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RAST MUSICOLOGY JOURNAL | Summer 2020 Vol.8 No.1
Instrumentation of Ottoman/Turkish instruments
Nağme Yarkın*
Corresponding Author:
*Istanbul University State Conservatory, Musicology Department, Research Assistant, İstanbul,
Turkey. Email :
[email protected], https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7859-8557
Abstract
Music is a universal art and narrative, but its universality can only be perceived through the
diversity of cultures and countries. In Turkey, especially Istanbul and its surroundings had
a close commercial and cultural relationship with Europe during the Ottoman era, which
instigated a cultural interaction maintained till now. The cultural and artistic exchange
between the Ottoman state and Europe dates back to the 16th century. Despite the many
differences between them, these two musical styles were combined over time, and many
composers composed works that survived. Also, contemporary musicians developed many
practices based on new harmonic theories. In addition, the characteristics of Turkish music
were used in Western works. In particular, solo pieces for Ottoman/Turkish music instruments
were composed for the polyphonic orchestra. In this article, the major pieces that were
composed in this genre were analyzed, and the original characteristics of Ottoman/Turkish
music instruments used in the polyphonic orchestra demonstrated. From this perspective,
the aspects to be considered were specified and explained to preserve the structure of both
musical styles.
Keywords
turkish music instruments, instrumentation, polyphony, ottoman/turkish music,
composition
European
musicians
were
very
interested in mehter anthems in the
16th and 17th centuries, and used
them in their works, as in Rameau’s
Les Indes Galantes (1735), Gluck’s Die
Pilger von Mekka (1764) and Iphigenie
auf Tauris (1779), Mozart’s Rondo alla
Turca (1783), Beethoven’s The Ruins
of Athens (1811) and the Turkish
anthem in Rossini’s Il Turco in Italia
(1814). Composers used the structures
influenced by Ottoman music not
only in naming their compositions
but also in their orchestrations,
rhythmic structures, melodies, and
note intervals. It is also stated in many
VOL 8 NO 1 (2020): SUMMER
sources that during the reign of Suleiman
the Magnificent in the 16th century, the
king of France François I, sent a group
of musicians to the Ottoman court to
express his gratitude. It was by means
of such cultural relationships that the
foundation of European music in the
Ottoman Empire was laid.
Later, in 1665, a Turkish regiment went
to Vienna where they performed various
concerts in the presence of Leopold I.
Thus, both Turks and Austrians listened
to each other and had an idea about
the other’s music (Güner, 2007, p.55).
“Then in 1826, in the reign of Mahmud
DOI 10.12975/PP2317-2329
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SUBMITTED: DEC 31, 2019
PUBLISHED: MAY 24,
Instrumentation of Ottoman/Turkish instruments
II, the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman
Empire (1785-1839), Mızıka-yı Hümâyun
was established to replace Mehterhane
within the scope of westernization
reforms. The aim of Mızıka-yı Hümâyun
was to train new musicians for the palace
band. Giuseppe Donizetti (1788-1856) of
Italy was appointed head of Harmonica
Humayun (Boran & Şentürkmez, 2007,
p.278). Donizetti brought instruments
and scores from Europe and learned
the Hamparsum notation system used
by Ottoman musicians and taught
the western note to the Ottoman
musicians (Toker, 2016, p.42). Besides,
he composed the Mahmudiye Anthem
for Mahmud II, which was adopted as
the official anthem of the Ottoman
Empire for 31 years (1808-1839) and the
Mecidiye Anthem for Sultan Abdulmejid,
the official anthemfor 22 years (18391861). It is also known that the piano
was first introduced to the palace during
the reign of Abdulmejid (1823-1861)
and that Murad V, the 33rd Sultan of
the Ottoman Empire (1840-1904) wrote
polyphonic works. Prominent musicians
such as Franz Liszt in 1847 and Henri
Vieuxtemps in 1848 were invited to
perform in Istanbul.
In 1916, it was decided to establish
a professional music teachers’ school
(Özden, 2018, p.97). In the Republican
period, Musiki Muallim Mektebi (the
Music Teachers’ School) was established
in 1924. However, the lack of teachers
who could provide professional training
in new schools remained a problem to be
solved before the Ministry of Education.
