East Cretan Peak Sanctuaries Revisited

PHILISTOR Studies in Honor of Costis Davaras Costis Davaras, Hagios Nikolaos, 2008. PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 36 PHILISTOR Studies in Honor of Costis Davaras edited by Eleni Mantzourani and Philip P. Betancourt Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2012 Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia, PA Printing and Binding Thomson-Shore, Inc., Dexter, MI Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Philistor : studies in honor of Costis Davaras / edited by Eleni Mantzourani and Philip P. Betancourt. p. cm. — (Prehistory monographs ; 36) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-931534-65-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Crete (Greece)—Antiquities. 2. Excavations (Archaeology)—Greece—Crete. 3. Architecture, Minoan—Greece—Crete. 4. Bronze age—Greece—Crete. 5. Minoans. I. Mantzourane, Helene, 1954- II. Betancourt, Philip P., 1936- III. Davaras, Kostes. DF221.C8P47 2012 939'.1801—dc23 2012013140 Copyright © 2012 INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America In Greek the word φιλίστωρ (philistor) means the lover of learning, of history, the person who constantly seeks new knowledge. The characterization of philistor fits the personality of Costis Davaras because he has always tried to expand his knowledge horizons and has never limited himself solely to his fields of specialization. His entire life is full of diverse activities, philosophical self-reflection, and sociopolitical interests. Table of Contents List of Tables in the Text. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi List of Figures in the Text. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Biography of Costis Davaras by Eleni Mantzourani. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi Bibliography of Costis Davaras. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv List of Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi 1. The Frying Pans from Hagia Photia by Philip P. Betancourt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. The Genesis of the Early Minoan Tholos Tomb by Keith Branigan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3. Harvesting an Old Rattle: The Bronze Sistrum from the “Royal” Villa at Hagia Triada by Thomas M. Brogan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 4. Γαία περίρρυτος: Some Thoughts on “Neo-Minoan” Mythology by Christos G. Doumas. . . . . . . . 25 5. The Presence of Pumice in LM IIIB Levels at Sissi, Crete by Florence Gaignerot-Driessen and Jan Driessen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 viii PHILISTOR: STUDIES IN HONOR OF COSTIS DAVARAS 6. The Kavousi Goddesses with Up-raised Hands: New Information on Technology by Geraldine C. Gesell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 7. An Early Minoan I Long Dagger and Razor from Kalo Chorio, East Crete by Donald C. Haggis. . . 51 8. “Firebars” and Other Ceramics of Problematic Function from Priniatikos Pyrgos by Barbara J. Hayden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 9. A Tomb from Gonies Pediados: The End of Final Neolithic IV Merges with the Dawn of the Early Bronze Age by Athanasia Kanta with contributions by Eleni Nodarou and Argyro Nafplioti. . . . . 65 10. Two Stone Kernoi from the Juktas Peak Sanctuary by Alexandra Karetsou with a contribution by R.D.G. Evely. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 11. A New Idol of Cycladic Type from Hagia Triada by Vincenzo La Rosa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 12. Sexuality or Fertility Symbol? The Bronze Figurine from Makrygialos by Eleni Mantzourani. . . . 105 13. A Story of Lions: Palatial Ideology in Egypt, Knossos, and Mycenae by Nanno Marinatos. . . . . . 113 14. Earth and Fire: Cretan Potting Traditions and Replicating Minoan Cooking Fabrics by Jennifer Moody, Jerolyn E. Morrison, and Harriet Lewis Robinson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 15. A Terracotta Foot Model from the Syme Sanctuary, Crete by Polymnia Muhly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 16. East Cretan Peak Sanctuaries Revisited by Krzysztof Nowicki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 17. An Early Minoan Boat Model from Kephala Petras, Siteia by Yiannis Papadatos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 18. New Evidence on the Origin of the Late Minoan III Chest-shaped Larnax by Lefteris Platon. . . . . 161 19. God Save Our Homes: The Case of the Horns of Consecration from Galatas by Giorgos Rethemiotakis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 20. The Hypostyle Crypt (Quartier Kappa) and the Large Court, Malia: An Athletic Center? by Martin Schmid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 21. Mochlos Boats by Jeffrey S. Soles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 22. The “Vrysinas Ephebe”: The Lower Torso of a Clay Figurine in Contrapposto by Dimitris Sphakianakis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 23. Kampos Group Pottery from the Prepalatial Cemetery of Petras, Siteia by Metaxia Tsipopoulou. . . 213 24. Minoan Bee Smokers: An Experimental Approach by Loeta Tyree, Harriet Lewis Robinson, and Paraskevi Stamataki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 25. Headless, Armless but Sexuated Bodies: On Some Particular Figurines from the Peak Sanctuary of Vrysinas, near Rethymnon, Crete by Iris Tzachili. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 26. Armenoi: The Late Minoan III Necropolis and the Town by Yannis Tzedakis and Holley Martlew. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 27. The Neopalatial “Farmhouse” at Kephali Lazana, Chondros Viannou, Re-examined by Giorgos Vavouranakis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix 28. The Apogee of Minoan Civilization: The Final Neopalatial Period by Peter M. Warren. . . . . . . . . . 255 29. An Overview of Secondary State Formation on Crete: The Mirabello Region during the Bronze Age by L. Vance Watrous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 List of Tables in the Text Table 9.1. Results of the element analysis on the three collared jars with cylindrical neck. . . . . . . . . 73 Table 14.1. MACFA description of the archaeological Minoan cooking pots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Table 14.2. MACFA description of the replicated Minoan cooking pots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Table 24.1. Neopalatial bee smokers from Zakros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Table 29.1. Neopalatial settlement changes by percentage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 List of Figures in the Text Frontispiece. Costis Davaras, Hagios Nikolaos, 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii Figure 1.1. Pottery from the Hagia Photia cemetery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 1.2. Pottery from the Hagia Photia cemetery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Figure 1.3. Stand (HNM 12,570) from the Hagios Charalambos Cave, EM IIA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 2.1. Plan of Lebena Gerokampos II as first constructed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Figure 2.2. Plan of tholos A at Moni Odigitria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Figure 3.1. Detail view of the Harvester Vase showing the sistrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Figure 3.2. Linear A Tablet no. 6a from Hagia Triada, with sistrum ideogram on the far right of the third line from the top. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Figure 3.3. Photograph of the bronze sistrum from Mochlos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 3.4. Photograph of the bronze sistrum (HM 1346) from Hagia Triada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Figure 3.5. Drawing of the bronze sistrum (HM 1346) from Hagia Triada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 xiv PHILISTOR: STUDIES IN HONOR OF COSTIS DAVARAS Figure 3.6. Plan of the Villa at Hagia Triada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Figure 3.7. Drawing of a possible clay sistrum bead from Mochlos E4/4334.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Figure 5.1. Sissi-Kephali tou Hagiou Antoniou. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Figure 5.2. Sissi 2008, state plan of Zones 3 and 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Figure 5.3. Pumice densities in excavated areas of Zone 3 at Sissi associated with LM IIIB levels. . . 38 Figure 5.4. Concentration of pumice near fallen pithos close to north wall of space 3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 5.5. Selection of pumice samples from Zone 3, space 3.6 at Sissi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Figure 5.6. Pumice densities in LM IIIB Quartier Nu at Malia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Figure 6.1. Kavousi Goddess 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Figure 6.2. Goddess 9: left arm, palm (a); right arm, palm (b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Figure 6.3. No. 916: right hand, palm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 6.4. Arms, backs of hands: left nos. 153/154 (a); right no. 953 (b); right no. 327 (c); right no. 957 (d). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 6.5. Goddess 17: right arm, palm (a); left hand, palm (b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Figure 6.6. Goddess 24: left arm, thumb side of broken hand showing middle finger and interior of wrist (a); left arm, palm (b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Figure 7.1. Copper razor fragment (a) and long dagger (b). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Figure 7.2. Ground stone tools from levels 14–15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Figure 8.1. Examples of “firebars” found at Priniatikos Pyrgos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Figure 8.2. Map of trenches at Priniatikos Pyrgos showing location of “firebar” and “firebox” sherds. . . 61 Figure 8.3. Kiln G1004 from northwest showing location of “firebar” in left channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Figure 8.4. Sherds of possible “fireboxes”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Figure 9.1. Map of Crete showing relevant sites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Figure 9.2. Village of Gonies, with Karphi visible in the top left. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Figure 9.3. Village of Gonies and the way toward the Lasithi plateau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Figure 9.4. Aerial view of the village, with the location of the Papadakis house circled. . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 9.5. The Papadakis houses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Figure 9.6. Collared jar with cylindrical neck (HM 19811). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 9.7. Collared jar with cylindrical neck (HM 19812). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 9.8. Collared jar with cylindrical neck (HM 19813). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Figure 9.9. Unnumbered bowl sherd in the Herakleion Museum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 LIST OF FIGURES IN THE TEXT xv Figure 9.10. Stone beads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Figure 9.11. Collared jar HM 9441 from the Amnissos Eileithyia Cave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Figure 9.12. Skeletal material from the grave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Figure 9.13. Skeletal material from the grave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Figure 10.1. Veined serpentinite kernos 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Figure 10.2. Poros kernos 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Figure 10.3. Kernos 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Figure 10.4. Detail of kernos 1 upper surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Figure 10.5. Detail of kernos 1 base with encrustation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Figure 10.6. Poros kernos 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Figure 10.7. The altar from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Figure 10.8. The chasm from the northwest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Figure 10.9. Terrace I, south side of the altar, with arrows indicating the kernos find spots. . . . . . . . . 