Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe

Encyclopedia of Romantic Nationalism in Europe VOLUME 2 Edited by Joep Leerssen with the assistance ofAnne Hilde van Baalt andJan Rock AMSTERDAM UNIVERSITY PRESS voorAnn The cover illustrations reproduce paintings by Peter Nicolai Arbo, "Dagr riding Skinxi" (1874) (vol. 1) , and Theodoros Vryzais, "Everything for the fatherland" (1858) (vol. 2). Both images(public domain) are in theSPIN imagebank at ernie.uva. nl. The correspondence visualizations show Europe enmeshed by the networks of Rask, Grimm, Merimee, and Scott (voL 1) and divided between the networks of Morimee and ndt (vol. 2): both at enie.uva.nl. Cover design: Suzan Beijer Lay-out: TAT Zetwerk, Utrecht Amsterdam University Press English-language titles are distributed in the US and Canada by the University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978946298 118 8 set hardback volume 1 hardback 978946298 10 89 ISBN volume 2 hardback 978946298 1096 ISBN DOl 10.5117/9789462981188 NUR 685 © 1.Th. Leerssen I Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2018 ll rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reseved above, no pat of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. Every efort has been made to obtain permission to use ll copyrighted illustrations reproduced in this book. Nonetheless, whosoever believes to have rights to this material is advised to contact the publisher. Contents VOLME II Explanatory notes . 654 Cultural communities (NB macronationalisms in italics) Albanian . 659 Background: Historical context· and traditional culture· culture· Armenian . 657 659-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 660-2. Traditions: Immaterial 661- 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 662-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical 663 -5· SOCiety: Sociocultural mobilization· 664 . 665 Background: Historical context· 665-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 666 - 4. Texts and stories: Literay and historical culture· 666 Austrian see German §§3-4 Azerbaijani . 668 Background: Historical context· Basque · 668-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 668 669 Background: Historical context· 66g-1. Language: Linguistic relection and language activism· 669- 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 670-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 674-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 676 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 683 Belarusian . 686 Background: Historical context· Belgian 686 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 687 . 688 Background: Historical context· and visual culture· Breton · 688 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 68g -3. Sight and sound: Musical 6go - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 6g1-5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 6g2 696 6g6-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 6g7 -2. Traditions: Immaterial 6g8-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 700-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical Background: Historical context· and traditional culture· culture· Bulgarian 702 -5· Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 706 . 711 Background: Historical context· 711-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism, 712-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 713-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 716-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· Catalan 717 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 722 . 724 Background: Historical context· 724-1, Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 724-2. Traditions: Immaterial 725-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 731-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 734 -5· Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 743 Celtic /pan-Celtic . 747 and traditional culture· Background: Historical context· 747 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· visual culture· Conish see Celtic Corsica see Italian Croatian 749-3. Sight and sound: Musical and 750 §3 §1 . 751 Background: Historical context· 751 - 1 . Language: Linguistic relection and language activism· 751 -2. Traditions: Immaterial 751- 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 754 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 756 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 762 and traditional culture· CONTENTS 650 Cyprus see Greek §1 Czech · 765 Background: Historical contxt· 765 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 766-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 768 - 3. Siht and sound: Musical and visual culture· 769-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 773 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 777 Danish · 780 Background: Historical context· 780-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 782-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 783 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 786 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 788 -5. Society: Socioculural mobilization· 793 Dutch · 800 Background: Historical context· 800 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 801-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 803 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 804 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 808 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 815 English . 821 Background: Historical context· 821-1. Language: linguistiC reflection and language activism· 822-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 823-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 830-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 835 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 841 Estonian . 845 Background: Historical context· 845-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 845-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 847 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 851-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 856 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 864 Faroese . 868 Background: Historical context· 868 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 868-2. Traditions: Immateial and traditional culture· 869 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 872-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 873 -5. Sociey: Sociocultural mobilization· 876 Finnish . 878 Background: Historical context· 878-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 881 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 882 -3 . Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 884 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 886 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 888 Flemish . 892 Background: Historical context· 892 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 894-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 896- 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 897-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 899 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 907 French · 913 Background: Historical context· 913 -1. Language: linguistiC reflection and language activism· 915 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 917-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 924-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 929 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 937 Frisian . 