Talented students were sent abroad for
education, and among them were the
composers Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Hasan Ferid
Alnar, Ahmet Adnan Saygun, and Necil
Kâzım Akses who would later be called
the Turkish Five. 19th century was an
era of nationalist movements in music.
Nationalism was dominant in significant
parts of the world, especially in Russia
and Northern Europe. Turkish composers
were influenced by nationalism in the
early years of the Republic of Turkey. They
generally preferred to use traditional
folk music elements instead of those of
traditional Ottoman/Turkish music in
the orchestra (Usta, 2018, p.33).
“The contemporary composer is an artist
of a period when globalization demolishes
the boundaries in geography, expands
the fields of interaction, and facilitates
research, progress and storage conditions”
(İlyasoğlu, 2007, p.7).
Ottoman music was arranged many
times in polyphonic form and sometimes
used with new techniques such as Ilerici
Harmony with quaternary harmony rules
that were used instead of the rules of
classical harmony. The Turkish five, and
Yalçın Tura, Kemal İlerici, Necdet Levent,
Rauf Yekta, Tevfik Tutu and Bahadır
Tutu studied and published books about
Turkish music and polyphony.
Each nation has its own culture, history,
aesthetics, beliefs, and traditions. In
this respect, Ottoman/Turkish music
which has been rooted in this land for
centuries does not require a polyphonic
writing technique such as harmony or
counterpoint. Traditional
European
music, called Western music also does
not need to be combined with music
inconsistent with its system such as
Ottoman/Turkish music. “There is only
one thing; As in other fine arts, many
people may have outstanding music
that deals with common transcultural
subjects from which they can get close
feelings and pleasures, regardless of
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culture. It is not unique to Western art
and artists: the more universal Bach’s
Brandenburg Concertos and Vivaldi’s
Seasons are, the more universal the Itrî’s
Segâh Ayin and Tanburî Cemil’s Gülizar
improvisation are” (Tanrıkorur, 2015, p.
21). In this light, the works belonging to
these two different centuries-old musical
approaches indicate the harmony of
various common features. The musical
compositions examined and the results
were obtained from Turkish and Western
firsthand sources. Then, the Ottoman/
Turkish Music was approached as a
separate phenomenon and compared to
Western music in terms of common and
differing aspects. The characteristics
of the Ottoman / Turkish instruments
were also examined in terms of their
musical capabilities. Consequently, the
data obtained was incorporated into this
article.
Ottoman/Turkish music
instruments
the writing of works of this tradition
started much later than in the West, and
this allowed performers to create their
attitude and perform more freely. Behar
explains meşk as “The basic teaching
method on which Ottoman / Turkish
culture is based is ancient. It represented
social memory throughout history. The
teaching and transfer of Ottoman /
Turkish music were done entirely by
the method called ’meşk‘. Learning an
instrument, singing, and developing a
repertoire would be with mesh” (Behar,
2019, p.17). Öztuna describes meşk as
“Learning or teaching by imitating a
sample. Temeşşuk” (Öztuna, 1990, p. 47).
The tradition of meşk continues today
using the present notation. Branches of
the art of the Eastern cultures can be
learned perfectly via a single method.
This method that we call “Meşk” is the
only way to learn Ottoman/Turkish music
correctly (Aydemir, 2010, p.13).
Instrumentation
There are many differences in the
education and performance of Ottoman/
Turkish music instruments. Their use
in the orchestra in classical Western
music should be arranged carefully and
consciously because of the commas
(micro intervals) which are used in
Ottoman/Turkish music and constitute
the character of this music. Ottoman/
Turkish music is monophonic music
based on melody and usûls (rhythmic
patterns), but the performance is
generally heterophonic. This is due
to the fact that each instrument has
its unique playing technique and style
although there is only one piece written
for all instruments. In the tradition of
this music, repetition, meşk (mashing),
a method of learning based on imitation
and memorization, is widespread and
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Instrumentation is the theoric and
practical knowledge required for
the composition and arrangement
of instruments of various genres
and structures or the adaptation
of music to a particular instrument
structure (Slonimsky, 1997, p.459).
