Romani Language Revitalization in Europe

Romani Linguistic Revitalization in Europe Ali Kellog University of California, Los Angeles ✺ For over a millennium, Romani people have established themselves as an autonomous and unique ethnic community. Emerging in small groups from India C.E.1000AD, their mass migration is still in progress. They have left fragments of their cultural identity across the world, namely in the form of linguistic dialects – nearly all of which are currently at risk of extinction. In Spain, a particular Romani dialect known as Cálo is at the forefront of a massive, and thus far effective linguistic revitalization effort. Classified as a Romance language akin to English and Spanish, based on Romance grammar with an adstratum of Romani lexical items (Kiger 2012). Thus, Cálo is a mixture of Romani and Andalucian Spanish. It is also known as Kálo, Gitano1, Hispanoromani, Zincálo, and Iberian Romani (Ethnologue n.d.). It is primarily spoken in the Andalucía region of Southern Spain(Kiger). Accordingly to Ethnologue, the Cálo community has a population of roughly 40 thousand people worldwide, classifying it as stage five (developing), although other sources state as few as 236 speakers remain (Herbert 2006). A majority of these speakers are not fluent, and only about eighty of those speakers are under 20 years of age. Cálo straddles a line between being “instable or eroded: having some children speakers”, and “definitively endangered: spoken only by the parental generation and up” on linguist Michael Krauss’ endangered language classification spectrum. As Romani people migrated throughout the world due to a thousand year long history of genocide and displacement by more dominant societies, a large population settled across Europe. During the Holocaust, they were perceived as racially inferior, and as a result an estimated 250 thousand Romani men, women and children were murdered (although as many as one million have been argued to be victims). As a result, thousands of Roms fled countries where Hitler’s regime was most powerful and settled elsewhere across Europe. Those who found their way into Spain were inevitably forced to assimilate culturally as a survival mechanism (ROMANI Project 2006). Linguistic drift occurred, and thus a new dialect of Romani was born from Iberian Spanish. For this same reason, a small number of Cálo speakers are also found in Portugal and France. Rom people and culture have found their way into Western mythology in hyperbolic proportions. Seen only through the Euro-American lens as free spirited, nomadic and rootless, they have gained a highly exoticized status. Consequentially, their ethnic heritage has been stripped of purpose, leaving their languages to be seen as irrelevant. This narrative is echoed throughout indigenous cultures. One linguistic piece of evidence for their subjugation is found in the derogatory term used for the entire race – Gypsy. During the late 19th century when the oppression of Rom people began, it was assumed that all Romani people were from Egypt because of their dark skin and phenotypic features. Several laws were implemented during the start of the 20th century which forbid Romani people from holding jobs in Europe and gardens at Rom camps were destroyed, many were left with theft as their only option for acquiring sustenance (Kiger 2012). The term “gip” was born, defined as being robbed. Today, few people in the West are educated on the racially charged phrase, and even fewer know of the term Romani. The unique characteristics of the Rom population seem endless. While originating in India, they do not have a country of origin or nativity, nor are they ethnically Indian. Due to this, Romani people do not have their own economy or political system. There is no official count of Romani people alive today, nor any reliable methods of measuring their population, although a 2003 census estimated as many as 4 million Roms living in Europe and Asia Minor (Herbert 2012). The most heavily populated Romani areas are in the Balkan Peninsula, Southern Europe, and Ukraine (ROMANI Project, N.d.). The start of Cálo revitalization is largely credited to the work of Luisa Martin Rojo of the University of Madrid. Until 2009, most linguistics did not recognize Cálo as a language, nor did they realize the danger it faces. She acknowledges in her book Constructing Inequality in Multilingual Classrooms in Madrid (2010) that the majority of her interest in Cálo is rooted in her love of Iberian Romani song and dance, which today is being used as a bank of Cálo language knowledge (Rojo 2010:19). In 2010, Spanish politicians like Juan de Dios Ramírez began promoting the revitalization of the language. He heavily promoted the use of Romanò-Kalò among all Romani Spanish citizens, a derivative of existing Cálo language that lacked modern vocabulary. Among the Cálo revitalization efforts, the most ambitious one is the product of the University of Manchester. In December of 2004, the European Union officially recognized the Romani people as an ethnic entity (Herbert 2012). In 2006, the university added Cálo to its list of the world’s most threatened languages. Soon after, the university began transcribing the estimated forty-two Romani dialects used throughout Europe. Their initial goal was to develop a catalogue of vocabulary and grammar in hopes of creating firm distinctions between the dialects. The University of Manchester shortly after announced the start of ROMANI Project, and launched an interactive website which allowed users to locate the dialects on a map of the world and listen to samples (ROMANI Project, N.d.). Through this, the university succeeded in bridging the gap between dialect and geography. The website had already proven to be effective by creating a tactile environment in which people could learn about the languages