English, Indian Culture and Identity: Issues and Debates

English, Indian Culture and Identity: Issues and Debates Abstract This article focuses on the issues and debates surrounding the introduction of English in India, its progress through the ages in the face of cultural resistance and the role it has played/not played in India’s identity formation through education. Whatever the nature of his rhetoric, Macaulay’s final purpose was to make Indians independent and autonomous through English education. However Indian attitude towards the language has been unhelpful all along. English was accepted on the surface but resisted at the cultural and psychological levels. Consequently, English has never become the language of emotional makeup. It failed to make inroads into popular cultural forms such as drama, films and music and thus remained an ‘alien’ language. It is still largely confined to the functional domains. Ideological and political opposition to English on the ground that it carries colonial baggage, that it is an intrinsically divisive language building artificial walls between those who know it and those who do not, and that it is an instrument of linguistic imperialism, has rendered things even more difficult. Advocates of mother tongue based education objected to the spread of English education by constantly voicing their fears about the harm English has supposedly done to the languages of India. Given all these challenges, and given the many inadequacies and shortcomings inherent in the Indian education system itself, English Language Teaching in India today faces an uphill task. This article therefore argues that cultural, ideological and identity issues should be resolved even as ELT is strengthened by means of improved methods and techniques. It is further suggested that the Indian ELT experience has valuable lessons to offer to nations across the postcolonial world. Keywords: cultural resistance, emotional makeup, ideological opposition, colonial baggage, linguistic imperialism, mother tongue, postcolonial world. Let me start off by saying that all is not well with ELT in India. In spite of the historical advantages of the British colonial rule and English education for centuries the English language has not found a strong foothold in India rendering its teaching and learning an infinitely difficult task. Children are required to spend enormous amounts of energy on acquiring this language; yet, most of them end up learning only rudiments of it. ELT practitioners, language theorists and policy makers blame this situation entirely on outmoded methods and techniques of teaching, lack of basic amenities and infrastructure and substandard teacher training. While they certainly have a point in saying so, they seem to ignore the larger historical, cultural, ideological and linguistic issues hampering ELT in India. Therefore, my basic premise in this article is that in India any meaningful discussion of ELT should be preceded by an exploration of its historical, social, psychological and ideological contexts. After about 300 years of exposure to English at different levels, for the Indians, it continues to be an alien tongue and is perceived as something very difficult to learn. Only those who have made long and determined efforts manage to use it with any degree of fluency and that too only in specific contexts. The rest of Indians remain Englishilliterate and pay a heavy price for being so. Now, compare this scenario with that of Urdu. This language is made up of about 90% Persian, Arabic and Turkish words and for that reason it should be as alien to the Indians as English. But it is not. Even uneducated people, especially in the so called Hindi belt, speak it rather fluently. Or, compare English with Sanskrit for that matter. Sanskrit has always been a dead language, a stillborn language some would say. Today nobody quite understands it when it is spoken on religious occasions and for ritual purposes. But the language enjoys tremendous prestige and popular approval. All this goes to prove that something has gone seriously wrong with English in India and it calls for a close examination of the issues involved. They include: the historical context of English education in India, attitude of the Indians towards English, ideological opposition, cultural resistance and irrational fears surrounding mother tongues. We will go into these issues in some detail and then try to account for the current, rather sad, state of ELT in India. 2 Historical context of English education in India Unlike the French and the Portuguese who encouraged their colonial subjects to treat themselves primarily as French/Portuguese citizens and marginalize their ethnic and linguistic identities the English rulers of India scrupulously maintained their distinction and distanced themselves from the subject Indian population. This attitude solidified after the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, which was widely interpreted as a violent reaction to the British cultural impositions and habits of thought. After the Mutiny the British abandoned the Indians and grudgingly left them to practice their culture unhindered. In course of time the British colonial rule ceased to have a significant impact on the culture of India. This development had a serious implication for the teaching of English in India, in that English was now