar to true hockey, but it is scaled down and is intended for under 14 year olds. Mini-hockey is restricted to players aged ten years but under 12 years, and the pitch markings are different from true hockey or 7-a-side hockey. 6-a-side hockey is a scaled down version of 7-a-side hockey. Governing Body. The Hockey Association, The Stadium, Silbury Boulevard, Milton Keynes MK9 1NR (Tel. 01908 241100). 91.4m *A 5.0m (FIN and synthetic turf) 1 4.57m (grass) 14.63m a) )- Goal tl) 3.66m c radius C.) a) 4.0m (FIH) 2.0-3.0m Full-size pitch International Hockey Federation (RH) (synthetic turf) 3.0m (grass) Two mini-pitches can be fitted across a full-size pitch 14.63m radius b) Mini-hockey Competitions normally restricted to 10 years old or under 12 years old 3.0m 36.0-45.7m * 3.0m min 41.15-45.7m c) Fig. 40 96 Hockey pitches DS 7-a-side hockey for under 14 years old Lacrosse: Men's Full-size pitch. Lacrosse has a squad of 13 players, 10 on the pitch at any time. It is normally played on grass but synthetic surfaces are also used. Unlike women's lacrosse the pitch dimensions are prescribed. Table 8 Recommended age related pitch sizes Boys Side Margins Age group Length Width In goal End Margins 8-11 years 33.0m 15.0m 9.0m 11-13 years 64.0m 45.0m 11.0m 3.0m 4.5m (play to court boundary fencing) 13-15 years 15-16 years 72.0m 55.0m 13.75m 3.0m 4.5m Adults (max) 100.6m 55.0m 14.0m 3.0m 4.5m Governing body. English Lacrosse Association, 4 Western Court, Bromley Street, Birmingham B9 4AN (Tel. 0121 7734422). 32.0m 36.6m 32.0m Goal area 73.15m 13.72m K o * > Centre 1.83m between goal posts spot Goal crease 9.0m 2.74m radius < E ul a) s..... 3.0m Fig. 41 100.6m recommended (110.0 yards) 3.0m Full-size men's lacrosse pitch S3 97 Lacrosse: Women's and Girls' Full-size pitch. Lacrosse has a squad of 16 players, 12 on the pitch at any time, and is normally played on grass but synthetic surfaces are also used. Table 9 Recommended pitch size Women's & Girls' Length Width In goal All ages 110m recommended 60m 9.0m End Margins Side Margins Boundary lines are not defined but trees and other 100m minimum objects are not permitted within field of play, provide 4.0m clearance. Note: A smaller pitch may be used for non-ELA events by mutual agreement of captains Mixed lacrosse. This is aimed at 11-16 year olds. The pitch dimensions will be thc same as the women's game. Pop lacrosse. This is the mini version of the game aimed at 7-11 year olds. There are eight players in a squad, five on the pitch. Teams can be mixed or single sex. Playing area approximately four badminton court size (28.5 x 17.5m) indoor/outdoor, on hard surface or grass. Governing body. English Lacrosse Association see Lacrosse: Men's for address. <+ 15.0m radius Centre circle 9.0m radius 0<-1-11.0m radius Goal crease 2.6m radius 3.0m centre line 82.0m min. - 92.0m max. 110.0m recommended (100.0m min) Fig. 42 Full-size women's and girls' lacrosse pitch 100 98 / I >I ___J 9.0mlmin. behind goal Netball Full-size court. Age group 12 and over. Netball is played by 7-a-side teams of women and girls. The preferred surface for this sport is tarmacadam, although other surfaces can be used including concrete, hard porous, synthetic turf and polymeric construction. Netball courts should be marked out at least 1.22m clear of fence supports and, even with ball-stop fencing, the court location should allow for recovering stray balls. Where space is limited netball can be played on a slightly smaller court area by scaling down the dimensions. 'First step' Netball. Age group 8-11 years. This is a junior version of the senior game which was launched in 1993. It is designed for boys and girls; teams consist of 4 players and it can be played conveniently across a third of a full-sized netball court. Governing body. All England Netball Association, Netball House, SG5 1EH (Tel. 01462 442344). 9 Paynes Park, Hitchin, Hertfordshire one third length 4.9m Qradius 0.9m diameter c"1 LO 0.75-2.0m a) 0.75-2.0m 30.5m Full-size Netball court (senior) Markings b) 'First Step' Netball court Fig. 43 Centre line with a cross indicating the middle of the court Dot in the middle of each backline indicates position of the post. Equipment Posts placed on centre point of each backline should be adjusted down from 3.05m (senior) to 2.44m (junior) and be fitted with a net. Margins Same as for the senior game. 10.15m Netball Courts 101 99 Rounders Full-size pitch. Age group 11 and over. Rounders are played by teams of between six and nine. The game requires a relatively flat grass or hard surface area which can vary widely in size according to the age and strength of the players. If space allows, pitches can be laid out on any part of the playing fields not being used for other sports activities. Mini-Rounders. The gamc is designed for primary aged pupils and is played on a reduced size pitch to suit small playgrounds; the dimensions are shown in brackets in Figure 44. Such a playground is shown in Figure 12 junior games court. If a netball court is used the pitch should be marked out centrally to allow for a suitable hitting area. Governing body. National Rounders Association, 3 Denehurst Avenue, Nottingham NG8 5DA (Tel. 0115 9785514). S. Outfield \ (8.5m) 12.0m 2nd post , - 3rd Bowling.square _ (6.0m) 8.5m 4th post 1st post II Batting square Waiting batters Batters out 15.0m 15.0m Approximately 50.0m radius from peg 1 to outfield boundary. (Can be reduced to availability of space for pitch) Note: Dark lines are compulsory markings. Pitches should not be marked out in corners of fields as this restricts the hitting area. Pitches should be marked parallel to boundaries and at least 15m from them. Bowling squares are 2.5m square and batting squares 2.0m square. Fig. 44 Rounders pitch (for primary aged pupils dimensions are in brackets) 162 1 00 Rugby League Football Full-size pitch. The game is played by teams of 13 on a level pitch. The minimum playing area is 88 x 55m and the maximum is 100 x 68m. The side and end margins are 6m. Goal post uprights must exceed 4m and height from ground to crossbar is 3m. Recommended age related pitch sizes Table 10 Age Group Type of pitch Length Width In goal End Margins Side Margins Under 9 years Mini-league 60m 40m dimensions not 5.0m 2.0-5.0m fixed as goals are set outside play area Under 11 years Mod-league 50-80m 35-60m as above 5.0m 2.0-5.0m 2.0-5.0m Rugby league 11 -13 years Small 60-80m 35-50m 6.0-8.0m 5.0m 13 -15 years Medium 70-90m 40-60m 6.0-8.0m 5.0m 2.0-5.0m 15 and over Large 80-100m 55-68m 6.0-11.0m 6.0m 2.0-6.0m (Adult) Governing body. The Rugby Football League, Red Hall, Red Hall Lane, Leeds LS17 8NB (Tel. 01132 624637). E -71s- 10.0m 5.5m between posts 10.0m -= --Touch in goal area .14 6.0-11.0m Fig. 45 100.0m maximum 6.0-11.0m 6.0m min Rugby League football pitch 103 101 Rugby Union Football Full-size pitch. The game is played by teams of 15 on a level pitch. It should be remembered the pitch suffers from heavy wear and ideally should not form part of a cricket outfield. The maximum size of pitch is 100 x 69m with smaller recommended sizes for junior teams dependent on their age. Goal post uprights must exceed 3.4m and the height from the ground to the crossbar must be at least 3.0m. Table 11 Recommended age related pitch sizes Age group Type of pitch Length Width In goal End Margins Side Margins 11-13 years Small 75m 46m 6.5m 3.0m 4.5m 13-15 years Medium 82m 50m 6.5m 3.0m 4.5m 15-16 years Large 91-96m 55-59m 9.0m 3.0m 4.5m 100m 69m 22m (10m min) 3.0m 5.0m Adults (max) Mini-Rugby. The game was created as a means of coaching and encouraging pupils with the aim of their playing 15-a-side rugby at the age of 13 years. Table 12 Recommended age related pitch sizes Under 7s (5 players) and under 8s (7 players) 30 x 20m plus 2.0m for each in-goal area. Under 9s (9 players) and under lOs (9 players) 59 x 35m plus 5.0m for each in-goal area. Under 11s (9 players) 59 x 38m plus 5.0m for each in-goal area. Under 12s (12 players) 59 x 43m plus 5.0m for each in-goal area. All pitches can be laid out across the width of a full-size pitch. For further information contact the RFU. Governing body. The Rugby Football Union, Rugby Road, Twickenham, Middlesex TWI 1DZ (Tel. 0181 892 8161). In goal area E et. E AR I lc .- 1 _ I -i- -I- 1 a) =c =E a) c. a) =c I .. E 3 cl. _ 5.6m between posts = 0 =C _ TO 0 -I- 1- I I I (.7 22.0m Fig. 46 J._ 100.0m maximum 22.0m 3.0m approx. Rugby Union football pitch Softball Softball is a member of the baseball family of games which is rather less played than other summer games in schools. It can be played by both primary and secondary aged pupils, pitch sizes vary according to the age. However, for those who wish to mark it out it is suggested the Sports Council's Outdoor Sports Handbook Vol 1 1993 or the governing body is consulted. Governing bOdy. British'Softball Federation; National Development Officer, Mr R Fromer, Birchwood Hall, Storridge, Malvern, Worcestershire WR13 5EZ (Tel. 01886 884204). 102 - 1G4 Stoolball This 11-a-side game is played largely in junior schools in southern England. The scoring and rules are similar to cricket but simpler. The 'wicket' is a faceboard 300mm square and mounted on a stake 1.1m above ground level, giving an overall hcight of 1.4m. For those who wish to mark it out it is suggested the Sports Council's Outdoor Sports Handbook Vol VI 1993 is consulted. Governing body. National Stoolball Association, 3 Bramber Way, Burgess Hill, West Sussex KI-115 8JU Tennis Courts. A major consideration in any court layout is a preference for a north-south axis and a slight gradient for drainage. A maximum fall of 150mm should be provided across the court width wherever possible for all-weather surfaces; synthetic, hard porous or tarmacadam. The LTA have recommended court dimensions according to the standard of play needed and these are shown in Table 13. For schools the minimum standard (c) would be appropriate. The runback should be at least 5.49m especially where there is dual use by adults, although a reduction to 4.57m may be unavoidable on restricted sites. Multiple courts. There is a saving in playing surface by adopting multiple courts which share a common enclosure. Such facilities should be grouped side by side and in combinations of two, three or more courts according to curriculum need and for ease of supervision. This arrangement of space use also allows for multi-games use by netball, basketball, and 5-a-side football; the last would need fence reinforcement or rebound walls. However, care is needed in setting out clear and colour-coded court markings to avoid line confusion. Care should be taken in selecting games court sizes related to the standards of play required. It should be remembered that netball courts will need a slightly greater width than tennis courts and this should be taken into account. Table 13 Tennis court sizes related to standards of play (A) (B) (e) International and National official LTA LTA Championships Recommended Recommended Full size Full size (club) Minimum (Recreational) Length 23.77m 23.77m 23.77m Width 10.97m 10.97m 10.97m Length of net (doubles) 12.80m 12.80m 12.80m 50mm 50mm 50mm baseline) 6.40m 6.40m 5.49m Side-run (ie clearance beside sideline) 3.66m 3.66m 3.05m Marked out playing area Width of lines (white) included with above court size Runback (ie clearance behind Side-run between courts not separately enclosed 4.27m 3.66m Overall size of enclosure Length 36.58m 36.58m 34.75m Width for one enclosed court 18.29m 18.29m 17.07m 33.53m 31.70m 15.24m 14.63m Width for two courts in one enclosure Width added for each additional court BEST COPY AVAILABLE IC5 103 Short tennis. This is a miniature version of tennis created in Sweden especially for children of the age of five years or more. The scale of the game and equipment enables children to master hand-eye coordination skills and a repertoire of forehand and backhand strokes, including serving and volleying thus providing an introduction to the full-size game. It is played with a small racket and soft foam ball. A tennis court can accommodate four games, and a netball court the same number. Governing body. Lawn Tennis Association, Queens Club, Barons Court, West Kensington, London WI4 9EG (Tel. 0171 381 7000). 