87 Figure 10.10. East side of the altar during discovery with preserved off-white stucco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Figure 10.11. Kernos 1 as found during excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Figure 10.12. “Pebbles” and clay bird figurines (indicated by arrows) from the stratum in which kernos 1 was found. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Figure 10.13. Pit showing votive copper axes in situ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Figure 10.14. Foundation deposit of the shrine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Figure 10.15. Pottery from the deposit of Terrace I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Figure 10.16. Unfinished(?) kernos HM 3900 of grayish-white schist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Figure 10.17. Poros kernos HM 4213 from the Juktas Peak Sanctuary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Figure 10.18. Sandstone(?) kernos HM 2276 from the Temple Tomb at Knossos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Figure 11.1. Schematic and reconstructive axonometric plan of the so-called Tomba degli Ori and the Complesso della Mazza di Breccia, with the findspot of the idol (inv. no. HTR 2600) indicated by an arrow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Figure 11.2. Hagia Triada idol (inv. no. HTR 2600). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Figure 11.3. Small idol in “Cycladic marble” retrieved from Phaistos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Figure 12.1. Makrygialos ground plan and the built altar of the central court. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Figure 12.2. The bronze figurine HNM 4652 from Makrygialos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Figure 12.3. Bronze figurine HNM 4652 from Makrygialos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Figure 12.4. Representations of naked females. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 xvi PHILISTOR: STUDIES IN HONOR OF COSTIS DAVARAS Figure 13.1. Lion head fragment from Tell el-Dabca as found (left) and slightly restored (right). . . . . 114 Figure 13.2. Fragment of lion (F 45) preying upon a bull from Tell el-Dabca. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Figure 13.3. Scene of lions preying on bull from Tell el- Dabca. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Figure 13.4. Ring Impression from Tylissos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Figure 13.5. Seal from Midea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Figure 13.6. Lion inlay from Shaft Grave III, Mycenae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Figure 14.1. Locations mentioned in the text. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Figure 14.2. Replicated Chania Akrotiri Aeolianite “calc” fabric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Figure 14.3. Replicated Hagia Marina (Sphakia) Mixed Metamorphic fabric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Figure 14.4. Replicated Hagios Vasileios MIg Meta fabric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Figure 14.5. Morrison collecting “clay” in Hagios Vasileios Valley, October 1999. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Figure 14.6. Moody and Robinson collecting “clay” in Hagia Marina (Sphakia), May 2001. . . . . . . . 124 Figure 14.7. Robinson and Moody crushing Hagia Marina clay, May 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Figure 14.8. Moody sieving clay, May 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Figure 14.9. Morrison making pinch pots out of Chania Akrotiri clay, October 1997. . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Figure 14.10. Hagia Marina pinch pots set out to dry, May 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Figure 14.11. Morrison demonstrating fuel processed into “armloads,” October 1997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Figure 14.12. Fuel processed into “armloads,” May 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Figure 14.13. Hagia Marina fabric firing, May 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Figure 14.14. Chania Akrotiri fabric firing: Morrison placing warmed pinch pots on twig platform, October 1997. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Figure 14.15. Hagia Marina firing, May 2001. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Figure 14.16. Fired pots showing blackened surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Figure 14.17. Use-life experiment: boiling water in Hagia Marina cooking pot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Figure 15.1 Terracotta foot model from Syme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Figure 15.2. Terracotta exedra model from Syme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Figure 16.1. Peak sanctuaries in the Siteia region in East Crete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Figure 16.2. Cape Trachilos and Ambelos with Kephala (A) seen from the northwest. . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Figure 16.3. Etiani Kephala (A) and the hill above Etia (B) from the north. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Figure 16.4. Chandras-Armeni Plateau from the south: (B) the hill above Etia, (C) Etia, (D) the peak sanctuary on Prinias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Figure 16.5. Kalamaki Kephala (A) from the north. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 LIST OF FIGURES IN THE TEXT xvii Figure 16.6. Plan of Kalamaki Kephala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Figure 16.7. Peak sanctuary on Prinias (A) from the east. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Figure 16.8. Prinias, Terrace I from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Figure 16.9. Plan of Prinias. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Figure 16.10. Phaneromeni Trachilos from the west. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Figure 16.11. Phaneromeni Trachilos from the south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Figure 16.12. Plan of the hilltop/peak sanctuary at Phaneromeni Trachilos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Figure 17.1. Drawing of the Kephala Petras boat model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Figure 17.2. The Kephala Petras boat model, side view (left) and top view (right). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Figure 18.1. The interior of the larnax of Tomb B, with an almost intact interment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 18.2. The larnax of Tomb A as found. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 18.3. Bottom pieces of a chest-shaped larnax. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 18.4. Section showing lip and bottom of a chest-shaped larnax. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Figure 18.5. Small six-legged chest-shaped larnax from Tomb B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 18.6. Section of a slightly domed larnax lid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 18.7. Drawing of the jug found in the larnax of Tomb A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Figure 18.8. The larnax of Tomb A with the protruding frame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Figure 19.1. Ground plan (2005) of the excavation at Galatas showing the locations of the four horns. . 170 Figure 19.2. Horns from House 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Figure 19.3. Horns from the east wing of the palace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Figure 19.4. Building 3: the “recess” and the horns in Room 1 during the excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Figure 19.5. Both sides of the horns from Building 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Figure 19.6. Building 3: the stepped construction in Room 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Figure 19.7. House 2: the model of horns in situ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Figure 19.8. House 2: detail of the model in situ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Figure 19.9. Model of horns from House 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Figure 19.10. Drawing of horns from House 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Figure 20.1. Aerial photograph of Hypostyle Crypt and Court, facing south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Figure 20.2. General plan of the quarter at Malia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Figure 20.3A. Restored plan, Hypostyle Crypt: basement and ground floor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Figure 20.3B. Restored plan, Hypostyle Crypt: ground floor and upper story. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 xviii PHILISTOR: STUDIES IN HONOR OF COSTIS DAVARAS Figure 20.4. Hypostyle Crypt, room 5, access to magazines 1 and 2, facing south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Figure 20.5. Hypostyle Crypt, view from west, facing south. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Figure 20.6. Bull-leaping rhyton from Hagia Triada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Figure 20.7. Knossos bull-leaping fresco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Figure 20.8. Bull-leaping scene on a modern Cretan house. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Figure 20.9. Bull-leaping gold ring from Archanes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Figure 21.1. Boat 1 on gold signet ring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Figure 21.2. Boats (2) painted on cup IB.202. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Figure 21.3. Clay boat 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Figure 21.4. Stone boat 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Figure 21.5. Boat 5 drilled on signet seal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Figure 21.6. Boat 6 incised on pithos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Figure 21.7. Boat 7 incised on sealstone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Figure 21.8. Clay boat 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Figure 21.9. Clay boat 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Figure 21.10. Clay boats 8 and 9 in situ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Figure 21.11. Clay boats 8 and 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Figure 21.12. Stone boat 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Figure 21.13. Clay boat(?) 