required to be taught in a cultural environment which was utterly alien to the spirit of the language. Although the colonial rulers freely allowed the Indians to practice their culture they painfully realized that without teaching them English the ruling of a country of continental proportions was impossible. Indian participation at the lower levels of administration was inevitable. In order to ensure their participation in the administration the Indians needed to be given formal instruction in English. It was thus for purely utilitarian/pragmatic purposes that English was introduced in India. And it has remained largely a utilitarian language even to this day. The one man who is chiefly credited with/blamed for introducing English in India is T.B. Macaulay, a member of the Supreme Council of India. He dismissed oriental learning and the claims of the Orientalists by a single stroke of the pen and stoutly defended the introduction of English in India. What role would English play in India and what purpose would it serve? Here is Macaulay explaining it. We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern, -- a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population. 1 But it was not the ‘push factor’ alone; there was also the ‘pull factor,’ again for utilitarian purposes. Various groups of Indians had various motives to learn the language. The Bengalis, led by Raja Rammohan Roy, for instance, wanted it because they perceived it as a vehicle of western thought and science. They also wanted to counter the then hegemonic languages -Persian and Arabic -- so that they would regain their lost self-respect. Not surprisingly, within about a generation after the Mutiny English was successfully implemented in all functional domains -- education (especially at the higher levels), courts of law, civil administration, business and commerce, the English-language press and publishing industry, technology and science and so on. However, it never proceeded beyond these domains so as to become a part of the everyday life of the Indians, because it never received spiritual sustenance from the Indians all through its chequered history. It remained a Minute by the Hon’ble T. B. Macaulay, dated the 2nd February 1835, Columbia University, 31 July 2012, <http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/macaulay/txt_minute_education_1835.html>. 1 3 language of the books to be processed by the brain for purely utilitarian purposes. It has been hardly ever used as a means of aesthetic experience in the domains of arts and culture. Indian attitude towards English Whatever might have been Macaulay’s intentions the Indians themselves were, in the aggregate, not in a receptive mood. They in fact resisted English as vehemently as they did the imposition of the western culture on them, albeit psychologically. People who have hoary religious and literary traditions often find it difficult to accept the imposition of an alien religion or language on them. Moreover, Indians have had a long history of offering psychological resistance to these impositions while appearing to accept them for the sake of survival. They did this all through the last millennium having to put up with the invaders and their atrocities. Their current approach to English is not different. They accept English because their survival in the globalized world is not possible otherwise, but do not love the language at the psychological level. In the words of Probal Dasgupta the Indians never allowed English to get “under their skin.” 2 And according to Partha Chatterjee they had maintained an “inner domain” 3 which the British colonial rulers never quite succeeded in penetrating. It is perhaps the Indian way of preserving their identity and cultural integrity. The language of this inner domain has always been the mother tongue. Even the Englishspeaking urban elites, in their search for affinity with the masses, have always preferred to speak their mother tongue in the social and domestic contexts. It resulted in the strange scenario of learning the language half-heartedly and then quickly discarding it when it is no longer needed. For example, most government employees of the older generation, who learnt English at school and college, have comfortably forgotten it, or have discontinued its use, once they retired and found no further use for it in life. It is a little like discarding an old and worn out shirt. Furthermore, Indians on an average, feel upset and offended when somebody speaks to them in English, especially if they happen to know this somebody to be a fellow mother tongue speaker. This often leads to the English speaker’s social alienation. To avoid alienation he would try and avoid speaking in English altogether in social contexts. Such unhelpful attitude had often translated as political movements for the abolition of English altogether. This happened in the 1960s across the Hindi belt, in the form of the Angrezi Hatavo movement, and more recently in 1989 the Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Mulayam Singh Yadav launched a campaign to abolish English from the state administration altogether. Even in Andhra Pradesh up until recently those who studied in the Telugu medium were given preference in jobs over those who studied in the English medium. The prevailing thinking now is that although ideologically English is not favoured it should be Probal Dasgupta, The Otherness of English: India’s Auntie Tongue Syndrome (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1993) 99. 