Instrumentation includes the structures
of the instruments, sound fields, unique
and potential performing techniques.
The techniques used in tradition are
increased according to the sounds that
composers aim to hear. Even though the
teaching of the techniques and styles
of Ottoman/Turkish music instruments
pursued a certain written method
since the mid-20th century, the meşk
style is the basis of the music. “There
are different identity characteristics
according to the values of the cultures
Instrumentation of Ottoman/Turkish instruments
they are in. The instruments, which
are the symbolic power of performing
in concerts or a solo performance, also
serve as a mediator of cultures” (Işıktaş,
2018, p.4).
Kanun (Qanun)
It is accepted that the kanun, the origin
of which dates back to the 10th century,
derives from the Greek word “canon”.
In Turkey, Iran, and Arab countries, the
instrument has been played since the
12th century. It was called “cano” in
Spain, “canon” in France, “kanon” in
Germany, and “cannal” in Italy. Kanun
also inspired instruments such as epinet,
clavichord and harpsichord, which are
considered as ancestors of the piano in
Europe (Karakaya, 2001, p.327).
The kanun, which is particularly
important in the tradition and today’s
Turkish music, belongs to the group of
stringed instruments played by pulling
the wire. The instrument has a sound
range of 3 octaves + and perfect 4th
or 5th, 26 pitches with three strings
attached to each pitch, and a sum of 78
strings. Its range is between the notes
of low yegah and treble muhayyer in
Turkish music which is from 110 Hz. 1a
note (A2) to 1318 Hz. mi note (E6) in the
piano.
Traditional techniques of kanun include
tremolo, trill and flick. In addition
to these techniques, modern playing
techniques,
embellishment
and
ornamentation techniques developed
with the new works of the 20th century
and later have been used. These include
chords, arpeggio, glissando, harmonic,
bisbigliando, vibrato, portamento and
other effects (Kostak Toksoy, 2006, p.75).
The melody can be played in octaves by
kanunî (kanun player). However, if there
is an alterated note, it is not possible to
play an octave in a faster tempo since
the left hand has to change the pegs
(Yavuzoğlu, p.17-19). Because of these
characteristics of the kanun, chords
in harmony can be written assuming
it like the harpsichord or theorbo
accompanied by the basso continuo in
the orchestra.
“Basso continuo, i.e. continuous bass
technique, popular in the Baroque era
and written with symbols, became a very
important element of Baroque music
structure” (N. Yarkın, 2019, p.7).
Kemençe of İstanbul (Kemenche)
Kemençe of Istanbul, a stringed
instrument, was widely used by the
Turks, Arabs, Byzantines and Iranians
between the 10th and 15th centuries.
It was much later i.e. the 18th century
when it entered the Ottoman palace,
whenceforth its structure and traditional
repertoire began to evolve. This type
of string instrument is called pochette
in France, kit in England, hegedu in
Hungary, lyra in Greece, gadulga in
Bulgaria, and rebap in Arabia, and the
ancient Turks called it oklu or ıklığ. Unlike
other stringed instruments, Kemençe of
Istanbul is played by touching the strings
with nails, not by pressing on strings
and the strings of this instrument are
generally gut strings like the strings in
the Baroque period.
The instrument, also called classical
kemenche, Istanbul’s kemenche, tırnak
(nail) kemenche and armudi (pear
shaped) kemenche, has originally three
strings. There are also four-string and
harmonic string versions of kemençe.
From the 18th century onwards, the
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names kemençe of Istanbul and tırnak
kemençe became more common since
the instrument was mostly played in
Istanbul and nearby. The strings of the
three-string kemençe have a range of 2.5
octaves and are tuned to neva (re), rast
(sol) and yegâh (re) notes. These notes
correspond to 440 Hz. 1a note (A4), 293
Hz. re note (D4) and 220 Hz. la note (A3)
on the piano. Traditional performances
of the kemençe of Istanbul include
vibrato, glissando (Eruzun Özel, 2006,
p.137), tremolo, mordan, grupetto, tril,
flageolet and effective sounds. Chords
cannot be played, but in some positions,
two notes can be played together. Using
these techniques of kemençe, the main
melody is written with the legato and
martellato techniques in some parts,
with the solo violin or viola da gamba as
soprano instruments.