943 Background: Historical context· 943 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 943-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 945- 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 948-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 949 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 955 Galician . 958 Background: Historical context· 958 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 958-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 959 � 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 963-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 965 -S. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 969 Georgian . 981 Background: Historical context· 981-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 981-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 982-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 982-5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 983 CONTENTS German (inel. Austrian, Baltic Gennan, Swiss Gennan) . 984 Background: Historical context· 984 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 988-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 990 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 992 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 999 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1008 Germanic /pan-Germanic· 1014 Background: Historical context· 1014- 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1015 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1020 Greek · 1022 Background: Historical context '1022 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1024-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1026- 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1030-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1036 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1044 Hungarian . 1049 Background: Historical context '1049 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1051-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1054 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1055 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1063 - 5. Sociey: Sociocultural mobilization· 1068 Icelandic . 1078 Background: Historical context '1078-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1078 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1079 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1084 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1087 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1091 [lyrian . lOg8 Background: Historical context· 1098 Irish . 1103 Background: Historical context '1103-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1105 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1107 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1l0 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1113 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1121 Italian . 1129 Background: Historical context '1129 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1131-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1133-3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1134 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1138 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 114Jewish . 1146 Background: Historical context '1146 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1147 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1149 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1153 Latvian . 1156 Background: Historical context '1156 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1157 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture ' 1158 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1162 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1165 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1166 Lithuanian . u68 Background: Historical context '1168 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1169 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1171- 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1174 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1176 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· n80 Luxembourg · n8S Background: Historical context '1185 -1. Language: Linguistic relection and language activism '1185-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1186 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1186 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1187 - 5· Society: Sociocultural mobilization· n89 Macedonian . 1192 Background: Historical context '1192 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1192 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1193 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1195-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture '1197 - 5· Society: Sociocultural mobilization '1200 Maltese . 1202 Background: Historical context· 1202 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1203 CONTENTS Netherlandic . 1205 Background: Historical context· 1205 Norwegian . 1207 Background: Historical context '1207-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1207 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1208 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1209 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1210 -5. SOCiety: Sociocultural mobilization· l214 Occitan/Proven�al . 1220 1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 1220 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1222 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1222 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1226 Papacy, Rome, ultramontanism see Transnational/ trans-European §4 Philhellenic . 1229 Background: Historical context· 1229 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1233 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1235 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1237 Polish . 1239 Background: Historical context· 1239 - 1. Language: Linguistic reflecion and language activism · 1240 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1245 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1246 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1249 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization '1256 Portuguese . 1258 Background: Historical context '1258 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1258 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1259 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1263 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1265 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1268 Proven�al see Occitan/Proven:al Romance /pan-Latin . 1273 Background: Historical context '1273 -1. Language: linguistiC reflection and language activism '1275 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization'1278 Romani ("Gypsies") see Transnational / trans-European §1 Romanian · 1280 Background: Historical context '1280-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1281-2 . Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1283 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1285-4. Ts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1289 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· l295 Russian . 1298 Background: Historical context· 1298 - 1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism· 1299 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1300 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1301 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1305 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization '1308 Rusyn and Ruthenian see krainian Saami ("Lapps") see Transnational I trans-European §2 Scandinvian . 1313 Background: Historical context· 1313 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1314 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1314 Scottish . 1317 Background: Historical context· 1317 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1318 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1320 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1322 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1323 Serbian . 1325 Background: Historical context '1325-1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1326 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1327 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1329 - 4. Texts and stories: Literay and historical culture '1331 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1336 • CONTENTS Slavic / Pan-Slvic ' 1340 Background: Historical context '1340-1.Language: Linguistic relection and language activism '1343-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1344 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1345 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1345 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1347 Slovak . 1349 Background: Historical context· 1349 - 1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism · 1349 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture·1350 -4. Texts and stories: Literay and historical culture· 1350 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization'1351 Slovenian . 1364 Background: Historical context -1364 -1. Language: Linguistic relection and language activism -1365 -2.Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1366 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1370 -4.Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture '1372 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization '1380 Sorbian see Slavic I pan-Slavic §1 Spanish . 1392 Background: Historical context '1392-1. Language: Linguistic relection and language activism '1394 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture '1394 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1397 -4. Texts and stories: Literay and historical culture· 1402 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1410 Swedish . 1412 Background: Historical context '1412 -1.Language: Linguistic relection and language activism '1414 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture'1415 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture '1417 -4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1420 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1423 Swiss· 1428 Background: Historical context· 1428 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1429 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1430 uranian . 1432 Background: Historical context .1432 Turkish . 1435 Background: Historical context·1435 -1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism '1437-2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1439 -3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture·141-4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture'I444 Ukrainian . 1450 Background: Historical context · 1450 - 1. Language: Linguistic relection and language activism · 1452 - 2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1454 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1455 - 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture· 1456 -5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1460 Valencian see Spanish §1 and Catalan Walloon see Belgian Welsh·1462 Background: Historical context·1462 -2. Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture· 1463 - 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture· 1463 -4. Texts and stories: Literay and historical culture· 1464 - 5. Society: Sociocultural mobilization· 1468 Transnational I trans-European · 1471 Romani· 1471-Saami . 1471 -Impact of the Boer Wars· 1472 -Papacy, Rome, ultramontanism· 1472 - Instances of Romantic Nationalism in the USA· 1474 Index of contributors . 1477 F Croatian See also Bogovic, Mirka· Demeter, Dimitrija· DraskoviC,Janko· Gaj. Ljudevit· Kukuljevic+Sakcinski, Ivan· Kurelac, Fran· Livadic, Ferdo· Mazuranic, Ivan· Preradovic, Petar· Senoa, August· Strossmayer, See also the article on the Illyrian Movementl. See also IILL(BACKGROUNO)§I Josip Juraj . Vraz, Stanko 2. Background: Historical context §1. PoUtica[ background notes Traditions: Immaterial and traditional culture §3. Oral literahlre Oral epic poetry collected from the Croatian lands includes the See the articles on the political context of the Habsburg Empirel tragiC ballad Hasanaginica, set in 17th-century Muslim circles in and on the Illyrian Movement2.3 the Ottoman-ruled Dalmatian hinterland. Published in Italian­ See lGER(BACKGROUNO)§3. 2ILL(BACKGROUND)§1' 3ILL(BACKGROUND)§l Croatian bilingual form by the Venetian scholar Alberto Fortis in 1774 as part of a geographical survey, it awakened great interest across Europe, where it was seen as a Balkan counterpart to Os· sianici poetry. °Goethe's translation was included in °Herder's collections of folk·songs2, and in turn inspired Romantics from 1. Language: Linguistic reflection and language activism §2. Language interest WalterOScott to Charles Nodier and Prosper °Merimee and rom °Puskin to Adam °Mickiewicz. It also prepared the Europe-wide interest for the later, Serbian-focused works of oral epic by Vuk Ignac Kristijano¥ic, a priest and a writer rom Zagreb, pub­ °KaradziC (who included Hasanaginica in his collections3) and lished. folJowing]emej °Kopitar's support and guidance, a Kaj­ it is through this reception channel that the ballad later became kavian grammar a Yugoslav, and Croatian, canonicl classic. Grammatik der kroatischen Mundart (1837); he also translated part of the Bible into Kajkavian dialect (spo­ Within 19th-century Croatian literay culture, the collection ken in the Zagreb region). Meanwhile the Illyrian Movement of proverbs goes back to the 18th century. The irst Croatian was attempting to negotiate a balance between the various literary journal Slavic regiolects of the Northern Balkans (besides Kajkavian recycled some 130 of these from earlier collections in 1835 and also Cakavian, spoken in lstria and Dalmatia, and Stokavian, 1839; Similarly, proverbs recorded in 18th·century collections spoken in North·Eastem Croatia, Bosnia·Hercegovina, Serbia and dictionaries were used in later lexicographical5 work. The Danica horvatska, slavonska i dalmatinska4 and Montenegro). In