23.77m 6.40m Side lines / I I I I Net I Centre mark Centre line IService line I s./ I 0.914m I 34.75m Net is 0.91m in height at centre and 1.07m at posts a) Full-size court (LTA recommended minimum size - recreational) Dimensions to court run-off boundaries general play competition minimum run back 1.8m 2.6m minimum side run 1.5m 2.1m minimum side run between courts 1.8m 2.7m minimum unobstructed height over court 4.0m 5.2m 13.4m Net is 0.80m in height at centre and 0.85m at posts b) Short tennis court Fig 47. Tennis court (full-size) and short tennis court 06 104 Padder tennis. This is a small form of tennis played with a wooden bat and a standard tennis ball. The game is appropriate to primary and junior schools for the learning of basic coordination skills. 3.2m 2.75m 11.9m Fig. 48 Padder tennis court (Four games can be accommodated on a full-size tennis court) Volleyball Full-size court. Volleyball is played by two teams of six players plus six substitutes; the preferred surface for this net game is grass or sand and particularly so for match play as paved or hard porous surfaces are too abrasive for players, although with care those surfaces might be played on for recreational purposes. Mini-volleyball. The Association has especially introduced this mini game for 9-13 year olds; teams consist of three players plus three substitutes who play over a 2.10m high net. The game can occupy one third of the full-sized court. Six games can be accommodated on a netball court, and four games on a tennis court. Governing body. English Volleyball Association, 27 South Road, West Bridgford, Nottingham NG2 7AG (Tel. 01159 816324). Clear space 3.0m 3.0m __.--I-Service area 3.0m margin a) a) =c =c .-.- =C LI LI c a) 03 co = ct 0 E ea to --Service area __________ 18.0 L a) Full-size court _m _J Service Centre line Service b) Mini-volleyball Fig. 49 Volleyball and mini-volleyball courts 6.0m 105 C. Maintenance Schedule The following schedule sets out the basic requirements for the different types of maintenance in school grounds. It is not intended as a definitive specification, since circumstances, and thus requirements, will vary between schools, but rather as a list of the different categories and what may need to be included. Fine sports turf. The move towards contract systems, combined with pressure on revenue budgets, has contributed to a fall in the quality of maintenance and as a consequence the amount of fine turf in school grounds. The main point about fine sports turf is that it requires much more than mere cutting. There is variously a need for weed and fungal control, fertiliser and watering programmes and brushing, dragmatting and spiking, together with remedial works such as overseeding; these are fundamental to maintaining a good and safe playing surface. Grass cricket squares, tennis courts, and hockey pitches demand a smooth, flat and true surface with no undulations or holes that could lead to unpredictability of bounce. During the playing season the turf is maintained by cylinder mower with all clippings boxed off, within a height range of 6-10mm for cricket squares, 10-15mm for tennis, and 15-25mm for hockey. Winter sports pitches. The necessary maintenance for football, rugby and lacrosse pitches includes similar provisions for fertiliser application, harrowing, rolling and spiking. The exact mix of techniques depends on the quality of the pitch and the intensity of use. On rugby pitches, grass should be cut by gang-mower to a height of 50-100mm during the playing season, and 20-50mm at other times where summer sports use is required. Lengths where lines occur may be defined by cutting with a rotary mower to a height of 20-50mm. Football pitches should be cut by gang-mower to a height of 20-50mm. It is essential to rectify wear and tear to pitches, especially goalmouths and central areas as soon as the season is over. Interim measures, such as replacement of divots, sanding and regular spiking of goalmouths should take place at least weekly through the season. Any depressions should be filled with good quality topsoil and/or sand dressing, as appropriate, and re-seeded or re-turfed. Re-seeded areas must be protected and watered through the summer to ensure good establishment. Winter goal posts should be removed at the end of the playing season and goal boxes made safe. Some schools choose to leave rugby posts up through the year to save on cost, but this can reduce the flexibility for summer use. Posts should be stored safely and painted during the close season and any damaged goal boxes should be replaced. Marking should maintain a clear white line at all times. Pitches should be moved at least once a year wherever space permits to change the pattern of wear from season to season. Games courts and hard porous surfaces. All games courts should be kept weed-free, usually by the application of a non-selective herbicide outside of term time. Regular sweeping should take place to remove any accumulation of surface dust, grit or leaves. Gullies should be inspected at least monthly and any necessary clearance completed. Hard porous pitches and smaller facilities, such as run-up areas, should be well consolidated, true and level with a light covering of coarse particles on the surface. Many sites will require daily attention but this depends on the frequency of use. Marking needs to be carried out regularly to sustain clear lines for pitches and courts. Where an irrigation system is installed, a porous pitch should be watered frequently during dry weather with an annual application of salt to increase the hygroscopic properties. Drainage outlets should be checked at least twice a year. Synthetic sports surfaces. No synthetic surface is maintenance-free and a diligent approach to the care of the pitch can significantly prolong its life. Access should be controlled by means of a totally fenced enclosure with washable boot wipers and litter bins at gates. Control of litter, .debris and mud from adjacent areas will reduce the potential for their deposit on the synthetic surface. Food and drink, and smoking during community use sessions, should be prohibited. It is important to repair minor damage or vandalism quickly. Maintenance to line markings depends on whether they are built in or have been painted on. The former reduces maintenance costs but there may be distortion through material stretching. The life of paint lines is improving and re-marking frequency is moving towards an annual operation. However, maintenance should be on the basis of need rather than a time schedule. Build-up of paint should be avoided as this distorts levels and may make the surface slippery. Sand-filled carpet. Litter and leaves should be regularly picked up, at least weekly where usage is above 30 hours a week, by hand or machine brushing or suction. Any excessive staining should bc removed by warm water and detergent or grease spot remover, after checking use of specific products with the manufacturer. Any weed growth should always be treated by herbicide application and never hand-pulled. The nature and level of the sand in carpets have the greatest impact on the playing characteristics of the 106 surface. Sand will need re-dressing several months after installation. Larger, rounder sands may reduce compaction more successfully than smaller sieved grades and it is always essential to check use of types with the supplier of the surface. The major cause of problems in pitches is seam failure, though this has declined with the improvement in adhesives. This is often difficult to rectify due to tension in the carpet and an unsightly filler piece may be required. Pitch levels should not distort through settlement, heavy use or frost unless the initial construction, particularly the depth, was inadequate. Most suppliers offer surety for a 10 year life for the carpet. Athletics facilities. Running tracks should be level and free from excessive undulations. The landing areas for javelin, discus and hammer throwing must be clear of other facilities. Cages, where erected, should be maintained in a good condition and removed at the end of the summer term. Grass perimeters around jump facilities should be maintained as an amenity lawn at a height of 20-25mm and edges should be cut annually. Fresh, soft, blown sand should be used to top up each jump pit as necessary at the start of the season to give a smooth surface level with the run-up. Any weeds or debris should be removed from the jump pit area on a regular basis and the sand raked to leave a level surface throughout the season. Take-off boards should be turned or renewed, annually if necessary, when the run-up is reinstated. They must be flush with the run-up and painted with white undercoat at the beginning of the summer term and as required through the season. Amenity grass areas. Prior to mowing any area, it is important that litter and debris are removed. Areas of bulbs should not be mown until seven weeks after the bulbs have flowered and on finer lawn areas cuttings need to be collected and removed. Lawns should be cylinder mown to a height of 25-50mm depending on their use and desired appearance. At the completion of mowing, clippings should be left evenly spread over the surface without undue accumulations that might cause damage to the underlying sward. Cuttings that fall on to paved surfaces should be removed and marked accumulations of leaves cleared off lawns in the autumn. All the boundaries of grass areas need to be kept tidy, and maintenance should extend right up to any