Biological Perspective of Criminality

Biological Perspective of CRIMINALITY Sakin Tanvir University of Dhaka Contents Topic Name Page No. Introduction 4 The Reason to Choose this Particular Topic 5 Basic Characteristics 5 Early Biological School 8 Socio-biology 15 Modern Biological School 16 Biochemical Factors 16 Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime 19 Genetics and Crime 26 CRITICISMS 33 Conclusion 35 References 35  Introduction: “To have once been a criminal is no disgrace. To remain a criminal is the disgrace.” Malcom X Crime, a very significant term that has occurred from the ancient times of the world and it’s occurring everyday in our society. This heinous act is kind of common term in our society because everyday when we read the newspapers or watch news on TV we see a lot of news on criminal acts and even some of us have to face those acts as a victim or a witness. So anyone can question us, What is Crime? What is the relation between crime and biology? So let’s start the story. Farmer, Lindsay: “Crime, definition of”, in Cane and Conoghan, Oxford University Press,2008, p.263Crime or criminal offence is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society or the state. According to my point of view, Crime is an intentional act or failure to act that is in violation of criminal law, committed without defence or excuse and penalized by the states as a felony or misdemeanor. Now come to the next question’s answer, before finding the relation between crime and biology, we need to know about the criminology and it’s history. We know that crimes are occurring from the beginning of the world. In order to understand the causes and the way to prevent the crime there had been made many laws like The Law of Manu, The Hindu Law, The Law of Twelve Table, The Law of Hammurabi, The Roman Law, Germanic Law etc. They were so brutal and barbaric and even imposed for petty crimes. Moreover, many laws were unwritten and so judges could deter someone on their own wish. In England, the royal family and church were above the laws. Then in the middle of the eighteenth century, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham from Chicago School of Criminology brought out the principles where people could get justice and criminals could get punished according to their crimes. It is called “The Classical School of Criminology”. Then in the middle of Nineteenth century, some scholars like Cesare Lombroso, Charles Goring, Raffaele Garofalo, Earnest A. Hooton etc brought the Positivist School of Criminology and The Biological Perspective of criminology was the first theory they invented to understand crime. Because they thought that by understanding the human body, we could understand and prevent crimes. That’s the relation between crime and biology. The Reason to Choose this Particular Topic: “The body is the instrument of our hold on the world” Simone de Beauvoir We know that the biological perspective of criminality has become abolished now-a-days, but we have to remember that people work/commit crimes by their body and human body has many functions and tasks that lead a man to do a job. So they can also help a man to commit crimes. Moreover, we all know that all kinds of human tasks are regulating by the brain and it’s also a part of human body. So if we understand the human body and its function, we can assume that how people commit crimes and what kind of people can be crime prone. We believe that this will help us to prevent crimes and apprehend criminals. Basic Characteristics: Biological characteristics play a vital role in the origins of criminal behavior. Ahmed, R. (2016). Theory and Practice of Criminology. Dhaka: Nurer Rahman, p. 63 These biological characteristics maybe classified as follows: Inherited Genetic Person’s Environment Inherited: This is the result of the genes of individuals received from their parents at the time of conception. Genetic: This is the genetic mutations that occur at the time of conception or develop while the fetus is in the uterus. This biological characteristic is genetic but not inherited. Person’s Environment: Saleem A. Shah and Loren H. Roth: “Biological and Physiological Factors in Criminality”, in Daniel Glaser, ed., Handbook of Criminology, Rend McNally, Chicago, 1974, pp. 103-6Others may develop as the result of the person’s environment, such as from injury or inadequate diet. This biological characteristic is neither genetic nor inherited. According to early biological theories in criminology structure determines function that is, individuals behave differently because of the fundamental fact that they are somehow structurally different. That's why there were two terms on that point, They are: 1. Physiognomy 2. Phrenology Physiognomy: Physiognomy is the study of human conduct on the facial features and characteristics. The founder of this theory is T. Baptiste Della Porte (1535-1615). He didn't support the facial features but did give importance on human characteristics. Facial features and characteristics are the main theme of physiognomy.  Moreover, another theologian called John Casper Lavatar tried to establish a relation between facial features and human conduct. Vold, George B: Theoretical Criminology, 4th ed. P. 68 His book is "Physiognomical Fragments".  Figure-01: Image of Physiognomy Phrenology: Phrenology focused on the external shape of the skull instead of the appearance of the face. It was developed by Franz Joseph Gall. This theory is based on Aristotle's idea of the brain as the organ of the mind. John Casper Spurzheim (1776-1831) was also a contributor of this theory.  