3 The full quote reads: “Anticolonial nationalism creates its own domain of sovereignty within colonial society well before its political battle with the imperial power. It does this by dividing the world of social institutions and practices into two domains – the material and the spiritual. The material is the domain of the ‘outside,’ of the economy and of statecraft, of science and technology, a domain where the West had proved its superiority and the East had succumbed. In this domain, then, Western superiority had to be acknowledged and its accomplishments carefully studied and replicated. The spiritual, on the other hand, is an ‘inner’ domain bearing the ‘essential’ marks of cultural identity. The greater one’s success in imitating Western skills in the material domain, therefore, the greater the need to preserve the distinctiveness of one’s spiritual culture. This formula is, I think, a fundamental feature of anticolonial nationalism in Asia and Africa.” Partha Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories (Delhi: Oxford UP, 1994) 6. 2 4 tolerated because it is necessary, an attitude reminiscent of the original attitude of Indians towards English when it was first introduced. Having been traditionally associated with power and the ruling class English, in India currently enjoys the position of a ‘prestige language.’ All higher levels of discourse are invariably carried out in English. This seems to be in keeping with the caste-based social hierarchy in which certain castes are treated as higher than the others. Studies have revealed that many Indians use English to emphasize their higher social rank or superior education and therefore do not want it spoken by those at the bottom of the social hierarchy. With these vested interests being added to the already psychologically volatile situation English is unlikely to evolve as a ‘solidarity language’ so as to be widely used in everyday contexts and creatively employed in various art forms. Ideological opposition Ideological opposition to English, which is often indistinguishable from political prejudices and linguistic chauvinism, hinges on three important points. 1. English is a colonial language and as long as it is around it is not possible to completely decolonize the mind. If English dominates the linguistic horizon, in some sense or the other, the Indians will continue to be a subservient people. 2. English is an intrinsically divisive language building artificial walls between those who know it and those who do not, with all the benefits of economic and technological progress accruing only to the former and thus contributing to social, political and economic inequalities. 3. English is a weapon wielded by the former colonial power to continue to oppress and inferiorize the former colonial subjects. It is a modern version of imperialism called linguistic imperialism. The people who oppose English on ideological grounds seem to have taken a leaf off from the anti-colonial movement, spearheaded by Gandhi, which sought to re-appropriate the vernaculars for mass mobilization purposes. Here, for example, is what Gandhi said about English and Hindustani, his preferred link language for India. Ever since I returned from South Africa I have been insisting that only a language which the largest number of Hindus and Muslims speak can be our national language. This can only be Hindustani written in the Devanagari or the Persian script. English has no place in India. The British ruled over India and so English became important. It is a foreign language, not an Indian language…. It is a matter of sorrow that while we have freed ourselves of English rule, we have not been able to free ourselves of the impact of English culture and the English language.4 This ideological position was reinforced by powerful mass leaders such as Ram Manohar Lohia who thought that the British ruled India only by means of bullets and the English language (bandhook ki goli aur angrezi ki boli).5 The later day politicians such as Mulayam M.K. Gandhi, “Speech at Prayer Meeting,” New Delhi, December 18, 1947, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (eBook), vol. 98, 6 December, 1947 - 30 January, 1948 (New Delhi: Publications Division, Government of India, 1999) 73-75. Accessible online at <http://www.gandhiserve.org/cwmg/cwmg.html>. 5 M.G. Agrawal, “Ram Manohar Lohia,” Freedom Fighters of India, vol 2 (Delhi: ISHA Books, 2008) 214. 4 5 Singh Yadav have merely applied the same principle this time round to gain popular support and to come to power.6 English and Indian culture Henry Hitchings, in his recent book The Language Wars: A History of Proper English says: Wherever English has been used, it has lasted. Cultural might outlives military rule.… English is treated with suspicion in many places where it was once the language of the imperial overlords…. In India, while English is much used in the media, administration, education and business, there are calls to curb its influence. 