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Figure 21.14. Clay boat 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Figure 21.15. Clay boat 13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Figure 22.1. The Vrysinas Ephebe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Figure 22.2. Front and back view of the Vrysinas Ephebe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Figure 22.3. Views of the Vrysinas Ephebe with superimposed hypothetical grid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Figure 22.4. Two variations of the loincloth (zoma) for the Vrysinas Ephebe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Figure 22.5. Possible method of binding a single piece of cloth around the torso of the Vrysinas Ephebe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Figure 22.6. Modern mannequin used to display men’s undergarments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Figure 23.1. Globular pyxides 1–5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Figure 23.2. Globular pyxides 6–10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Figure 23.3. Globular pyxides 11 and 12; pyxis lids 13 and 14; cylindrical pyxis 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Figure 23.4. Bottles 16 and 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 LIST OF FIGURES IN THE TEXT xix Figure 24.1. Zakros Neopalatial ceramic bee smoker HM 2113. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Figure 24.2. Underside of ceramic bee smoker HM 2133. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Figure 24.3. Traditional bee smoker from Paros with a large tubular opening for adding fuel and a smaller tubular opening (nozzle) at the opposite end to emit the smoke. . . . . . . . . 225 Figure 24.4. Traditional bee smoker from Kos with a perforated dome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Figure 24.5. Cross-section of the air flow pattern through the Zakros bee-smoker replica. . . . . . . . . . 227 Figure 24.6. Zakros clay replica made by Archanes potter Theonimphi Genetzaki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Figure 24.7. Beekeeper Dimitris Vogopoulos of the Herakleion area lights pine needles used for fuel in the Zakros bee-smoker replica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Figure 24.8. Beekeeper Dimitris Vogopoulos moves the smoking Zakros clay replica with the aid of a stick that is placed through the vessel’s handles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Figure 24.9. The Zakros clay replica at the bees’ entrance to a modern vertical beehive where beekeeper Dimitris Vogopoulos inspects his bees after smoking the hive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Figure 25.1. Figurine 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Figure 25.2. Figurine 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Figure 26.1. Geological map of West Central Crete showing metal and stone resources for the region. . . 240 Figure 26.2. View from Mt. Vrysinas. Arrows indicate the Minoan house complex and the village of Kastellos, which are above and slightly southwest of the necropolis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Figure 26.3. Larnax RM 1710. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Figure 26.4. Larnax RM 1712. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Figure 26.5. Larnax RM 1707. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Figure 26.6. Larnax RM 5121. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Figure 26.7. Larnax RM 1706. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Figure 27.1. Ground plan of the building at Kephali Lazana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Figure 27.2. Space D at Kephali Lazana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Figure 27.3. Bench outside room A1 at Kephali Lazana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Figure 28.1. LM IB sites mentioned in the text. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Biography of Costis Davaras Eleni Mantzourani Costis Davaras was born in Athens on the 19th of March in 1933. He grew up in a highly intellectual environment. His mother, Julia, came from an old family of Cephallonia and was awarded the Ouranis Prize for Literature. Costis graduated from the high school of Plaka, located just below the Acropolis. The window of his room overlooked Hadrian’s Gate. He studied Archaeology at the Universities of Vienna, Munich, and mainly Athens, from which he received his first degree in 1956. His professors of archaeology, indeed all of them outstanding scholars, were Ernst Buschor in Munich and Spyridon Marinatos, Georgios Mylonas, Nikolaos Kontoleon, and Anastasios Orlandos in Athens. During his undergraduate years, he took a degree at the Palmer Technical School in Athens as a wireless operator of the Merchant Marine in order to be able to travel, which he actually did for a short time, visiting various countries. This, among other features of his character, shows his inquisitive spirit. He continued his postgraduate studies as a bursar of the German State in Munich. His Professors were Ernst Homann-Wedeking for Archaeology and Hans Wolfgang Müller for Egyptology. He served in the Greek Army as an interpreter and translator for several NATO languages. Before entering the Greek Archaeological Service he served, for a short time, as an assistant to the Ephor Markellos Mitsos in the Epigraphical Museum in Athens and Ioannis Threpsiades in the excavations at Athens and the Temple of Artemis at Aulis in Boeotia. Davaras entered the Archaeological Service in 1960 after examinations, which, unfortunately, were later abolished for some decades, indeed a heavy blow in meritocracy. His first position as Epimeletes was in Herakleion under Nikolaos Platon and later under Stylianos Alexiou, both well-known scholars and excellent tutors. At that time, those three men were the only archaeologists serving on Crete. xxii PHILISTOR: STUDIES IN HONOR OF COSTIS DAVARAS He was an assistant to Platon in several of his excavations all over Crete, including the peak sanctuary at Kophinas and the palace of Zakros. He also conducted his own excavations, including tholos tomb II at Apesokari and the important caves of Skoteino near Knossos and Eileithyia at Inatos. A second campaign, in collaboration with Nikolaos Platon, was undertaken at Eileithyia. He also brought to light several Minoan chamber tombs and a Geometric tomb at Knossos. In 1964 he was transferred to Athens as Epimeletes of Attica and Boeotia. There he excavated the Geometric cemetery of Anavyssos and the Thesmophorion of Eretria, later turned over for publication to Ingrid Metzger of the Swiss School of Archaeology in Greece. During this period he was the first Greek archaeologist to be trained by the Navy in underwater archaeology. He even directed a research team below the temple of Poseidon at Sounion in order to locate fallen blocks and part of its sculpture. At his own insistence he was re-posted to Crete in 1965, this time as Head of the Archaeological Service for West Crete (Chania–Rethymnon) with Yiannis Tzedakis as his assistant. Davaras’s excavations in the region included the tholos tomb at Maleme, a tholos tomb at Apodoulou, and the rich peak sanctuary of Vrysinas overlooking the Rethymnon area. His main care in this new post was the legal protection of the numerous archaeological sites of West Crete, which, until then, were not officially listed as such and thus “ignored” by the State. It should be noted that the “Palace of Minos” at Knossos and a narrow zone around it, under the auspices of the British School at Athens, was the only legally defined archaeological site on Crete before that time. By specific order of the Ministry he also tried, alas in vain, to protect the Venetian–Ottoman old towns of Chania and Rethymnon and even received serious threats on his life in his office by a furious fishmonger. It was during this period that he married his beloved Dione, a Baroque harpsichordist and his life companion ever since. In 1968 he went to the Sorbonne University in Paris for his Ph.D. under the supervision of Pierre Demargne, Henri van Effenterre, and Jean Deshayes. His two-volume typewritten dissertation was a study on the MinoanMycenaean Double Axe, including a corpus of all then-extant axes in corpore—the functional ones, the votives, and the representations in painting. The subject was examined mainly from a religious point of view. Davaras managed to show that the functional double axe was definitely a tool and not a weapon, as even today many scholars continue to believe it was a weapon. The dissertation was not published, as this was not required by the French Law, pending the collection of photographs for publication in the German Series Prähistorische Bronzefunde, a work that would, by agreement with H. Müller-Karpe, also include the pottery. However, the future reserved much adversity for him and his family. After his return to Greece in 1970, and during the dictatorship of the Colonels, he was not allowed to go back to Crete, his second home and place of archaeological interests. Instead, he was transferred to Sparta, in Laconia, as well as to Mystras, as an “acting” Epimeletes of Byzantine Antiquities. There he managed to officially establish and define the ancient town of Sparta for the first time as an archaeological site. Additionally, he organized, again for the first time, the extensive archives of Mystras. It also should be noted that Davaras protected with strict rules the Medieval town of Monemvasia. A year later he was again transferred, this time to Patras for six months, under the Ephor Photios Petsas, who was also in disfavor. At his insistence, he managed to return to Crete. This time he was appointed as a newly promoted Ephor in East Crete (Nomos Lasithiou and Malia). By necessity, East Crete had also been “promoted” to an Ephorate, the now well-known 24th Ephorate of Antiquities. This is the only reason why Crete has three Ephorates, and not two or four. As a matter of fact Davaras was the first and last Ephor of this Ephorate, for the title of “Ephor of Antiquities,” the oldest title in Greece (since 1830), was later abolished by the newly elected administration that advocated “the equality of all civil servants” with titles such as “Director of Antiquities” and so forth. However, the title of Ephoreia paradoxically remained. Characteristically, all administrations that followed until today did not reinstate the title of the Ephor, as archaeologists have obviously been “the black sheep” of the state apparatus, above pressures and other concomitant evils. When Costis Davaras became the head of the new Ephorate in Hagios Nikolaos, its state was BIOGRAPHY OF COSTIS DAVARAS embryonic, with the telephone on the floor. He had to organize everything ex nihilo. He considered it his duty to begin the legal protection of the numerous and highly important archaeological sites of East Crete, as he had done in West Crete. This was, indeed, an onerous and difficult task, as the protected areas (Zones A and B) had to be accurately defined on the map. At the same time this was a very delicate enterprise as these areas were not supposed to be excessively large and beyond the rule of “pan metron Ariston.” The trouble was that these new measures went hand-in-hand with the beginning of the touristic development of the island. Thus, a reaction to this novel legality was to be expected. For instance, Davaras managed to stop the demolition of the Venetian fortress of Spinalonga (albeit outside his official jurisdiction), the spolia of which were being taken and imbedded as decoration in the “grand hotels” then under construction. Unfortunately, he did not manage to bring about the conviction in court of a serious perpetrator of bulldozing part of the Minoan town of Palaikastro, who was actually a school teacher! Again regarding Spinalonga, Davaras managed, despite the serious threats he received, to avert the construction there of a base for torpedo boats, which the administration of the Colonels wished to build. Fortunately, finally they realized the enormity of it and constructed the base near Cavo Sidero. Some years later, after the Colonels were gone, the dismal fate of another small island was also averted: the Air Force wished to make the beautiful, subtropical Chryssi to the south of Ierapetra a target area for bombing. Fortunately, the Ministry of Defense gave up this enterprise, persuaded by Davaras’s personal