building line, fence, service marker, manhole cover or other obstruction. To avoid widespread and regular hand trimming, a herbicide can be used to sustain a weed-free strip, no wider than 250mm around such obstacles and against walls. Where schools do not wish herbicides to be used, a suitable hard surface material not loose gravel may be installed along this strip to reduce hand work. The fringe around shrub borders should be regularly clipped so that the grass never exceeds 50mm in height and recut once a year where necessary with a half moon edging iron. Lawn edges against kerbs or hard areas should be recut twice a year leaving no gap between turf and adjoining hard surface. Rough grass and meadows. Rough grass areas can be cut with a rotary or flail mower to maintain the length of vegetation at 50-100mm, cylinder mowers should be used within 30m of the windows of buildings or cars during the school day as other types can throw up stones. Within young tree plantations and over meadows, grass can be cut once or twice a year dependent on the season or the specific demands of the habitat. Spring meadows are usually cut after the end of the summer term and a finishing cut may be necessary in October. Summer meadows can be cut in the spring and again in October. To prevent thc build up of nutrients in the soil, cuttings should be removed from meadow areas wherever possible, either by machine over large areas or by hand raking over smaller ones. Grass around tree plantations only needs to be cut in the early years where there is a danger of long vegetation falling over the young transplants. Shrub borders. All borders should be kept clear of litter and maintained weed-free. The latter can be assisted in the early years by a 75mm depth of bark mulch, and when the occasional weeds come through they are more easily pulled by hand. Bark mulch can however be undesirable around school buildings where shrub borders abut hard surfaces. If borders are at the same level and the mulch has not been feathered down to the edge, it can be kicked over the hard surface areas. This is often the result of poor landscape design. Shrubs should be regularly pruned to prevent undue obstruction to pathways and windows, to avoid overcrowding and to promote an acceptable shape for the species. It is essential that those responsible have the necessary skills to undertake this work. Restrictions on the use of certain chemicals and the increasing resistance to their use by schools, points to the need for a wider adoption of artificial or organic mulches, combined with careful choice of species, to create a closed canopy and to limit the amount of bare soil available for weed colonisation. BEST COPY AVAILABLE 107 Hedges and fences. Cutting frequency and height are dependent on the species, but generally hedges around playing fields should be cut once a year. Around the buildings two or even more cuts may be necessary, especially where hedges abut footpaths. Once the hedge has reached its preferred height, it should be cut back to the previous year's growth and the hedge base cleared out at the time of clipping. All clippings should be raked into heaps and taken to a convenient disposal point on site for composting or, where this is not possible, carted off site to a tip. Any gaps which do arise due to death or damage should be filled in the following autumn and the young plants protected during establishment by temporary fencing. Minor day-to-day repairs to fencing should be undertaken as soon as they are noticed and in areas with more regular maintenance, fence-lines should be kept clear by herbicide application or the installation of a hard surface mowing strip. Where fences are persistently broken down by pupils taking short cuts, access arrangements should be reviewed and additional gates provided where it is convenient and safe to do so. Newly planted trees. In the first year after planting, the prime requirement for establishment is water and the creation of a I rn diameter weed-free ring around the tree by herbicide application would be effective. Laying a mulch will restrict competition for nutrients as well as for water. This should be sustained for at least three, and ideally five, years. Even uncut grass is preferable to close mown grass which is fiercely competitive and brings the added danger of mower damage to the base of the tree. The latter can often affect over half the trees in grounds where they are set in close mown grass without protection. Impact damage and bark removal can severely affect the health and thus the safcty of the tree in later life. Other maintenance considerations are as follows. Re-firming and vertical position. In the first year and possibly in the next two, wind-rocking and frost may have caused the tree to be loose in the ground and to bend over at an angle. Treading the soil around the stem should aim to place the tree in an upright position and firm in the ground without damaging it in any way. Fertiliser. An application in April of the second and fourth years can promote more active growth, especially on poor sites. It should have a nitrogen:potassium:phosphorus ratio of 15:10:10 and be applied at a rate of 15g/m2 to forestry transplants and hedging plants, and 60g/m2 to feathered trees. Watering. This may be necessary through the summer term, particularly in the south and east of the country. Guide quantities are 10 litres per transplant and hedging plant, and 20 litres per feathered tree per occasion. Where permissible, the frequency of watering in drought conditions needs to be weekly. Pruning. Annual pruning in the autumn should remove dead wood and encourage balanced growth; trees should have a clear leading shoot and branches should not rub against each other. Formative pruning may be necessary to reduce the density, and thus the weight of the branches, especially where there has been substantial annual growth that may make the plant top heavy. Rabbit protection. Where guards or fencing have been used (and they will be necessary on all but inner-city sites), regular monthly inspections should ensure they are effective and any damage to them is repaired. Stakes and tics. Stakes should be firm and upright and supporting the tree, rather than the other way around, and ties should be secure and prevent the tree rubbing against the stake. Short stakes, no more than I m above ground and with a single tie near the top, encourage the tree to buttress at the base and become more wind-firm. Mature trees. Regular inspection of mature trees should be undertaken by an arboriculturalist. The frequency will depend on the number, size and location of the trees. Inspections should never bc more than two years apart and may need to be annually on sites with many mature trees. Interim inspections by the member of staff responsible for the grounds, on the basis of the earlier tree survey format, can assist in early recognition of problems. Timing of these is important since a survey in late summer will show any signs of crown dieback, in the early autumn it will pick up any fungal growth, and in winter it will reveal damage to.the trunk or branches of deciduous trees. The aim should be to have a healthy population of . 108 : , IL trees in all age ranges and some felling of older specimens may be necessary to allow re-planting to take place. Re-planting close to, let alone within, the canopy of existing mature trees results in distorted and often slow growth due to limited light, water and nutrients. Wetlands, ditches and drainage systems. Where ponds do not have a direct supply of water, such as that from a roof, and sometimes even where they do, regular topping up will be required in summer to compensate for evaporation loss. Excessive growth of aquatic plants may need to be removed in the autumn of each year, especially where a soil layer has been placed over the artificial liner; it may be necessary to remove as much as 50% to allow sufficient area of open water. To prevent leaks great care should be taken to avoid damage to an artificial liner during this operation. Litter needs to be picked from the pond on a weekly or monthly basis depending on the severity of the problem. All ditches, silt traps and entrance grids to underground culverts should be cleared of excess silt and rubbish in the autumn of each year. All manhole inspection covers should be lifted at least once during wet weather in the winter months to check that the drains are running freely and any blockages should be removed. Hard landscape areas and site furniture. All hard surface areas should be thoroughly inspected at least annually to check for any early breaking up of tarmac surfaces or for differential settlement over paved areas which has resulted in cracked slabs or a difference in level between them. Surfaces will need to be swept at regular intervals to remove excess grit, dust and accumulations of leaves in autumn. Site furniture should be checked at the beginning of each term to ensure stability in the ground, the effectiveness of all fasteners and the sound condition of all timber and metal work. More regular inspections of any fixed play equipment will be necessary and these have been set out in 8.62. Litter. Whilst a good deal of litter collection may be undertaken directly by the pupils, the maintenance contract should allow for certain litter clearance, for example on grass areas before mowing. The aim should be to achieve grade A standard as specified in the Environmental Protection Act 1990 by removing all litter and refuse. As a minimum standard during school terms grade B, defined as predominantly free of litter and refuse apart from small items should be achieved after litter picking. If the standard falls to grade C, widespread distribution of litter with minor accumulations, it should be restored to at least grade B within 24 hours, excluding weekends and holidays. In the event of non-compliance a private individual can give five days' written notice to the school and if the situation is not rectified a complaint can be made to a magistrates' court. If the complaint is upheld a Litter Abatement Order will be issued requiring clearance and leading to a fine of up to £1000 in the event of continued non-compliance. Additional work. So that more competitive prices can be set for any additional or unforeseen work, many maintenance contracts include a schedule requiring tenderers to provide prices on an area and operations basis before the contract is let. Table 14 shows a typical schedule of rates. Table 14 Typical schedule of rates for actual pricing by others (not to be totalled) Operation 1. Operative with hand tools 2. Operative with cylinder mower 3. Operative with rotary mower 4. Operative with strimmer 5. Operative with knapsack sprayer 6. Tractor mounted sprayer 7. Tractor mounted harrow 8. Tractor mounted 5+ gang-mower 9. Ride-on triple grass cutter 10. Tractor mounted roller 11. JCB 3C or equivalent 12. 