7 Indians seem to fully agree with Hitchings. And given this kind of ideological opposition and psychological resistance, the influence of English on the performing arts (drama, films, TV serials, radio and music) has been almost negligible because audience patronage cannot be ensured. People who know English so well as to appreciate these arts in English are very few. The 20 or so English language Indian films,8 most of which have been produced by NRIs anyway, are so poorly made and the English used in them is so thickly accented that no regular movie goer in the English speaking nations would like to see them. Indian films in Indian languages with subtitles in English are known to have done far better than those that have been made originally in English. Cable service providers have almost completely withdrawn English channels because of negative feedback. In small towns and villages English language satellite TV channels are hardly ever subscribed to. In these towns and villages English language newspapers are never sold, not even a single copy. Local cinema theatres hardly ever feature English films. Indian music in English could not make inroads into the Indian music market which is dominated by Bollywood films. Sharon Prabhakar and Remo Fernades are a case in point. Although they started off as singers in English, they had to switch to Hindi in order to find acceptance and a market for their music. It needed somebody like Freddy Mercury or Zubin Mehta to finally make an impact on the global music scene, but these two men lived in English-speaking countries and enjoyed the attendant advantages. The above mentioned art forms appeal primarily to emotions and emotions are better expressed in one’s mother tongue rather than in English. For emotions to be expressed in English it should become the language of thought and that is currently not the case. English continues to be confined to the functional domains and consequently it fails to harmoniously blend with the cultural life of the Indians. These art forms could well have developed in English had they received the kind of support Indian Fiction in English received. But then fiction is a linguistic art and Indians are more 6 For a detailed discussion see, Selma K Sonntag, “The politics of linguistic sub-alternity in North India,” Linguistic Structure and Language Dynamics in South Asia: Papers from the Proceedings of SALA XVIII Roundtable, ed. Anvita Abbi, R.S. Gupta and Ayesha Kidwai (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas Publishers, 2001) 207-22. 7 Henry Hitchings, “The Globalization of English,” The Language Wars: A History of Proper English (London: John Murray, 2011) 121. 8 Here is a short list of these films: The Mistress of Spices (2005), 15 Park Avenue (2005), Being Cyrus (2006), Bollywood Calling (2001), Bombay Boys (1998), Bride and Prejudice (2004), Delhi Belly (2011), Hyderabad Blues 1 & 2 (1998, 2004), Mitr, My Friend (2002), Morning Raga (2004), Mr. & Mrs. Iyer (2002), Provoked - A True Story (2007), Sins (2005), The Last Lear (2008), The Other End of the Line (2008), The Perfect Murder (1988), Fire (1996), American Desi (2001), Madame Sousatzka (1988), Nina’s Heavenly Delights (2006) and Midnight’s Children (2012). 6 comfortable with written English than with spoken English. English has always been learnt in India from books, processed in the brain and transmitted back to books. This might partially explain the success of the English language Indian fiction.9 Mother tongue advocates and their objections An important challenge to English comes from the mother tongue enthusiasts and it can be dated back to the 1950s and 1960s when Ram Manohar Lohia, the socialist leader who countered the Nehruvian policies with powerful arguments, called for the abolition of English altogether describing it as an anti-democratic and anti-people language. He religiously spoke only Hindustani (and not the Sanskritized Hindi preferred by the orthodox elements) and exhorted his followers to speak only their mother tongue. The mother tongue protagonists’ objections to English are enumerated below.    In spite of being spoken by a small minority of people, that too as a second language, English enjoys a disproportionate significance overshadowing the greatness of the various Indian national languages each of which has not less than 1000 years of literary tradition. English is something of an unwelcome guest enjoying the associate official language status indefinitely with no possibility of going away. Almost all functional domains -- education, administration, commerce and business, law, science and technology -- domains with tremendous employment potential require a high degree of knowledge of English and this situation leads to “reduced functionality”10 of the mother tongues. Consequently, their growth is hampered. Unhelpful ideological and psychological atmosphere: implications for ELT This unhelpful ideological and psychological atmosphere, as pointed out already, has seriously impacted English and ELT in India. The state of play is that in case of most Indian speakers of English, even those who have had their formal education in English, it does not go beyond the level of a pigeon. 