Hall listed 26 special faculties of the brain; Superzheim increased the number to 35. Important faculties of brain among them are: 1. Amativeness, 2. Conjugality, 3. Philoprogenitiveness, 4. Friendliness, 5. Combativeness, 6. Destructiveness, 7. Acquisitiveness, 8. Cautiousness, 9. Self-esteem, 10. Firmness, 11. Benevolence, 12. Constrictiveness, 13. Ideality, 14. Imitativeness, 15. Secretiveness. All these faculties were grouped into 3 catagories:   1. The Intellectual Faculties                       2. The Moral Faculties                       3. The Lower or Active Propensities Figure-02 Image of Phrenology Early Biological School Cesare Lombroso Among the first to apply Darwin’s findings to criminal behavior and criminals, Lombroso was an Italian criminologist and founder of the Italian School of positivist criminology. Lombroso rejected the established Classical School, which held that crime was a characteristic trait of human nature. Instead, using concepts drawn from earlier perspectives, such as physiognomy, Lombroso argued, in essence, that criminality was inherited and that someone “born criminal” (this phrase was coined by his student, Enrico Ferri) could be identified by physical defects, which confirmed a criminal as savage, or atavistic. Lombroso published Criminal Man in 1876, helping to establish the newly forming Positive School of criminology. Inspired by Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory, he believed that criminals were not as evolved as people who did not commit crime and that crime is a result of biological differences between criminals and non-criminals. A central focus of Lombroso’s work is the concept of atavism. Atavism describes the reappearance in an organism of characteristics of some remote ancestor after several generations of absence. It often refers to one that exhibits atavism, that is, a throwback. It can also mean a reversion to an earlier behavior, outlook, or approach. Lombroso approached this concept believing that criminals were throwbacks on the evolutionary scale. He believed that modern criminals shared physical characteristics (stigmata) with primitive humans. In his later years, he eventually thought that social and environmental factors can contribute to criminality. Lombroso reached his conclusions by studying the cadavers of executed criminals for physical indicators of atavism, developing a typological system (with four main criminal types) to categorize these individuals. Although his methods were flawed, and most of the traits he listed failed to distinguish criminals from matched samples of non-criminals, he was among the first to apply scientific principles to the collection of data and to use statistical techniques in his data analysis. In addition to examining the physical characteristics of the criminal, he also evaluated the conditions under which crime is committed. He also was among the first to study female criminality, speculating that females were more likely to be criminals “by passion.” Lombroso determined that serious offenders inherited their criminal traits and were “born criminals,” atavistic throwbacks to earlier evolutionary ancestors. They had strong jaws, big teeth, bulging foreheads, and long arms. These types of offenders constituted about one third of all criminals. The remaining two thirds were “criminaloids” (minor offenders) who only occasionally commit crime. Although primarily remembered for his claim that criminal behaviors were inherited, Lombroso also argued that environmental factors can play an important role in crime. He speculated that alcoholism, climate changes, and lack of education may contribute to criminality. Lombroso’s work started other researchers on the path to determine a hereditary source for criminal behavior. His student, Enrico Ferri (1856–1929), disagreed with Lombroso’s focus on the physiological, preferring instead to examine the interactive effects of physical factors, individual factors, and social factors and to blame criminality on a lack of moral sensibility. Another Italian contemporary, Raffaele Garofalo (1851–1934), developed a theory of natural crime, focusing on those acts that could be prevented or reduced by punishment. Garofalo also suggested the elimination of individuals who posed a threat to society, to improve the quality of the society and ensure its survival. Like Ferri, he believed crime was more the result of a lack in moral sensibilities rather than a physiological problem. Ahmed, R (2016). Theory and Practice of Criminology. Dhaka: Nurer Rahman, p-69.Lombroso classified criminals into four types. 1. Born Criminals 2. Criminal by passion 3. Insane criminal 4. Occasional Criminal In developing his theory, Lombroso observed the physical characteristics of Italian prisoners and compared them to those of Italian soldiers. He concluded that the criminals were physically different. The physically characteristics that he used to identify prisoners included. 1. Asymmetry of the face 2. Sloping forehead 3. Large monkey-like ears 4. Large lips 5. A twisted nose 6. Excessive cheekbones 7. Long arms 8. Excessive wrinkles on the skin. 9. Defective eyes 10. Abnormal dentition 11. Anomalies of hair 12. Scant beard 13. Supernumerary fingers and toes 14. Abnormal and consistent sex organ 15. Defects of the thorax 16. Asymmetry of cranium 17. Abnormal head Figure-03: Image of Lombroso’s Born Criminal Charles Goring The common assumptions of the biological theories of crime are that physical attributes can lead an individual to criminal activities. Generally, the thought was that certain physical attributes were passed down from parent to child, making the child more at risk of committing crimes. These earlier theories of crime focused on heredity, and were quick to make assumptions about the findings of the research. Charles Goring attempted to expand upon Cesare Lombroso’s research to discover if it held any truth. Goring developed a study that compared prisoners with members of the Royal Engineers of London and found no differences in facial features or skull sizes between the two groups. However, Goring did conclude that he prisoners tended to have “inferiority in stature and in body weight” (Vold and Bernard and Snipes, 2002:34-35). However, modern criminologists tend to disregard the research stating that it was enough of a difference between stature and body weight to be significant. These previous biological theories generally did not take social factors into consideration when conducting their research, which results in many individuals feeling as if the data is flawed. More recent research into the biological theories of crime examines neurotransmitters, hormones, the central nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system. These theories do accept some social factors into the given thoughts. However, these theories still focus on the biological aspect of why crimes are committed. For neurotransmitters, there is the belief that those with lower levels of specific kinds of neurotransmitters are more likely to be anti-social. There is a belief that when certain hormones are released it makes the individual more likely to act in an aggressive way. Some individuals believe that problems can occur in the central nervous system, specifically in the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain. It is believed that problems within the frontal lobe can lead the individual to be more violent, whereas irregularities within the temporal lobe can lead an individual to be more sexual offending.  