4x4 wheeled dumper (4m' capacity) daily rate hourly rate BEST COPY AVAILABLE 111 109 Table 14 continued Area costs Unit 1. 5+ gang-mower 1000 m2 2. Cylinder mower 100 m2 3. Pedestrian rotary mower 100 m2 4. Hover mower 100 m2 5. Pedestrian flail mower 100 m2 6. Knapsack sprayer 100 m2 7. Pedestrian fertiliser application 8. Tractor mounted fertiliser spreader 1000 m2 9. Tractor mounted sprayer 1000 m2 100 m2 10. Overseed by hand inc. scarification 11. As 10 but with tractor mounted scarification 12. Turf (inc. materials) 100 m2 13. Plant forestry transplants 100 no 14. Imported topsoil in feathered tree pits 100 m2 1000 m2 10 no Spraying/fertiliser/soiling costs should exclude materials. Note: Grounds maintenance performance quality standards. Performance quality standards for sports pitches, amenity turf and shrub borders are being developed by the Association of Landscape Managers. These standards are not established to indicate how a task should be performed, they are pre-determined levels of quality to which the finished product should conform at specific times. Once existing quality levels have been determined through assessment or measurement, realistic performance targets can be established which can be monitored to ensure facilities are maintained to acceptable levels. For information contact the Association of Landscape Managers, Mr Matthew J. Smith, Secretary, c/o WDS, Brook House, Bythesea Road, Trowbridge, Wiltshire BM 4 8JH (Tel. 01225 771670). 112 110 D. Description of Key Staff Duties For staff with responsibility for the grounds. Whether or not the grounds are the responsibility of one or more persons, there are a number of duties which will need to be undertaken. These duties fall into two categories, those which need to be undertaken by the school grounds management group and those which may be delegated. School grounds management group: develop a long-term policy for the school grounds and incorporate it into the School Development Plan; identify long-term and short-term curricular needs so that the grounds can be adapted to match changing requirements and staff training needs met; encourage those responsible for play (at primary level) and personal and social education (secondary level) to develop a rationale and policy for the informal curriculum; identify needs and provide training for those responsible for supervision at lunchtime; intervene, where necessary, to correct under-use and avoid over-use; oversee new developments; raise funds and keep financial records; co-ordinate publicity; oversee volunteer involvement; determine the overall management and maintenance of the grounds; oversee health and safety issues, see Reference Section H. Ongoing duties include: co-ordinating planning to make each department or, in the case of primary schools, each teacher aware of what is being done by others; encouraging those responsible for subjects or areas of the curriculum to include specific references to the use of the school grounds in their guidelines and schemes of work; assisting individual teachers in their planning of lessons or programmes of work which are intended to make use of the grounds; organising ongoing maintenance and acting as the staff point of contact for contractors or outside agencies involved in the grounds; organising volunteer working parties in the grounds; co-ordinating involvement of pupils in grounds use and development; advising the headteacher on health and safety matters; co-ordinating community use of the site. BEST COPY AVAILABLE 1i 3 111 E. Extract from DfEE Circular No 10/96 The 1996 School Premises Regulations Part V - Playing Fields and other sports facilities 72. The Regulations about school playing fields or equivalent sporting facilities apply to any school where there are pupils aged eight years or above. They do not apply to pupil referral units. 'Playing fields' are defined strictly in the Regulations. To qualify, an outdoor, grassed area provided for physical education must be: suitable for the playing of team games; and laid out for that purpose; and capable of sustaining team games for seven hours a week during term time. 73. The minimum area of playing fields which schools should have is set out in Schedule 2 to the Regulations. This minimum area see Table 2 below depends on the number of pupils at the school and their ages. Table 2: Total number of pupils aged 8 years or older (Y4 and above) 74. Minimum total playing field areas in m2 - figures from Schedule 2 to the Regulations. Schools with pupils aged under 11 years (Y6 and below) Schools with All special schools NO pupils aged under 11 years (below Y7) 100 or fewer 2500 5000 101 to 200 5000 10000 201 to 300 10000 15000 301 to 400 15000 20000 401 to 500 20000 25000 501 to 600 25000 30000 601 to 750 30000 35000 751 to 900 35000 40000 901 to 1050 40000 45000 1051 to 1200 45000 50000 1201 to 1350 50000 55000 1351 to 1500 55000 60000 1501 to 1650 60000 65000 1651 to 1800 65000 70000 1801 to 1950 70000 75000 The Regulations do not set out specific areas for special school playing fields. However, they do require that a special school with pupils who receive outdoor physical education should have an area of playing field sufficient to take account of pupils' needs. For special schools only, playing fields are required to be adjacent to, or in the immediate vicinity of the school buildings. For schools with more than 1950 pupils: choose the column above which is appropriate to the ages of the pupils; select the largest figure in it; and add an extra 5000m2 for each complete 150 by which the number of pupils exceeds 1801. For example, a secondary school with 2000 pupils would need 75000m2 + 5000m2 = 80000m2 of playing fields. Quality of playing fields 75. For a playing field to count towards the minimum requirement, it should be able to sustain the playing of team sports for at least 7 hours a week during term time. Other sports facilities 76. Types of provision other than traditional grass playing fields may also be suitable for physical education. Therefore, for the purposes of the minimum area requirements, a playing field with a hard porous surface, which is large enough for the playing of team games, may be treated as if it were twice its actual area. 77. Synthetic surfaces of various types are also suitable for playing some team sports. Different types of synthetic surface have very different properties, and will not necessarily be an adequate substitute for grass, so the Regulations do not include a simple ratio for discounting synthetic surfaces against the requirement for grass playing fields. 112 114 78. But the Regulations do say that the area of grass playing field required is reduced 'so far as is reasonable' if a school enjoys the benefit of the following facilities: regular instruction in swimming (either at the school or elsewhere); indoor instruction in team games (either at the school or elsewhere); instruction in team games on synthetic surfaces (at the school); or outdoor instruction in team games (not at the school). 79. When considering what constitutes a 'reasonable' reduction in the minimum area, LEAs and governors should take account of: the quality of any alternative facilities; the ease of access to such facilities; and the number of hours of usc that would be available to the school. I J. 5 113 F. Grounds Area Guidelines (Recommended tables for site areas, and allocation of area for use-zones Reference 4.25) The area guidance tables provided below draw on the area guidance given in llfEE Building Bulletin 82 Area Guidelines for Schools. The site areas given in the tables incorporate minimum statutory playing field areas, recommended hard surfaced games court(s), and informal and social areas. The area allocated to habitat, buildings and access, and playing fields above the minimum statutory playing field area has been calculated by deducting the sum of the minimum statutory playing field area, the recommended hard surfaced games court(s), and the informal and social areas from the total recommended site area. For convenience the area figures (m2) created by this process have been tabulated for the most commonly found mainstream schools in Tables 15 20 for infant, junior, primary, middle deemed primary, middle deemed secondary, and any secondary school. Special schools (including nursery, primary, secondary, and all age special schools) have been treated separately due to the range and variety of special schools. Reference should be made to Table 21 for recommended pupil numbers related to outdoor areas for hard surfaced area for games and informal and social area, and soft area for informal activities and habitat area. (Site areas have not been included as these will vary in relation to the type of special school and the need for additional outdoor space for vehicle access and parking needed for pupil safety measures.) Area Tables To develop the area tables for the mainstream schools mentioned above, the recommended area formulae given in BB82 were used to generate site areas (hard surfaced games court(s), and informal and social areas). The formulae produced an upper and lower area range to provide a degree of flexibility. For area advice on schools with different age ranges from those given in the tables, BB82 Area Guidelines for Schools should be consulted. Examples of a site layout for a primary school and a secondary school developed by using the recommended area guidelines and tables are provided in the same publication. Table 15 Number on roll 90 120 150 180 210 statutory minimum playing field area 0 0 0 0 0 grassed informal habitat areas, space for skills practice and small games and social buildings and access, playing field area above stat. minimum area total site area 771 795 3824 5390 462 609 3304 4375 828 960 4232 516 762 3622 6020 4900 885 1125 915 942 1290 624 1068 999 1455 678 1221 4640 3940 5048 4258 5456 4576 6650 570 5425 7280 5950 7910 6475 240 0 1056 1620 5864 8540 732 1374 4894 7000 270 0 1113 1785 6272 9170 786 1527 5212 7525 1170 1950 6680 9800 840 1680 5530 8050 1227 2115 7088 10430 894 1833 5848 8575 1284 2280 7496 11060 948 1986 6166 9100 1341 2445 7904 11690 1002 2139 6484 9625 300 330 360 390 114 Infant school (5-7 years): Recommended site and zone areas (m2) 0 0 0 0 Table 16 Junior school (7-11 Years): Recommended site and zone areas (m2) informal and social statutory minimum playing field area surfaced games 90 2500 771 795 462 120 2500 828 Number on roll 150 5000 180 5000 210 240 270 5000 5000 10000 hard area courts habitat areas, buildings and access, playing field area above stat. minimum total site area 3879 7945 609 3359 6930 960 5022 9310 516 762 4412 8190 885 1125 3665 10675 570 915 2965 9450 942 1290 4808 12040 624 1068 4018 10710 999 1455 5951 13405 678 1221 5071 11970 1056 1620 7094 14770 732 1374 6124 13230 1113 1785 3237 