arguments. After some time he was again transferred to Komotini in Thrace, but he never went there as he was then suspended from his duties. He was reinstated after the happy end of an adventure in a court of justice. As an Ephor in Hagios Nikolaos Davaras installed a new provisional exhibition at the Museum, and he conducted many rescue excavations under very difficult conditions, some of which, alas, came too late. In any case, the volume of new material collected was so enormous that it would take several archaeological lives to be properly published. Perhaps the most important of these excavations was the exploration of part of xxiii the Early Minoan I Cycladic cemetery at Hagia Photia, near Siteia, with no assistants, architects, photographers, or other assistants, but with armed workers watching it at night. This excavation is now partly published in collaboration with his close friend Prof. Philip Betancourt. Among Davaras’s other important excavations were those of several Minoan peak sanctuaries in various stages of plundering, including Traostalos, Petsophas (re-excavated), Prinias Zou, Modi, and others. The re-excavation of the oval house at Chamaizi was also crucial, as he was able to clarify its function. It was neither a peak sanctuary, as usually believed, nor oval because of lack of space. The early burial cave of Hagios Charalambos Gerontomouri on the plateau of Lasithi, with its rich finds—especially seals and a great number of human skulls, some of them showing signs of trepanation, the earliest in Greece—is also included among Davaras’s field work. This excavation was later continued with Phil Betancourt as codirector. Other less important excavations include Minoan and later tombs and cemeteries (especially the one at Krya in Siteia) as well as a number of Hellenistic and later houses at Hagios Nikolaos and Ierapetra. Last but not least in his long list of fieldwork comes the important excavation of the Late Minoan I “cult villa” at Makrygialos on the southern coast. According to his view, this building is unique insofar that it closely imitates the Minoan palaces on a very small scale. He gave the edifice this strange name because of its rich religious elements, although he later thought that it should rather be named a “mini palace,” as it is actually a real miniature of a Minoan palace in several of its architectural features. In fact, its central court has the dimensions and orientation of the palace at Petras on the opposite north coast. He does not consider it as a simple “country mansion” aping its superiors. Instead, he believes that, exactly because of its close resemblance, its functions would have been similar to those of the palaces, especially regarding religion. Hence, it was initially dubbed a “cult villa.” He has raised the question whether the edifice at Makrygialos could perhaps help us better understand the main function of the palaces, which it so closely mirrors. It is true that Davaras is very happy and proud that he had the opportunity to re-open East Crete xxiv PHILISTOR: STUDIES IN HONOR OF COSTIS DAVARAS to the excavations of American archaeologists. This was done under the form of a synergasia as a co-director. These excavations took place at Pseira and Mochlos for several campaigns, in collaboration with his eminent colleagues and friends Phil Betancourt and Jeffrey Soles. These excavations, with extraordinary results, funded with grants from several sources, including the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP) founded by Malcolm Wiener, the great benefactor of this branch of archaeology, are being published by the INSTAP Academic Press in a rhythm and perfection unthinkable for Greece. Thus, Davaras is quite proud of his official archaeological contribution to these projects. Many eminent scholars involved in Minoan archaeology have, on different occasions, praised his role in these projects. It should be mentioned that the very last official paper out of several thousands Davaras signed as an Ephor was the one that founded, from the Greek side, the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete at Pacheia Ammos, a center that astounds and dazzles every visiting Greek archaeologist. He has always been happy and proud that he has been the instigator of the new British excavations at Palaikastro, a site that was then seriously endangered by developers, both local and foreign. The new excavations have not only been extremely successful, but they stopped pending threats—at least for the time being. The Cavo Sidero area, property of the Toplou monastery north of Palaikastro, seemed at this time to be safe, and so no special measures were taken. Another side of Davaras’s character may be traced through an interesting event. In an unusual way he was able to contribute financially to the great Greek excavations of Zakros. He refused the offer of a Mexican millionaire to re-open the excavation of the famous Diktaian Cave, which must certainly still contain many treasures in its bowels. Instead, he persuaded the gentleman to support the Palace of Zakros project. As tourism developed by leaps and bounds at the shores of Crete, it was unavoidable that woes were yet to come. In 1985, as he continued to press to save archaeological sites in the face of mounting pressure from building, Davaras was once more suspended from his duties as an Ephor for East Crete for five long years. He was ordered to go to Herakleion to the “Archaeological Institute of Crete,” which until then did not exist. He has confessed that he was personally grateful to the Minister of Culture Melina Merkouri, who graciously allowed him to stay in the Hagios Nikolaos Museum in “suspended animation,” as he humorously states. As a measure of clemency he stayed there to supervise its exhibition and cleanliness. In 1990, under the new “Coalition Administration,” Davaras was re-instated in his duties as an Ephor, but as he says, “he had lost his mood” for the Archaeological Service and turned to a new challenge, the University of Athens. In 1993 he was elected Associate Professor of Minoan Archaeology and later Full Professor. There he concentrated on his new duties, a real heaven in comparison to the past, as he usually says. He retired as Professor Emeritus in 2000. To quote his own words, “now I have more time for carefree, less stressful research.” Now his ardent wish and vision is to see in the European Union commission a new member: a Commissioner for Cultural Heritage who would cover a most important area, until now sadly unprotected and badly needed for Greece. Davaras has received many academic and other distinctions. He is Member for Life of the Archaeological Society at Athens; Honorary Member of the Historical and Archaeological Society of Crete in Chania; Honorary Citizen of the Municipality of Ierapetra; Korrespondierendes Mitglied des Deutsches Archäologischen Instituts, Berlin; Chevalier dans l’Ordre des Arts et Lettres de la République Française; Member of the Editorial Board of the periodical Kadmos, Berlin; and General Editor of the periodical Cretan Studies, Amsterdam. Finally, he has received an Honorary Diploma from the University of Tehran for the protection of the endangered remaining mosques on Crete. Indicative of Costis’s vividness, creativity, and overall devotion to a better future for Greece is his very recent participation in the newly formed party of Greek Ecologists, of which he is an active member. Costis is one of the last noblemen in the Greek and international archaeological family and will always remain “young at heart.” From the depth of my heart, I wish him all the best in every aspect of his life. He still has much to offer us. Bibliography of Costis Davaras Davaras, C. 1960. “ Ἐπιγραφαὶ ἐκ Κρήτης I,” CretChron 14, pp. 457–465. Davaras, C., and N. Platon. 1960. “Ἀρχαιολογικὴ κίνησις ἐν Κρήτῃ κατὰ το ἔτος 1960,” CretChron 14, pp. 504–527. ———. 1961–1962. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Κρήτης,” ArchDelt 17 (B΄, Chronika) [1963], pp. 281–291. ———. 1967. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Δυτ. Κρήτης 1966,” ArchDelt 22 (B΄, 1 Chronika) [1968], pp. 495–501. ———. 1967. “Εἷς νεώσοικος παρὰ τὴν Σητείαν,” ArchEph 106, pp. 84–90. ———. 1967. “Zur Herkunft des Diskos von Phaistos,” Kadmos 6, pp. 101–105. Davaras, C. 1963. “Ἐπιγραφαὶ ἐκ Κρήτης II,” ArchDelt 18 (A΄, Meletes) [1964], pp. 141–160. ———. 1968. “ Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Κεντρικῆς καὶ Ἀνατολ. Κρήτης: Περιοχὴ Μονῆς Ὁδηγητρίας,” ArchDelt 23 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1969], pp. 405–406. Crile, G., and C. Davaras. 1964. “The Possible Site of Menelaus’ Shipwrecks,” CretChron 17, pp. 47–49. ———. 1968. “Two Geometric Tombs at Atsalenio near Knossos,” BSA 63, pp. 133–146. Davaras, C. 1965. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Εὐβοίας 1964,” ArchDelt 20 (B΄, 2 Chronika), pp. 256–261. ———. 1969. La double hache minoenne et mycénienne, Ph.D. diss., Sorbonne University. ———. 1965. “Ἀττικὴ (1. Περιφέρεια τέως Διοικήσεως Πρωτευούσης, 2. Ὑπόλοιπος περιφέρεια Ἀττικῆς),” ArchDelt 20 (B΄, 1 Chronika) [1967], pp. 118–127. ———. 1969. “Trois bronzes minoens de Skoteino,” BCH 93, pp. 620–650. ———. 1966. “Ἀνασκαφὴ θολωτοῦ τάφου Μάλεμε,” Prakt 121 [1968], pp. 185–188. ———. 1970. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Λακωνίας 1969,” ArchDelt 25 (B΄, 1 Chronika) [1972], pp. 172. xxvi PHILISTOR: STUDIES IN HONOR OF COSTIS DAVARAS ———. 1970. “Δαιδαλικὸν ἄγαλμα ἐξ Ἀστριτσίου Κρήτης,” ArchDelt 25 (A΄, Meletes) [1971], pp. 87–96. ———. 1970. “Νέοι διπλοῖ πελέκεις ἐκ τῆς ΣΤ΄ Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Περιφερείας,” AAA 3, pp. 311–313. ———. 1971. “Ἀνασκαφαὶ εἰς Στῦλον Ἀποκορώνου,” AAA 4, pp. 42–44. ———. 1972. Die Statue aus Astritsi: Ein Beitrag zur dädalischen Kunst auf Kreta und zu den Anfängen der griechischen Plastik (Beiheft zur Halbjahresschrift Antike Kunst 8), Bern. ———. 1972. “Two Linear A Inscriptions on Libation Vessels from Petsophas,” Kadmos 11, pp. 101–112. ———. 1971. “Ἀρχαιολογικὲς ἔρευνες στὴ Σητεία κατὰ τὸ θέρος 1971,” Ἀμάλθεια 8, pp. 197–200. ———. 1973. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Ἀνατολικῆς Κρήτης 1972,” ArchDelt 28 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1977], pp. 585–596. ———. 1971. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Δυτ. Κρήτης 1970: Ἀνασκαφὴ εἰς Στύλον Ἀποκορώνου,” ArchDelt 26 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1975], pp. 517–519. ———. 1973. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Δυτ. Κρήτης 1972: Βρύσινας Ρεθύμνης, Στύλος Ἀποκορώνου,” ArchDelt 28 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1977], pp. 583–584. ———. 1971. “Νέαι ἔρευναι εἰς τὴν ἐλλειψοειδῆ οἰκίαν Χαμαιζίου,” in Πεπραγμένα τοῦ Γ′ Διεθνοῦς Κρητολογικοῦ Συνεδρίου A′, Athens, pp. 46–53. ———. 1971. “Περισυλλογὴ ἀρχαίων Ἀνατολικῆς Κρήτης,” Prakt 126 [1973], pp. 301–303. ———. 1971. “Πρωτομινωικὸν νεκροταφεῖον Ἁγίας Φωτιᾶς Σητείας,” AAA 4, pp. 392– 397. Davaras, C., and P.P. Betancourt. 1971–1994. “Diktaion,” in Enciclopedia dell’ arte antica, classica e orientale, Suppl. II, Rome, pp. 382–383. ———. 1973. “Cremations in Minoan and Sub-Minoan Crete,” in Antichità cretesi: Studi in onore di Doro Levi 1 (Cronache di archeologia 12), G.P. Carratelli and G. Rizza, eds., Catania, pp. 158–167. ———. 1973. “Κεραμεικὴ κάμινος εἰς Ἴστρωνα Ἀνατολικῆς Κρήτης,” ArchDelt 28 (A΄, Meletes) [1975], pp. 110–115. ———. 1973. “Μινωικὴ κεραμεικὴ κάμινος εἰς Στῦλον Χανίων,” ArchEph 112, pp. 75–80. ———. 1973. “Μινωικαὶ σφραγῖδες τοῦ Μουσείου Ἁγ. Νικολάου,” ArchEph 112, pp. 81–86. ———. 1971–1994. “Hagios Nikolaos,” in Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale, Suppl. II, Rome, pp. 17–18. ———. 1973. “A New Hieroglyphic Seal from Mochlos,” Kadmos 12, pp. 109–113. ———. 