the second half of the century the pro­ current term for "proverb", posed norm for a Croatian literay language witnessed a split, (and replacing the earlier pririje) was established in the 19th typical for general European pattens, between an archaiz· century; it was irst used in Joakim Stulli's Rjecosloje iliricko­ ing and a popular preference. The former was led by Fran talijansko·latinsko ("Illyrian·Italian·Latin Dictionay", 1801·10). poslovica, adopted from Russian °Kurelac and is known as the Rijeka Philological SchooL More Under the onset of Romanticism, the status of proverbs successful was its competitor, the Zagreb Philological School changed: they were prized as authentic items of the vernacular­ led by Aldolfo Veber TkalceviC, which combined a historical national heritage; as such, they entered into 19th·century orthography with a more moden and speech·based lexicon. literary-theoretical discourses and poetic antholOgies, e.g. Au· Grammatically, a salient diference between the two was the gust Senoa6's genitive plural ending ·ah, which was absent from the Rijeka uvodom 0 poetici ("Anthology of Croatian and Serbian poety with an introduction on poetics", 1876), Vlim Korajac's Filu­ nonn. Antoiogija pjesnictva hrvatskoga i srbskoga sa Later in the century, a normative convergence with the Stoka· zoija hrvatskih i spskihpos[ovica ("The philosophy of Croatian vian dialect was noticeable, advocated by those linguists who took Vuk °KaradziC's and Duro DaniciC's codiication of its and Serbian proverbs", 1876) and Franjo MarkoviC's study £ticki sadiaj naodnihposlovica ("The ethical content of traditional Hercegovinian variant as their starting paint (the so-called proverbs", 1889). Consequently, proverbs were present in Vukovians) and proposed this as a Serbo-Croat koine, "Neo· literary genres, lyrical, epic, narrative and dramatic. Stokavian" or "Ijekavian". This variant eventually overshadowed the Zagreb and Rijeka-based proposals, and also a Dalmatian variant centred on practitioners rom Zadar and Dubronik ll The most important 19th century proverb collections were i narecenja, {. J sa serhskogajezca na ilirickipevedena ("Proverbs and sayings [ ... J translated from Ivan Ambrozovifs roriqa .. 752 CROATIAN the Serbian language into Jllyrian", Pest 1808) - this was also with the traditional steps, the dance amateur Marko Bogunovic the irst publication avowedly translating from Serbian into choreographed in late 1841 the slavonsko kolo and the hrvatsko Croatian; Vuk KaradziC's Narodne srpske poslovice7 ("Popular kolo, with steps based on Croatian rural dances. Both fonns were Serbian proverbs", 1836), which also contained material col­ oten called by a general name, the dvoransko kolo ("ballroom lected in Croatia; Mijat StojanoviC's Sbirka hrvatskih narod­ kolo") or salonsko kolo ("salon kolo"), to distinguish it from its nih pos[ovicah, rieeih i izrazah ("Collection of Croatian tradi­ rustic prototype. In the later century, the terms came to be used tional proverbs, words and sayings", 1866); and Duro Dani­ interchangeably. CiC's Poslovice ("Proverbs", 1871), a collection of almost 6000 These urban kolos were organized in sets modelled on the proverbs rom older written sources; and Vicko Juraj Skarpa's quadrille, and performed by groups of four to fourteen couples. Hrvatske narodne poslovice ("Croatian traditional proverbs", The igures included stylizations of the emblems of the Illyrian 1909). movement: a six-point star and a crescent. The initial part of Riddles often appeared alongside proverbs, usually printed each igure was in allegro tempo with dancers performing in in calendars or other publications geared to a wide reader­ a circle; the second part was slower with dancers perfonning ship. In Ignjat Alojzije Brlies llirski kalendar (Budim 1836-55), igures in couples. The salonsko kolo had its climax in the inal riddles appeared for several years. They were also included in circle dance, while the hrvatsko kolo in the inal igure clled the Narodni koledar, published by the Zadar-based Matica dal­ ilirski gerb ("the Illyrian shield"). Because of its strong political matinska8 from 1863. which catered for a more demotic reading colouring, the hrvatsko kolo was suppressed in the course of the constituency of "common people". Marijan Vukovic published 1840S; in 1842, Stanko °Vraz named his culturl review3 ater it. a collection of more than 1600 riddles in the 1890 collection During the post-1848 absolutist backlash, Croatian dances Sbirka zagonetaka, and a theoretical disquisition on the topic disappeared from ballrooms. With the relaxation of the 1860s, by Antun Barae appeared in 1910 article 0 zagoneci ("About the the kolo was revitalized, mainly with the choreographies by riddle"). Evelina Rudan the Italian-bon dance master Pietro Coronelli (1825-1902). His Boskovic-Stulli, Maja; 1978. "Usmena knjizevnost", in: Povijest which involved steps which Coronelli claimed to have based version of the salonsko kolo consisted of ive igures, one of hvatske knjilevnosti (Zagreb: Liber), 1. 7-353 Kekez, J osi pi 1996. Poslovice, zagonetke i go/amicki oblici (Zagreb: Matica hrvatska) Leerssen,Joep; 2012. "Oral epic: The nation inds a voice", in: Folklore and nationalism during the long nineteenth centuy, ed. Tim Baycrot, David Hopkin (Leiden: Brill) 11-26 Peleh, Slavko; 2000. �HVatska zagoneta prije izlaska Vukoviceve zbirke", in: Zbirka hrvatskih zagonetaka, 1St ed 1890, ed. Marijan Vukovic, Slavko Peleh (Zagreb: Inmedia) 145-150 Rozin, NikoJa BonifaCic (ed.); 1963. Narodne drame, poslovice i zagonetke (Zagreb, Zora: Pet stoljeca hrvatske knjizevnosti) Wolf, Larry; 2001. Venice and the Slavs: The discovey ofDalmatia in the Age ofEnlightenment (Stanford, CA: Stanford UP) See also ISURVEY4.TEXTS&STORIES§19· 2SURVEY2. TRDITJONS§5· 3SER2.TRADITJONS§3· 4CRT5.S0CIEY§16· 5CRTI.LANGUAGE§2· 6CRT4.TEXTS&STORIES§9· 7SER2.TRADITIONS§3· 8CRT5.S0CIETY§16 on a zigzag movement from the regions of Slavon�ia and Sri­ jem. Although the kolo had been popular on and of throughout the century, few composed pieces for it have been preseved. It is likely that at dances, instrumental accompaniment was improvised rather than written down. The music for the in­ augural kolo, choreographed by Bogunovic and performed on 27 January 1842, was written by Vatroslav Lisinski4 and orches­ trated by Antun Kirschhofer (1807-1849). Later in his career, Lisinski composed two more specimens of slavonsko kola (1843; 1851) and of hrvatsko kolo (1843; 1847). Other composers of the slavonsko kolo include Franjo Ksaver Kuhac (Julno-Slovjenske Narodne Popievke, 1881), Hinko Hladacek, Josip Kwiatkovski, Antun Schwarz, Vilko MillIer, and Franjo Ksaver Vilhar. The hrvatsko kolo was composed by Otto Hauska and Vilko Muller. However, neither the stature of these composers nor the pres­ §4. Manners and customs ence of a Croatian diaspora was suicient to ensure for the hrvatsko kolo or the salonsko kolo the international dissemina­ The "Illyrian"l period of the years 1835-48 saw the emergence of tion that was achieved by similarly-derived analogues such as the kolo (reel dance) as a perfonnative metaphor for harmony the polonaise5 or mazurka6. and friendship between Croats in particular and the Slavic peo­ A