LANGUAGE AND VARATIES

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH RESEARCH SEMINER TITLE: LINGUISTICS: LANGUAGE AND VERIATIES RESEARCH TITLE: LANGUAGE, VARIATIES AND INFLECTIONS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE. PRESENTED BY: OLUWADARE AYOKUNLE SAMUEL PHD SEMINER PAPER MAY, 2020. INTRODUCTION Linguistics is concerned with the study of language, including theories of language and the way in which a language is structured and patterned, as in defines’ discovering language in this general sense can be theorizes and described in a general and abstract way or can be concerned with categorization and description of a particular language such as English, the origin, the history, the variation etc. However, when we come to consider how any language such as English is actually used in everyday use, then, it becomes clear that for from being spoken or written in exactly the same way by everybody. Language is in fact from dourly varied. This paper will then address the considerable differences in the spoken and written variation of English, and the extent to which the society and community in which we like affect the ways in which we speak and write. We shall consider the study with the definitions of language, direct accent, varieties and history of English language. What is language? Let us consider the term language Language is the most fundamental medium at communication in any social semiotics setting. It pervades every aspect of human like and activities. A language system refer to an idealized form at the language which is separate from how a language is activity used to sociological perspective study of language consider language as behavior peculiar in taking account of the regained and social situations in which language occurs and the social as well as linguistic factors that affect how speakers relate to one another. Etymologically, the word language cannot be restricted to a definition. It has been given different definitions based on different solution of thought. VARIATION IN LANGUAGE In this studies, we need to identify what variation is all about.. Variation is a characteristic of language. There is more than one way of saying the same thing. Speakers may vary in their pronunciation (accents, word choice clavicorns called grammar). But while the diversity of variation is great is that there seem to be boundaries, as variation. English is the main language in many places, and most important language in which is spoken as a second language in most of the rest and the world. However, there are some significant differences in pronunciation spelling and were usage around the world. This paper aims at providing the variation in English language. Linguistic variation is central to the study of language use. In fact, it is impossible to study the language form used in natural texts, without being confronted with the issues of linguine the variability. Variability is inherent in human language. A single speaker will use different linguistic form in different occasions and different speakers of language will express the same meanings using different forms. Most of this variation is highly systematic. Speakers of a language make choice in pronunciation, morphological choice, and grammar depending on a number of non-linguistics factors. In recent years, variety has proved to be a fairly sate term, allowing language scholar to avoid being too specific about kind of used on occasions when being specific is not necessary and/or when there is a risk of being charged with discrimination against group by calling it wage of dialect. LANGUAGE VARIATION IN ENGLISH Language variation can be looked at from the point of view of geographical, education, social and stylistic varieties. The English we hear, read, use everyday, day has common come features which identify it as such, but, in addition each particular usage, exhibits peculiar geographical, social, or stylistic variation. These varieties are compartmented but are interrelated in varying degrees. GEOGRAPHICAL VARIETIES In the speech of a speaker of a particular language for nature or particular reasons, dispersed over wide geographical area and interaction among them becomes minimal, the technology over time is for different district varieties of the language emerge. This can be caused as a result of the changes caused by different socio-cultural orientation, other influences such as contract with and subsequent interference from local languages, and ever deliberate government political. The English language provides as excellent example here, in the 16th century, it was continued only within the British like and spoken by not more than about 5 million people. But it was subsequently expected to America, Australia, New Zealand, South African, India, and other part of Africa and far East. Such geographical or regional varieties of usually most noticeable on the level of phonology. But other levels are also quite districting. For instances, there are noticeable orthographic differences between British English and American English A few example British English (BRE) American English (AME) Colour Colour Programme Program Cheque Check Manoeuvre Maneuver LEXICAL DIFFERENCES BRE AME Lift Elevator Petrol Gasoline Paraffin Kerosene Flat Apartment SOCIAL VARIETIES In places like Britain, where social stratification was, and perhaps still is,. The norm, uneducated speech also tends to be associated with the peasant class, and educated speech within the middle and upper classes such social differences also seamy marked pronunciation differences. Upper class speech, for examples, is marked by certain phonological features when are different from the speech of the working or lower class. STYLISTIC VARIETIES Stylistic variation results from differences in subject matter, social context and mode of discourse. Varieties of English which we can identify as a result of differences in subject matter are called “registers”. The relationship between the interlocutors, that is, the social context, results in the polarization between formal and