1971–1994. “Hagia Photia,” in Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale, Suppl. II, Rome, pp. 11–12. ———. 1973–1974. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Ἀνατολικῆς Κρήτης 1974,” ArchDelt 29 (B΄, Chronika) [1977], pp. 931–934. ———. 1971–1994. “Lato,” in Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale, Suppl. II, Rome, pp. 297–299. ———. 1974. “Ἀρχαιότητες καί μνημεῖα Ἀνατολικής Κρήτης,” Ἀμάλθεια 18–19, pp. 40–62. ———. 1971–1994. “Makrygialos,” in Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale, Suppl. II, Rome, pp. 518–519. ———. 1971–1994. “Olunte,” in Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale, Suppl. II, Rome, pp. 73–75. ———. 1971–1994. “Palekastro,” in Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale, Suppl. II, Rome, pp. 208–210. ———. 1971–1994. “Pseira,” in Enciclopedia dell’arte antica, classica e orientale, Suppl. II, Rome, pp. 668–670. Davaras, C. 1972. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Ἀνατολικῆς Κρήτης 1971,” ArchDelt 27 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1977], pp. 645–654. ———. 1972. “The Oval House at Chamaizi Reconsidered,” AAA 5, pp. 283–288. ———. 1974. “Ἀνασκαφὴ ΜΜ ἱεροῦ κορυφῆς Βρύσινα Ρεθύμνης,” AAA 7, pp. 210–212. ———. 1974. “Rock-Cut Fish Tanks in Eastern Crete,” BSA 69, pp. 87–93. ———. 1974. Σούνιον: Ἀρχαιολογικός Ὁδηγός, Athens. ———. 1975. “Early Minoan Jewelry from Mochlos,” BSA 70, pp. 101–114. ———. 1975. “Λαξευτὴ ἰχθυοδεξαμενὴ στὰ Φέρμα Ἱεραπέτρας,” ArchDelt 30 (A΄, Meletes), pp. 149–154. ———. 1975. “Three Sherds Inscribed in Linear A, from Traostalos,” Kadmos 13, pp. 167. ———. 1976. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Ἀνατολικῆς Κρήτης 1975,” ArchDelt 31 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1984], pp. 373–383. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF COSTIS DAVARAS ———. 1976. Guide to Cretan Antiquities, Park Ridge, NJ. ———. 1976. “Σύνθετα ἱερὰ κέρατα ἀπὸ τὸ ἱερὸ κορυφῆς τοῦ Πετσοφᾶ,” in Πεπραγμένα τοῦ Δ΄ Διεθνοῦς Κρητολογικοῦ Συνεδρίου Α′ (1), Athens, pp. 88–93. Davaras, C., and W. Brice. 1977. “A Fragment of a Libation Table Inscribed in Linear A, from Vrysinas,” Kadmos 16, pp. 5–6. xxvii ———. 1980. “Χρονικὸ ΚΔ′ Ἐφορείας Ἀρχαιοτήτων,” ArchDelt 35 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1988], pp. 518–523, 525–526. ———. 1981. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Ἀνατολικῆς Κρήτης 1981,” ArchDelt 36 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1989], pp. 405–406. ———. 1981. “Ἀρχιτεκτονικὰ στοιχεῖα τῆς ΥΜ ΙΒ ἔπαυλης τοῦ Μακρυγιαλοῦ,” in Πεπραγμένα τοῦ Ε΄ Διεθνοῦς Κρητολογικοῦ Συνεδρίου A′, Herakleion, pp. 77–92. Davaras, C. 1977. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Ἀνατολικῆς Κρήτης 1976,” ArchDelt 32 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1984], pp. 334–340. ———. 1981. Μουσεῖον Ἁγίου Νικολάου: Ἀρχαιολογικός ὁδηγός, Athens. ———. 1977. “Μινωικὸς ἐγχάρακτος ἀγωγὸς ἀπὸ τὸ Παλαίκαστρο,” ArchDelt 32 (A΄, Meletes), pp. 65–69. ———. 1981. “Ὁ χρυσὸς στὴν προανακτορικὴ Κρήτη,” Ἀρχαιολογία 1, pp. 11–16. ———. 1977. “Περισυλλογὴ ἀρχαίων Ἀνατολικῆς Κρήτης,” Prakt 132 [1980], pp. 491–496. ———. 1983. “Χρονικὸ ΚΔ΄ Ἐφορείας Ἀρχαιοτήτων,” ArchDelt 38 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1989], pp. 375–376. ———. 1977. “Χάλκινοι μινωικοὶ λάτρεις τῆς Συλλογῆς Μεταξᾶ,” ArchEph 116 [1979], pp. 109–127. Davaras, C., and O. Masson. 1983. “Cretica: Amnisos et ses inscriptions,” BCH 107, pp. 383–403. ———. 1978. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Ανατολικῆς Κρήτης 1977,” ArchDelt 33 (B΄, 2 Chronika) [1985], pp. 385–395. ———. 1979. “Ἀρχαιότητες καὶ μνημεῖα Ἀνατ. Κρήτης 1979,” ArchDelt 34 (B΄, Chronika) [1987], pp. 402– 406, 410. ———. 1979. “A Double Axe – Design (?) from Vrokastro,” ArchEph 118 [1981], pp. 114–117. ———. 1979. “Das Grab eines kretischen Wettkampfsiegers?” Stadion 5, pp. 193–219. ———. 1979. Μινωικὴ τέχνη στὸ Μουσεῖον Ἡρακλείου: Ἀρχαιολογικὸς ὁδηγός, Athens. ———. 1979. Φαιστός—Ἁγία Τριάδα—Γόρτυς: Ἀρχαιολογικός Ὁδηγός, Athens. ———. 1980. Κνωσός: Ἀρχαιολογικὸς ὁδηγός, Athens. ———. 1980. “Κρητικὲς ἐπιγραφὲς III,” ArchEph 119 [1982], pp. 1–42. ———. 1980. “A Minoan Graffito from Traostalos,” Kadmos 19, pp. 87–92. ———. 1980. “A Minoan Pottery Kiln at Palaikastro,” BSA 75, pp. 115–126. Davaras, C. 1984. “Μινωικὸ κηριοφόρο πλοιάριο τῆς Συλλογῆς Μητσοτάκη,” ArchEph 123 [1986], pp. 55–95. ———. 1984. “Une tombe à voûte en Crète orientale,” in Aux origines de l’Hellénisme: La Crète et la Grèce. Hommage à Henri van Effenterre, Paris, pp. 297–310. ———. 1985. “Ρωμαϊκὸ νεκροταφεῖο Ἁγίου Νικολάου,” ArchEph 124 [1987], pp. 130–216. ———. 1985. “Une tombe à voûte en Crète orientale (note complémentaire),” BCH 109, pp. 625–628. ———. 1986. “A New Interpretation of the Ideogram *168,” Kadmos 25, pp. 38–43. Betancourt, P.P., and C. Davaras. 1986. “Ἀνασκαφικὴ ἔρευνα Ψείρας: Περίοδοι 1985 καί 1986,” Ἀμάλθεια 68–69, pp. 183–200. Davaras, C. 1986. “Ἕνα παλαιοανακτορικὸ πρῖσμα ἀπὸ τὸ σπήλαιο Γεροντομουρί Λασιθίου,” Cretan Studies 1, pp. 49–55. ———. 1988. “A Minoan Beetle-Rhyton from Prinias Siteias,” BSA 83, pp. 45–54. ———. 1988. “Mykene und Kreta,” in Das Mykenische Hellas: Heimat der Helden Homers, K. Demakopoulou, ed., Athens, pp. 58–59. ———. 1980. “Περισυλλογὴ ἀρχαιοτήτων στὴν Πραισό,” Prakt 135 [1982], pp. 408–411. ———. 1988. “Πρώιμες μινωικὲς σφραγίδες και σφραγιστικοὶ δακτύλιοι ἀπὸ τὸ σπήλαιο Γεροντομούρι Λασιθίου,” ArchEph 125 [1990], pp. 9–43. ———. 1980. “Une ancre minoenne sacrée?” BCH 104, pp. 47–71. Betancourt, P.P., and C. Davaras. 1988. “Excavations at Pseira,” Cretan Studies 1, pp. 35–38. xxviii PHILISTOR: STUDIES IN HONOR OF COSTIS DAVARAS ———. 1988. “Excavations at Pseira, 1985 and 1986,” Hesperia 57, pp. 207–225. Davaras, C. 1989. “Μινωικὰ μελισσουργικὰ σκεύη,” in Φίλια ἔπη εἰς Γεώργιον Ἐ. Μυλωνᾶν διὰ τὰ 60 ἔτη τοῦ ἀνασκαφικοῦ του ἔργου Γ′ (Βιβλιοθήκη τῆς ἐν Ἀθήναις Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Ἑταιρείας 103), Athens, pp. 1–7. Davaras, C., and J. Soles. 1994. “Ἕνας νέος ἀνατολικὸς σφραγιδοκύλινδρος ἀπὸ τὸν Μόχλο,” Cretan Studies 4, pp. 71–76. Soles, J.S., and C. Davaras. 1994. “Excavations at Mochlos, 1990–1991,” Hesperia 63, pp. 391–436. ———. 1989. “Νέαρχος ὁ Λάτιος,” Ἀμάλθεια 80–81, pp. 233–240. Betancourt, P.P., and C. Davaras. 1995. “Recent Excavations at Pseira, Crete,” in Πεπραγμένα τοῦ Ζ΄ Διεθνοῦς Κρητολογικοῦ Συνεδρίου Α′ (1), Rethymnon, pp. 81–86. Betancourt, P.P., and C. Davaras. 1990. “Ἀρχαιολογικὲς ἔρευνες στὴν Ψείρα: Περίοδοι 1987–1989,” Ἀμάλθεια 82–85, pp. 20–37. Betancourt, P.P, and C. Davaras, eds. 1995. Pseira I: The Minoan Buildings on the West Side of Area A (University Museum Monograph 90), Philadelphia. Soles, J., and C. Davaras. 1990. “Theran Ash in Minoan Crete: New Excavations on Mochlos,” in Thera and Aegean World III. 3: Chronology, D.A. Hardy and C. Renfrew, eds., London, pp. 89–95. Davaras, C., and J.S. Soles. 1995. “A New Oriental Cylinder Seal from Mochlos. Appendix: Catalogue of the Cylinder Seals Found in the Aegean,” ArchEph 134 [1997], pp. 29–66. Davaras, C. 1991. “The Wace and Blegen Conference in Athens, 1989,” Kadmos 30, pp. 81–82. ———. 1996. “Excavations at Mochlos, 1992–1993,” Hesperia 65, pp. 175–230. Betancourt, P.P., and C. Davaras. 1991–1993. “Ψείρα 1989,” Κρητική Εστία 4, pp. 304–305. Soles, J.S., and C. Davaras. 1995. “Some Stratigraphic Observations at Mochlos,” in Πεπραγμένα τοῦ Ζ΄ Διεθνοῦς Κρητολογικοῦ Συνεδρίου Α′ (2), Rethymnon, pp. 881–886. Davaras, C. 1992. “Ajios Nikolaos: Archäologisches Museum,” in Kleinere griechische Sammlungen: Ägina–Korinth (CMS V, Suppl. 1A), I. Pini, ed., Berlin, pp. 29–71. ———. 1992. “Chamaizi,” in The Aerial Atlas of Ancient Crete, J.W. Myers, E.E. Myers, and G. Cadogan, eds., Berkeley, pp. 78–81. ———. 1992. “Makrygialos,” in The Aerial Atlas of Ancient Crete, J.W. Myers, E.E. Myers, and G. Cadogan, eds., Berkeley, pp. 172–174. Davaras, C. 1997. “The Cult Villa at Makrygialos,” in The Function of the “Minoan Villa.” Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium at the Swedish Institute at Athens, 6–8 June 1992 (SkrAth 4°, 46 ), R. Hägg, ed., Stockholm, pp. 117–135. Betancourt, P.P., and C. Davaras. 1998. “Lithic Materials,” in Pseira III: The Plateia Building (University Museum Monograph 102), by C.R. Floyd, with P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds., Philadelphia, pp. 153–162. ———. 1992. “Minoan Civilization,” “The Clay Boat,” “Bronze Figurines,” “Bronze Double Axes,” and “Gold Double Axes,” in Minoan and Greek Civilization from the Mitsotakis Collection, L. Marangou, ed., Athens, pp. 31–38, 107–108, 243–257, 262–266, 267–268. Betancourt, P.P., and C. Davaras, eds. 1998. Pseira II: Building AC (the “Shrine”) and Other Buildings in Area A (University Museum Monograph 94), Philadelphia. ———. 1992. “The Seventh International Conference for Cretan Studies, Rethymnon 1991,” Kadmos 31, pp. 164–170. ———, eds. 1998. Pseira III: The Plateia Building (University Museum Monograph 102), C.R. Floyd, Philadelphia. Davaras, C., P.P. Betancourt, and W.R. Farrand. 1992. “Pseira,” in The Aerial Atlas of Ancient Crete, J.W. Myers, E.E. Myers, and G. Cadogan, eds., Berkeley, pp. 262–267. ———, eds. 1999. Pseira IV: Minoan Buildings in Area B, C, D, and F (University Museum Monograph 105), Philadelphia. Davaras, C., and J.S. Soles. 1992. “Ἀνασκαφές στόν Μόχλο Σητέιας: Περίοδος 1989,” Ἀμάλθεια 90–93, pp. 37–43. Soles, J.S., and C. Davaras. 1992. “Excavations at Mochlos, 1989,” Hesperia 61, pp. 413–445. ———. 1993. “Ἀνασκαφὲς στὸν Μόχλο Σητείας: Περίοδος 1990–91,” Ἀμάλθεια 94–97, pp. 45–65. Davaras, C. 1999. “Comments on the Plateia (Area BR),” in Pseira IV: Minoan Buildings in Area B, C, D, and F (University Museum Monograph 105), P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds., Philadelphia, pp. 167–169. ———. 2000. “Ἀρχαιότητα,” in Ο Άγιος Νικόλαος και η περιοχή του, Herakleion, pp. 11–45. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF COSTIS DAVARAS ———. 2001. “Comments on the Plateia Building,” in Pseira V: The Architecture of Pseira (University Museum Monograph 109), J.C. McEnroe, with P.P. Betancourt and C. Davaras, eds., Philadelphia, pp. 79–86. Betancourt, P.P., and C. Davaras, eds. 2001. Pseira V: The Architecture of Pseira (University Museum Monograph 109), J.C. McEnroe, Philadelphia, ———, eds. 2003. Pseira VI: The Pseira Cemetery. 1: The Surface Survey (Prehistory Monographs 5), Philadelphia. ———, eds. 2003. Pseira VII: The Pseira Cemetery. 2: Excavation of the Tombs (Prehistory Monographs 6), Philadelphia. Soles, J.S., and C. Davaras, eds. 2003. Mochlos IA: Period III. Neopalatial Settlement on the Coast: The Artisans’ Quarter and the Farmhouse at Chalinomouri. The Sites (Prehistory Monographs 7), J.S. Soles, Philadelphia. ———, eds. 2003. Mochlos IB: Period III. Neopalatial Settlement on the Coast: The Artisans’ Quarter and the Farmhouse at Chalinomouri. The Neopalatial Pottery (Prehistory Monographs 8), K.A. Barnard and T.M. Brogan, Philadelphia. Davaras, C. 2003. Führer zu den Altertümern Kretas, Athens. ———. 2003. Parallels and Affinities between Crete and India in the Bronze Age: Some Speculations (Cretan Studies Suppl. 1), Amsterdam. Davaras, C., and E. Banou. 2003. “A Post-palatial Tomb at Kalochoraphitis, Messara,” Cretan Studies 8, pp. 41–78. Betancourt, P.P., C. Davaras, and R. Hope Simpson, eds. 2004. Pseira VIII: The Archaeological Survey of Pseira Island. Part 1 (Prehistory Monographs 11), Philadelphia. Davaras, C. 2004. “The Mochlos Ship Cup,” in Mochlos IC: Period III. Neopalatial Settlement on the Coast: The Artisans’ Quarter and the Farmhouse at Chalinomouri. The Small Finds (Prehistory Monographs 9), J.S. Soles and C. Davaras, eds., Philadelphia, pp. 3–16. xxix Davaras, C., and P.P. Betancourt. 