Ney (Nai)
The ney which is made of reed and
blown with a başpare (headpiece), is the
oldest wind instrument in the history of
Ottoman/Turkish music. This instrument,
the origins of which can be traced back
to 5000 BC in Sumerian society (Malçok,
2013, p.3), had an important place,
especially in Mevlevi tradition. It was
played in the Mevlevihane (Mevlevi
Convent) and later began to be used to
play the repertoire of Ottoman/Turkish
music.
There are eight neys of different ranges,
types and sizes, namely, bolahenk,
davud, şah, mansur, kız, yıldız,
müstahzen, sipürde. In addition, there
are also mabeyn neys. The total range
of all neys is 3 octaves, from treble
gerdaniye (sol) to low rast (sol). The
range is from 587 Hz. re note (D5), to
146 Hz. re note (D3). Mansur ney can be
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played in a performance with the piano
from the same partition, so its tuning is
in do note. Long and connected notes as
Legato are used very widely, among the
traditional performing techniques. Also,
vibrato, portamento, grupetto and tril
techniques are also performed quite a
lot (Gunca, 2007, p.52). In some works,
ney plays the main melody written with
long and tied notes in the score as a
soprano instrument like a Baroque flute
or one of the solo wind instruments.
Rhythm instruments
Rhythm
instruments
were
the
instruments first used in the history of
music. In Ottoman/Turkish music, the
instruments kudüm, bendir, daire, def,
finger cymbals, etc. come from the same
tradition of music and enable to perform
the strong and weak times of the
procedures in their correct structure.
In addition to supporting the orchestra,
Ottoman/Turkish rhythm instruments
perform solo improvisations. Usûls in
this traditional music are as important
as the makams. In Ottoman/Turkish
music tradition, generally, there is no
written notation for rhythm instruments.
Musicians perform the usûls and follow
the melody through memorization.
Today, though not common, in the
new works composed by contemporary
composers, the usûls are written on
two lines. This is mostly because the
kudüm, which is accepted as the main
rhythm instrument, performs strong and
weak beats by separating the right hand
(top line) and the left hand (bottom
line) (Yarkın, 2017, p.10). There are
quite comprehensive and detailed usûls
in Ottoman/Turkish music. There are
several compound rhythmic patterns,
including small times (2 to 15) and big
times (16 to 120).
Instrumentation of Ottoman/Turkish instruments
Tanbur
Tanbur, which is accepted as a reference
and fundamental instrument in the
expression of music theory in Ottoman/
Turkish music, is a family of pluckedstringed instruments played with a
plectrum. Although there had been
many instruments called the Tanbur
throughout history, the tanbur in today’s
form, which can be called Tanbur of
Istanbul, was first seen in the 18th
century. From the 18th century on, it
began to replace the oud in Ottoman/
Turkish music.
In tuning the Tanbur, 1st and 2nd strings
are tuned to yegâh (re), 3rd and 4th
strings to low dügâh (la) or low rast
(sol), 5th and 6th strings to yegâh (re),
7th string to low dügâh (la) or low rast
(sol), and the 8th string is tuned to low
yegâh (re). The tuning of the strings
depends on the makam to be played. In
the piano, 1st and 2nd strings correspond
to 220 Hz. 1a note (A3), 3rd and 4th
strings to 164 Hz. mi note (E3) or 146
Hz. re note (D3), 5th and 6th strings to
220 Hz. 1a note (A3), 7th string to 164
Hz. mi note (E3) or 146 Hz. re note (D3),
and 8th string to 110 Hz. 1a note (A2).
Traditional performing techniques of
tanbur include finger or handle vibratos,
flageolet, appoggiatura, portamento,
glissando, mordant, grupetto, tremolo.
Fast passages, chromatic melodies and
chords are difficult to perform with
tanbur (Ayan, 1993, p.23).