https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/66045_Heidt_Chapter_3.pdfOthers believe that the “fight or flight” response in the autonomic nervous system may not work properly in some individuals making them more likely to be involved in criminal behavior. Figure-04: Image of Goring’s Theory Earnest A. Hooton  Evaluations and categorizations of a person’s body build or physique also became popular as researchers attempted to link crime with some outwardly observable differences. In 1925, Ernst Kretschmer (1888–1964), a German psychiatrist, published Physique and Character, in which he described three categories of body type (asthenic, athletic, pyknik) associated with three categories of behaviors (cyclothemic, schizothemic, and displastic). Cyclothemes were manic-depressive and typified by soft skin, a round shape, and little muscle development, and tended to commit the less serious offenses that were more intellectual in nature. Schizothemes were antisocial and apathetic, committing the more serious violent offenses, and were either asthenic (thin and tall) or athletic (wide and strong). Displastics could be any body type but were characterized by highly charged emotional states and unable to control their emotions. Kretschmer associated displastics with sexual offenses. Although Kretschmer attempted to develop a typology that associated behaviors with physique, he did not put much consideration into the complex nature of behavior and its interaction with the environment. Among those who continued this search was a contemporary of Goring, Harvard anthropologist Ernest Hooton (1887–1954). Dissatisfied with Goring’s findings, Hooton spent 12 years conducting research into the criminal nature of man to disprove Goring and to support Lombroso. His first influential publication, Crime and the Man (1939), documented his study of 14,000 prisoners and 3,000 non-prisoner controls in 10 states. Hooton was more rigorous than Goring in his methods, differentiating his subjects on the basis of types of crime and by geographic, ethnic, and racial backgrounds. Kader, M. (2017) Criminology. (4th Edition). Dhaka: Books 4U, p-63Hooton agreed with Lombroso’s idea of a born criminal and argued that most crime was committed by individuals who were “biologically inferior,” “organically inadaptable,” “mentally and physically stunted and warped,” and “sociologically debased.” He argued that the only way to solve crime was by eliminating people who were morally, mentally, or physically “unfit,” or by segregating them in an environment apart from the rest of society.  As Hooton was conducting his research and developing his conclusions, the sociological world was developing an interest in the contribution of social factors and social environments to the development of criminal behavior. Sociological research out of the University of Chicago (i.e., the Chicago School) stressed the impact of the social environment rather than an individual’s biology as crucial to the development of crime. Hooten was widely criticized because of his failure to consider social factors and his myopic focus on biological determinism. William Sheldon William Sheldon, (born November 19, 1898, Warwick, Rhode Island, U.S.—died September 16, 1977, Cambridge, Massachusetts), American psychologist and physician who was best known for his theory associating physique, personality, and delinquency. Sheldon attended the University of Chicago, where he received a Ph.D. in psychology in 1926 and an M.D. in 1933. In 1951, after having worked at various universities, Sheldon joined the University of Oregon Medical School, where he became distinguished professor of medicine  and director of the constitution clinic, which examined the relationships between physical characteristics and disease; he remained there until his retirement in 1970. Also in 1951 he became director of research at the Biological Humanics Foundation in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Influenced by the pragmatism of American philosopher and psychologist William James and by his background as a naturalist who had also studied animals, Sheldon became convinced that the psychological makeup of humans had biological foundations. He constructed a classification system that associated physiology and psychology, which he outlined in The Varieties of Human Physique (1940) and The Varieties of Temperament (1942). Sheldon classified people according to three body types: endomorphs, who are rounded and soft, were said to have a tendency toward a “viscerotonic” personality (i.e., relaxed, comfortable, extroverted); mesomorphs, who are square and muscular, were said to have a tendency toward a “somotonic” personality (i.e., active, dynamic, assertive, aggressive); and ectomorphs, who are thin and fine-boned, were said to have a tendency toward a “cerebrotonic” personality (i.e., introverted, thoughtful, inhibited, sensitive). He later used this classification system to explain delinquent behaviour, finding that delinquents were likely to be high in mesomorphy and low in ectomorphy and arguing that mesomorphy’s associated temperaments (active and aggressive but lacking sensitivity and inhibition) tended to cause delinquency and criminal behaviour. Although his research was groundbreaking, it was criticized on the grounds that his samples were not representative and that he mistook correlation for causation. Kader, M. (2017) Criminology. (4th Edition). Dhaka: Books 4U, p-68-69According to Sheldon, human beings can be divided into three basic body types or somatotypes: The Endomorphic The Mesomorphic The Ectomorphic Body Type Body Features Associated Character Traits Endomorph Soft body Underdeveloped muscle Round Shaped Over-developed digestive system Tolerant Evenness of Emotions Love of Comfort Sociable Good humored Relaxed Need for affection Mesomorph Hard, muscular body Overly mature appearance Rectangular shaped Thick Skin Upright posture Large trunk Heavy Chest Large wrists and hands Adventurous Desire for power and dominance Courageous Indifference to what others think or want Assertive, bold Zest for physical activity Competitive Love of risk and chance Ectomorph Thin Flat chest Delicate build Young appearance Tall Lightly muscled Stoop-shouldered Large brain Self conscious Preference for privacy Introverted Inhibited Socially anxious