and their users. Linguists and language communities have begun to accept more and more that the internet serves as a global campfire, and is the quickest way to transfer information between two parties separated geographically. With this in mind, the University of Manchester and their team of linguists created a language community situated around this website (ROMANI Project, N.d.). Although Romani people are typically living in poverty, and thus have little to no access to computers, the university allowed Romani people to have free access to their computer so long as they agreed to participate in the revitalization. The idea was that linguists would hand the information they had to Romani speakers, and allow them to discuss and agree amongst themselves how words would be spelled, grammatical rules, and which words belonged to which dialects. Chatrooms for Romani speakers in Europe and 2 Russia flourished, and meet ups were created throughout Europe. Speakers who demonstrated weaknesses in their ability to use Romani could communicate with fellow, more seasoned Romany speakers across the world to learn how to spell or pronounce words (ROMANI Project, N.d). Through this, a language community was formulated. With linguists and Romani people working side by side, the results were overwhelming. Romany bookshops opened in Budapest and Prague, which began hosting meetings for speakers. A linguistic genealogy was created to help trace the language’s origins back to the Punjabi communities in Northern India (ROMANI Project). Although still in its infancy, the mess of loaned words used in all Romani dialects began to make sense. Sub-websites were created under the advisory of University of Manchester project leaders. One such site, MigRom Project (MigRom, N.d.), is specifically targeted towards the immigration of Romanian Roma to Western Europe. Professor Yaron Matras of University of Manchester, along with project managers Charlotte Jones and Daniele Viktor Leggio, successfully received grant funding for the program from the European Union under the 7th Framework Programme, which ensured the project’s funding and existence through 2017 (MigRom, N.d.). The program has stirred up a new discourse on Romani languages amongst European policy makers, who are beginning to understand the extent of the Roma population’s disproportionate amount of poverty, social deprivation, marginalization, and lack of spokesmanship. These revitalization pursuits have become intrinsically linked to humanitarian work. The increasing popularity of these websites and learning programs has surpassed the Romani community. Europeans of all ethnicities are stepping forward to participate by volunteering, hosting events, learning Romani dances and songs in classes, and more. These efforts have thus far proven beneficial. However, there are several shortcomings. These shortcomings are reflected in violence against Roma people that occurs everyday across Europe. The violence in France is arguably the most severe today. I do believe that if the humanitarian emphasis is strengthened, more people will become actively involved and knowledge of Roma persecution will come to public light. There is increasing overlap between endangered language revitalization projects across the world. The efforts to save Cálo involved a number of goals mentioned in Christopher Loether‘s piece on the revitalization of the Shoshoni language. The Shoshoni revitalization project wished to “raise the visibility of he language at Fort Hall and in the surrounding non-reservation communities” (Loether 2009:241). Similarly, the ROMANI Project sought to popularize Romani languages and culture, as well as create a large pool of speakers that transcend the Rom people. Both projects’ desire to increase the community of speakers beyond that of the native tongue. The Shoshoni project also sought to create new vocabularies based on what speakers agreed upon between one another. Similarly, the Cálo efforts involved creating chatrooms and online forums where speakers could discuss and agree on Rom words to be placed in a dictionary (ROMANI Project, N.d.). Both projects had ultimate goals of not only reviving the language within their respective linguistic community, but evolving 3 the language and raising its activity in other ethnic and cultural communities. David Golumbia discusses the role of the internet in language revitalization. Moreover, he addresses the importance of what he calls “subject oriented websites” (Golumbia 2010:162). The RomMig website was created by a professor at University of Manchester, who himself is Romani and a Romani speaker himself (RomMig, N.D.). The site is operated around the members, most all of whom are Romanian Romani immigrants who speak fluently or are looking to speak more fluently. Therefore, the website is also a platform for self-representation. Golumbia demonstrated how websites that are presumed to be “owned” by cultural members themselves are more effective. (Golumbia 2010:165). This assures that the indigenous community in question is represented in a realistic light, as the members critically describe themselves as members of the modern world who are engaged in modern technology and culture. Misrepresentation of a group of people quickly becomes persecution and mistreatment. Giving indigenous people a platform assures others see them as they wish to be seen, and are not conversing with others through another non-indigenous person’s voice. Golumbia argues for “outward-looking sites” (Golumbia 2010:168), which offer a positive view of the language group as fellow human beings living on the same world as everyone around them. Another linguist who discusses the use of technology in their writing is Stephen Greymorning. He helped spearhead an initiative to create an Arapaho version of Disney’s Bambi. An iconic film, which