Ud (Oud)
The ancestor of ud is the kopuz
instrument of the Turks. In the 7th
century, the kopuz passed through to
the Arab geography from Turks and the
name oud was given. It comes from the
word el-oud in Arabic, which means a
sarısabır tree from which the chest is
made. Later, it became the ancestor of
lute and guitar that spread to Europe
through Andalusia.
“The musical meaning of the instrument
“oud” will be strengthened when the
subject of the oud performance is
evaluated through processes changing by
eras, the spirit of time, and social and
historical conditions. In each period, the
actors of the art area are referred to as
performer-composers, educators and as
the centuries change, they transfer their
knowledge with a reform, with a stylistic
change and with a new aesthetic design.
They keep the creations of common sound
even if the historical components belong
to different geographies. The producers of
art who integrate theory to performance
to explain their own musical and cultural
values through the instrument “oud”
reflect their experiences. The oud, as one
of the most important ancient instruments
used in Central Asia, the Middle East,
North Africa and the Ottoman Empire for
hundreds of years, made its appearance
in historical scene when the production
of written sources started. In this study
which deals with the past and current
use of the oud through descriptive and
historical methods, the musical evolution
of the instrument has been pursued by
examining the musical process from its
earliest period known to the present”
(Işıktaş, 2016, p. 673).
The bass string is used as a single string
and the other strings are used in pairs.
The instrument is tuned to gerdaniye
(sol), neva (re), dügâh (la), hüseyni
aşiran (mi), low buselik (si), low geveşt
(fa #) notes. In the piano, these notes
correspond to 587 Hz. re note (D5), 440
Hz. 1a note (A4), 329 Hz. mi note (E4),
246 Hz. si note (B3), 185 Hz. fa # note
(F3 #) and 138 Hz. do # note (C3 #).
Traditional performing techniques of
the ud include tremolo and trill. In
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addition to these techniques, modern
playing techniques and ornamentation
techniques developed with the new
works of the 20th century and later
have been used. These include chord,
arpeggio, octaves, glissando, flageole,
portamento and other effects. The
Ud can play chords or bass notes
which support the harmonic structure
by thinking of it as a basso continuo
instrument or can play the same melody
with a cello. “Ud is one of the integral
elements of maqam music repertoire
today. It is the voice and transmitter of
the tradition as well as the subject of
modern tendencies and musical pursuits.
In this study, it emerged that the changes
in music culture from late 19th century
to early 20th century brought about new
and modern quests for the performance
of the ud, and prominent performers
who first used it as a soloist’s instrument
were the harbingers of the stage that the
ud reached in the modern age” (Işıktaş,
2016, p. 681).
Ottoman/Turkish music
instruments in polyphonic music
Human voice and melody are major
elements of Ottoman/Turkish music.
Besides, the tradition of improvisations,
ornamentations, and additions by the
performer, which though are not written
on the score, are also widespread. The
tradition of playing unison and supporting
taksim are also characteristics of this
music. Some of these characteristics are
also seen in Western music.
Taksim (Improvisation)
In 14th, 15th and 16th Century-Europe,
ornamental
melodic
improvisation
and large passages became popular.
In the Baroque period, composers like
G. Frescobaldi, J.S. Bach, G.F. Handel
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composed their works with improvised
sections or chapters and supported
improvised types such as toccata, which
required mastery and allowed free
creation. In the works of the Baroque
period, especially in concertos, the
improvisation section at the end of
the composition was performed by
the solo instrument with or without a
basso continuo line. During the Baroque
period, the short section, preludes and
overtures played before the operas to
introduce the mode and tone, were also
mostly improvised.
“The taksim (Arabic: taqsim) is a solo
instrumental improvisational genre in
Turkish and Arabic classical music. While
its original main function was to introduce
the makam of the vocal or instrumental
piece that follows it, the taksim grew to
be the most important form of musical
and artistic expression for the Turkish
instrumentalist. The peculiar rhythmic
structure of the taksim is often described
in ethnomusicological literature as ‘free’,
‘non-metric’, or ‘overall flowing-rhythm’.