powel symbolic marker of authentic, vernacular rooted ples in general. During the Carnival of 1840, a traditional rural nationalism (comparable to the Scottish bagpipe) was, beside kolo was introduced in a Zagreb ballroom, performed by dancers the tamburica, the gusle - not only for Croats, but for South wearing traditional dress2 and accompanied by bagpipe music, Slavs in generl. Used for accompaniment of orl epic poetry7 as a replacement for French quadrille and Viennese waltz. Since in Croatia8 (Dalmatia, Lika), Bosnia/Hercegovina, Montene­ dancers trained in urban dance forms were generally unfamiliar gro, Serbia9 and Albania1o, the gusle is a bowed one-stringed 2. TRADITIONS· §S 7 S3 instrument of limited tonal range, with a wooden pear-shaped body on which is stretched an animal skin. The instrument has usually one string, on which the sound is produced with short arched bow. Following its iconic usage in the text editions of Vuk °Karadzic (and the Romantic forgery La guzla by Prosper °Me­ rimee), its emblematic symbolism for the Illyrian movementll, with its South-Slavic sense of ethnic unity, naturally imposed itself. The Croatian urban classes developed a taste for im­ provised traditional epics, seen then as the embodiment of national rhetoric, and epics were not only transcribed and presented in published collections, but writers were also at­ tempting to create their own poetry in the style of traditional epics. Accordingly, the instrument itself became a requent and revered topos for 19th-century painters, with representations ranging from the realistic to the symbolic. The literary weekly Kos, Koraljka; 1995. "Representations of the gusle in nineteenth­ century visual arts�, RIdIM/RCMI newsletter 20.2: 58-63 Ruyter, Nancy Lee Chalfa; 2008.�Dvoransko kola: From the 1840S to the twentieth century': in: BaLkan dance: Essys on character­ istics, performance and teaching, ed. Anthony Shay (Jeferson, NC: McFarland) 239-249 Zupanovic, Lowo; 1984 Centuries of Croatian music (Zagreb: Music information centre) See also llLL(BACKGROUNO)§I. 2CRT3.SlGHT&SOUNO§7. 3CRTS.SOCIEIY§16 . 4CRT3 .SIGHT&SOUND§6 . 5POL3.SIGHT&SOUND§4. 6POL3. SIGHT&SOUND§4· 7SURVEY2.TRADITIONS§S· 8CRT2. TRADI1'lONS§3· 9SER2.TRADITIONS§3 .lOALB2.TRADITIONS§3· llILL(BACKGROUND)§1.12CRTS.SOCIETY§16· 13CRTS.SOCIEY§17· 14CRT4.TEXTS&STORlES§8 §s. Croatian mythological interest Danica ilirska12 from 18 38 on juxtaposed in its title-page mast­ "While writers of coastal Croatia during the Renaissance and head on one side military emblems (weapons, lags, a drum) Baroque periods had located the mythic origins of the Croatians with symbols of prosperity (beehive, anchor, scythe) and na­ in an "IIlyrian" framework modeled on Classical antiquity, tional identity - these last represented through musical instru­ 18th-century writers rom nothern Croatia had invoked an ments (the guste, the tamburica, and the bagpipe). Thegusar ancestral tribal deity, Lado; Matija Petar Katan'ic (Specimen (yusle player) occupied a prominent place in the painted medal­ philologiae lion in the centre of the curtain at the Zagreb theatrel3 between libellus, completed in 1817) devised additional "godsn such as et geographiae Panoniorum, 1795; De poe si Ilyrica 1844 and 1847. Attributed to V jekoslav Karas (1821-18S8), the Kart (ct, Satan), Sarmand, Bad (8adnjak) and female deities medallion visualized the poem Djed i unukl4 ("The grandfather and his grandson" ) by Petar °Preradovie, in which the grand­ such as Vila and Velja. An additional mythological framework was created by the Illyrian movement1, invoking common-Slavic father tells his grandson about the impending renewal and a roots and a shared Ulyrian pre-history. new order rooted in the national tradition -symbolized by the Ivan Filip Vezdin (1748-1806), the founder of European Indol­ guslar and a fotress seen in the distance, evoking the nation's ogy, directed the focus of cultural historians to Indian culture, heroic history. which would lead to Indo-European philology' and compar­ Similar messages could be read in other artworks, such as ative mythological studies3. In this tradition, Luka Hie Ori­ Dotazak Hrvata ("Arrival of the Croats", 1903) by Mato Celestin ovcanin published his folklore study4 Narodni slavonski obi­ Medovic (18S7-1920), depicting the 17th-century arrival of the caji ("Traditional Slavonian customs", 1846), which ofered an Croats at the Adriatic coast. One igure in the foreground of Indo-European (Indian) comparative interpretation of proto­ the composition is carrying the yuste on his back, metaphor­ Croatian mythology. Going urther than !lie, Natko Nodilo at­ ically suggesting that the instrument, and by extension the tempted to reconstruct a proto-Serbian/Croatian mythology, tradition of epic telling, is as old as the Croatian nation itself. rom folklore "survivals": Religya (belatedly changed to Stara Such symbolical usage of the yuste icon continued until ater vjera) Srba i Hrvata, na glavnoj osnVi pjesama, prica i gov­ the foundation of the Yugoslav state in 1918, when the motif ora narodnoga (1885-90, "The religion [old faith 1 of the Serbs started carrying a Yugoslavic national meaning. and Croats, based largely on songs, stories and the vernacu­ Zdravko BtaZekovic larn). It was published in ten instalments by the Yugoslavian Blazekovic, Zdravko; 1991. "The nineteenth-century Croatian rous­ ing of folk-culture followed the naturism of Max °Milller solar ing songs: From compos ers' desks to the oral tradition and back", and spring-and-dawn theories) and the meteorological theo­ in: Schladminger Gespiiche zum Thema «Music and To urism», ries of Adalbert Kuhn and Wilhelm Schwartz. Natko Nodilo's Academy of Arts and Sciences. Nodilo's mythological read­ ed. Wolfgang Suppan (Tutzing: H. Schneider) 41-48 Blazekovic, Zdravko; 1994. "Salonsko kola: Dance of nineteenth­ century Croatian ballrooms", Thejoumal of the Socieyfor Dance Research 12.2: 114-1Z6 reliance on folklore material involved the emphatic asser­ tion that Uthe irst religious treasure of the people" consists of those epic poems "in which miracles occur at every tum". This material and the mythologically explained supenatural CROATIAN 754 folk-tales6 are then interpreted with data from Christian mis­ sionary chronicles. Nodilo's lead was followed by Marcel Kusar in his Narodne pripavjesti miticne ("Traditional mythic stories", Zadar 1907) and by Nikola Grietic GaspiCev in his 0 vjeri starih Slovjena prema pravjeri Arijaea i Prasemita (Mythologia comparativa Slavorum) na temelju narodnih hronista, narodnih obicaja, starih pjesama, mjestnoga, licnoga i obitejskoga naziva ("On the faith of the early Slavs according to the proto-faith of the Aryans and See aso l1LL(BACKGROUND )§l . 2SURYl.LANGUAGE § 4 . 3SUY2.TRADITIONS § 8 . 4CRT2.TADITIONS§ 4 . sSUY2.TRADITIONS § 8 . 6CRT2.TRADITIONS§ 3 . 7CRTI.TADITIONS§ 3· 8CRT4.TEXTS&STORIES§ 13 · 9CRTI.LANGUAGE § 2 3. Sight and sound: Musical and visual culture Proto-Semites; Mythologia comparativa slavorum ; based on §6. National�classical music folk-chroniclers, traditional customs, poems, and local, personal During the 1835-48 heyday of the lIIyrian movementl, patri­ and family names", 1900). otic songs became popular among the Croatian urban middle Another source tradition of mythological studies originated in the oral-literary interests of the Illyrian movement rather classes; they were known (also in the Serbian lands2) as da­ vorije3 (later rebranded budnice). They were short, one-voice than ethnography. Stanko °Vraz had published on mythology in choruses, usually in a march rhythm with a simple melody. 