Artistic Mentally intense Emotionally restrained Sheldon later used this classification system to explain delinquent behaviour, finding that delinquents were likely to be high in mesomorphy and low in ectomorphy and arguing that mesomorphy’s associated temperaments (active and aggressive but lacking sensitivity and inhibition) tended to cause delinquency and criminal behaviour. Although his research was groundbreaking, it was criticized on the grounds that his samples were not representative and that he mistook correlation for causation. Figure-05 Image of Sheldon’s Somatotype Thoery Raffaele Garofalo Garofalo called for the definition of natural crime that transcends individual variations, that is not dependent on a particular situation and is not susceptible to economic and political factors. Kader, M. (2017). Criminology (4th Edition). Dhaka Books 4U, p- 62 For Garofalo, the criminal was one who lacked the proper development of altruistic sensibilities. He identified four types of criminal: 1. Murderers 2. Violent Criminals 3. Criminals Deficiency in Probity 4. Lascivious Criminals Enrico Ferri Enrico Ferri was an Italian criminologist, socialist, and most widely known student of Cesare Lombroso. He was a prolific writer on a vast number of criminological topic. His famous book Criminal Sociology was published in 1884. Ferri outlined six types of criminals. They are: Born Criminal Insane Criminal Passionate Criminal Occasional Criminal Habitual Criminal Involuntary Criminal Born Criminal: Is one because of heredity who is more likely to respond to criminal stimuli. Insane Criminal: Suffers from mental disease or a neuropsychopathic disturbance. Passionate Criminal: Two types of passionate criminal: One who suffers from a prolonged and chronic mental state. One who suffers from an emotional outburst. Occasional Criminal: The vast majority of criminals commit crimes as a result of family and social milieu. Habitual Criminal: Commits crime because of the social milieu. Crime is an acquired habit. Involuntary Criminal: Not fully developed concept. Socio-biology Definition of Socio-biology: Socio-biology is a field of biology that aims to explain social behavior in terms of examine and explain social behaviour in terms of evolution. It draws from discipline including ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology and population genetics. History of Socio-biology: Daniel Dennett suggested that the political philosopher Thomas Hobbes was the first socio-biologist. Dennett, Daniel (1995). Darwin’s Dangerous Idea. Simon and Schuster. pp. 453-454In his book ‘Leviathan’ (1651) Hobbes explain the origins of morals in human society from an amoral sociobiological perspective. But the term was first coined by John Paul in 1948. It was not that much famous than Until E. O. Wilson published his books Socio-biology: The New Synthesis. Wilson is the central figure in the history of socio-biology. He drew mathematical models of social behaviour. The book pioneered and popularized the attempt to explain the evolutionary mechanics behind social behaviour such as altruism, aggression, and nurturance. Wilson later wrote a book, On Human Nature that addressed human behaviour specifically. Sociobiological Theory: Socio-biology assumes that human behaviour as well as animal behaviour can partly explain as the outcome of the natural selection. To understand behaviour we must consider evolutionary as an important part. Natural selection is fundamental to evolutionary theory. He described Natural selection as analogous to artificial selection, a process by which animals and plants with traits considered desirable by human breeders are systematically favoured for reproduction. Sociology is based on two fundamental premises: 1. Certain behavioural traits are inherited 2. Inherited behaviour traits have been honed by natural selection .So it can be said that these traits are probably “adaptive” in the environment where these species evolve Socio-biology and criminal behaviour: Different crimes get boosted because of sociobiological reason. Let’s discuss about some of them: Homicide theory: Violent confrontations over Issues ultimately related to reproductive success will be observed in the most disadvantaged are ones that lack firmly established dominance hierarchies and social restraints. Rape: All males posses a genetic predisposition towards sexual aggression .So low-status males are more likely to engage in rape as they already live in disadvantage environment. Child abuse: There are environmental conditions where the behaviour inclined towards child abuse and neglect may have enhanced person fitness and the fitness of close genetic relatives. Abuse and neglect increases when resources and litter size are disproportionate or when the female lacks mate assistance. A triage strategy increases the probability of the survival of the most reproductively viable offspring. Modern Biological School Biochemical Factors Biocriminologists have made significant contributions in areas other than the genetics of criminality.Research on biochemical factors relates food allergies,diet,hypoglycemia,and hormones to criminality.so let's focus the biochemical factors on criminality. Food allergies: Jerome was not a typical sixth-grader. He frequently engaged in fights with teenagers.His teacher found him to be disruptive, angry, moody, and rude. His mother complained that he had no friends and spent a good deal of time alone in his room crying. His father characterized him as irritable, unhappy, restless, aggressive, and hostile. Jerome had trouble falling asleep. He had other physical ailments as well. Treatment with drugs and psychotherapy had failed. He was transferred to a private school, where the psychologist designed an individual study program for him. That, too, failed. Then the school nutritionist placed Jerome on a diet that contained no food dyes, milk, eggs, corn, cocoa, sugar, or wheat. Within a day he was a bit better. Within a week he was sleeping well, doing his homework, and making friends. After six months, Jerome was a normal sixth-grader.but this is not the end of the story. After eight months, Jerome tested the waters, "what harm could a couple eggs do?" he reasoned. For lunch he ate one fried egg sandwich on wheat bread with corn on the cob and a large glass of artificial lemonade. Within minutes Jerome's eyes became ditacted and glassy, his face turned red, and he screamed without restraint. His violent and aggresive behavior returned