In a similar way, Turkish musicological
literature usually describes the taksim as
usûlsüz – that is ‘lacking’, or ‘without’,
a metrical basis (usûl). The abstract,
flexible, and undefined nature of the
rhythm of the taksim is probably why most
literature on the taksim seems to put more
emphasis on its melodic, rather than its
rhythmic, characteristics” (Arnon, 2008,
p.36).
In Ottoman/Turkish music, improvisation
is the basis of the tradition. Taksim can
be made just in a makam to introduce
the work, or to connect two makams to
each other. “The taksim, instrumental
improvisation genre in Turkish makam
music, is considered to be a freerhythm, that is, a rhythm developed
without the underlying template of
a meter or continuously organized
pulsation. Feldman notes (1996) that in
Instrumentation of Ottoman/Turkish instruments
the 20th century the great exponents
of taksim favored different rhythmic
idioms even on the same instrument.
For example, the idioms used by the
tanbur masters Necdet Yaşar and Mes’ud
Cemil differed greatly from those of
Mes’ud’s father Cemil Bey and Cemil’s
follower İzzettin Ökte” (Feldman,
1996: 284; Işıktaş, 2016, p.252). It is an
essential and crucial tradition in which
the musician is completely free within
the characteristic structure of makam,
and can transfer to other authorities as
long as he can pass it back to the main
makam and demonstrates his knowledge
and skill. Although the musician is free,
he/she follows the specific navigation
structure of each makam and makes a
taksim. The tonic note of the makam
is played by other instruments to
support the instrument performing the
improvisation, especially towards the
end of the taksim, and it is called dem
sesi (drone tone). In music, a drone is
a harmonic or monophonic effect or
accompaniment where a note or chord
is continuously sounded throughout most
or all of a piece. A drone effect can be
achieved through a sustained sound or
repetition of a note. The drone is most
often placed upon the tonic or dominant
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drone_
(music). On the other hand, dem sesi
in Western music is a basso continuo
line supporting a solo virtuoso on the
cadence.
Considered as a cadence, improvisation,
an
important
tradition
of
the
concerto genre, is usually performed
on the dominant note by the solo
instrument. As a result, the prelude
and overture are remarkably similar
to the entrance taksim. There is also
a similarity of understanding between
the basso continuo and dem sesi in
terms of supporting improvisation.
Therefore, there is a section devoted
to improvisation namely taksim in some
works using Ottoman/Turkish music
instruments.
Difference between notation and
performance
Ottoman/Turkish music is monophonic
music composed for a melodic piece
written for all instruments. But it
should not be confused with a monophie
(monodie) which means singing alone
with a homophonic accompaniment. J.
S. Bach’s No.8 as Prelude Cantilena is an
example of this genre. In the Baroque era,
solo melodies were played differently
than improvised melodies, especially in
the second turn (ritornello) of dances
or in the repetition of a section. This
difference was created by the addition
of ornaments and rhythmic changes.
In Ottoman/Turkish music, the note was
generally only a tool, and musicians
performed the note from beginning to end
with ornaments and rhythmic changes
according to the different styles and
technical structures of their instruments.
For example, depending on the skill of
the musician, the tanbur and kemençe
of Istanbul can play the same melody,
ney can support them with long notes,
kanun can play arpeggio or chord with
the octave. In this respect, Ottoman/
Turkish music is not monophonic music
but heterophonic music. All instruments
can be played together at the same time,
like the Baroque music mostly performed
by a single solo instrument with the
orchestra. In the tradition of Ottoman/
Turkish music, the works and styles were
learned and performed by memorization
and repetition. The playing of notes
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with free additions or decreases stems
from the fact that the works were
started to be written in a later period
of the Ottoman/Turkish music tradition.
Also, the practice of basso continuo
technique, which is the basis of Baroque
music, was quite different from the
written note and changed from person
to person. In basso continuo parts, there
were only bass notes and signs of the
chords to be played. By reading these
signs, musicians improvised the sounds
of the chord in a rhythmic structure for
the mode of the work.