16135 786 1527 2177 14490 1950 4380 17500 300 10000 1170 840 1680 3230 15750 330 10000 1227 2115 5523 18865 894 1833 4283 17010 2280 6666 20230 18270 360 10000 1284 948 1986 5336 390 10000 1341 2445 7809 21595 1002 2139 6389 19530 1398 2610 3952 22960 1056 2292 2442 20790 1455 2775 5095 24325 1110 2445 3495 22050 1512 2940 6238 25690 1164 2598 4548 23310 420 450 480 15000 15000 15000 117 115 Table 17 Number on roll statutory minimum playing field area 90 2500 120 2500 150 2500 180 210 240 270 2500 2500 5000 5000 hard surfaced games informal and social habitat areas, total buildings and site area access, playing area courts field area above stat. minimum 771 795 2784 462 609 2264 5835 828 960 3612 7900 516 762 3002 6780 885 1125 4440 8950 570 915 3740 7725 942 1290 5268 10000 624 1068 4478 8670 999 1455 6096 11050 678 1221 5216 9615 1056 1620 4424 12100 732 1374 3454 10560 1113 1785 5252 13150 786 1527 4192 11505 6080 14200 6850 300 5000 1170 1950 840 1680 4930 12450 330 5000 1227 2115 6908 15250 894 1833 5668 13395 1284 2280 7736 16300 948 1986 6406 14340 1341 2445 8564 17350 1002 2139 7144 15285 1398 2610 9392 18400 1056 2292 7882 16230 1455 2775 10220 19450 1110 2445 8620 17175 1512 2940 6048 20500 1164 2598 4358 18120 1569 3105 6876 21550 1218 2751 5096 19065 1626 3270 7704 22600 1272 2904 5834 20010 1683 3435 8532 23650 1326 3057 6572 20955 1740 3600 9360 24700 1380 3210 7310 21900 1797 3765 10188 25750 1434 3363 8048 22845 360 390 420 450 480 5000 5000 5000 5000 10000 510 10000 540 10000 570 600 630 116 Primary school (5-11 years): Recommended site and zone areas (m2) 10000 10000 10000 118 Table 18 Number on roll statutory minimum playing field area 120 5000 150 5000 180 210 240 5000 10000 10000 surfaced informal and social games area hard courts habitat areas, buildings and access, playing field area above stat. minimum total site area 11083 960 4295 516 762 3345 9623 885 1125 5621 12631 570 915 4578 11063 942 1290 6948 14180 624 1068 5811 12503 999 1455 3275 15729 678 1221 2044 13943 1056 1620 4602 17278 732 1374 3277 15383 5928 18826 828 270 10000 1113 1785 786 1527 4510 16823 300 10000 1170 1950 7255 20375 840 1680 5743 18263 330 15000 1227 2115 3582 21924 894 1833 1976 19703 360 15000 1284 2280 4909 23473 948 1986 3209 21143 1341 2445 6235 25021 1002 2139 4442 22583 1398 2610 2562 26570 1056 2292 675 24023 1455 2775 3889 28110 1110 2445 1908 25463 1512 2940 5216 29668 1164 2598 3141 26903 390 420 450 480 Note: Middle deemed primary school (8-12 years): Recommended site and zone areas (m2) 15000 20000 20000 20000 Due to the stepped change in minimum playing field area requirement a greater total site area may be desirable above 400 on roll 117 Table 19 Number on roll 120 statutory minimum playing field area 5000 150 5000 180 5000 210 240 270 300 330 10000 10000 10000 10000 15000 hard informal habitat areas, surfaced games and social area buildings and access, playing courts total site area field area above stat. minimum 828 960 6067 12855 516 762 4777 11055 885 1125 7578 14588 570 915 6190 12675 942 1290 9088 16320 624 1068 7603 14295 999 1455 5599 18053 678 1221 4016 15915 1056 1620 7109 19785 732 1374 5429 17535 1113 1785 8620 21518 786 1527 6842 19155 1170 1950 10130 23250 840 1680 8255 20775 1227 2115 6641 24983 894 1833 4668 22395 360 15000 1284 2280 8151 26715 948 1986 6081 24015 390 15000 1341 2445 9662 28448 1002 2139 7494 25635 1398 2610 6172 30180 1056 2292 3907 27255 1455 2775 7683 31913 1110 2445 5320 28875 1512 2940 9193 33645 1164 2598 6733 30495 420 450 480 118 Middle deemed secondary schools (9-13 years): Recommended site and zone areas (m2) 20000 20000 20000 Table 20 Number on roll 450 Any secondary school (11-16 + years ): Recommended site and zone areas (m2) statutory minimum playing field area 25000 495 25000 540 30000 585 30000 630 35000 675 720 765 35000 35000 40000 surfaced informal and social games area hard courts habitat areas, buildings and access, playing field area above stat. minimum total site area 1455 3350 13195 43000 1110 3060 10030 39200 1541 3485 15675 45700 1191 3186 12343 41720 1626 3620 13154 48400 1272 3312 9656 44240 1712 3755 15634 51100 1353 3438 11969 46760 1797 3890 13113 53800 1434 3564 9282 49280 1883 4025 15593 56500 1515 3690 11595 51800 1968 4160 18072 59200 1596 3816 13908 54320 2054 4295 15552 61900 1677 3942 11221 56840 18031 64600 810 40000 2139 4430 1758 4068 13534 59360 855 40000 2225 4565 20511 67300 1839 4194 15847 61880 4700 22990 70000 900 40000 2310 1920 4320 18160 64400 945 45000 2396 4835 20470 72700 2001 4446 15473 66920 2481 4970 22949 75400 2082 4572 17786 69440 2567 5105 25429 78100 2163 4698 20099 71960 2652 5240 22908 80800 2244 4824 17412 74480 2738 5375 25388 83500 2325 4950 19725 77000 2823 5510 27867 86200 2406 5076 22038 79520 2909 5645 25347 88900 2487 5202 19351 82040 2994 5780 27826 91600 2568 5328 21664 84560 3080 5915 30306 94300 2649 5454 23977 87080 3165 6050 32785 97000 2730 5580 26290 89600 3251 6185 30265 99700 2811 5706 23603 92120 990 45000 1035 45000 1080 1125 1170 50000 50000 50000 1215 55000 1260 55000 1305 1350 1395 55000 55000 60000 Continued on page 120 121 119 Table 20 Number on roll Continued Recommended site and zone areas (m2) statutory minimum playing field area hard informal surfaced and social habitat areas, buildings and total site games area access, playing area courts field area above stat. minimum 1440 1485 1530 60000 60000 65000 1575 65000 1620 65000 1665 1710 1755 1800 70000 70000 70000 70000 3336 6320 32744 102400 2892 5832 25916 94640 3422 6455 35224 105100 2973 5958 28229 97160 3507 6590 32703 107800 3054 6084 25542 99680 3593 6725 35183 110500 3135 6210 27855 102200 3678 6860 37662 113200 3216 6336 30168 104720 3764 6995 35142 115900 3297 6462 27481 107240 3849 7130 37621 118600 3378 6588 29794 109760 3935 7265 40101 121300 3459 6714 32107 112280 4020 7400 42580 124000 3540 6840 34420 114800 122 120 Table 21 Special schools: nursery, primary, secondary, and all-age schools Recommended outdoor areas related to pupil numbers: all inclusive hard surfaced area for games and informal and social activities, and a separate soft area (grass and planting) for informal activities and habitat. 1 Age Range Number of Pupils Primary Less 5 - 11 than 100 Hard surfaced area in m2 (includes area for games courts and hard informal and social area to give flexibility to cover the range of need for hard paving in different types of special school) Soft area in m2 (grass and planting Total area in m2 for informal activities and habitats) 350 950 900 450 1350 900 450 1350 In all cases there should be at least a netball-sized hard surfaced court on site. 1100 600 1700 Appropriate provision will otherwise vary according to the special needs concerned. 1800 900 2700 100 or Secondary Less 11 - 16+ than 50 years 50 to 120 Over 120 Where there are pupils able to participate in team games there should also be access to playing fields, either within the school site or nearby. See paragraphs 5.7 and 8.57. 600 years more Notes See paragraphs 5.7, 6.6 and Interpolate from the above according All ages 5 - 16+ years to primary and secondary numbers Nursery Total area = Full time equivalent number of pupils x 9m2 8.57. It is usually advisable to provide separate games and informal and social areas for primary and secondary-aged pupils. See paragraph 6.6. Amount of hard surfaced area variable Nursery garden should open directly off the nursery and be separate from outdoor areas for older pupils. according to particular SEN but likely to be about 2/3rds of total area. 123 121 G. Looking to the Future - Capital Costs Developing the grounds is a form of investment (see Section 10 and following). It requires a long term view, not only of the potential benefits, but also of continuing costs of changing needs and circumstanc'es. Any financial analysis should include the capital costs of supply and installation, as well as the on-going costs of maintenance and replacement. Change can be gradual and it is often better and easier to phase the work over a number of years, especially if there is a clear holistic vision, constantly being updated in line with changing formal and informal curriculum demands. Trees and woodlands take time to become established. It therefore makes sense to make tree and woodland planting a priority so that they are maturing while other initiatives are taking shape. Even tree planting itself may need to be phased over a number of seasons, starting with the most prominent or important locations. In the case of new school sites, advanced planting of some areas will hasten establishment. If the site is already the freehold property of the provider and the money can be found, trees can be planted five or even ten years before building takes place. For a school grounds capital project to go ahead, its objectives have to be established, otherwise it will not be possible to cost proposals in detail. During the early stages of the project it is possible to begin to find out about costs in more general terms to enable prioritising to take place effectively. An indication of some common costs is shown in Table 22. Table 22 Costs of some common items. Source: A guide to fundraising for school grounds (LTL 1995) These rough guide prices are exclusive of delivery, labour costs for planting or installation and ongoing maintenance. There may be regional variations, allowance should be made for availability and inflation from 1995. Bark mulch (to be spread for weed control to a thickness of 100mm) £15-18 per cubic metre Chestnut paling fence £3 per metre Cycle sheds (simple, 10 free standing cycles) from £400 Flagpole (eg 6 m) from £400 Football goal posts (tubular steel) from £320 Goal nets from £65 Hockey goal posts (steel frames) from £250 Paving slabs (pre-cast concrete) £1.50 each Pergola (depends on size) from £1,500 Pond (depends on size) Seats and benches from £200 from £75 each Shrubs and climbing plants - pot grown Top soil Trees (depending on size of tree and number ordered) Transplants Whips from £2 each £6 8 per cubic metre from 50p each from £1 each Wattle fencing panels (1.8x1.2m) Wild flowers Wild flower meadow seed (likely sowing rate of 4g per square metre) 122 £40 each from 75p each £5 10 per 100g H. Legislation and Guidance (Reference to the health and safety considerations 1.12) The Department's role is to promote good health and safety practice in schools. The main requirements under Common Law Statute are set out below. Common Law There are long established and important Common Law requirements for those acting 'in loco parentis' to exercise the same care as would a reasonably prudent parent. Statute Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 Under the Act, employers are legally required to do all that is reasonably practicable to ensure the health, safety and welfare at work of employees, and the health and safety of non-employees such as pupils and visitors affected by their duties. Employers vary according to the type of schools: in county schools the employer is the LEA, in GM and voluntary aided schools the governing body is the employer, in city technology colleges it is the proprietor, and in independent schools it is the employing trust governing body or proprietor. This Act also places duties on those in control of the premises to take reasonable measures to ensure that they are safe. Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 These regulations require that employers introduce arrangements for planning, organising, controlling, monitoring and reviewing their management of health and safety measures. Employers need to identify hazards, assess risks, assign priority to risks and decide whether they are properly controlled or if action is needed. If there are five or more employees, the significant findings of these assessments must be recorded. Employees must be provided with information on these measures and effective health and safety training. Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994 These regulations place duties on clients, designers and contractors of construction projects. They apply to all demolition and most construction works in schools ('construction' includes redecoration, roof work, rewiring etc). They apply to construction work of more than 30 days duration, or involving more than four people on site or lasting more than 500 person-days. Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 1994 These regulations place a duty on employers to make an assessment of risks for work involving exposure to substances hazardous to health. Steps must be taken to prevent or control adequately the exposure of employers and others to these substances. First Aid Although pupils are not covered by the Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981, which relate to employees, those acting 'in loco parentis' have a duty of care. Pupils' first aid needs should be governed by the school's health and safety policy, which should ensure that the school has an appropriate number of qualified first aiders amongst the staff. It is recommended that schools maintain an independent record of all incidents and accidents, however minor, in accordance with their authorities' instructions or, in the case of GM and independent schools, along similar lines to the Social Services record of accidents to employees (Form B1 510). Information from the accident book provides a valuable source of data to be considered in the assessment of risks in accordance with the Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations. BEST COPY AVAILABLE 1-26 123 The Environmental Protection Act 1990 The Act requires governing bodies to keep land under their control free, as far as possible, from litter, dog excrement and refuse. The standard of cleanliness is set out in the code of practice, copies of which were issued to the Chairmen of all school governing bodies in March 1991. It is important that the above legal requirements are clearly borne in mind when considering health and safety aspects of the design, use and management of playgrounds either as separate issues or in relation to the formulation of the school's health and safety policy. Food and Environment Protection Act 1985 This was introduced to limit the variety of pesticides used so that only approved substances could be used for specified purposes and applied in specified ways. Pesticides users are now obliged to safeguard the environment, including all living animals, plants and water courses. Individuals who apply pesticides can be certified as competent and trained in this area of work. Occupier's Liability Acts The Acts define the duties of care owed by occupiers towards those who come onto their premises. The 1957 Act places a duty on the occupier to take reasonable care to make sure that any visitor will be safe on the premises for the purposes for which they have been invited or permitted by the occupier to be there. The 1984 Act extends the duty of care to trespassers (and anyone entering the premises without permission but with lawful authority) to make sure that they are not injured by some potential danger known to the occupier. In certain cases these duties can be met by giving warning of the dangers concerned. Schools should therefore take account of pupils and other children who might be using the school grounds as an unofficial play area after school hours or during weekends and holidays. Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations 1995 These regulations came into effect on 1 April 1996. In addition to reporting fatal and major injuries on the premises, injuries arising out of or in connection with work requiring hospital treatment and any injury to employees caused by violence at work must now be reported. Safety Signs (Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996 The above regulations, which came into force on 1 April 1996, require employers to display an appropriate safety sign and instruction wherever a significant risk to harm cannot be avoided or reduced by other means. Safety signs may be required to mark traffic routes. British Standards The British Standards Institution is the independent body responsible for preparing British Standards. Although compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity from legal obligations, some grounds maintenance documents now refer to these standards which represent good practice and may be referred to in a court case following an incident. Compliance with the relevant standards can be taken as evidence of the school's responsible approach to safety. With respect to school grounds, the following are relevant: BS 5696. Play equipment intended for permanent installation outdoors; BS 7188. Methods of test for impact absorbing playground surfaces; BS 7370. Grounds maintenance managing, design related to maintenance, hard surfaces (not sports), turf (not sports) and soft landscape. lEST-COPY .6 124 AVAILAB`,1_ A Health and Safety Check List for Governors and Teachers At a more detailed level, careful regard should be taken of: organisation of the use of grounds generally, and play recreation areas in particular; suitability, safety and maintenance of grounds, equipment and buildings; security of the site; routes for delivery vehicles (especially whilst construction work is taking place); dangerous obstacles. In considering the level of supervision the following should be considered: agc and physical and mental ability of the pupils; number of pupils using the arca at any given time; type of activities; the need to avoid excessive exposure to ultra violet radiation. All the points mentioned have a direct impact on health and safety in school. To achieve health and safety management, employers and staff should work together to produce a sound health and safety policy. Additional information The following includes DfEE publications and other relevant guidance: Guide to the Reporting of Injuries, Diseases, and Dangerous Occurrences, Regulations 1995, ISBN 0 71 761012 8 available from HSE Books price £6.95. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992 Statutory Instrument 1992 No 2051, ISBN 0 11 025051 6 obtainable from The Stationery Office price £2.30. Managing Health and Safety in Schools ISBN 0 71 760770 4, HSE Books price £5.95. 5 Steps to Risk Assessment Leaflet IND(G)163L free from HSE Books. Management of Health and Safety at Work Approved Code of Practice ISBN 0 71 760412 8, HSE Books price £5.00. The Responsibilities of School Governors for Health and Safety ISBN 0 71 760436 5, HSE Books price £3.50. A revised edition was published in 1996 by HSE Books. First Aid at Work: The Health and Safety (first aid) Regulations 1981: Approved Code of Practice and Guidance ISBN 0 71 761050 0, HSE Books 1997 price £6.75. 1996 edition of the British Association of Advisers and Lecturers in Physical Education guidance: Safe Practice in Physical Education ISBN 1 87 28093 price £20.00 plus £5.50 P&P. Available from Saltwells Education Development Centre, Bowling Green Road, Netherton, Dudley DY2 9LY. Playgrounds Safety Guidelines. Available free of charge from the Department of National Heritage, 24 Cockspur Street, London SW1 5DH. Schools: A List of HSE and Other Relevant Publications and Films from HSE Information Centre, Broad Lane, Sheffield S3 7HQ. Free booklet containing details of publications from Government and other sources, in addition to the HSE area office addresses. DfEE series School Governors: A guide to the Law. Separate editions are available for county, controlled and special agreement schools, aided schools, self-governing (grant-maintained) schools and special schools. Copies may be obtained free from Department for Education and Employment Publications, PO Box 5000, Sudbury, Suffolk, C010 6YJ. Guide to Playground Safety. Free leaflet SE 271 arid list of information sheets on children's playgrounds are available from RoSPA, 3 Earning Street, Godmanch4v2 Cambridge PE18 8JD. Pi ( EfEST COPY AVAILABLE 125 Contractors in schools, Leaflet lAC (L) 98, free from HSE Books. Signpost to the Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations 1996 Leaflet IN(G)184L free from HSE Books. Guidance to help schools develop policies for protecting pupils from excessive exposure to the sun is available from Sun Know How Campaign, Health Education Authority, Hamilton House, Mabledon Place, London WC1H 9TX. HSE publications can be ordered direct from: HSE Books, PO Box 1999, Sudbury, Suffolk C010 6FS or any bookseller. HMSO publications are available from 49 High Holborn, London WC1V 6HB For full details see inside back cover. Note: HMSO is now The Stationery Office (TSO) 126 J. Sources of Information Organisation Address Role/Function British Trust for Conservation Volunteers 36 St Mary's Street, Wallingford, Oxfordshire national network helping to promote participation in practical conservation OXIO OEU (01491 839766) information on energy conservation and technology Centre for Alternative Technology Canolfan y Dechnoleg Amgen Machynlleth, Powys SY20 9AZ Centre for Environmental Interpretation Manchester Metropolitan University, St Augustine's, Lowcr Chatham Street, Manchester MI5 6BY (0161 247 1067) promotion of environmental interpretation in both rural and urban areas Common Ground Seven Dials Warehouse, 44 Earlham Street, concerned with conservation and enhancement of local landscape character (01654 702400) London WC2H 9LA (0171 379 3109) Community Service Volunteers 237 Pentonville Road, Conservation Foundation 1 Kensington Gore, London SW7 2AR London NI 9NJ (0171 278 6601) co-ordinates community involvement schemes for all ages, from youngsters to retired people (0171 591 3111) provides a link between conservation, business and industry and organises awards Council for Environmental Education University of