more quickly than it had disappeared. Empirical Tests on Food Allergies: Over the last decade researchers have investigated the relation between food allergies and antisocial or deviant behavior. In fact, since 1908 there have been numerous medical reports that various foods cause such reactions as irritability, hyperactivity. seizures, agitation, and behavior that is out of character. https://learning.uonbi.ac.ke/courses/GPR200/document/criminology/POSIVITISM%20CRIMINOLOGY%203.docInvestigators have identified the following food components that may result in severe allergic reactions: * Phenyl ethylamine(found in chocolate) * Tyramine(found in aged cheese and wine) * Monosodium glutamate(used as a flavor enhancer in many foods) * Aspartame(found in artificial sweeteners) * Xanthenes(found in caffeine) Each of these food components has been associated with behavioral disorders,including criminality. Diet: Other investigations link criminality to diets high in sugar and carbohydrates, to vitamin deficiency or dependency, and to excessive food additives. Stephen Schoenthaler has conducted a series of studies on the relation between sugar and the behavior of institutionalized offenders. In these investigations inmates were placed on a modified diet that included very little sugar. They received fruit juice in place of soda and vegetables instead of candy. Schoenthaler found fewer disciplinary actions and a significant drop in aggressive behavior in the experimental group. Some persons charged with crimes have used this finding to build a defense. Rresearch on Diet: Other researchers have looked for the causes of crime in vitamin deficiencies.one such study found that 70 percent of criminals charged with serious offenses in one Canadian jurisdiction had a greater than normal need for vitamin B-6.other studies have noted deficiencies of vitamins B-3 and B-6 in criminal population samples. Some investigators have examined the effects of food additives and food dyes on social behavior. Benjamin Fein gild has argued that between 30 and 60 percent of all hyperactivity in children may be attributable to reactions to food coloring. There is some additional support for this hypothesis and studies have suggested that a diet deficient in protein may be responsible for violent aggression. let us examine the association between the consumption of tryptophan, an amino acid and crime rates. Tryptophan is a normal component of many foods. Low levels of it have been associated with aggression and, in criminal studies, an increased sensitivity to electric shock. Anthony R Mawson and K.W Jacobs reasoned that diets low in tryptophan would be likely to result in higher levels of violent crime, particularly aggressive violent offenses, such as homicide. They hypothesized that because corn-based diets are deficient in tryptophan, a cross-national comparison of countries should reveal a positive relationship between corn consumption and homicide rates. Mawson and Jacobs obtained homicide data from the United Nations and the mean per capita corn intake rate of fifty-three foreign countries from the US. department of agriculture. They discovered that countries whose per capita rates of corn consumption where above the medium had significantly higher homicide rates than countries whose diets were based on wheat or rice. Hypoglycemia: Another biochemical factor related to criminality is hypoglycemia, a condition that occurs when the level of sugar in the blood falls below an acceptable range. The brain is particularly vulnerable to hypoglycemia, and such a condition can impair its function. Symptoms of hypoglycemia include anxiety, headache, confusion, fatigue and even aggressive behavior Study on Hypoglycemia: As early as 1943 researchers linked the condition with violent crime, including murder, rape, and assault. Subsequent studies found that violent and impulsive male offenders had a higher rate of hypoglycemia than noncriminal controls. Again, consider the work of Matti Virkkunen, who has conducted a series of studies of habitually violent and psychopathic offenders. In one such study he examined the results of a glucose tolerance test administrated to 37 habitually violent offenders with antisocial personalities,31 habitually violent offenders with intermittent explosive disorders, and twenty controls.the offenders were found to be significantly more hypoglycemic than the controls. Hormones: Experiment have shown that male animals are typically more aggressive than females. male aggression is directly linked to male hormones. If an aggressive male mouse is injected with female hormones, he will stop fighting. Likewise, the administration of male hormones to pregnant monkeys results in female offspring who even three years after birth, are more aggressive than the daughters of non-injected mothers. R.K. Gupta, ... H.H.-C. Yao, in Comprehensive Toxicology, 2010 While it would be misleading to equate male hormones with aggression and female hormones with nonaggression, there is some evidence that abnormal level of hormones in humans may promote criminal behavior. Study on Hormones: several investigators have found higher level of testosterone in the blood of individuals who have committed violent offenses. Some studies also relate the premenstrual syndrome to delinquency, concluding that women are at greater risk of aggressive and suicidal behavior before and during their menstrual period. After studying 156 newly admitted adult female prisoners, Katherina Dalton concluded that 49 percent of all their crimes were committed either in the premenstrual period or during menstruation. Androgen receptors Androgens such as testosterone bind to the AR and regulate gene transcription via the classical genomic pathway. Although androgens are considered to be male hormones, studies using AR knockout (ARKO) mouse lines reveal critical roles of androgen signaling in ovarian functions (Shiina et al. 2006). In the absence of AR, female mice develop premature ovarian failure phenotypes. At 3 weeks of age, ARKO females have apparently normal ovaries with follicle numbers similar to those observed in wild-type females. However, the number of healthy follicles in the ARKO ovary gradually declines, with a marked increase of atretic follicles, and by 40 weeks ARKO mice become infertile with no follicles present in the ovary. Although androgen signaling is essential for ovarian functions, exposure to excess androgens is harmful to female reproduction. Peripubertal androgen