Moreover, the expression terms in
Ottoman/Turkish music were not added
after the notes were written and
the performance of the expressions
depended on musicians’ taste. Though
not the same, only piano and forte
nuance terms were written in the
works of the Baroque period and
other expression terms were played
differently by different musicians. As
described above, it was quite common
that musicians performed the same
melody differently. In the Ottoman/
Turkish music tradition, it is particularly
important that performers know how to
read the notes well and are professionals
in playing their instruments.
Modulation and tuning
Before the “well-tampered” piano,
the major 3rd range was tuned to a
smaller range than it is today. Because
of this problem, which especially
applies to keyboard instruments such as
harpsichord and organ, the works could
not be played in all tones. Moreover,
the tuning of open strings was slightly
different and set according to the
pressure of a bow, forming the timbre
of the Baroque orchestra. In addition,
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Yarkın, N.
Baroque wind instruments were also
arranged according to this tuning system.
For these reasons, when listening to
a Baroque orchestra, it is possible to
hear the comma range in Ottoman/
Turkish music, which is different from
the intervals of the tampere system.
According to the Turkish music system
Arel-Ezgi-Uzdilek,
established
by
Hüseyin Sadettin Arel (1880-1955), Suphi
Ezgi (1869-1962) and Murat Uzdilek,
(1891-1967), there are 9 commas in a
whole note and 4 commas in a half note.
Because of these interval notes, the
Ottoman/Turkish music system is quite
different from the tampere system.
Due to the above-cited chord
problem, the instruments in Ottoman/
Turkish music cannot play every tone
easily in a Baroque orchestra, a problem
which is due to the structure of the
instruments. Especially the kemence
of Istanbul, ud, tanbur and ney are
transposed and they cannot be played
on every single note in every makam
with the same technique and style. On
the other hand, kanun can be tuned to
the makam which is played. As such,
kanun has a similarity to the Baroque
harpsichord as a chord system. Because
of this chord problem, a sharp or flat was
added to the tone in the Baroque music
tradition without moderating the main
tone, or modulations to the major and
minor tones were employed. Therefore,
in the Baroque period, generally 3
flats and 3 sharps tones were played
comfortably and composers generally
composed works in tones up to 3 flats
and 3 sharps.
In the Ottoman/Turkish music,
the works were composed by using the
common regions of the other makams
Instrumentation of Ottoman/Turkish instruments
without making too far from the main
makam. For these reasons, human voices
were at the forefront in the Baroque
music and the Ottoman/Turkish music
tradition and most of the repertoire was
composed of vocal music. Instrument
structures
and
techniques
were
developed in line with the instrumental
musical works produced over time and
virtuosity gained importance in both
music genres.
Polyphonic composition using
Ottoman / Turkish instruments
When using the Ottoman / Turkish music
in polyphony, the most important thing
to consider is to preserve the commas
and traditional features of its structure.
It is crucial that the notes in the chords
and the commas in the melodies are
consonant. Composers or arrangers
should pay attention to the use of
commas with chords.
The combination of two different
cultures with different understandings
and traditions in the 20th century can be
exemplified by the composers mentioned
below and their works. Some composers
used contrapoint, some of them used
harmony and some used melody in the
foreground.
•Hacı
Xanmemmedov,
Concerto
Kemancha
•Hasan Rzayev (1928 -), for Kamancha
Chahargah Rhapsody
•He Zhanhao (1933-), ve Chen Gang
(1935-), Erhu Concerto
•Turgay Erdener (1957-), Kanun Concerto
•Daron Aric
Concerto
Hagen,
(1961-),
Koto
•Münir Nurettin Beken (1964-), Ud
Concerto
•Oğuzhan
Concerto
Balcı
(1977-),
Kemençe
•Oğuzhan Balcı, İstanbul Hatırası – for
Kanun and Symphonic Orchestra
•Evrim Demirel (1977-), Devinim – for
Tanbur, Kanun and String Orchestra
•Evrim Demirel, Darb-ı Dügâh – for
Kemence, Kanun, Flute, Clarinet, Bass
Clarinet, Harp, Viola, Cello ve Contrbass
•Eray İnal (1983-), Kanun Concerto
•Hasan Ferit Alnar (1906-1978), Kanun
Concerto
•Nağme Yarkın (1985-), for Traditional
Turkish Instruments and Baroque
Orchestra “Concerto Grosso Alla Turca”
•Seid Rüstemov (1907-1983), “Şadlıq
reqsi” (qanun, kamança)
Conclusions
•Seid Rüstemov, “Azerbaycan süitası”
(tar, kamança)
•Hacı Xanmemmedov (1918-2005), Tar
Concerto No:5
Ottoman/Turkish music instruments,
such as kanun, ud, ney, kemençe of
Istanbul, tanbur, kudüm, def, daire,
darbuka and finger cymbals are used
in various instrument combinations
and rhythm patterns in these works.