informal varieties. EDUCATIONAL VARIATIES Educational varieties refers to the variations in speech that result from the formal education level of the speaker. The varieties range from the sub-standard speech of those with virtually no formal education, for example, manual laborers to the educated speech of university don. Educated speech usually enjoys a speech position of prestige and is usually, adopted as the language of government, business, commerce, education, mass media, literature and other formal communication. We also have varieties as a result of the society which is known as Sociolect. REASONS FOR VARIATION IN LANGUAGE How we speak is influenced by many things, firstly, there is learning to speak English itself, where how we pronounce our word is all part of learning how we speak and copying the speech of those around us. If we are both in a bilingual families, then we may learn to speak English alongside another language. Then as we go to school we lean to read and write a written work equivalent to English speech that has standardized forms of spelling, punctuation and grammar, known as standard English. Language use varies in terms of age, class, religion, gender, ethnicity and time etc.. More recently, Deborah Tannen has compared gender differences in language as more similar to cultural differences (cultural differences approach) comparing conversational goals, she argued that men have a report style, aiming to communicate factual information, whereas wore have a rapport style more concerned with maintaining relationship. HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS OR DIACHRONIC LINGUISTICS Historical linguistics, also called diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study of language change over time. The principal concern of historical linguistics or diachronic linguistics is to describe and accord for observable changes in a particular language. It reconstructs the pre- history of language and to determine their relativeness, grouping them into language families. It as well caters for the history of speech communities and finally study the history of words (etymology) THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE CHANGE It is an obvious truism to say that, given the dynamic nature of language, change is ever present. However, language change as a concept and subject of linguistic investigation is often regarded as something separate investigation from the study of language in general language change is variation over time in a language’s phonetic, morphology, semantic, syntactic and other features. Moral Cohen highlighted various types of language change under the headings of the external evolution. We go by explaining some of the areas at which the changes occurs lexical changes, phonetic, spelling semantic changes respectively. LEXICAL CHANGE The study of lexical changes form the diachronic position of the science of onomasiology. The ongoing influx of new words into the English language for examples help make it a rich field for investigation into language change. Despite the difficult of definition precisely and accurately the vocabulary available to speaker of English. Dictionary writers try to keep track of the change sin language by recording the appearance of new usage for existing word. E.g. “archaic” or “obsolete”. SPELLING CHANGES Standardization of spelling originated relatively recently. Difference in spelling after catch the eye of a reader of a text from a previous century. Some words are spelled according to regional pronunciation and personal interference. SBE S.A.E Labour Labor Rancour Rancor etc. THE PERVASIVENESS OF VARIATION (ENGLISH AS A CASE STUDY) English is spoken today on all the fire continents as a result of colonial expansion in the last four centuries or so. The colonial era is now definitely over but its consequences are only too clearly seen to be seen in present day English as an official and often native language in many of the former colonies along wife more or less strongly diverging varieties which arose in particular socio-political conditions. So called pidgin which in some cases later developed into creates. From the diachronic record of English varieties, it is evident that the prevalence of changes that are wisely observed in language cannot be derived. English has also come to play a central role as an international language. There are number for this of which the economic statues of the United States is certainly one of the most important nowadays. Internal reasons for the success of English in the international arena can also be given a little bit of English goes on long way as the grammar is largely analytical type so that it is suitable for those groups who do not wish to expand great effort on learning a foreign language. As a result of the geographical varieties, the two main groups we have are America and Britain for each, standard form are used as yardsticks for comparing other varieties of respective areas. In Britain the standard is called Received pronunciation. The term stems from Daniel Jones at the beginning of the present century and refers to the pronunciation of English which is accepted. That is, received in English society. BBC English, oxford English ,Queen’s English etc. The varieties of English both in Europe and overseas tend to show variation in certain key the features, for instance special verbal structure to express distinctions are common to nearly all varieties in the developing world. BRAJ B. KACHRU identified varieties in English language and this made him create three sphere or models. The inner circle: This includes the peripheral of traditionally linguistic and cultural contact. A majority of these languages are cognate language of English used in United State, Australian, Island, Britain, North American, New Zealand. Over 400 million speaker. The outer circle: It includes countries colonial by Britain and United states of American, Nigeria, India, Pakistan Kenya, Ghana, Tanzania. Expanding circle: The group of countries here did not institutionalized English but use