exposure reduces the sensitivity of the GnRH pulse generator to the negative feedback of sex steroids, resulting in increased GnRH pulse frequency and subsequent abnormalities in gonadotropin secretion and ovulatory function (Blank et al. 2007). Neurophysiological Conditions and Crime: Neurophysiology means the study of brain activity. The relationship between neurophysiology and crime first received a great deal of attention in 1968 in the Whitman case. Then criminologists started studying on brain dysfunction and impairment. Neurophysiologylical theories discussed about brain structure, brain damage, brain chemicals etc. Now we're going to discuss about that: Neurological Impairment and Crime: Memorization, visual awareness tests, short term auditory memory tests and verbal IQ tests etc are related to neurology. Siegel, L. (2006). Criminology: Theories, Patterns and Typologies (10th Edition). USA:West/Wadsworth Publishing Company, p-136Probably the most important measure of neurophysiologylical functioning is the Electroencephalograph (EEG) which records the electrical impulses given off by the brain. Measurements of the EEG reflect the activity of neurons located in the cerebral cortex.  Behaviors highly correlated with an abnormal EEG included poor impulse control, inadequate social adaptation, hostility, temper tantrums and destructiveness.  Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD): MBD is related to an abnormality in cerebral structure. It has been defined as abruptly appearing maladaptive behavior that interrupts the lifestyle and life flow of an individual.  Figure-06: Image of The Division of our Nervous System We know that brain is a part of our nervous system and it's in the central position. Our brain is divided into 3 parts. They are: 1. Hind Brain 2. Mid Brain 3. Forbrain (The Largest Part) Our forebrain then divided into 3 parts:    a) Thalamus    b) Hypothalamus    c) Cerebrum. Among them hypothalamus is a part of our limbic system which contains hippocampus and amygdala. https://youtu.be/B_LOMWZfpwoNow, let's see how crimes are depended on brain function: Amygdala: It is a small portion of temporal lobe which is in the middle of the brain. It is responsible for emotions, survival instincts and memory. Its our brain’s fire alarm when we are upset or angry. It can cause us to throw tantrums. Frontal Lob: It is responsible for emotional expressions, problem solving, memory, language, judgment, sexual behaviors. It is the control panel of our personality and our ability to communicate. Hippocampus: It is the part of our limbic system. It is connected to our amygdale as well. It is responsible for memory and more specifically long term memory. Figure-07: Image of Our Brain Researchers have found that if these areas are affected or get harmed, then we become upset, depressed, forget about punishments. For this, some patterns on abnormal behavior like dyslexia, visual perception problems, hyperactivity, poor attention span, temper tantrums and aggressiveness, explosive rage can be shown and crimes like spouse beating, child abuse, suicide, aggressiveness, motiveless homicide happen. Furthermore, some studies measuring the presence of MBD in offender populations have found that up to 60% exhibit brain dysfunction on psychological tests. Figure-08: Image of Criminal Brain Attention Deficiency/ Hyperactivity Disorder: Siegel, L. (2006). Criminology: Theories, Patterns and Typologies (10th Edition). USA:West/Wadsworth Publishing Company, p-137In this kind of disorder, a child shows a developmentally inappropriate lack of attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. The symptoms are given below: Lack of Attention: Frequently fails to finish projetcs. Doesn't seem to pay attention. Doesn't sustain interest in play activities. Cannot sustain concentration on school work or related tasks. Is easily distracted. Impulsivity: Frequently acts without thinking. Often "calls out" in class. Doesn't want to wait his or her turn in lines or games. Shifts from activity to activity. Cannot organize tasks or work. Requires constant supervision. Hyperactivity: Constantly runs around and climbs on things . Shows excessive motor activity while asleep. Cannot sit still; is constantly fidgeting. Doesn't remain in his or her seat in class. Is constantly on the go like a motor Figure-09 Image of Hyperactivity Disorder Tumors, Injuries and Disease: The presence of brain tumors has also been linked to a wide variety of psychological problems, including personality changes, hallucinations and psychotic episodes. Siegel, L. (2006). Criminology: Theories, Patterns and Typologies (10th Edition). USA:West/Wadsworth Publishing Company, p-138It is true that those people who have tumors in their brains are prone to depression, irritability, temper bursts and even homicide attacks. Moreover, injuries can bring depression, frustration and crime prone thoughts to a human’s life. Figure-10 Image of Tumor in Brain Brain Chemistry (Neurotransmitter) and Crime: Neurotransmitters are those compounds who help to regulate and activate brain functions. There are some chemicals who are accused to be responsible for aggression. They are: Androgens, Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Seratonin, Monoamine Oxidase (MAO), GABA etc. Ellis found that females have higher levels of MAO than males, a condition that may explain gender differences in the crime rate. Figure-11: Image of Brain Chemistry Genetics and Crime: Figure-12: Image of Gene Genes: A unit of heredity which is transformed from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristics of the offspring.In another word gene is a unit of DNA that is usually located on a chromosome and that controls the development of one or more traits and is the basic unit by which genetic information is passed from parent to offspring. Genetics and crime: The influence that genes have on antisocial/criminal behavior has begun to receive a great deal of attention in the criminological literature. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/57e3/f3ecc67be0ee43bf7348ed6b230e392b4d5b.pdfStudies that assess the association between criminal behavior and genetic polymorphisms do so by way of gene‐behavior studies, gene × gene studies, and/or gene × environment studies. More specifically, researchers from many disciplines have identified genetic polymorphisms that operate either additively, in conjunction with other genes, and/or in interactions with the environment to influence a variety of antisocial behaviors. Faulty genes which a child inherits from his parents can causes a variety of disfunction. For imstance,a single faulty gene is responsible for appearence of phenylketonuria(PKU).More often, genes act as risk factors that can cause a particular disorder or behaviour to appear certain environmental conditions are also present. How Do Genes Influence Criminal Behavior: Why do people act the way they do? There is no simple answer to this question, because social behaviors, like all human characteristics, are influenced by multiple factors. The two most basic influences on social behavior are genes (the chemical instructions that people inherit from their parents’ DNA) and the environment (all other, noninherited factors). Contrary to a common misconception, genes do not cause behavioral or personality traits, they only influence them. Although genes may be linked to certain traits, it is unlikely that researchers will ever find a single gene that is entirely responsible for most complicated behaviors. First, each gene is not linked to one and only one trait; one gene may influence many different personality characteristics. In addition, many genes work in concert to influence most behaviors, meaning the genetic aspects of a particular trait are the result of small effects over hundreds of individual genes.To be criminal from gene inheritance depends on nature vs nurtue. Nature refers to biological causes for behaviour: this means the influence of genes that have been inherited from biological parents. Nurture refers to the environmental causes of behaviour: this means the importance of upbringing, regardless of who the parents are. Even if all of the genes influencing behavior were discovered, behavior still could not be fully explained nor predicted. This is because people’s environments are just as important in influencing behavior as their inherited genes. Factors such as parenting, schooling, trauma, and the prenatal environment, all play critical roles in the development of social behavior. Even the most highly heritable traits, such as height, are influenced by environmental factors, as demonstrated by malnourished children that are very short despite having tall parents. In this example, environmental factors such as nutritional intake have actually altered the way in which genetically influenced characteristics are expressed. Methods of Studying Genetics Influences on Criminal Behavior: A wide variety of different methods are used in behavioral genetic research, only a few of which are outlined below. 1. The XYY Chromosomes Syndrome 2. Twin studies. 3. Adoption Studies. The XYY Syndrome: Figure-13: Image of XYY Syndrome Most of the people have 46 chromosomes in each cell. In males, this typically includes one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY). XYY syndrome is a genetic condition that occurs when a male has an extra copy of the Y chromosome in each of their cells (XYY). Sometimes, this mutation is only present in some cells. Males with XYY syndrome have 47 chromosomes because of the extra Y chromosome. This condition is also sometimes called Jacob’s syndrome, XYY karyotype, or YY syndrome. According to the National Institutes of Health, XYY syndrome occurs in 1 out of every 1,000 boys. For the most part, people with XYY syndrome live typical lives. Some may be taller than average and face learning difficulties or speech problems. They may also grow up with minor physical differences, such as weaker muscle tone. Besides these complications, though, males with XYY syndrome don’t usually have any distinguishing physical features, and they have normal sexual development. XYY Syndromes Symptoms: The signs and symptoms of XYY syndrome differ from person to person and age to age. Symptoms in a baby who has XYY syndrome can include: ★ hypotonic (weak muscle tone) ★ delayed motor skill development, such as with walking or crawling ★ delayed or difficult speech Symptoms in a young child or teenager with XYY syndrome can include: ★ delayed or difficult speech ★ emotional or behavioral issues ★ hand trembling or involuntary muscle movements ★ hypotonic (weak muscle tone) ★ learning disabilities ★ taller-than-average height ★ more aggressiveness than normal boys. As, the person who belongs these characteristics, people do not take them normally.The environment convinced them to feel different. Most of the time, it is seems that they are deprived from family and society. Thus, these types of people may involve themselves with criminal activities. But,one individual may have genetics problems like this. He may have a genetic predisposition to be violent but be born into a wealthy, well-educated, loving and calm environment, but he may never commit a violent act. This type nature vs nurture will be a fact. Twin Studies: Twin studies investigate the role of nature. Researchers have compared identical and fraternal twins to discover that crime is whether genetically predetermined or not. ★ Identical Twins: Identical twins also called "Monozygotic"(MZ) Twins. Monozygotic ( MZ) twins were conceived in a single egg , which later split. These twins share the same genes . This means they MUST be the same sex. They usually look identical, although development in the womb and later health and diet can make them look different. They shared same characteristics between them. For these,if one of the twins have the tendency to do violence, the other also may have the same character.Researchers found that identical twins are more likely to do the same thing influenced by each other. ★ Non Identical Twins: Non identical twins also called "Dizygotic"(DZ ) twins were conceived when two or more eggs were fertilized at the same time. These twins share the same amount of genes as any brother or sister, up to 50% in the case of same-sex DZ twins, but DZ twins may be of different sex . They are also called fraternal twins and they don't have to look identical - although they may be very hard to tell apart. As these twins don't share the 100% gene between them. They are less likely to get admitted into violence influenced by each other. Figure-14: Image of Twin Studies Adoption Studies: Adoption studies look at the impact of nurture on children who are raised by parents who are not their biological parents. Because there is no biological connection between the parent and the child, if the child grows up to share the parents' traits (or the traits of their step-brothers or step-sisters who are