1847; and Ivan °Kukuljevic Sakcinski published in 1851 a path­ Their lyrics4 celebrated the Croatian past, culture, and coun­ breaking philological study about fairies. This line of interest was further stimulated by Franjo Raci's 1864 exhortation to reconstruct the mythology of the individual Slavic "tribes" reconstructed rom oral stories, poems and customs. We can trace its repercussions from Matija Valjavec (1865) to Ivan RadetiC's Pregled hrvatske tradicionalne knjiievnosti ("SuIVey of Croatian traditional literature�, 1879), reputedly the irst tryside, proclaimed the struggle for national emancipation and (OJ, Ilirjo, oj, veselo nam sto), viek sloino treba poCi, 'Always going in harmony"), sometimes metaphorically coded (Prosto zrakom ptica leti, "The bird flies free in the air"). Slavic unity, sometimes overtly "Oy, I1iria, oy, be joyful"; The prototype was created in 1833 by the two leaders of the national movement: Ljudevit °Gaj wrote the verse are Gjuro Surmin's Mitofogicne naodne pjesme ("Mythological Horvatov stoga izjedinjenje ("Croats' harmony and unity�; better known by its first line Jos Hrvatska ni propata, "Croatia hasn't fallen yet"); traditional poems", 1900) and Velimir Dezelit's Zmajevi u pjesmi it was set to music by Ferdo Wiesner °Livadic. The song spread Croatian study dedicated to oral literature7. Later instances throughout Croatia at a rapid speed and became a rallying song iprici ("Dragons in poems and stories", 19u). However, the philologist VatroslavjagiC, for all that he pointed for the supporters of the Illyrian movement. The text echoed to "folk-fables, stories and narratives as material for comparative of the the Polish patriotic anthems Joszcze Polska nie z9int;la kiey my yjemy ('Poland hasn't died yet, because we live"). Davorje not only became popular as mass-participation per­ Croatian and Serbian peoplesn) distanced himself cautiously formances during public events, they also entered concert from mythological speculation. In numerous articles, some of life; foreign musicians appearing in Croatia found themselves mythology and ethnology" (th us in his 1867 Historya knjiZevnosti naroda hrvatskoga i srbskoga8, "History of the literature which he published in his jounal Archivor slavische Philolo­ compelled to include them in their concert programmes. The he urged the need for careful source criticism against Hungarian composer Anton Ebenhoch, who played in Zagreb gie9, mythological interpretation. Suzana Marjanic in 1836, performed variations of the song Nek se hrusti saka mala (in its original version containing the counter-Hungarian Belaj, Vitomir; 1995. �Nacrt za proucavanje hlVatskog baroknog ba· text). The same song appeared in the concert of the Bratislava joslovlja", Radovi Hrvatskog druStvafolklorista 2/3: 9.17 [�Scheme Musikverein in 1839; the performance, starring Dragutin Klohu­ for the study of Croatian Baroque mythology"] Beiaj, Vitomir; 2007. Hod kroz godinu: PokuSaj rekonstrukcije prahrvatskogamitskogasvjetonazora (Zagreb: Golden marketing· Tehnicka knjiga) ["A walk through the year: An attempt at the reconstruction of the ancient Croatian mythical world· view�] jagie, Vatroslav; 1869. "Komparativna mitologija�, RadJAZU 8: 187· [ Comprative mythology"] KatiCic, Radoslav; 2008. Bozanski hoj: Tragovima svetih pjesama naie pretkrScanske starine (Zagreb: Ibis Graika) [�The divine zoo ' battle: Traces of sacred songs of our pre-Christian antiqUity"] carie (1794-1886), elected representative of the city of Karlovac at the 1839 Parliament Assembly in Bratislava, was enthusiasti­ cally received by the audience, including the Hungarian dele­ gation at the Assembly which failed to get its anti-Hungarian drift. The same theme was again used for sets of variations by other composers as well. The lutist Franjo Ksaver Cackovic­ Vrhovinski (1789-1865) composed vod i promene sjajne za lautu sverhu uzjubjenog ilirzkog napeva "/z Zagoja ad pras­ tara" ("Introduction and brilliant variations for flute on the appreciated IlIyrian song Jz Zagoya od prastara") for orchestra, dedicated to Ljudevit Gaj. 3. SIGHT AND SOUND · §7 755 Such compositions used the style and mannerisms which at Blazekovic, Zdravko; 1991. "The nineteenth-century Croatian rous­ the time were understood in northern Croatia as folk-music. ing songs: From composers' desks to the oral tradition and back", That style came out of the musical expression of the middle class and the lower nobility, which carried out ideas of the movement, rather than that of the rural population. Several times over the century, when anti-national repressive goven­ ments were in power (1867-73,1883-19°3), musical life became spontaneously politicized and the lllyrian-period budnice en­ joyed new popUlarity. Concert music in 19th-century Croatia was dominated, along­ side Livadic, by the composers/conductors Vatroslav Lisinski and Ivan Zajc. in: Schladminger Gesprache zum Thema «Music and Tourism», ed. Wolfgang Suppan (Tutzing: H. Schneider) 41-48 Blazekovic, Zdravkoi 1994. "Salonsko kola: Dance of nineteenth­ century Croatian ballrooms", Thejounal ofthe Socieyfor Dance Research 2.2: 114-126 Everett, William A.i 2002. "National opera in Croatia and Finland, 1846-1899", Opera quarterly 18.2: 183-200 Katalinic, ., S. Tuksar (ed.); 2003. Mladi Zajc (Rijeka: lzdavacki Centar Rijeka) Kuhac, Frnjo S.; 1887. Vatroslav Lisinski i ry'egovo doba (Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska) ["Y.L and his time"] Lisinski was born in 1819 in Zagreb to a Slovenian father and a Zupanovic, LovrOi 1969. Vatroslav Lisinski (1819-1854): Zivot, jelo, Croatian mother. Having received a private musical education, znaceje (Zagreb:Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjet­ he was invited in 1840-41 to become the conductor of the irst 11Iyrian choral society" run by Alberto Striga (,82,-,897). His song Prosto zrakom ptica leti to words by Dimitrija °Demeter {1841} is still popular today, but his best-known composition rom these years is the opera Ljubav i zloba ("Love and rancour'� 1846). The "national" character of the opera is proclaimed, not only in its Croat-language libretto (on a plotline by Striga, and with im­ provements from Demeter), but also in its occasional use of themes from Slovene and Croat folk-music. With Striga and Ferdo Livadic, Lisinski toured Serbia in 1847 (Belgrade, Pancevo, Novi Sad, Mitrovica) with a small troupe of Singers perfonning Croatian and Serbian songs. In 1847 he moved to Prague where nosti) [".L.: His life, his work, his significance"] Zupanovic, Lovro; 1984. Centuries of Croatian music (Zagreb: Music information centre) Zupanovic, Lovro; 2001. "Zajc, Ivan (Giovanni von Zaytz)", in: The new Grove dictionary ofmusic and musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, John Tyrrell (2nd ed.; London: Macmillan) URL: show.enie.uva.nl/music-crt See also 'ILL( BACKGROUND)§l . 