Reading, London Road, Reading provides a forum for the exchange of ideas and information Countryside Commission John Dower House, Crescent Place, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire GL50 3RA (01242 521381) advice and grants covering many aspects of countryside and landscape conservation English Nature Northminster House, Northrninster Road, Peterborough, Cambridgeshire PEI IUA (01733 455000) advises government on nature conservation Environment Council 21 Elizabeth Street, London SWIW 9RP (0171 824 8411) a forum and information centre for environmental issues Forestry Commission 231 Corstorphine Road, Edinburgh EH12 7AT (0131 334 0303) publications on trees and forests and gives grants for larger areas of woodland Friends of the Earth 26-28 Underwood Street, London NI 7JQ (0171 490 1555) environmental campaigning organisation with range of publications Groundwork Foundation 85-87 Cornwall Street, Birmingham B3 3BY (0121 236 8565) some local trusts work with schools RGI 5AQ (01734 756061) 1Z9 Institute of Groundsmanship 19-23 Church Street, The Agora, Wolverton, Milton Keynes MKI2 5LG (01908 312511) professional organisation for groundsmen and greenkeepers Institute of Leisure & Amenity Management ILAM House, Lower Basildon, Reading RG8 9NE (01491 874222) professional organisation for landscape managers Land life The Old Police Station, Lark Lane, Liverpool wildlife charity producing both publications and wild flower seeds LI7 8UU (0151 728 7011) Landscape Institute 6-7 Barnard Mews, London SW11 1QU professional body for landscape designers, managers and scientists (0171 738 9166) Learning through Landscapes (LTL) 3rd Floor, Southside Offices, The Law Courts, Winchester, national organisation dealing with all aspects of use, design and management of school grounds, including advice and membership Hampshire S023 9DL (01962 846258) National Association for Environmental Education (UK) c/0 University of Wolverhampton, association of teachers and others Walsall Campus, Gorway Road, concerned with education and the Walsall, environment West Midlands WSI 3BD (01922 31200) National Council for Voluntary Organisations Regents Wharf, 8 All Saints Street, London N1 9RL major source of information on voluntary organisations and environmental groups (0171 713 6161) National Federation of City Farms The Greenhouse, Hereford Strcet, Bedminster, Bristol BS3 4NA (0117 9231800) development organisation for gardening and caring for farm animals on urban community sites National Play Information Centre 199 Knightsbridge, London SW7 1DE provides information on children's National Playing Fields Association 25 Ovington Square, London SW3 1LQ (0171 584 6445) concerned with all matters related to play, sport and recreation environment National Society for Clean Air 136 North Street, Brighton BN1 1RG (01273 326313) information sheets on reducing noise, air and other pollutants Royal Institute of British Architects 66 Portland Place, London WIN 4AD (0171 580 5533) independent non-profit making practices for design of community projects; architects' workshops le, A 128 play (0171 584 6464) /71 vtirv-- ^r^,--)r-v. CS"g , The Green, Witham Park, Waterside South, Lincoln LN5 7JR (01522 544400) partnership organisation that has addresses of all county wildlife and nature conservation trusts Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Education Department) The Causeway, Horsham, West Sussex raising awareness of animal welfare in schools Royal Society for the Protection of Birds The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL Royal Society for Nature Conservation RH12 1HG (01403 264181) education department with information, videos and publications (01767 680551) Shell Better Britain Campaign Victoria Works, 21A Graham Street, Hock ley, Birmingham B1 3JR supports practical action by voluntary groups and advises on sources of funds and advice (0121 212 9221) Sports Council Sports Turf Research Institute 16 Upper Woburn Place, London WC1H OQP (0171 273 1500) gives advice on all aspects of sport and recreation, and grant aids St Ive's Research Station, advice and information on all aspects Bingley, West Yorkshire of sports turf facilities BD16 1AU (01274 565131) Tidy Britain Group The Pier, Wigan, WN3 4EX (01942 824620) agency for litter abatement and environmental protection with education section giving advice and information Tree Council 51 Catherine Place, London SW1E 6DY (0171 828 9928) advises on planting and aftercare and organises National Tree Week Urban Wildlife Trust Unit 310, Jubilee Trade Centre, 130 Pershore Street, Birmingham B5 6ND (0121 666 7474) ideas and strategies to give nature a place in the urban environment Wildlife Watch The Green,Witham Park% Waterside South, a club for young people who care for wildlife and the environment Lincoln LN5 7JR (01522 544400) Wild Fowl and Wetlands Trust Slimbridge, Gloucester GL2 7BT range of information from education officer that is useful for school sites (01453 890333) World Wide Fund for Nature UK (VVWF) Panda House, Wayside Park, Godalming, Surrey GU7 1XR international nature conservation organisation with education section (01483 426444) Young Ornithologists Club (YOC) YOC Project Officer, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL encourages children to take an interest in birds and conservation (01767 680551) BEST COPY AVAILABLE 129 K. Publications Publications relating to each section are listed for guidance. Section 2 Council for Environmental Education Rescue Mission Planet Earth (a children's edition of Agenda 21) 1994. ISBN 1 85 697175 9 Department of Education and Science Building Bulletin 71: The Outdoor Classroom HMSO 1991. ISBN 0 11 270730 0 Learning through Landscapes Challenge of the Urban School Site 1996. ISBN 1 87 286516 X Learning through Landscapes/English Nature School Grounds Resource Directory 1994. ISBN 1 87 286515 1 The National Curriculum HMSO 1995. ISBN 0 11 270894 3 World Wildlife Fund Working in Neighbourhoods 1995. ISBN 1 85 850084 2 World Wildlife Fund/Learning through Landscapes Special Places; Special People: the Hidden Curriculum of School Grounds 1994. ISBN 0 94 761348 X Section 3 Learning through Landscapes School Grounds Toolkit 1997 Section 4 British Geological Survey Catalogue of Printed Maps published annually. Tel: 0171 589 4090 Common Ground Holding your Ground: An Action Guide to Local Conservation 1988. ISBN 0 70 453091 0 Department for Educatzon Building Bulletin 77: Designing for Pupils with Special Educational Needs: Special Schools HMSO 1992. ISBN 0 11 270796 3 Department for Education and Employment Building Bulletin 83: Schools' Environmental Assessment Method (SEAM) HMSO 1996. ISBN 0 11 270920 6 Learning through Landscapes Esso School Watch 1992. ISBN 1 87 286522 4 Learning through Landscapes Grounds for Sharing: A Guide to Developing Special School Sites 1996. ISBN 1 87 286523 2 Meterological Office Met Office Information File. Tel: 0171 242 3663 National Association for Environmental Education Environment Audit Towards a School Policy for Environmental Education 1992. ISBN 0 90 790827 1 Ordnance Survey Maps, Atlases, Guides, Special Products and Services. Tel: 01703 792 763 Tidy Britain Group Inside Out 1988. ISBN 0 95 167399 8 Section 5 Learning through Landscapes A Guide to Fund Raising for School Grounds 1995. ISBN 1 87 286525 9 Learning through Landscapes Beekeeping A Practical Guide. ISBN 1 87 2865038 Learning through Landscapes Butterflies A Practical Guide to their Study in School Grounds 1989. ISBN 1 87 286500 3 Learning through Landscapes Ecology in School Grounds 1990. ISBN 1 87 286502 X 130 1 Learning through Landscapes Exploring Woodlands 1991. ISBN 0 08 040451 0 Learning through Landscapes Recycling A Practical Guide for the School Environment 1992. ISBN 1 87 286506 2 Learning through Landscapes Slugs, Snails and Earthworms ISBN 1 87 286508 9 Learning through Landscapes School Grounds and Buildings: Understanding the Built Environment. ISBN 1 87 286513 5 Learning through Landscapes The Seasons in the School Grounds 1991. ISBN 1 87 286508 9 Learning through Landscapes/English Nature School Grounds Resource Directory 1994. ISBN 1 87 286515 1 Learning through Landscapes/Scholastic Arts in the School Grounds 1996. ISBN 1 85 741036 X Learning through Landscapes/Scholastic Bright Ideas The Outdoor Classroom 1990. ISBN 0 59 053034 8 Learning through Landscapes/Southgate English in the School Grounds 1992. ISBN 1 85 741031 9 Learning through Landscapes/Southgate Geography in the School Grounds 1996. ISBN 1 85 741023 8 Learning through Landscapes/Southgate Mathematics in the School Grounds 1993. ISBN 1 85 741021 1 Learning through Landscapes/Southgate Science in the School Grounds 1992. ISBN 1 87 286505 4 Learning through Landscapes/Southgate Trees in the School Grounds 1992. ISBN 1 85 741095 5 Royal Society for Nature Conservation/The Wildlife Trusts Partnership Watchword published three times a year by Watch Royal Society for the Protection of Birds/Learniug through Landscapes Wildlife and the School Environment 1992. ISBN 0 90 313851 4 Section 6 British Trust for Conservation Volunteers Footpaths ISBN 0 45 01699 Learning through Landscapes Grounds for Sharing: A Guide to Developing Special School Grounds 1996. ISBN 1 87 286523 2 Learning through Landscapes Play, Playtime and Playgrounds 1992. ISBN 1 87 286510 0 National Play Information Centre Children's Outdoor Play in the Built Environment. ISBN 1 87 175800 9 National Play Information Centre Playground Safety Guidelines 1992. ISBN 0 85 52240 5 NFER Nelson Playtime in Primary School. ISBN 0 70 051238 110 The Urban Wildlife Trust I Know Someone Who's Mraid of Sunflowers. Tel: 0121 666 7474 Section 7 World Wildlife Fund/Learning through Landscapes Special Places: Special People 1994. ISBN 0 94 761348 X Section 8 British Trust for Conservation Volunteers Practical Conservation Pack: Conservation in School Grounds 1986. ISBN 0 13 028595 222 British Trust for Conservation Volunteers Hedging 1975. ISBN 0 94 675202 8 123 131 British Trust for Conservation Volunteers Woodlands. ISBN 0 95 016437 2 British Trust for Ornithology Nestboxes Guide. ISBN 0 09 379329 6 Common Ground Orchards a Guide to Local Conservation. ISBN 1 87 036408 2 Fauna and Flora Preservation Society Bat Boxes 1985. ISBN 0 94 790200 7 Football Association Mini Soccer 1991. Handbook. Tel: 0171 402 7151 Football Association/Sports Council Artificial Grass Surfaces for Association Football 1995. ISBN 0 90 09719 Heinemann Educational Books Mini sport A Handbook for Teachers and Parents 1981. ISBN 0 43 586591 9 Johnsons Seeds, Boston, Lints Wild Flower Manual 1991. Tel: 01205 365051 Learning through Landscapes Pond Design for Schools. ISBN 1 87 065122 7 Learning through Landscapes/Southgate People, Plants and Places 1995. ISBN 1 85 741017 3 London Ecology Unit A Guide to Habitat Creation 1991. ISBN 0 31 418534 1 