nearly every middle class family in the United States of America owned a copy of, Greymorning believed overdubbing it in Arapaho would do more than just become a language learning tool for younger generations. It was a symbolic act, which can also be said of Romani language revitalization efforts in the creation of websites. The subordinated indigenous languages borrowed the technology of dominant cultures to broadcast their language, creating a sort of yin-yang between English and Arapaho. Language transference, especially with younger generations, is largely achieved through the use of storytelling. Stories are a foundational part of any linguistic community. Younger generations are also spending a lot more time with modern technology than in storytelling circles or native tongue learning environments. Technology is now the most widely used, and efficient, way of transferring information, as well. One could even suggest that a partial reason for generational gaps today is that older generations do not use technology, where younger generations use it extensively. Thus, using technological mediums such as websites and movies, can literally allow younger and older generations to communicate. Linguists Nora Marks Dauenhauer and Richard Dauenhauer are concerned with ideological issues circulating around revitalizing a language. Among them, they discuss he emotional problems associated with the language, namely any stigmatization or negative attitudes or thoughts of an indigenous community (Dauenhauer and Dauenhauer 1998:64). Dauenhauer and Dauenhauer specifically mention the issues arising from revitalizing Native American languages in the United Statees. Christians have long stigmatized Native Americans ever since their arrival to the New World, even going so far as saying that God does not love them and 4 believes they are a sickness to the human race. Tribal communities were forbidden from using their native language, even going so far as punishing them with physical violence and destroying their artifacts. A Pavlovian side effect has thus been instilled within Native American tribes who fear speaking their own language. Many Native Americans are even ashamed and embarrassed by their language, and do not want to be thought of as a “dumb Native” (Dauenhauer and Dauenhauer 1998:78). Similarly, many Romani people are afraid of their own language and culture because it bears such a horrible stigmatism. The violence and subjugation of Romani people has sustained in Europe, and continues today. Remedying social relations and perceptions of indigenous groups will likely eliminate any learning anxieties felt by speakers (and learners) of the language. the waters, so to speak, and figuring out what works, what does not work, and what problems will be met during revival projects. The work being done by the University of Manchester and the ROMANI Project, Luisa Martín Rojo’s extensive work with Cálo, and the other programs mentioned here, are valiant steps towards preserving indigenous languages. Academic institutions most importantly need to work with indigenous communities, rather than for them. Without such cooperation, languages will remain irrelevant cultural accessories in the eyes of dominant language speakers. The loss of a language is a loss of human history. Utilizing modern technology, namely the internet, is a vital pedagogical tool for bridging the gaps between speakers and non-speakers, as well as old and young generations, as well as filling the intellectual voids of human history. The field of linguistics has a lot of exciting ideas and projects its way. The field of linguistic revitalization is still in its infancy, and linguists are still testing 5 SOURCES CONSULTED Dauenhauer, Nora Marks and Dauenhauer, Richard 1998. Technical, emotional, and ideological issues in reversing language shift. In Lenore Grenoble and Lindsay J Whaley, eds. Endangered Languages, 57-98. Cambridge University Press. Golumbia, David. 2010. Representing Minority Languages and Cultures on the World Wide Web. In Language Documentation: Practice and Values, ed. Lenore Grenoble and N. Louanna Furbee, 159-169. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Greymorning, Stephen. 2001. Reflections on the Arapaho Language Project, or When Bambi Spoke Arapaho and Others Tales of Arapaho Language Revitalization Efforts. In The Green Book of Language Revitalization and Practice, 287-298. San Diego: Academic Press. Herbert, Ian. 30 Jan 2006. "Launch of Romany Language Website Aims to Save a Culture." The Independent. Independent Digital News and Media, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/launch-of-romany-language-websiteaims-to-save-culture-525164.html., accessed December 10, 2013 Kiger, Patrick J. "A History of the Romani People." National Geographic Channel. N.p., 2012. Web. 9 Dec. 2013. <http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/americangypsies/articles/a-history-of-the-romani-people/>. Accessed December 10, 2013. Loether, Christopher. 2009. Language Revitalization and the Manipulation of Language Ideologies: A Shoshoni Case Study. In Paul V. Kroskrity and Margaret C. Field, eds. Native American Language Ideologies: Beliefs, Practices, and Struggles in Indian Country, 238-254 Tucson: U Arizona Press. Rojo, Luisa Martín 2010. Constructing Inequality in Multilingual Classrooms in Madrid. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid. Language, Power and Social Process. ROMANI Project: Romani Linguistics and Romani Language Projects 2006. University of Manchester, United Kingdom. http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/, accessed December 9, 2013. MigRom Project: The immigration of Romanian Roma to Western Europe; Causes, effects, and future engagement strategies. http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/, accessed December 9, 2012. 2