2004. The Hagia Photia Cemetery I: The Tomb Groups and Architecture (Prehistory Monographs 14), Philadelphia. Soles, J.S., and C. Davaras, eds. 2004. Mochlos IC: Period III. Neopalatial Settlement on the Coast: The Artisans’ Quarter and the Farmhouse at Chalinomouri. The Small Finds (Prehistory Monographs 9), J.S. Soles, C. Davaras, J. Bending, T. Carter, D. Kondopoulou, D. Mylona, M. Ntinou, A.M. Nicgorski, D.S. Reese, A. Sarpaki, W.H. Schoch, M.E. Soles, V. Spatharas, Z.A. Stos-Gale, D.H. Tarling, and C. Witmore, Philadelphia. Betancourt, P.P., C. Davaras, and R. Hope Simpson, eds. 2005. Pseira IX: The Archaeological Survey of Pseira Island. Part 2: The Intensive Surface Survey (Prehistory Monographs 12), Philadelphia. Soles, J.S., and C. Davaras, eds. 2008. Mochlos IIA: Period IV. The Mycenean Settlement and Cemetary. The Sites (Prehistory Monographs 23), J.S. Soles, Philadelphia. Betancourt, P.P., and C. Davaras, eds. 2009. Pseira X: The Excavation of Block AF (Prehistory Monographs 28), Philadelphia. Davaras, C. 2010. “One Minoan Peak Sanctuary Less: The Case of Thylakas 71,” in Cretan Offerings: Studies in Honour of Peter Warren (BSA Studies 18), O. Krzyszkowska, ed., London, pp. 71–88. Soles, J.S., and C. Davaras, eds. 2010. Mochlos IIB: Period IV. The Mycenaean Settlement and Cemetery. The Pottery (Prehistory Monographs 27), R.A.K. Smith, Philadelphia. Kanta, A., and C. Davaras. 2011. ΕλΟυθιΑ ΧΑριΣΤηιΟΝ: Το ιερό σπήλαιο της Ειλειθυίας στον Τσούτσουρο, Heraklion. Soles, J.S., and C. Davaras, eds. 2011. Mochlos IIC: Period IV. The Mycenaean Settlement and Cemetery. The Human Remains and Other Finds (Prehistory Monographs 32), J.S. Soles, J. Bending, T.M. Brogan, K. Caldwell, T. Carter, A. Giumlia-Mair, K. Kopaka, D. Mylona, A. Nicgorski, M. Ntinou, D.S. Reese, G. Rethemiotakis, R.A.K. Smith, S.L. Smith, M.E. Soles, S. Triantaphyllou, and P. Westlake, Philadelphia. List of Abbreviations ASCSA American School of Classical Studies at Athens km kilometer L. length LBA Late Bronze Age LC Late Cycladic or Late Cypriot LH Late Helladic LM Late Minoan cm centimeter dia. diameter dim. dimension EBA Early Bronze Age EM Early Minoan LN Late Neolithic EN Early Neolithic m asl meters above sea level FAF folded-arm figurine m meter gr gram h. height HM Herakleion Archaeological Museum HNM Hagios Nikolaos Archaeological Museum HTR Hagia Triada kg kilogram MACFA macroscopic ceramic fabric analysis max. maximum MHS Minoan Hall System MM Middle Minoan MN Middle Neolithic xxxii PHILISTOR: STUDIES IN HONOR OF COSTIS DAVARAS MNI minimum number of individuals th. thickness pers. comm. personal communication w. width pers. obs. personal observation wt. weight pres. preserved XRF X-ray fluorescence RM Archaeological Museum of Rethymnon C H A P T E R 16 East Cretan Peak Sanctuaries Revisited Krzysztof Nowicki Introduction Costis Davaras’s rescue excavations at East Cretan peak sanctuaries (Davaras 1964, 1971a, 1971b, 1972) took place in the 1960s and early 1970s during a time when illegal digging had reached a dangerous point. Almost every known site of this type (except Petsophas) was already destroyed or was severely threatened, and few had ever been properly documented. These excavations were partly connected with Paul Faure’s field research in East Crete, which was in turn helpfully guided by Emmanouil Fygetakis (Faure 1963; 1965; 1967; Davaras 1964, 442; 1972, 652). The finds from Davaras’s excavations were secured and stored in museums, and they still await publication. The sites themselves were later visited by Bogdan Rutkowski and Alan Peatfield in the late 1970s and 1980s. Both scholars focused their research on the topographical characteristics of these sanctuaries and their role in Minoan religion. Thanks to Davaras’s hearty support and permissions, I was able to join Rutkowski’s project in 1983. In the years that followed, I worked on plans of cult places classified by Rutkowski under the general term “nature sanctuaries.” Our topographical work, occasionally (and helpfully) enriched by Fygetakis’s advice, continued through the 1980s and 1990s. The preliminary results of these studies were published in a series of papers (Rutkowski 1984; Rutkowski and Nowicki 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987), but the book scheduled by Rutkowski under the title “Nature Sanctuaries of Crete” was never completed. Rutkowski’s descriptions and interpretation of the sites were instead published in other books and papers (Rutkowski 1985, 1986, 19 88, 1991). Since this time, further observations on East Cretan peak sanctuaries have been made by Norbert Schlager (Schlager 1991–1992, 1995), a rescue excavation at Traostalos was undertaken by Stella Chryssoulaki 140 KRZYSZTOF NOWICKI (Chryssoulaki 2001), and some attempt was made in the use of GIS applications for the analysis of the location of peak sanctuaries (Soetens et al. 2003). For many years the sites on the Siteia peninsula constituted the major part of the peak sanctuary gazetteer. East Crete was sometimes highlighted as the region where peak sanctuaries originated, and its sites were commonly cited in descriptions of the phenomenon (Davaras 1976; Bintliff 1977). Now that the knowledge of the subject is more thorough, some of these earlier hypotheses can be challenged (Nowicki 2001, 2008). This challenge, however, must be based on firm knowledge of the archaeological evidence, and not, as has been attempted recently, on purely theoretical negation of the earlier research (Kyriakidis 2005; Briault 2007). Twenty-five years after my first experience with the peak sanctuaries in the Siteia region, I would like to present in this paper some observations and hypotheses concerning this group of sites. The ideas presented below were developed long after the trips I carried out with Rutkowski, but their roots go back to those days. It is a special pleasure to dedicate this paper to Costis Davaras, the scholar who allowed these investigations to happen. The Identification of the East Siteia Sites The East Siteian group of peak sanctuaries is the most thoroughly studied of all clusters of similar sites in Crete. Petsophas, located above and to the southeast of Palaikastro, was the first Cretan sanctuary that was properly excavated and substantially published (Myres 1902–1903). The gazetteer of the East Siteian sites—usually consisting of 11 to 12 locations—had been carefully verified by the 1980s (Peatfield 1983, 1987, 1990; Rutkowski 1986, 1988), and since then it has commonly been considered trustworthy; only a few later additions and alterations have been made (Schlager 1995; Nowicki 2008). However, although most of these sites have been confirmed as cult places, a few are still debatable. There are also a number of topographically related problems, including the sanctuaries’ place in the settlement pattern and the reconstruction of the ritual areas, which call for new analysis. Here, therefore, I would like to update the database on the East Siteian peak sanctuaries (Fig. 16.1) and briefly discuss some of the debatable issues. The sites are presented below in several groups according to the reliability of their identification. In the first group of sites on Figure 16.1 are: (1) Petsophas (255 m asl), (2) Traostalos (515 m asl), (3) Modi (539 m asl), (4) Kalamaki Kephala (183 m asl), (5) Prinias (777 m asl), (6) Zakros Vigla (712 m asl), (7) Katelionas Xykephalo (756 m asl), (8) Sphaka Korakomouri (189 m asl; for identification, see Schlager 1995), and (9) Xerokampos Vigla (187 m asl; for identification, see Nowicki 2008, 13–17). The exact locations of all these sites have been confirmed, and the excavated finds, as well as the evidence still visible on the surface, leave no doubt regarding their cult function. The evidence includes finds essential for any peak sanctuary identification: concentrations of pebbles, pottery of fine and coarse type (with cups always in the majority), and clay figurines (human and animal). These sanctuaries are all situated on mountain/hill summits that dominate the regions around them, and are well visible from the closest inhabited areas (Middle Minoan [MM] settlements or houses). The sites on hills close to the coast or in the lower valleys are within the altitude range of approximately 180 to 255 m asl, and those above the higher plateaus are within the altitude of approximately 500 to 800 m asl. The second group on Figure 16.1 includes: (10) Ziros Plagia (817 m asl), and (11) Korphi tou Mare (786 m asl). These sites were reported to have yielded clay figurines and pottery, which, together with their location on the summits of mountains, might indicate a cult function (Alexiou 1963a, 313; 1963b, 391; Faure 1965, 28). The finds were revealed during the bulldozing of the areas for military installations, and no proper archaeological investigations were undertaken in time to rescue the remains. Faure’s version of the finds from Plagia (which he reported to include clay and bronze figurines, other bronze objects, including a double axe, and stone constructions) was probably entirely based on data from local informants and could not be verified by later investigations. Moreover, there is a strong impression that, as it often is in such EAST CRETAN PEAK SANCTUARIES REVISITED 141 Figure 16.1. Peak sanctuaries in the Siteia region in East Crete: (1) Petsophas, (2) Traostalos, (3) Modi, (4) Kalamaki Kephala, (5) Prinias, (6) Zakros Vigla, (7) Katelionas Xykephalo, (8) Sphaka Korakomouri, (9) Xerokampos Vigla, (10) Ziros Plagia, (11) Korphi tou Mare, (12) Ambelos(?), (13) Etiani Kephala(?), (14) Ziros Rizoviglo, (15) Phaneromeni Trachilos. 142 KRZYSZTOF NOWICKI cases, the local accounts may not have been very accurate. This conclusion seems to be further supported by the later confusion concerning the way in which some objects from Plagia were handed over to the museum of Hagios Nikolaos (see Davaras 1964, 442, and Faure’s correction in Faure 1969, 176 n. 5). According to Davaras, the site of Plagia was completely destroyed, and only a few sherds and fragments of figurines were unearthed by the rescue investigations (Davaras 1964, 442). The case of Korphi tou Mare is even worse since the finds reported were from the German construction of a military installation during World War II. To sum up, it is most probable that there were MM peak sanctuaries on the summits of Plagia and Korphi tou Mare. Plagia may have been the main cult place for the inhabitants of the well-populated Ziros basin, whereas Korphi tou Mare probably served the inhabitants of the large struct ure (a farmstead or guardhouse?) at Kouphotos. It is now, however, impossible to learn more about their sizes, layouts, and full range of dating. The third group on Figure 16.1 includes two sites: (12) Ambelos (also listed as Trachilos and Kephala: Schlager 1991–1992; 1995, 22), and (13) Etiani Kephala. Votive objects (clay figurines) were collected at these sites by local people from the surface and during rescue excavations (Ambelos: Davaras 1971a, 264; 1971b, 302; 1972, 651; Etiani Kephala: Platon 1959, 391; Faure 1965, 29; 1967, 121; Davaras 1971a, 265; 1971b, 302; 1972, 652). The locations of the sites, given in very brief reports, were not precisely described and serious problems were encountered when Rutkowski tried to rediscover them. Neither the antiquities guards from Zakros (in the case of Ambelos), nor Fygetakis (in the case of Etiani Kephala) could be very helpful. Their cautious suggestions were unfortunately taken too much for granted, and Rutkowski pointed to the hill of “Kephala”(?) (49 m asl; for the discussion on this toponym, see Schlager 1991–1992) on the Trachilos peninsula (Fig. 16.2:A) and the area around the datum point (715 m asl) on the vast summit of Etiani Kephala (Fig. 16.3:A) as the sanctuaries’ locations (Rutkowski and Nowicki 1984, 180; Rutkowski 1988, 78). Sketch plans of these “sites” were drawn and published (Rutkowski 1988, pls. IXa, X). However, no surface material truly characteristic of Cretan peak sanctuaries was recorded