Malcolm Emery Croom Helm Promoting Nature in Cities and Towns 1986. ISBN 0 70 990966 7 National Playing Fields Association Facilities for Athletics 1980. ISBN 0 90 085895 8 National Playing Fields Association Gradients for Sports Facilities 1993. (Republished as TAN 23 1996) National Playing Fields Association Hard Surfaces for Games and Play Areas 1989. ISBN 0 94 608521 8 National Playing Fields Association Kick About Areas 1985. ISBN 0 94 608505 6 Ralph Cobham Spon Amenity Landscape Management 1990. ISBN 0 41 911570 6 Royal Society for Nature Conservation/The Wildlife Trusts Partnership Green it Yourself 1990 Royal Society for Nature Conservation/the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Education Department Small Mammals in Schools 1989 Royal Society for Nature Conservation/the Protection of Birds Feeder Handbook School Garden Company Starting a Butterfly Garden 1987. Tel: 01775 769518 School Garden Company Starting a Wildlife Pond 1989 Sports Council Artificial Turf Pitches for Hockey 1990 Sports Council Trim Trails 1978 Sports Council/Butterworth Handbook of Sport and Recreational Building Design: Vol 1 Outdoor Sports (Second Edition) 1993. ISBN 0 75 061293 2 Sports Turf Research Institute Sands for Sports Turf Construction and Maintenance 1990 The Environment Centre Sharing Nature with Children 1989. ISBN 0 91 612414 2 The Tidy Britain Group Beating Litter 1989. ISBN 0 19 428246 20 Wastewatch Community Recycling 1995. Tel: 0171 248 1818 Wildfowl and We4-4nds Timst Pondwatch. Pack. (Tel: 01453 890333 132 Section 9 British Trust for Conservation Volunteers Trees and Aftercare 1992. ISBN 0 94 675207 9 Learning through Landscapes Guide to the Management and Maintenance of School Grounds 1996. ISBN 1 87 286512 7 National Playing Fields Association Sports Ground Maintenance An Elementary Guide 1989. ISBN 0 94 608507 2 Section 10 Charities Aid Foundation Directory of Grant-Making Trusts Published biennially. ISBN 1 85 93402 Tel: 01732 520 000 David Brown Goldmine Resources for Teachers Published biennially. ISBN 1 85 742137 4 Tel: 01252 317 707 Department for Education and Employment Our School Your School, Community use of schools 1995. ISBN 0 85522 473 8 Learning through Landscapes/Southgate Guide to Fundraising for School Grounds 1995. ISBN 1 87 286525 9 Neighbourhood Initiatives Foundation/Joseph Rowntree Foundation Making it Happen A User's Guide to the Neighbourhood Action Packs 1991. Tel: 01904 629241 Shell Better Britain Campaign Getting Help for Community Environmental Projects. Tel: 0121 212 9221 Videos Learning through Landscapes Grounds for Celebration. ISBN 1 87 286518 6 Learning through Landscapes Grounds for Examination. ISBN 1 87 286519 4 Learning through Landscapes Making the Best of Your School Grounds. ISBN 1 87 286521 6 Learning through Landscapes/Hampshire County Council Maintaining and Managing Your School Grounds 1996. ISBN 1 85 975099 0 Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Gardening Strictly for the Birds Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Wake up to Birds Training for Primary Teachers Sports Council Developing Community Use of Your School 1991 Computer Programs Learning thromh Landscapes Thinking about Seating in Your School Grounds 1997. ISBN 1 87 286526 7 BESTCOPY AVAILABLE 125 133 L. Definition of Zones The following terms for zones are used in this document: 1. Playing fields As described in DIEE Circular 10/96. 2. Hard surfaced games court(s) Paved area laid out for team games. It also includes extensions to such areas for small games and skills practice. 3. Informal and social areas Paved and soft areas, planted and seated as appropriate, for impromptu games, protected leisure and outdoor classroom areas. 4. Habitat areas Planted or specially developed areas for use in the formal and informal curriculum. 5. Buildings and access Arcas for building, access to separate pedestrians and vehicles, car parking and service delivery areas. a) 2 & 3 previously known as recreation areas. b) 3 includes nursery outdoor play space. Notes: 134 Index Access Access for disabled 66 Access and security 11, 65 Entrances and boundaries Pedestrian access Site supervision and safety Vehicular access and parking Ampitheatre see English Archery Area Guidelines Tables Art Artificial surfaces see sports surfaces Asphalt surfaces see sports surfaces Association football Athletics 66 66 66 89 114-121 32 90 92 93 76 Business and commerce supporting initiatives Categories of grounds elements Areas of Zones see Area Guidelines Tables 25 Buildings and access Habitat areas 25, 41-50 Hard surfaced games court(s) 25 25 Informal social areas Playing fields 24, 50-59 'Hidden' 31 Environmental education Examples of school sites and use-zones 33 81-85 65 Basketball Community sharing Capital costs some common items Nursery stock Cost of Maintenance Contract arrangements Soft landscape Specification and bills Supervision Tendering Courtyards Cricket Crops and animals Animal keeping Curriculum Formal Informal English 15, 52 122 43 72 71 72 73 Forming Partnerships Fund raising Furniture (site) Games courts Geography Grants Grass pitches see pitches Hard porous see sports surfaces Health and Safety considerations Historic reconstruction and outdoor display History Hockey, mini-hockey, 7-a-side 76 76 60 30, 50, 88 30 76 11 48 32 96 Impact absorption surfaces see safety Lacrosse Men Women Land forms and soils Landscape wear and tear Layout of use-zones and exploring options Laws and Regulations Education (School Premises) Supervisory staff Legal and planning issues Legislation and guidance Litter 97 98 22 74 79-80 112 38 21 11, 123-126 73 73 62 94 47 48 28-34 35 38 39-40 Definitions of zones Design & Technology Disabled people see access Drainage, pipe,'slit', sand carpet 134 32 Macadam Surfaces see sports surfaces Maintaining grounds Costs of maintaining soft landscape Direct Service Organisations Description of staff duties 71 68 111 Key issues 68 Maintenance issues Management plans 21 Schedule Staff directly employed Types of agreement 70, 71 106-110 68 69 56 a7 135 Managing grounds development Issues Management structure Mathematics Microclimate Multi-games areas Multi-use of grounds School and community sports facilities 52 17 Science 28 17 Seating see furniture 31 Security 62 Shelter and energy 63 Shade 63 Shelter belts 63 88, 89 25 see access Softball Natural grass 55 Netball, 'First Step' 99 Outdoor classrooms see social areas Outdoor play space see play facilities Paths Hard surface treatments Paths in soft landscape 61 61 Pitches Grass pitch gradients 53 Layouts 55 Pitch orientation 52 Pitch sizes see Reference Section B Reinforcement materials 57 Physical education 29 Planning for change 75-77 Planning guidance, Department of the Environment 21 Planting and creating habitats 41 Planting beds (raised) 49 Play facilities design issues 36, 37, 59 Playground marking 60 Playing field minimum areas Pollution (Air & Noise) Ponds Location, design and safety Pupils with Special Needs Soft landscape and planting Sources of information Sports surfaces Coated macadam and asphalt Hard Porous Polyurethane bonded rubber Synthetic surface Upgrading surfaces Tennis 127-129 59, 61 58 58 57 59 103 Padder tennis Short tennis 105 104 Trees 112 46 Hedgebanks Orchards and nutteries 44 47 Surveys 23 Trees supporting insects Trees, woodland & hedgerows Where to plant trees 42 44 42 Trespass 74 Trim Trail 52 Rebound walls Regulations see Laws and Regulations 61 Turf see pitches Relationships between indoors and outdoors Restricted sites Rounders Rugby League Rugby Union 62 Vandalism 26, 86,87 61 Standards relevant to school grounds, maintenance, play equipment and safety surfaces BS 5696 60, 124 BS 7044 58 BS 7188 124 Stoolball 103 Supervision and Safety 11, 38, 66 Surveying existing sites 20-24 64, 65 26, 30,35,59 102 Volleyball and mini-volleyball 73 105 100 101 102 Weather-protection and wind see microclimate Wild flower meadows and heathlands Woodlands see trees 44 Safety Impact absorbing surfaces 60 Safety issues 60 Zones 24-26 Printed in the United Kingdom for The Stationery Office 121327 C45 9/97 09385/6796 136 /3-g S. - Published by The Stationery Office and available from: The publications Centre (Mail, telephone and fax orders only) PO Box 276, London SW8 5DT General enquiries 0171 873 0011 Telephone orders 0171 873 9090 Fax orders 0171 873 8200 The Stationery Office Bookshops 49 High Holborn, London WC1V 6HB (counter service and fax orders only) Fax 0171 831 1326 68-69 Bull Street, Birmingham B4 6AD 0121 236 9696 Fax 0121 236 9699 33 Wine Street, Bristol BS1 2B0 01179 264306 Fax 01179 294515 9-21 Princess Street, Manchester M60 8AS 0161 834 7201 Fax 0161 833 0634 16 Arthur Street, Belfast BT1 4GD 0123 223 8451 Fax 0123 223 5401 The Stationery Office Oriel Bookshop The Friary, Cardiff CF1 4AA 01222 395548 Fax 01222 384347 71 Lothian Road, Edinburgh EH3 9AZ (counter service only) In addition customers in Scotland may mail, telephone or fax their orders to: Scottish Publication Sales, South Gyle Crescent, Edinburgh EH12 9EB 0131 479 3141 Fax 0131 479 3142 Accredited Agents (see Yellow Pages) and through good booksellers 139 BUILDING BULLETIN 85 The purpose of this guide is to help schools of all kinds to benefit more effectively from their outdoor facilities. Major decisions about the care of the grounds now rest increasingly with the individual school and those wishing to improve their grounds may not have sustained access to professional advisers. The guide is principally intended for headteachers and governors, those with a responsibility for school grounds, whether in schools or in local authorities and those with a professional interest in their design and management. Starting with some important principles and an analysis of the benefits of using and developing school grounds, the guide goes on to outline the processes necessary for the successful management of the development of existing school grounds as advocated by Learning through Landscapes. It offers a rationale for the widest possible educational use of grounds and it contains technical and reference sections to help those involved. E19.95 ISB 140 9 0-11-270990-7 1110 80112 709909 U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement (0ERI) National Library of Education (NLE) Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) ERIC NOTICE REPRODUCTION BASIS This document is covered by a signed "Reproduction Release (Blanket) form (on file within the ERIC system), encompassing all or classes of documents from its source organization and, therefore, does not require a "Specific Document" Release form. This document is Federally-funded, or carries its own permission to reproduce, or is otherwise in the public domain and, therefore, may be reproduced by ERIC without a signed Reproduction Release form (either "Specific Document" or "Blanket"). EFF-089 (9/97) ®