11 When it does get spoken/written in social contexts English is mostly set to the grammar of Indian languages and is riddled with Indianisms and outmoded words and expressions. Here is the evidence. My learned friend with mere wind from a teapot thinks to browbeat me from my legs. But this is mere gorilla warfare. I stand under the shoes of my client, and only seek to place my bone of contention clearly in your Honour’s eye. My learned friend vainly runs amuck upon the sheet anchors of my case. Your Honour will be pleased enough to observe that my client is a widow, a poor chap with one postmortem son.... My learned friend has thrown only an argument ad hominy upon my teeth that my client's witnesses are only her own relations. But they are not near relations. Their relationship is only homoepathic. So the misty arguments of my learned friend will 9 However, the large majority of these novelists have written their books with the western readers in mind and preferred to publish them abroad. In recent years the new crop of novelists such as Ashwin Sanghi, Amist Tripathi, Chetan Bhagat and Karan Bajaj have written novels primarily for the Indian market. 10 See David Crystal, “Into the Twenty-first Century,” The Oxford History of English, ed. Lynda Mugglestone (New York: Oxford UP, 2006) 395. 11 Pigeon is a system of verbal communication based on the nouns, verbs, and adjectives of one language, excluding grammatical or function words and affixes (the likes of 'the', 'of', 'this', '-ing', '-s'), and set to the grammar of another language. 7 not hold water -- at least they will not hold good water.12 (Lord Curzon, quoting an Indian pleader in court; originally reported in Evening Telegram 1 Feb. 1896) If you think that all this was a long time ago, and things have changed since then, you are mistaken. Read this extract from a post-graduate student’s answer script of 2006. There are two major tests in language testing. One is subjective testing. It involves tester’s subjectivity in evaluation. This kind of test may not have reliability, because, marks may not be the same when the two testers evaluate the paper. A testee may not get same mark or same performance, when the testee attempts second time. The testee is provided instructions to perform the test. It is very easy to construct it and difficult to evaluate for the tester. Second major type of testing is objective testing. It involves scoring. It is very easy to perform the test for the testee and it is very difficulty for a tester to construct the objective type test. The tester feels easy to evaluate this kind of testing. The tester must be careful in preparing distractors for this type of tests. This kind of test is useful to conduct a test on large group in a limited time. 13 And here is yet another sample. My childhood was not that much good as people expect it. I was a pampered child of my grand father and I was not being educated properly in my earliest childhood. Then I failed in fifth class and sixth class also again. But my mother’s father he was a poet. My mother’s brother is also a poet. In fact when my father was giving a poetic recite, my grand father, that is my mother’s father, has seen him, and asked him whether he will marry his daughter. Then he accepted it and after one year one boy was born and that is me. 14 ‘Frozen in time,’ ‘archaic,’ babu English’ and ‘pigeon English’ are the terms that suggest themselves to describe the above passages. They also make us genuinely wonder about the future of English if it is entrusted to the Indians. According to a BBC report, today “there are more English-speakers in India than anywhere else in the world.”15 They may as well emerge as the arbitrators of English in future. Hitchings says, The main challenges to English may come from within. There is a long history of people using the language for anti-English ends -- of creative artists and political figures asserting in English their distance from Englishness or Britishness or American-ness.16 Marquess Curzon of Kedleston (Lord Curzon), “Inscriptions and Petitions,” The Daily Star, 11 Feb. 2012, <http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=221913>. Also referred to in the BBC series The Adventure of English, Episode 7 titled “The Language of Empire.” 13 Pingali Sailaja, “Sample Texts,” Indian English (Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009) 153. Dialects of English Ser. 14 Yandamoori Veerendranath (famous personality development expert and novelist), TV Interview, U Channel, Udupi, 02 Aug, 2012, YouTube, <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDjKC59Iug4>. 15 Sean Coughlan, “It's Hinglish, innit?” BBC News Magazine, 30 July 2012, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/6122072.stm>. 16 Hitchings 123. 12 8 A similar situation prevails in India. Indian speakers of English can potentially destroy the very character of English and turn it into something entirely different. Indian ELT scenario The fallout of the hostile attitude of the Indians towards English, their ideological opposition, cultural resistance and unfounded fears about their mother tongues has been devastating. The increasing assertion of regional, linguistic and cultural identities has resulted in English gradually receding from public life. And this has mounted even greater pressure on schools and colleges to teach English in the classroom context, and in the classroom context alone. The Indian ELT scenario is thus depressing to say the very least. Conducive environment for the teaching and learning of English is just not there. Theorists of education ranging from John Dewey17 to Etienne Wenger18 have emphasized the importance of the right sociocultural environment for the acquisition of a second language. Since the socio-cultural context is missing in India