Some movements are polyphonic, and
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some movements are homophonic, and
the taksim emphasizes virtuosity. In
addition, melody repetitions and themes
are often used in the foreground.
When we analyzed these works, we
found that Nihavend, Buselik and Hicaz
makams were used more frequently
and Hüseyni, Segâh, Evcara and Saba
makams were used rarely. When the
usûls were concerned, Türk Aksağı (5/8),
Düyek (8/8), Devr-i Hindi (7/8), Devr-i
Turan (7/8), Aksak (9/8) were used
more frequently, and Evfer (9/8), and
Tek Vuruş (11/8) were used rarely and
Muzaaf Devr-i Kebir (56/8) was used just
in one work, Concerto Grosso Alla Turca
by Nağme Yarkın. (Yarkın, 2019, p.141221). Since Ottoman/Turkish music
instruments are transposed instruments,
the 440 Hz. la note in the piano is
named as re note (neva) in this music.
For this reason, Ottoman/Turkish music
notations are written in the sol note
(bolahenk). This should be taken into
consideration when these instruments
are to be used for any work in a Westernbased orchestra. Only the ney (nai) can
be played without transposition because
there are virtually neys of each note.
These works were generally composed by
preserving the traditional structure, so
they should be performed by orchestras
and soloists who know and preserve
the traditional structure of both.
Although the expressions, ornaments,
and articulations are indicated, soloists
in particular can add ornaments and
articulations while maintaining the
attitude of the structure and tradition of
their instruments. Finally, the conductor
should be familiar with the rhythmic
patterns and the characteristics of
makams, and know that the Ottoman/
Turkish music instruments are transposed
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Yarkın, N.
instruments.
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Yarkın, N.
Osmanlı / Türk Müziği çalgılarının enstrümantasyonu
Özet
Müzik evrensel bir sanat ve anlatıdır, ancak evrenselliği kültür ve ulusların çeşitliliği ile
algılanabilir. Topraklarımız, özellikle İstanbul ve çevresi, Osmanlı döneminde ticaret ve kültür
açısından Avrupa ile yakın bir ilişki içerisindeydi ve bu yakın ilişkinin sonucu olarak kültürel
bir etkileşim oluştu ve sürdürüldü. Osmanlı devleti ile Avrupa arasındaki kültürel ve sanatsal
değişim 16. yüzyıla kadar uzanmaktadır. Bu iki farklı kültüre ait müzikler arasında birçok
fark olmasına rağmen, zamanla birçok besteci tarafından biraraya getirilmiş ve kalıcı eserler
bestelenmiştir. Ayrıca, çağdaş müzisyenler tarafından yeni armoni teorileri hakkında birçok
uygulama yapılmıştır. Diğer bir yandan, Türk müziğine aile özellikler, Batı Müziği eserlerinde
kullanılmış, genellikle Osmanlı / Türk müziği enstrümanları çoksesli orkestrada solo partileri
ile yeralmışlardır. Bu makalede, yukarıda bahsedilen tarzda bestelenen önemli parçalar analiz
edilmiş, bu türün ana yönleri gösterilmiş ve çok sesli orkestrada kullanılan Osmanlı/Türk
müzik enstrümanlarının orijinal özellikleri incelenmiştir. Bu bağlamda, her iki müziğin yapısını
korumak için dikkat edilmesi gereken hususlar belirlenmiş ve açıklanmıştır.
Anahtar kelimeler
osmanlı/türk müziği enstrümanları, enstrümantasyon, polifoni, osmanlı / türk müziği,
beste
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