during our early visits in the 1980s. The later topographical studies of the sites have led me to conclude that the places presented as the peak sanctuaries of Ambelos and Etiani Kephala (in Rutkowski and Nowicki 1984; Rutkowski 1988) were wrongly identified. The Trachilos peninsula, immediately southwest of the Hellenistic town of Ambelos, has sparse scatters of Bronze Age (and later) sherds, but not one of the places where these sherds were recorded was identifiable as a sanctuary. There was also no secure confirmation that the area drawn by us was indeed from where the figurines mentioned by Davaras had come. The low altitude of the peninsula was identified by Schlager as another problem for a positive identification of a peak sanctuary (Schlager 1991–1992, 10–11). This argument, however, is now meaningless in the light of the discovery of the site on the Phaneromeni Trachilos peninsula, which has all the characteristics of a peak sanctuary (see below; Nowicki 2001, 36). In conclusion, the exact location of the cult place known under the name of “Ambelos,” as reported by Davaras (Davaras 1971b, 302), remains unknown, and, thus, the southern part of the Xerokampos coastal plain, with the MM settlements at Mourakia (Schlager 1995, 23) and Amatou Kastellakia, still lacks its local peak sanctuary. The sanctuary on the summit of Vigla (Fig. 16.1:9), above and to the north of Xerokampos, must have served only the northeastern part of the Xerokampos plain—mainly the settlement at Katsounaki (Nowicki 2008, 15–16). The second questionable identification, that of Etiani Kephala, is of a similar nature. The vast plateau-like summit of Kephala, south of the Chandras-Armeni polje, does not have any dominant elevation (Fig. 16.3). The sketch drawn by Rutkowski and the author (Rutkowski 1988, pl. X) represents the area around the datum point next to the OTE telecommunications installation. Only a few sherds were recorded here, of which two or three were of MM date. No characteristic cups, clay figurine fragments, or pebbles—usually associated with this type of cult place—were seen. Small clusters of Early Minoan (EM), MM, and Late Minoan (LM) p ottery appear at several spots on the Kephala massif, but no one of these presents other items and characteristics required for the identification of a peak sanctuary. The area around the datum point is flat and not visible from two nearby valleys, which might be expected as those from where the pilgrims came: the Chondros-Armeni polje and the Pano EAST CRETAN PEAK SANCTUARIES REVISITED 143 A Figure 16.2. Cape Trachilos and Ambelos with Kephala (A) seen from the northwest. A B Figure 16.3. Etiani Kephala (A) and the hill above Etia (B) from the north. Pervolakia valley. The settlement pattern in the first area is only vaguely known, but any peak sanctuary serving its inhabitants should be located along the northern edge of the Kephala rather than at its highest point. The second area, Pano Pervolakia, was occupied by an extensive Bronze Age settlement immediately north of the village, but Etiani Kephala does not have any dominant appearance when seen from this direction. Rutkowski’s attempt to rediscover the peak sanctuary of Etia on Kephala 144 KRZYSZTOF NOWICKI seems to have been based on a misinterpretation of the first, confusing set of information about the site’s location (Platon 1959, 391; Faure 1967, 121). In this, Platon and Faure did not point to the main Kephala massif, but, respectively, to “a hill in the vicinity of Etia Siteias” and “an isolated hill to the north of Kephala, about 500 m south of Etia, and closer to the western edge of the plain” (see also Peatfield 1983, 275; Schlager 1995, 19). No particular toponym was used, but the name “Kephala” seems to have been since linked to the site as it is the only well-known nearby topographical landmark (Davaras 1972, 652). The confusion continued further when Faure illustrated the site with a photograph of the main massif of Kephala where the lower hill in question was not visible on the photo (Faure 1967, 120, fig. 3). The information that the hill is about 100 m lower is not very helpful, but it supports the argument that the main massif of Kephala is not the peak sanctuary location. The closest location to the above description seems to be a hill somewhat separated from the Kephala massif and lower than it, located immediately to the northwest (Figs. 16.3:B, 16.4:B). This hill has been partly destroyed by the construction of a cistern, and at present nothing indicates that any Bronze Age cult place was located here. Early Minoan and MM sherds, however, are occasionally visible here, just as they are on most of the hills located west of the Chandras-Armeni plateau. To sum up, the cult place in the vicinity of Etia, mentioned by Platon and Faure, but never properly archaeologically investigated, still awaits correct identification. The last group consists of one site only, Ziros Rizoviglo (Fig. 16.1:14), but it is possible that more similar sites have been missed in the East Siteia region because of their small sizes (like Korakomouri, ca. 25–35 m2). Rizoviglo has not been claimed before as a peak sanctuary, but it was certainly known to αρχαιοκάπηλοι (archaiokapiloi, or looters) who destroyed it in a similar way as at the “Lamnoni 23” site (Branigan 1998, 57). A small pit rather than a trench (ca. 2–3 m in diameter) was dug in the southern part of the ridge, which was also occupied by an important Final Neolithic (FN)–EM I settlement. A number of MM sherds (including cup fragments) and many pebbles, together with FN pottery, can be seen on the surface around the pit. The ridge is a dominant landmark on the route between the Ziros and Apidi valleys. The distribution of the MM sherds and pebbles close to the ridge’s southern edge suggests that the ritual area D B C Figure 16.4. Chandras-Armeni Plateau from the south: (B) the hill above Etia, (C) Etia, (D) the peak sanctuary on Prinias. EAST CRETAN PEAK SANCTUARIES REVISITED overlooked the plain below, south of Rizoviglo, where a MM settlement or house related to this cult place was located. The fact that Rizoviglo is situated close to the higher peak sanctuary on Ziros Plagia, which dominated partly the same region, does not speak against Rizoviglo’s interpretation. 145 The small local peak sanctuary on Korakomouri, immediately above the “fort” or house at Kokkino Froudi, held a similar position in relation to the higher site of Zakros Vigla, which obviously served a much larger region. Northern Group of the East Siteia Peak Sanctuaries This group consists of four sites: Petsophas, Modi, Kalamaki Kephala, and Prinias (Fig 16.1:1, 3, 4, 5). Petsophas and Kalamaki are coastal hills that rise only about 200 m asl but dominate the neighboring plains. Petsophas was the most important peak sanctuary in the Siteia region, and this fact was certainly related to the significance of the town of Palaikastro in the MM settlement pattern in this part of the island. The substantial stone construction on the summit of Petsophas followed to some degree the general scheme of the sanctuary of Juktas, and it may represent a similar evolution from a modest MM I structure to more elaborated MM II and then MM III/LM I(?) buildings (Rutkowski 1988, 85). The peak sanctuary on Petsophas may have been the first of this type “imported” to the Siteia region from Central Crete (following the idea represented by the Knossos-Juktas pair) at the time of the considerable changes to the local settlement pattern after the EM II destruction horizon, in the EM III or MM I period (Nowicki 1994, 46). The sanctuary on the summit of Kalamaki Kephala is much smaller, and it was probably linked to a small settlement or a hamlet situated on the top of a low hillock in the plain immediately east of Kephala, ca. 500 m away (Fig. 16.5). The site was investigated by Davaras (Davaras 1972, 651) and a sketch plan was later published by Rutkowski (Rutkowski 1988, pl. XIVa). Both scholars pointed to the southern part of the summit as the place for a MM sanctuary, whereas the northern part was occupied by a Roman building. The latter is at present badly preserved, but there is no doubt that the structure was not a part of the Minoan cult place. A few sherds that were recorded on our visits dated to the FN, MM I, and Roman periods. The more detailed plan of the site, presented here (Fig. 16.6), shows the position of the main ritual area, usually marked by a concentration of pebbles (Fig. 16.6:A), in a better way than the first sketch made by Rutkowski. Davaras’s excavation must have cleaned much of the area, but the present distribution of sherds, figurine fragments, and pebbles leaves no doubt that the cult activity was focused on a small flat terrace immediately east of the rocky outcrop that marks the very peak of the hill (Terrace I). From here one enjoys an excellent view (360º around), and the settlement from where the worshippers probably came is visible to the east. The other peak sanctuaries of the northern group are also clearly visible (Petsophas at 142º, Modi at 190º, and Prinias at 216º). The area where clay vessels and figurines were deposited was rather small and did not exceed the highest two terraces, altogether about 20 x 10–15 m (Fig. 16.6: Terraces I and II). Some clusters of pottery can be seen at a greater distance (between a few tens and a hundred meters from the summit to the south, east, and northeast), but their relations to the ritual activity at the sanctuary must be open to further investigations. An interesting new observation made on the surface of the Kalamaki peak sanctuary is a number of round disks of local schist, which must represent the same phenomenon as recorded by Chryssoulaki during her rescue excavation on Traostalos (Chryssoulaki 2001, 62). Schist disks were discovered there in contexts that indicated their use as simple “improvised offering tables”— a category of finds never before identified at peak sanctuaries. After revisiting some of the East Siteia sites, I was able to record similar schist disks also at Petsophas, Modi, and Prinias. This type of object, therefore, must have represented another type of crude votive offerings characteristic for the Siteia peak sanctuaries, but so far not recorded elsewhere. An alternative interpretation of these disks is that they were used as lids to protect offerings left in cups. 146 KRZYSZTOF NOWICKI A Figure 16.5. Kalamaki Kephala (A) from the north. Another East Siteian peak sanctuary worth revisiting is Prinias (also known under the names of Zou and Gallou to Skopeli). The site was excavated by Davaras, who pointed to the elaborate character of the votive offerings (including a variety of clay figurines) and an ash deposit, which may indicate that the cult activity continued through the MM III–LM I period (Davaras 1972, 651). The relative “richness” of Prinias was probably related to its unique location: it has a splendid, majestic appearance when the ridge is seen from a number of nearby habitation sites (including the palatial town of Petras) on the Siteia Plain (Figs. 16.7, 16.8). Rutkowski published a simple sketch of the site (Rutkowski 1988, fig. XXIa), adjusting it to Davaras’s description, but a more detailed plan presented here illustrates the ritual area in a more comprehensive way (Fig. 16.9). The focal point of the sanctuary—a concentration of pebbles (Fig. 16.9:A)—is located at the northern edge of the rocky terrace-like summit of the mountain (Terrace I). Davaras suggested a possible altar here, whereas Rutkowski pointed to a jutting rock, which, in his opinion, was “the most sacred” one (Rutkowski 1988, 87). The only confirmed altar at a Minoan peak sanctuary, however, is known from Juktas (Karetsou 1981, 138). That site, although it belongs to the same type, represents a completely different level in the cult-place hierarchy. The significance of rocky formations in Minoan cult, emphasized so strongly by Rutkowski, is not supported yet by archaeological evidence from the Cretan peak sanctuaries. Both elements (altars and rocks), however, are certainly important elements in Minoan iconography. The most important area of the Prinias peak sanctuary, as identified by Davaras and then Rutkowski, is nonetheless well marked by the pebble concentration, similar to that identified by excavation at Atsipades Korakias (Peatfield 1992, 68). It points to the north and northwest as the directions toward which the sanctuary was orientated. The northern terrace (Terrace I), with the pebble feature and densest concentration of figurines and pottery, is about 15 x 15 m in size. It is bounded on the north and west by cliffs, on the east by a steep and rocky slope, and on the south partly by a rocky spur. The amount of pottery and figurine fragments decreases immediately beyond the natural borders of this terrace. Only few sherds can be seen on the next, slightly lower terrace to the south (Terrace II, ca. 15 x 20 m), and almost nothing is found on the terrace immediately south EAST CRETAN PEAK SANCTUARIES REVISITED Figure 16.6. Plan of Kalamaki Kephala: (A) possible location of a “pebble feature”(?). 