Conclusion (6th Chapter)

I Ozgur Tufekci is an assistant professor of International Relations at Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey. He holds MA on International Studies from the University of Sheffield, UK, and a PhD on Sociology and International Relations from Coventry University, UK. He is also the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Global Analysis and Senior Editor of Caucasus International. Cover image: ADEM ALTAN/AFP/Getty Images. President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Turkish Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoglu and Republican People’s Party leader Kemal Kilicdaroglu walks behind a wreath at a ceremony at the Anitkabir to mark the 77th anniversary of Ataturk’s death in Ankara, on November 10, 2015. Design: Positive2 www.ibtauris.com POWER AND THE IDEOLOGY OF EURASIANISM ‘One of the most striking aspects of Eurasianist ideology today is its spread beyond Russia to influence political discourses in other countries. Ozgur Tufecki’s new study is an important contribution to understanding how this process is unfolding in Turkey.’ Mark Bassin, Baltic Sea Professor in the History of Ideas, Center for Baltic and East European Studies, Södertörn University, Stockholm THE FOREIGN POLICY OF MODERN TURKEY ‘During the current turbulent times in Turkey, Ozgur Tufekci provides an important and original analysis of Turkish foreign policy from a perspective that is not only unorthodox but is highly thought provoking. This work is an excellent contribution to the literature.’ Birol Yesilada, Professor of Political Science and International Studies, Portland State University. Ozgur Tufekci n the last three decades, Turkey has attempted to build close relationships with Russia, Iran and the Turkic World. As a result, there has been ongoing debates about the extent to which Turkey’s international relations axis is shifting eastwards. Ozgur Tufekci argues here that Eurasianist ideology has been fundamental to Turkish foreign policy and continues to have influence today. The author first explores the historical roots of Eurasianism in the nineteenth century, comparing this to Neo-Eurasianism and pan-Slavism. The Özal era (1983–93), the Cem era (1997–2002) and Davutoğlu era (since 2003) are then examined to reveal how foreign policy making has been informed by discourses of Eurasianism, and how Eurasianist ideas were implemented through internal and external socio-economic and political factors. Turkey is presented as a multiregional actor that aims to both strengthen its relationships with Europe and the United States, but also become an indispensable member of the EU through its relationships with neighbouring states. While the Westernist discourse might bridge the East and the West, Turkish Eurasianism aims to counterbalance Western-dominated Turkish foreign policy and enable Turkey to become a global power. In analyzing the different Eurasianist views regarding Turkey’s future relations with the Western and the Eastern worlds, this book offers conceptual clarity of Turkish Eurasianism. It will be essential reading for those interested in Turkish foreign policy and the Eurasianist ideology, especially Turkish Eurasianism and its discourses. THE FOREIGN POLICY OF MODERN TURKEY Power and the Ideology of Eurasianism OZGUR TUFEKCI “During the current turbulent times in Turkey, Ozgur Tufekci provides an important and original analysis of Turkish foreign policy from a perspective that is not only unorthodox but is highly thought provoking. This work is an excellent contribution to the literature.” Birol Yesilada, Professor of Political Science and International Studies, Portland State University “One of the most striking aspects of Eurasianist ideology today is its spread beyond Russia to influence political discourses in other countries. Ozgur Tufecki’s new study is an important contribution to understanding how this process is unfolding in Turkey.” Mark Bassin, Baltic Sea Professor in the History of Ideas, Center for Baltic and East European Studies, Södertörn University, Stockholm THE FOREIGN POLICY OF MODERN TURKEY Power and the Ideology of Eurasianism OZGUR TUFEKCI Published in 2017 by I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd London • New York www.ibtauris.com Copyright q 2017 Ozgur Tufekci The right of Ozgur Tufekci to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by the author in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Every attempt has been made to gain permission for the use of the images in this book. Any omissions will be rectified in future editions. References to websites were correct at the time of writing. Library of Modern Turkey 22 ISBN: 978 1 78453 742 5 eISBN: 978 1 78672 117 4 ePDF: 978 1 78673 117 3 A full CIP record for this book is available from the British Library A full CIP record is available from the Library of Congress Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: available Typeset in Garamond Three by OKS Prepress Services, Chennai, India Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY For my Dearest Wife, Sözen and Daughter, Göksu Leyla CONTENTS List of Figures List of Tables Acknowledgements Introduction Overview of Eurasianism with its Historical Development 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Geopolitical Thinking and World Politics Eurasianism: An Ideological Revival General Framework of Turkish Foreign Policy Since the Late Ottoman Era Diverse Discourses of Eurasianism in Turkey Three Periods of Turkish Foreign Policy and the Scope of Application of the Discourses Conclusion viii x xi 1 11 39 75 95 125 161 Acronyms and Abbreviations Note on Pronunciation 175 177 Notes Bibliography Index 179 215 239 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Turkey’s Lebensraum 18 Figure 1.2 The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent 20 Figure 1.3 Anatolia: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, 1807– 1924 21 Figure 1.4 Partitioning of Anatolia and Thrace according to the Treaty of Sèvres 22 Figure 1.5 Boundaries of the modern state of Turkey 23 Figure 1.6 Mackinder’s Heartland concept: 1904 26 Figure 1.7 Mackinder’s Heartland concept: 1919 27 Figure 1.8 Mackinder’s Heartland concept: 1943 28 Figure 1.9 Political cartoon by Behic