students often find it impossible to practice their English language skills. When forced to achieve high grades they indulge in rote learning. The cumulative effect of all this is the formation of a negative attitude towards English. They eventually suffer from what is called ‘English fatigue,’ and take to secretly hating the language, and that further adversely affects the learning outcomes. Let me state a few facts by way of illustration. The average Indian students are very slow at reading and understanding spoken English of the natives and most often they cannot speak or write acceptable English. Their literacy skills and comprehension are poor. When they manage to communicate in English it is with severely limited vocabulary and flawed syntax. In terms of pronunciation, the average Indian speaker’s English does not enjoy international intelligibility at all. Ninety per cent of English words are mispronounced in India, one way or the other. And mispronunciation, as we know, is the single most important factor that hampers communication in English. This is an offshoot of serious inadequacy of exposure to natural and meaningful English language and the ELT practice of teaching English ‘Indian to Indian’ with no native speaker to check or correct it. It is no surprise, then, that a large majority of Indian graduates do not have the barest competence in English. When challenged to find a job, they hurriedly enroll themselves in wayside English institutes and quickly learn some rudimentary English needed for the particular job, euphemistically called ESP – English for Special Purposes. The Indian Foreign Service personnel can be cited here to illustrate the point. In his recent book Making of a Diplomat the former Indian High Commissioner to Canada Prem K. Budhwar bemoans the falling standards of English in the IFS because of faulty recruitment procedures which do not insist on English proficiency and general apathy towards English, resulting in a scenario in which the Indian diplomats abroad, instead of serving the interests of the nation, feel seriously handicapped themselves. Budhwar cautions that we should not “…play games with this crucial aspect merely in the name of narrow minded nationalism or a misplaced sense of patriotism.”19 17 John Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum (Chicago & London: U of Chicago P, 1902). Etienne Wenger, Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1999). 19 Prem K. Budhwar, Making of a Diplomat (New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 2012), as reported in The Times of India|Education, Oct 4, 2012, < http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-1004/news/34259724_1_indian-diplomats-indian-foreign-service-english-language >. 18 9 In some sense it is a paradoxical situation. While the number of English medium schools is growing by ‘leaps and bounds’ the standards of English are steadily declining. Children find learning English a traumatic experience, like the Chinese children undergoing athletics training. They are forced to learn it nevertheless by their ambitious parents resulting in a curious linguistic scenario in which the children desperately try to synchronize their thoughts in the mother tongue with English by setting English to the grammar of the mother tongue and finally manage to produce only pigeon English! The way forward Where then does the remedy lie? What then is the solution? The foregoing discussion already contains the answers to the questions I have raised. Attitudes towards English can be altered and psychological barriers removed by answering the charges against English and by putting the entire story of English in India in proper perspective. It entails going back to Macaulay again. Many people are miffed by his imperialist rhetoric and do not stop to enquire into his noble intentions. He was in fact a great human rights advocate. His purpose in recommending English in India was far nobler than it appears at first. He visualized English as a liberating force and favoured the idea of selfdetermination for the Indians. He said, although in a different context, that it is “…far better for us [the British] that the people of India were well governed and independent of us.”20 Many years later some enlightened Indian intellectuals found enough courage to accept the contribution of Macaulay to Indian education and public life. They include Sanjeev Sabhlok,21 a former IAS officer, and Chandra Bhan Prasad,22 a Dalit writer and activist who built a temple for the ‘Goddess of English’ at Banka village in Uttar Pradesh because English, which is a gift of Macaulay, in his view is an important means of emancipation of the Dalits. Even the former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh acknowledged the contribution of English in his speech accepting an Honorary Degree from Oxford University on 8 July 2005. Of all the legacies of the Raj, none is more important than the English language and the modern school system…. In indigenising English, as so many people have done in so many nations across the world, we have made the language our own.23 Indian attitude towards English has to undergo a radical transformation. English should be democratized in order for it to find real acceptance. It should get spoken by common/uneducated people (like Urdu used to be, and still is, spoken by common people irrespective of the level of their education); otherwise, the charge that English is an elitist Thomas Babington Macaulay, “‘Government of India’” - A Speech Delivered in the House of Commons on the 10th of July 1833,” The Miscellaneous Writings and Speeches of Lord Macaulay, vol. 4, The Project Gutenberg, 30 July 2012, <http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2170/2170-h/2170-h.htm>. eBook. 