147 148 KRZYSZTOF NOWICKI A Figure 16.7. Peak sanctuary on Prinias (A) from the east. C B A Figure 16.8. Prinias, Terrace I from the south: (A) concentration of pebbles, (B) Petras, (C) Phaneromeni. of the former (Terrace III, ca. 12 x 15 m). Peatfield’s excavation at Atsipades Korakias has shown, however, that some clusters of votive offerings were deposited in more discrete places at some distance away from the “pebble feature” (Peatfield 1992, 68), and the same phenomenon was recorded at Petsophas (Rutkowski 1988, 86) and Traostalos (Chryssoulaki 2001, 60). The three above-described terraces (altogether ca. 700 m2, including many rocky outcrops) constitute an exclusive area from which ritual performances might be comfortably observed. The spectators standing beyond, to the south and east (on the north and west the ridge falls as a precipitous cliff), would certainly have the feeling of being in an inferior position. The total size of the place where ritual could be celebrated (Terrace I and possibly a part of Terrace II, ca. 300 m2) was, at Prinias, only somewhat larger than most of the small and local peak sanctuaries such as Atsipades Korakias, Kera Karphi, and Xykephalo, and it can be compared to “the inner area” of the Petsophas sanctuary. Thus, the size of these “local” peak sanctuaries was about a quarter (or less) of the total size of Petsophas’s ritual area. Additionally, no architectural remains were found on Prinias. The EAST CRETAN PEAK SANCTUARIES REVISITED Figure 16.9. Plan of Prinias: (A) concentration of pebbles. 149 150 KRZYSZTOF NOWICKI number of worshippers simultaneously taking part in the ceremony was restricted to several tens, probably well under a hundred (unless there were more spectators watching the ceremony from the saddle below, to the east). This must lead to the conclusion that this peak sanctuary, no matter how interesting, numerous, and artistically advanced the clay figurines were, never reached the stage achieved by “major” sanctuaries such as Juktas and Petsophas. The quality of figurines may have been due to the artistic abilities of manufacturers working at or for Petras, but the long distance and tiring access to the sanctuary prevented it from becoming “the town sanctuary” such as the one at Petsophas. A Border(?) Hilltop/Peak Sanctuary on Phaneromeni Trachilos (Siteia) The last site presented in this paper is a small cult place recently identified at Trachilos on the Phaneromeni promontory, east of the Papadiokampos coastal plain (west of Siteia; Figs. 16.1:15, 16.10, 16.11; Nowicki 2004, 94). The site is situated on the very edge of a rocky spur (ca. 40 m asl) about 100 m from the sea, on the western side of the peninsula. The rocky surface here is much eroded with only occasional pockets of thin soil. Many small and eroded fragments of sherds, pebbles, and a few fragments of clay figurines were recorded on the surface in area ca. 20 x 15 m (Fig. 16.12:Terrace I). The concentration of pebbles was the largest in two shallow hollows between rocks (Fig. 16.12:A, A1) and these may point to the presence of a “pebble feature”—one of the most characteristic elements of the Cretan peak sanctuaries. The spread of pottery continues, though less densely, farther to the south on the slightly lower terrace (Fig. 16.12:Terrace II). The majority of the pottery fragments derive from cups, although one comes from a small tripod pot, and a few sherds possibly come from jars. Coarse and fine fabrics were represented among the pottery; traces of black paint were seen on a fragment of a straight-sided cup. All the pottery must be dated within the MM I–II periods, with the second of these periods being better defined by shapes. The figurine fragments represent animal and human forms; one limb fragment (of a foot or leg) was also recorded. The distribution of finds indicates that the sanctuary was oriented to the west toward the sea and the Papadiokampos coast. There are no remains of a contemporary settlement or a house below Trachilos. The promontory was once inhabited during the FN period, but evidence of this early occupation can be seen several hundred meters to the south, on the neck of the promontory. There is no evidence that this FN site had any influence on the choice of the later cult place location. The choice of the Phaneromeni Trachilos Peninsula may suggest, however, that the sanctuary demarked an important border b etween the East Siteia territory and the West Siteia Mountains. The political division of these two regions is indicated further by the settlement patterns on both sides of a hypothetical line running from the Phaneromeni promontory to the south along the Siteia–Lithines corridor to Makrygialos Bay on the south coast of Crete. The positioning of a cult place of the peak sanctuary type on the Phaneromeni Trachilos Peninsula suggests that the entire Siteia Bay belonged to the Petras-controlled territory, whereas the West Siteia Mountain territory’s eastern border was pushed farther west toward the Orne Mountains and the Romanati Ridge. The visual connection between the Phaneromeni Trachilos sanctuary and Prinias (at 145º) and Modi (at 110º) allowed Phaneromeni to be “incorporated” in the network of the East Siteian peak sanctuaries. The cult place, however, was in an unusual topographical position in relation to the closest MM I–II settlements (identified ca. 1.5 km to the west, on the hills around the Hagios Ioannis chapel); it is not linked with these settlements in the same way as most of the other East Siteian peak sanctuaries were linked with the settlements and “forts” in their vicinity. The defensible locations of the Hagios Ioannis MM sites (one of which goes back to the EM I or even FN period) may suggest that the Papadiokampos Plain was an area longdisputed between different territories during the Pre- and Protopalatial periods. EAST CRETAN PEAK SANCTUARIES REVISITED 151 A B Figure 16.10. Phaneromeni Trachilos from the west: (A) peak sanctuary, (B) Papadiokampos. A Figure 16.11. Phaneromeni Trachilos from the south: (A) peak sanctuary. Concluding Remarks The peak sanctuary of Prinias, located on the mountain at a height of about 800 m asl, attracts the immediate attention of everyone who approaches the Siteia Plain from the west and north, and it can be seen as “a topographical model” of the cult places of this type. It followed the same pattern represented by Juktas in Central Crete and by Vrysinas in western Crete, as being the most characteristic landmark of 152 KRZYSZTOF NOWICKI Figure 16.12. Plan of the hilltop/peak sanctuary at Phaneromeni Trachilos: (A) a “pebble feature,” (A1) an alternative location of a “pebble feature.” EAST CRETAN PEAK SANCTUARIES REVISITED the entire region that is also recognizable far away from the sea. Minoan peak sanctuaries, however, were sometimes located on much lower mountains or hills with less spectacular appearances. Vance Watrous discussed this phenomenon and proposed to differentiate these “lower peak sanctuaries” in a separate group called “hilltop shrines” (Watrous 1995, 394). However, the site location within this group was still determined first and foremost by the topographical dominance over settlements (or other habitation places) from where the worshippers came. The (so far) unique location of the Phaneromeni Trachilos sanctuary may have been related to the special geographical position held by this site. It is suggested here that Trachilos Phaneromeni might demark the border between two territories (East Siteia and West Siteia) with different political organization and perhaps different cultural backgrounds. Camilla Briault has recently tried to neglect altogether the topographical factor in the foundation of peak sanctuaries by arguing that the set of items used in the ritual was exactly the same as that known from other non-peak sanctuary cult places (Briault 2007). The entire argument, however, is wrongly addressed since the character of religious ritual is not determined solely by the movable objects associated with this ritual. The objects used in the performance of cult and left as votive offerings can be the same or at least similar at different cult places representing the same religion. Nobody has ever claimed that peak sanctuaries represented a different belief system, but the location of these sites was a very important factor that indicates that some aspects of the Minoan cult were intentionally associated with high places that dominated the inhabited area. In the same way, in the present orthodox pattern of sanctuaries, the churches located on the hills and mountains are not much different from those in villages and towns, but 153 they are usually dedicated to Aphendis Christos, Timios Stavros, Stavromenos, and Prophitis Elias. The worshippers are aware of those dedications as were probably the Minoans when choosing the locations for their peak sanctuaries. It was not a “romantic” or “the environmental determinism” approach of earlier scholars (Briault 2007, 123), but a careful observation of the number of equally important types of archaeological evidence that led those scholars to the differentiation of this particular category of sanctuaries (see, for example, Peatfield 1992, 60). Ignoring the topographical elements of this evidence led Briault to the confusion between the Cretan mountains and “theoretical” molehills. This brief presentation of some mostly topographical aspects of the East Cretan peak sanctuaries aims to provide additional order to a subject that so often has been misinterpreted. The attempts to reconstruct the ritual of peak sanctuaries and their place in the Minoan cult structure, without detailed studies and analysis of the peak sanctuaries’ topography (the inner topography of a cult place itself together with its relation to settlement patterns), as was recently presented by Kyriakides and Briault (Kyriakides 2005; Briault 2007), do not sound convincing. Analysis of ritual cannot be separated from the place, and the place must be thoroughly researched in situ together with its broader historical and geographical contexts. Because peak sanctuaries suffered heavily from illegal excavators, old-fashioned excavations, lack of comprehensive publications, numerous mistakes, and confusions in earlier, usually short, reports (to which the present author contributed his part as well!), it would be unwise to build new theories before clarifying the most important problems concerning the peak sanctuaries data. This paper is just one step toward that goal. 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