2SER3.SlGHT&SOUND § S . § § § 4 · 6CRTS.SOCIETY§ 17 . 7CRTS.sOCIETY§ I7 · 8CRT4.TEXTS&STORIES § 9 3CRT4.TEXTS&STORIES 8 · 4CRT4.TEXTS&STORIES 8 · sPOL3.SIGHT&SOUND he followed private music lessons, being too old to enrol in the §7. Dess, design conservatorium. In 1850 he returned to Zagreb, where his lack of At the beginning of the '9th century, the middle and upper a formal diploma - as well as POSt-l848 political suspicion of his classes followed the dress fashions that reached Croatia through Illynan patriotism - prevented a fun-time professional career in magazines, directly rom Paris or indirectly through Vienna. The music. His second opera, Porin (libretto by Demeter), begun in peasantry, as the most numerous part of the population, wore Prague, was inished in 1851 but only performed posthumously, traditional dress, from locally produced material tailored within in 1897. Lisinski died in 1854 at the age of 34 years. His death the household. left a void which was only illed in the ,860s by Ivan Zajc. As in the 1830S the Illyrian movementl attempted to raise Ivan Dragutin Stjepan Zajc (the family name was Originally national self-awareness, peasant dress came to be regarded as an spelled Zajitz or Zaytz) was bon in Rijeka in 1832 to a Bohemian authentic expression of the nation's speciic culture. In an 1842 father who was music master of an army regiment. From 1850 article in Danica lirska', Bogoslav Sulek (,8,6-,895) included to 1855 Zajc studied music at the conservatorium of Milan; traditional dress in a canon of indisputable national symbols - in 1855 he took over his father's regimental post, and became alongSide the national language3, music, dance and customs4• the conductor of Rijeka's orchestra and a teacher at the city's In their own mode of dress, the myrians adopted the surka, the philharmonic institute. In 1862 he moved to Vienna, where man's outer jacket made of sturdy cloth, usually brown, ith he taught at the Poyhymnia choral and operatic society and a straight or bell-shaped cut. It was not fastened with buttons, obtained success with his operetta Mannschaft an Bord (1863). but rather with fastenings of red braid. To this peasant-type In the course of the 1860s he was encouraged to move to jacket were added metal or haberdashery applications in the Zagreb by °Strossmayer and °Preradovic, where - follOwing form of half-moons and stars, illyrian symbols. Another eye­ a fallow period of repressive absolutism - an opera7 was being catching item was a cap made of red cloth in the style of the established; Zajc became its irst director in 1870, and continued village, crvenkape, the customary everyday head cover worn i n in that function until 1889. His most famous opera was the the mountainous areas o f Croatia and in certain parts along national-historical Nikola Subi; Zrinjski (,876), on the ,6th­ the coast. The IllyriaDs' cap likewise difered from its rustic Zdravko Blaiekovic model by the addition of haberdashery embellishments with century national heroS. CROATN half-moons and stars. n unusual element in urban dress, it was often criticized by political opponents. In some portraits of the Illyrians, one can also detect footwear of peasant origin: colourful woollen socks and leather opanak moccasins. Nationally-minded women also adopted the surka, which went well with the gathered skirt style of that time. Shorter than the male version, it was made of sturdy white cloth, with long, broad sleeves onamented with red and blue embrOidery using traditional motifs. Head cover was adopted from that Ivos, Jelena; 2000. "Historicizam i moda", in: Historicizam u Hrvatskoj (Zagreb: Muzej za Umjetnost i Obt) 353-363 ["Histori­ cism and fashion/Historicism in Croatia�] Muraj, Aleksandra; 2000. "Clothing". in: Croatianfolk culture, at the cro ssroad ofworld and eras, ed. Zorica Vitez, Aleksandra Muraj (Zagreb: Gallery lovicevi Dvori) Muraj, A1eksandraj 2006. "Odnos gradanstva spram narodne nosnje i seljackoga tekstilnoga umijeca�, Narodna umjetn ost 43.2: 7-40 {"The stance of town citizens towards folk-costumes and peasant textile skills"] of married peasant women from Central Croatia: a small cap Schneider, Marijana; 1985. "Nosnja i1iraca", in: Hrvatski narodni (poculica) made of white linen embroidered in several colours, prep orod 1790-1848: Hrvatska u vrijeme ilirskog p o kreta (Zagreb: sometimes with n interwoven silver decoration, which was Muzej za umjetnost i obrt) 371-374 ["IUyrian folk-costume/The Croatian national revival 1790-1848: Croatia in the time of the attached to the crown pat of the head. Clothing like this proclaimed national commitment, partic­ ularly on festive occasions, at social gatherings and at dances. After a vogue in the 1830S, this form of dress disappeared tem­ lllrian movement"] See also lILL(BACKGROUNO)§l ' 2CRT5.SOCIETY§16 · 3CRTl.lANGUAGE§2 · 4CRT2.TRADITIONS§4 · sCRTS.SOCIETY§17 porarily from everyday life, it reappeared in the revolutionary years 1848-49. and was banned in the post-1848 absolutist back­ lash. However, as political relations thawed in the 1860s, the fashion for traditional clothing was revived, and tailors could barely manage to ill the demand for surka. In an 1862 issue, the NaSe gore list magazine carried a sketch of a Croatian cou­ ple participating at the widely-noted Slavic Bll in Vienna; both 4. Texts and stories: Literary and historical culture § 8. Patriotic poety a n d verse Croatian Hterature of the decades after 1830, while intellectually wore traditional costume. The surka and peasant-style head cov­ dominated by the Romantic Nationalism of the Illyrian move­ erings enjoyed popularity as an alternative to the non-national ment·, is only tangentially related to the poetics and politicS formal dress (tail-coats and top hats). of literary Romanticism (anti-Classicist, anti-rationalist, anti­ By the beginning of the 20th century, participants at public Enlightenment) as formulated and practised in Western Europe. celebrations and on other festive occasions went further and Indeed, in the at the time overwhelmingly rural, politically frag­ adopted fu1l dress sets copied or derived from peasant mod­ mented and culturally heterogeneous territory of present-day els. While this was usually met with approval, it remained a Croatia, a popularized Enlightenment agenda of social and minority concern. Thus, at the formal commemoration event cultural progress remained in force even as a Romantically for the recently-deceased Archbishop °Strossmayer, held at enthusiastic type of patriotic poetry took root. Croatian Roman­ the National TheatreS in 1906, a group of young ladies walked ticism, if it can be called so, arose as an answer to speciic local across the stage dressed in the traditional costumes from the problems such as regional and administrative ragmentation, various Croatian regions. Similarly, hostesses at various trade economic underdevelopment, the lack of political autonomy fairs, exhibitions and beneit entertainments were regularly under the rule of Austrian Empire, the threat of Hungarian (and attired in traditional dress. Promoting "traditional dress" also Austrian) hegemony, the lack of a standard language, and the had an economic motive, in that it was considered to