AK demonstrating “geopolitics as common sense” in Turkey 29 Figure 1.10 The Rimland concept 35 Figure 2.1 Dugin’s civilisational zones/poles 56 Figure 2.2 Dugin’s spaces 57 Figure 4.1 The cover of Bozkurt 107 LIST OF FIGURES ix Figure 4.2 Turkey – Turkic states foreign trade (US $ millions) 109 Figure 4.3 Alleged Turanian lands 112 Figure 5.1 Turkish– EU bilateral trade (US $ millions) 139 Figure 5.2 Top 20 Government contributors of international humanitarian assistance, 2003– 12 (US $ billions) 150 Figure 5.3 ODA from Turkey, 2000– 12 (US $ billions) 150 Figure 5.4 Top ten recipients of Turkey’s Official Humanitarian Assistance, 2007– 11 (US $ millions) 151 Figure 5.5 Diplomatic missions of selected countries abroad 153 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Turkey– Russian federation foreign trade (US $ millions) 67 Table 3.1 Principles and mechanisms of the new Turkish foreign policy 90 Table 4.1 Typology of the discourses of Turkish Eurasianism 115 Table 4.2 The Differences between the Three Discourses 123 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to a number of individuals and organisations without which this study would have proved impossible. First, I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Professor Alp Özerdem who provided invaluable guidance throughout the period of this research. He contributed a lot to this work. Thanks to all my colleagues and friends at CESRAN International, particularly to those for their sincere friendship and kindness: Murad Duzcu, Hüsrev Tabak, Rahman Dağ and Kadri Kaan Renda. I would also like to thank my parents and sisters for encouraging me to dream and work hard. Without their kind support, this experience would not have been at all possible. Most of all, I would like to thank my wife Sözen, my other half; she is my inspiration and the spark that lightens my days. Thank you for your unconditional love and the sacrifices you have made to join me in this adventure to fulfil my dream. CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION General Summary and Conclusions There is a close woven relationship between the Eurasianism ideology and Geopolitical thinking of the nineteenth century. Therefore, the first conceptualisation section investigated this relationship in the light of the main geopolitical concepts of this period. First, the concept of Lebensraum was analysed in order to show the importance of space and territory in the history of nations by focusing on Turkey’s own Lebensraum which consisted of the immediate land basin (the Balkans, the Middle East and the Caucasus), immediate maritime basin (the Black, eastern Mediterranean and Caspian Seas and the Gulf of Basra) and immediate continental basin (Europe, western Asia and north-eastern Africa). The second concept was the Heartland thesis, which is perceived as one of the most influential geopolitical concepts that has been embraced by a number of states throughout history such as Germany, Britain, the US, etc. From Turkey’s perspective, the significance of the concept is that it presented Turkey as a “central state” and emphasised Turkey’s role in world politics. The last concept in this section is the Rimland thesis, which focused on the role that the Rimland states play in order to control the heartland and attached importance to sea and land power. In doing so, Spykman replaced Turkey’s geostrategic stance. According to him, Turkey was in the Rimland area instead of being in the Pivot Area (Heartland). This section ended by proposing 162 THE FOREIGN POLICY OF MODERN TURKEY that Eurasianists were influenced by this geopolitical climate in the world politics of the nineteenth century. In particular, the Heartland thesis since it presented the Pivot Area as the core of Eurasia was the main rationale behind the Eurasianist ideology, which seeks the establishment of a Eurasian Union. Having explored the context of the relationship between the Eurasianism ideology and Geopolitical thinking of the nineteenth century, the following conceptualisation section investigated the Eurasianism ideology theoretically and compared it with pan-Slavism in two categories. In the first category, the Eurasianism ideology and its forefathers were examined. In this part, the section presented that the Eurasianism ideology emerged in a cataclysmic era as a conclusion to seeking a historical, geopolitical and cultural identity along with other nationalist movements. The events of the early days of the 1900s, such as World War I, the Revolution of 1905 and the Revolution of February 1917 were the main rationales behind the ideology. In this climate, the ideologists of Eurasianism constructed a theory to build a new nation, which covers all the Eurasian people under a Eurasian state. Moreover, the section identified that Neo-Eurasianism, which came out in the later times of the Soviet Union, is a slightly differentiated version of Classical Eurasianism. Again, the society of the Soviet Union was experiencing disastrous times and the ideologists of the Neo-Eurasianism were attempting to save the Union. The second part of the section compared the coeval ideology of Eurasianism, pan-Slavism as it is one of the most similar ideologies to Eurasianism regarding space, territories and societies. From this comparison, the section outlined two main differences: (1) race and religion are not determinants of the Eurasianism ideology in contrast to pan-Slavism; (2) Eurasianism is more likely to be interpreted in different ways by intellectuals and scholars than the ideology of pan-Slavism. Having analysed the emergence of the Eurasianism ideology in the Russian Empire and the USSR respectively, the following section focused on a general framework of Turkish foreign policy making since the late Ottoman era in order to familiarise the reader with how Turkey’s foreign policy course has been determined and