biologically related to the parents), then these traits are probably produced by nurture. Adoption studies are made more valid if the researchers have information about the child's biological parent. If the child grows up with traits that resemble the adoptive parent more than the biological parent, this is stronger evidence that these traits are due to nurture. For example, an adoption study might investigate intelligence. If an adopted child score just as highly for IQ as his or her adoptive parents or step-brothers or step-sisters, this suggests that intelligence is down to nurture. If the adopted child's biological parents scored very differently on IQ tests, this strengthens the conclusion that upbringing, not genetics, is responsible for intelligence. On the other hand, if the adopted child's IQ scores do not resemble those of the adoptive family, this suggests nurture is not such a strong influence on intelligence. If the adopted child's IQ more closely resembles the biological parents, this further weakens the idea that nurture can influence intelligence. Yates, William. “Adoption Studies”A study on adoption by Mednic and his associates found some information that: ★ Of boys whose adoptive and biological parents had no criminal record, 13.5% were convicted to crime. ★ Of boys who had criminal adoptive parents and non criminal biological parents, 14.7% were convicted to crimes. ★ Of boys who had noncriminal adoptive parents and criminal biological parents,20% were convicted to crimes. ★ Of boys who had both criminal adoptive and biological parents, 24.5 % were convicted to crimes. It proves that the criminality of biological parents has more influence on the child than that of the adoptive parents. So, a clear thing is genes mostly influenced criminality. Figure-15: Image of Adoption Studies  CRITICISMS Criticism of Lombroso’s Theory: Lombroso’s work has been kept alive more by criticism than by agreement. Charles Goring considered Lombroso’s work to be unscientific. The whole of Lombroso’s enterprise was conducted with the unconscious intention of stamping a preconceived idea with the hall mark of science. It could not be consider an impartial investigation of the theory itself. Lombroso declared the people criminal who had never been involved with the law solely on the basis of their physical appearance. If specific difference did exist between the criminal and the noncriminal, this would not indicate the criminal was abnormal. Rather, the criminal was a selected class of normal man those qualities may present extreme degrees from the normal average. Criticism of Hooton’s Theory: E.B. Reuter, a sociologist and contemporary of Hooton, criticized Hooton for using circular logic when he ascribed the physical traits of criminals to cause criminality. The XYY syndrome chromosomes: Some medical geneticists question whether the term "syndrome" is appropriate for this condition because many people with this karyotype appear normal. Evaluation of Atavism: Charles Buckman Goring (1901) Measured degree of correlation between physiological features and criminal history Concluded atavism doctrine unsound Earnest A. Hooton (1927-1939) Criminology Today, 5th ed Found physical differences between offenders and non-offenders Criminals are physiologically inferior Rehabilitation ineffective; emphasized banishment Critics on Sociobiology: Steven Pinker argues that critics have been overly swayed by politics and a fear of biological determinism, accusing among others Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin of being "radical scientists", whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science, while Lewontin, Steven Rose and Leon Kamin who drew a distinction between the politics and history of an idea and its scientific validity argue that sociobiology fails on scientific grounds. Gould grouped sociobiology with eugenics, criticizing both in his book The Mismeasure of Man. Twin Studies: It may not be valid to assume a common environment for all twins is much more similar than that of fraternal twins. Adoption Studies: Research has failed to find any light on the nature of the biological link that results in the association between the criminality of parents and that of their children. IQ & Debate: Many people believe IQ Debate measure cultural factors rather than the innate biological makeup of an individual. Hormones: Critics have challenged the association between menstrual distress and female crime. Conclusion: From the whole discussion we’ve learned about how our body works, how it is related with criminal behavior. Also we’ve learned about the criticisms and evaluation. After all this, though there are a lot of criticisms about this theory and this theory has abolished now, we believe that we should know about the biological perspective to understand our body function. This will somehow help to know about criminality also. References: Farmer, Lindsay: “Crime, definition of”, in Cane and Conoghan, Oxford University Press,2008, p.263 Ahmed, R. (2016). Theory and Practice of Criminology. Dhaka: Nurer Rahman, p. 63 Saleem A. Shah and Loren H. Roth: “Biological and Physiological Factors in Criminality”, in Daniel Glaser, ed., Handbook of Criminology, Rend McNally, Chicago, 1974, pp. 103-6 Vold, George B: Theoretical Criminology, 4th ed. P. 68 Ahmed, R (2016). Theory and Practice of Criminology. Dhaka: Nurer Rahman, p-69. https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/66045_Heidt_Chapter_3.pdf Kader, M. (2017) Criminology. (4th Edition). Dhaka: Books 4U, p-63 Kader, M. (2017) Criminology. (4th Edition). Dhaka: Books 4U, p-68-69 Kader, M. (2017). Criminology (4th Edition). Dhaka Books 4U, p- 62 Dennett, Daniel (1995). Darwin’s Dangerous Idea. Simon and Schuster. pp. 453-454 https://learning.uonbi.ac.ke/courses/GPR200/document/criminology/POSIVITISM%20CRIMINOLOGY%203.doc R.K. Gupta, ... H.H.-C. Yao, in Comprehensive Toxicology, 2010 Siegel, L. (2006). Criminology: Theories, Patterns and Typologies (10th Edition). USA: West/Wadsworth Publishing Company, p-136 https://youtu.be/B_LOMWZfpwo Siegel, L. (2006). Criminology: Theories, Patterns and Typologies (10th Edition). USA: West/Wadsworth Publishing Company, p-137 Siegel, L. (2006). Criminology: Theories, Patterns and Typologies (10th Edition). USA: West/Wadsworth Publishing Company, p-138 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/57e3/f3ecc67be0ee43bf7348ed6b230e392b4d5b.pdf Yates, William. “Adoption Studies” Criminology Today, 5th ed Page | 30