21 Sanjeev Sabhlok is the author of Breaking Free of Nehru: Let's Unleash India. This book can be downloaded free of charge from Sabhlok’s website: http://sabhlokcity.com/ 22 Chandra Bhan Prasad’s writings can be accessed at <http://www.chandrabhanprasad.com/index.aspx>. 23 Manmohan Singh, “Address by Prime Minister Dr Manmohan Singh in Acceptance of Honorary Degree from Oxford University,” 8 July 2005. SPEECHES, Prime Minister of India, 24 June 2013, <http://pmindia.gov.in/speech-details.php?nodeid=140>. 20 10 language will be justified. If the learners have to expend enormous amounts of energy and make great efforts to learn it, as is the case now because of lack of the right psychological/social/cultural environment, the charge of elitism will still be justified. Learning the language should not, in itself, constitute an achievement in life. Learning English should be as easy as to learn the mother tongue. English should be moved form its current location in Kachru’s Outer Circle to the Inner Circle. It may not be immediately possible but an effort can be certainly made in that direction. By making English a solidarity language it will be possible to find a greater part of, even the whole of, humanity a solidarity community, and not just the small community of speakers of one’s mother tongue. Chandrabhan Prasad advocates the replacement of all Indian languages with English, primarily on the ground that these languages have the flavour of caste which is a divisive and oppressive system. The ideological opposition to English too is seriously flawed. English is no longer seen as only the language of the British or the Americans -- it has transcended national barriers. It is truly an international language -- a lingua franca -- like no other language has ever been before. It cannot be seen as an instrument of oppression at all. Instead of creating barriers among people English can potentially break the barriers built by especially the institution of caste and enable the lower caste people to partake in the opportunities thrown up by economic progress. The English vs. Indian culture debate too has no substance to it. Instead of viewing English as representing the “cultural other” and excluding it from the cultural life altogether, it will be greatly helpful to let a significant part of Indian culture develop in English as well -- in the form of music, drama, films and TV serials -- and why not? Why should English be automatically in an inimical relationship with Indian culture? We have noted earlier on that without creating a cultural context the teaching of English would be a monumental failure. ELT practitioners have often suggested that English should be adapted to suit Indian culture. Experiments in this area have not succeeded in India so far. That leaves only one option open: to allow English to embed itself in the Indian culture. It will then seep into the psyche of the learners. It will then graduate from its current status of neutral/service language to a language of culture. Cultural competence can easily supplement linguistic competence. ELT will then find plenty of what Craig Chaudron calls “authentic target language input[s],”24 rendering the teaching and learning of English an infinitely easier task. It is not as difficult, as one would imagine, to develop authentic Indian culture in the English language. Apart from the ones I have already suggested, here are a few other easy ways of doing it.   Write some prayers and chants in English and perform puja in English. The language of prayers and chants need not always be Sanskrit. The Tamilians use their own language, and not Sanskrit, for ritual purposes, and so why not English? English finds greater acceptance among the Christians because they have no objection to praying in English. Nursery rhymes can be re-written to suit the Indian context. If English music can be plagiarised by our film music directors, why not copy the nursery rhymes which are not 24 Craig Chaudron, Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning. (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1988) 185. 11  covered by copyright? Incidentally, the Americans have no objection to teaching their children the rhyme “London Bridge is falling down.” Why should Indians have? Parents who want their children to learn English, and go to any extent in financial terms, should be willing to make cultural and ideological adjustments to make the learning of English easy for them. Mother tongue advocacy groups should note that English has enormously enriched the national languages of India -- by exposing the Indian languages to new genres of literature, by enriching their vocabulary and by enormously expanding their expressive range. They should realise that their resistance to English does not stem from a language rights perspective but from an irrational fear of their languages being infiltrated, swamped and cannibalized by English. They should also note that English itself has absorbed greater