promote perceived need for a formation of a uniied cuJtural-political the domestic manufacture of textiles and clothing in village sphere. The development and dynamicS of Croatian Romantic households and might stimulate demand both for domestic literature should be understood within this context. consumption and foreign export. This intended economic ef­ Patriotic poetry was the dominant genre of the period. Its fect failed to materialize, however; and although photographic dominance was such that during its irst two years, Danica2 portraits of well-respected ladies and gentlemen wearing tradi­ (the leading newspaper of the Illyrian movement, founded tional dress enjoyed a vogue, the fashion remained a symbolical in 1835), carried only two new literary prose texts; the rest gesture rather than a regular social practice in city life. were poems. The literaryjounal Kolo (founded in 1842, issued Meanwhile the peasantry itself added national elements until 18S3 and named after the then-fashionable reel dance3 to their traditional costume. In the north-easten regions of based on a rural folk-prototype) opposed the poetics of patri­ Croatia, peasants showed their dislike of Hungarian hegemony otism, but still engaged in national conSciousness-raising and by using ribbons in the colours of the Croatian lag (red, white carried nationally-minded verse by Petar °Preradovic, Dim­ Aleksandra Mura) itrija °Demetar, oKukuljeviC-Sakcinski and its founding editor and blue). - 4· TETS D STORIES , §9 757 (together with Ljudevit Vukotinovic and Dragutin Rakovac), Sicel, Miroslav; 1971. Stvaraoci i razdoblja: Anafi.e i sinteze (Zagreb: Stanko °Vraz. The most prominent narrative verse production Matiea hrvatska) ["Writers and periods: Analyses and synthe­ of the 18408, Ivan °MazuraniC's Smrt Smail-age Cengica4 ("The death of Smail-aga CengiC) is, like a good few shorter patriotic poems, thematically not lyrical-hortatory in nature but histori­ cal, evoking a scene from the region's Ottoman-dominated past. The Croatian Romantics were, unsurprisingJy, under the influence of thinkers like °Herder and °Humboldt; for them, patriotic poetry was a key cultural tool with a nation-building pedagogic and political function in a society where the higher classes (the emerging bourgeoisie and the disenfranchised nobility) were oriented towards wider European (German, Italian, or Hungarian) cultural spheres, and the lower ones, such as the locally rooted, illiterate peasantry, politically inert Poetryserved to articulate a national identity within the broader context of Slavic culture meant also to encompass this element of SOCiety, although the Croatian Romantics insisted that this was not an invention of identity, but rather a "reawakening" ses") Zivancevic, Milorad; 1978. "Hrvatski narodni preporod i nacionalni knjiievni pokreti u Evropi", in: Hrvatska knjiZevnost u evropskom kontekstu, ed. A. Flaker, K. Pranjic (Zagreb: Sveucilisna naklada Liber) 313-340 ["Croatian national revival and naional literary movements in Europe/Croatian literature in a European con­ text"] Zuiul, Ivana; 2007. Uloga tekstova hrvatsko9a narodnog preporoda u tvorbi nacionalnog identiteta (doctoral thesis; UniverSity of Zagreb) ["The unction of Croatian national revival texts in the creation of national identity�] See also IILL( ACKGROUND)§ I ' 2CRT5.S0ClETY§ 16 · 3 CRT2.TRADITIONS§ 4 . 4CRT4.TEXTS&STORIES§ 9 . s 6 SLA2.TRADITIONS § S . CRT3.SIGHT&SOUND § 6 §9. Narative literature (historical) or "revival". Key terms indicating a patriotic poetic subtype In the 19th-century Croatian cultural ield national engagement reflect this attitude: budnice (rom the verb buditi, to awaken) and public activity were crucial components of literary writers' and davorje (rom Davor, the putative name of a Slavic war­ social role. Accordingly, giving literary narratives a historical godS). Unsurprisingly, verse was requently recast into an oral­ setting was both appealing to contemporary readers as well as performative mode and put to music; most leading composers6 intended to raise national consciousness. The narrative arcs were involved in this re-mediation. Sung at rallies, cultural were usually predicated on the notion of historical progress events, private gatherings and public festivities, some of these and the highlighting of formative collective-historical events. verses have kept their performative power and are still sung Historicist literature started to appear in the 1840S in the genre today, like °Gaj's HorvatV sloga i zjedinjenje (1833), Demetar's of drama (especially that of Mirko Bogovic) and narrative­ rosto zrakom plica leli (J842), and Horvatska domVina ( 1846 ) dramaic verse. by Antun Mihanovic, which serves as the oicial national The outstanding poetical text of literary historicism is Ivan °Mazuranic's Smrt Smail-age Cengica ("The death of Smail-aga anthem of post-lgg0 Republic of Croatia. The Croatian Romantics' successors, writers and literary CengiC), which appeared in 1846 in the journal Iskra and im­ historians alike, have often accused them of dilettantism and mediately gained (and has never since lost) canonical status. An supericialiy. The patriotic verse of the Gaj generation was anticipation of °Nj egos's Montenegrin Gorskivijenac1 of 1847, certainly instrumentalist, utilitarian and propagandist; but it evokes a violent conflict in the Ottoman-dominated Herce­ its long-standing influence and impact does not rest on its govinian/Montenegrin lands (the ambushing and killing of a (dubious) literay merits. and the authors involved do not lack brutal warlord) and elevates it into an epically foundational mo­ historical and literary importance. Hvoje Tutek ment in the collective memory. Although the epic-poetic mode and harsh thematics are reminiscent of the popular, widely­ ]elcic, Dubravko; 2002. "Hrvatski knjizevni romantizam", in: Hrvatski knjZevni romantizam, ed. DubravkoJelcic (Zagreb: Skol­ ska knjiga) 13-82 ["Croatian literary Romanticism" ] Lauer, Reinhard; 1987. Poetika i ideology'a Uugoslovenske teme) (Belgrade: Prosveta) ["Poetics and ideology (Yugoslav topics)"] Lord, Alred 8.; 1963. "Nationalism and the muses in the Balkan Slavic literature in the modern period-, in: The Balkans in transi­ tion: Essys on the development ofBalkan life and politics since the eighteenth centuy, ed. Charles Jelavich, Barbara Jelavich (Berke­ ley, CA: U of California P) 258-296 Ziatar, Zdenko; 2007. The poetics ofSlavdom: The mythopoeicfoun­ dations ofYugoslClYia (New York, Y: Peter Lang) read and oten-translated poetry of °Byron, the emphasis here is less on the doomed, ByroniC title·hero than on the oppressed collective. The choice of locale and theme is significant: the fact that MazuraniC highlights a somewhat obscure contempo­ rary episode rather than a historical landmark event indicates his wish to draw attention to the continuity of the long strug­ gle against Ottoman domination in South-Eastern Europe. The Montenegrin/Hercegovinian locale, somewhat out-of-the-way for a Zagreb-based author and readership, does not serve the purpose of sublime exoticism (as encountered in the "primi­ tivist" settings of Western-European Romantics like °Scott and °Merimee), but to evoke a sense of transregional solidarity,