it as a foreign language. Taiwan, China, Russia. A DIACHRONIC STUDY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE A historical or diachronic overviews of English. History of the English language has traditionally been divided into three main periods: old English (450 – 1100) A.D), Middle English (1100 – Circa 1500 AD), Early modern English (1500 + 1700). Over the centuries, the English language has been influenced by a number of other languages. Old English (450 – 1199 AD): Diving the 5th century AD three ceramic tribe (Saxons, Angles, and Lutes) came to the British Isle from various parts of northwest Germany as well as Denmark. The first invasion through the years, the saxon’s, angles and jutes mixed their different Germanic dialect. This group of dialect form what linguists refers to as old English or Arnold saxon. MIDDLE ENGLISH (1100 – 1500); After William the conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered. The England in 1066. AD. The Norman kings and high – ranking noble kings and high ranking nobles in England and to some extent elsewhere in the British Isle spoke Anglo – Norman a variety of old Norman originating from the northern language d’ oil dialect. Movement and lower – ranked nobles were often bilingual in Anglo – Northman and English. Middle and English. Middle English was internal characterized for the beginning of the great vowel shift. It was massive sound change affecting the long vowels of English basically, the long vowed shifted upwards; tat is, a vowel that is used to be pronounced in one place in the month would be pronounced in a different place. The most famous example of the middle English is chances. “The Canterbury tales: a collection of stores about a group of thirty people who travel as pilgrims to Canterbury, England. EARLY MODERN ENGLISH ; English undergoes extensive sound change during 1400s,while it’s spelling conventions remain largely constant. Modern English is often dated from Great vowel shift, which took place during the 15th century. During the Early modern period, loan words were borrowed from Italian, German, and Yiddish .Britain acceptance of and resistance to Americanism began during this period. MODERN ENGLISH (1500 TO THE PRESENTS); Modern English development after William catson established his printing press at Westminster Abbey in 1476). Johann Guttenberg invented the printing press in Germany England first press. The invention of printing press made books cheaper. By this time of Shakespeare’s writings (1592 – 1616), the language had become clearly recognizable as modern English. There were three big developments in the world at the beginning of modern English period. The Renaissance,the industrial revolution, the British colonialisms. English continues to change and develop with hundreds change and develop with hundred of new wards arriving every year. But even with all the borrowings from many other languages the heart of the English language remains the Anglo-Saxon of old English. The grammar of English is also distinctly of Germanic. Three gender (He, she and it) and see a simple set of verb tenses. Notable changes in the diachronic varieties of English ; Over the last 2,000 years ago, English has undergone extensive changes in its vowel system but many fewer change to its consequent. PHONOLOGICAL CHANGES In the old English period, a number of umlaut process affected vowels in complex ways, and unstressed vowels were gradually eroded, eventually leading to a loss of grammatical case and grammatical gender in the early middle period. The middle English period save further vowel changes. Most significant was the great vowel shift. (1500, 16). Which transformed the pronunciation of all long vowels, among the more significant recent changes to the language have been the development of rhotic and non chaotic account. The following table shows /principal development in the stressed vowel. Old English (c. 900 AD) Middle English (c. 1400 AD) Early Modern English (c. 1600 AD) Modern English Modern Spelling Examples ɑː ɔː oː oʊ oa, oCe oak, boat, whole, stone æː, æːɑ ɛː eː iː ea heal, beat, cheap eː, eːo eː iː ee, -e feed, deep, me, be Old English pronunciation is different from what we have in the modern now. VOCABULARY The vocabulary of Old English is different from that of middle and Modern English Respectively. The vocabulary is clearly different from the Modern English. Examples: There are also words that express fundamental concepts like Mann/Man,fowl/bird,god/good,net/meat,gears/grass,heah/high,etan/eat,drincan/drink,sawol/soul,rap/rope. CONCLUSION The idea of seeking insight into the past is something which comes naturally to human race; In fact, the need to access the past is indeed a distinguishing characteristic of human race. Today, English language constitute the most widely used language in the world. From original language and influence of other language has led us to know how the English language sprang up, up till date. English continuous to change and develop0, with hundreds of new words arriving every year. But even with all the borrowing from many languages the heart of the English language remains Anglo-Saxon of old English. REFERENCES Bloomfield, L., (1914) An introduction to the study of language. New York: Henry Holt. Bloofield, L., (1931, Language, New York: Henry Holt. Crystal, David (1997): English as a global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eckert, Penelope & John, R. Rickford (eds) 2002. Style and sociolinguistic. Fasold, R. W. (1991), the quiet demise of variable rules, American a Speech 66, 3 – 21. Kachru, Bray B. J. Yamuna Kachru & Cecil L. Belson (eds): The handbook of world. Englishes. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006. Labor William (2001): Principles of linguistic change, vol.1- 2: Social factors. Oxford Basil: Blackwell. Labor: William. (1994. Principle of linguistic change. Vol. 1: Internal factor Oxford. Blackwell. Trudgill, Peter: (1999). The dialects of England. Oxford: Blackwell. Yule, G. The study of language. P. 197, Cambridge University Press.