part of its vocabulary from other languages and has become increasingly stronger. Indian languages can emulate the example of English and go from strength to strength. For example, Telugu absorbed innumerable Arabic and Persian words and has become a richer language. It is now absorbing English words and becoming stronger by the day. English had to struggle for centuries and borrow from innumerable languages to build its formidable vocabulary. Indian languages are lucky in that they have a readily available language, namely English, for lexical borrowing. They are not losers for borrowing. They are winners. They are not losing their character by so borrowing; English is losing its character by so lending, in that it is leading to the emergence of a number of hideous forms of English which are acceptable neither in India nor anywhere else in the world. Half-hearted and haphazard learning of English or getting fixated on Victorian/colonial English will no longer help because of the realities of globalization and the need to communicate with people across the world. Globalization also requires that the Indians should adopt either of the two major varieties, i.e. British and American, since there is no immediate possibility of an Indian variety of English evolving so as to compete with them. Non-standard varieties are no longer acceptable, whatever might have been the arguments justifying them in the past. Singapore’s answer to this problem was to hire the services of native speakers of English, especially those who are trained to speak RP, to teach the children. Not surprisingly, most Singapore speakers of English have acquired near native levels of proficiency and immensely benefited because of that. There is an important lesson for the Indians there. Conclusion In conclusion let me state that policy makers, activists, artists, education theorists, ELT practitioners and most importantly the parents of school going children should seriously ponder these issues and find appropriate answers. While attending to the specific ELT problems and challenges they should not ignore the larger issues affecting the teaching and learning of English in India. I say this emphatically because nobody seems to be paying serious attention to these larger issues perhaps fearing that it would be interpreted as belittling the hoary Indian culture. Even a comprehensive and most recent study of the ELT scene in India, titled English Language Teaching in India -- Problems and Strategies25 emerging from a UGC sponsored national seminar primarily discusses only the following practical issues in ELT: behaviourist psychology and language teaching, communicative 25 Charanjit Singh, ed. English Language Teaching in India -- Problems and Strategies (Jalandhar: Lyallpur Khalsa College, 2011). 12 approach, functional linguistics, interactive approach, literature as a tool to ELT, innovations in English teaching methodology, role of grammar and teaching strategies, systemic functional linguistics, instructional and evaluation strategies, methods of teaching English for specific purposes, multidisciplinary approach to language teaching, and dialogic and collaborative pedagogy. The SLELTA conference in Colombo held as recently as in September, 2012 focused primarily on assessment, pedagogy and innovation in learning and teaching, CALL and its challenges, negotiating (English) language varieties in the classroom, English for Specific Purposes and such other topics. Both these conferences more or less completely left out the larger problems I have discussed in this article, thus proving afresh all my contentions. In order for ELT to be strengthened it will not suffice to evolve new methods and techniques, use modern technology, prepare new and better materials, improve teacher training and so on. All these will amount to basically cosmetic measures. The underlying problems need to be addressed, and addressed with all seriousness. It is more important to change attitudes towards English, remove psychological barriers and allow English to become a part of the cultural life of India. It should become a language of thought and emotional make-up. It is only then that English would not look alien or menacing. It is only then that English will not be perceived as a language requiring enormous psychological effort, on the part of children and adults, to learn it. If the purpose of the introduction of English in India is properly understood, if the ideological opposition is overcome, if the contribution of English to the development of India’s various regional languages is honestly acknowledged, if English is widely used in the cultural sphere apart from improving the conditions of teaching, ELT in India will certainly see better days. The Indian ELT scenario is by no means unique. The Anglophone postcolonial nations, and by extension the entire postcolonial world, have been facing similar challenges and are struggling to find their own answers. But while attending to the specific technical problems involved in ELT by means of improved methods and techniques of teaching, they seem to ignore the larger psychological, cultural and ideological issues offsetting the gains made by improved methods of teaching. The Indian situation should alert them to the need to create conducive cultural environment so that it will be a pleasant experience for the children to learn English.