CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM UNDER THE SULTANS - II

CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM UNDER THE SULTANS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS AMEN HOUSE E.G. 4 LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW LEIPZIG NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPETOWN BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS SHANGHAI HUMPHREY MILFORD PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY THE SACRED FOWLS OF SAINT JAMES CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM UNDER THE SULTANS BY THE LATE F. W. HASLUCK, M. A. Formerly Fett&iv "&f~~Ring*s College Cambridge ; Librarian of the British School at Athens EDITED BY MARGARET M. HASLUCK B.A. (CANTAB.), M.A. (ABDN.) Wilson Travelling Fellow in Aberdeen University, 19213 1926-8 VOLUME II OXFORD AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 1929 Printed in Great Britain CONTENTS PART III MISCELLANEA PLATO IN THE FOLK-LORE OF THE KONIA PLAIN XXV. XXVI. CHRISTIANITY* AND ISLAM 363-9 UNDER THE SULTANS OF KONIA 370-8 THE INSCRIPTIONS OF S. CHARITON'S XXVIII. THE BLESSING OF THE WATERS. XXVII. 379-83 . XXIX. 'THE FORTY' 391-402 XXX. HAIDAR, KHOJA AHMED, KARAJA XXXI. Introductory. 1. The Traditional 2. 3. 4. AHMED S. Tomb POLYCARP and its ' . . . . . 5. Bektashi Propaganda XXXIII. . ........ ........ ......... ....... 4. 3. . ..... At Kaliakra At Eski Baba At Baba Dagh At Kruya 2. 406-28 .... History. The Value of Tradition at Smyrna The Anti-dervish Movement of 1656-76 The Ruins on the Castle-hill . XXXII. SARI SALTIK 1. 403-5 ........ THE TOMB OF ' 384-90 S. . . . ' . . . . 419 423 429 431 432 434 437 ' . . 440-1 . XXXIV. RENEGADE SAINTS 442-51 XXXV. NEO-MARTYRS OF THE ORTHODOX CHURCH XXXVII. 406 414 429-39 JOHN THE RUSSIAN XXXVI. STAG 406 AND SAINT THE SAINTS OF ARMUDLU 452-9 460-5 . . 466-8 Conte vi >ls THE CRYPTO-CHRIJTIANS OF TREBI- XXXVIII. ZOND 469-74 HETERODOX TRIBES XXXIX. LISTS OF 1. i. 2. According to Tsakyroglous According to Langlois Turkoman Tribes i. ii. iii. iv. XL. HAJI 475-82 . ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... Yuruk Tribes ii. . Afshars according to Grothe Kurds according to Langlois . Cilician . . .482 , . BEKTASH AND THE JANISSARIES . . . . . . -483 XLII. . . 484 Bektash with the Janissaries . 489 ........ ......... ........ GEORGE OF HUNGARY, CHAPTER XV Introductory Translation 482 483-93 . ..... The Connexion of Haji 478 480 . Introductory. 1. The Date of the Institution of the Janissaries 2. The Personality of Haji Bektash XLI. 475 478 478-82 According to P. Russell According to Burckhardt . 3. 475~ 8 . 488 494-9 494 495 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE BEK- TASHI 500-51 Introductory. 1. Asia Minor ...... ...... ..... 500 502-13 A. Vilayet of Angora B. Vilayet of Konia C. Vilayet of Smyrna (Aidin) D. Vilayet of Brusa (Khudavendkiar) E. Vilayet of Kastamuni F. Vilayet of Sivas . 2. Mesopotamia 3- Egypt 4. Constantinople A. European side . . . . B. Asiatic side 506 507 508 . . . . . 511 . . . . . 5 . . . . . ....... . . 502 . . . . . 1 1 .514 5H 516-18 .516 517 Ct ntents 5. Turkey in Europe 518-22 A. Gallipoli Peninsula B. District of Adrianople 6. Bulgaria 7. Rumania 8. Serbia 9. Greece vii . . . . .518 .518 . ........ ......... ........ ........ ....... ........ ........ ....... ........ ........ ........ ....... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ . . . . B. Thessaly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. Crete D. Epirus Albania i. ii. 531 534 .536 536-51 Argyrokastro 541 Tepelen 542 Klissura 543 Premet 544 Liaskovik 545 vi. Kolonia 545 vii. Koritza 545 ix. x. xi. xii. Kesaraka. . . . . .547 . Frasheri 547 Tomor 548 Berat 549 Elbassan 549 xiii. Kruya xiv. Martanesh xv. Dibra . Austro-Hungary A. Bosnia . B. Buda-Pest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BEKTASHI PAGES Introductory. 1. Translation 2. 525 iv. viii. XLIII. 523-5 iii. v. 11. 523 5 2 5~36 A. Macedonia 10. 522-3 . . 551 551 . 551 552-63 ........ .... . 549 -551 -551 . Glossary of Albanian Religious . Terms . . . 552 554 562 Cont nts viii AMBIGUOUS SANCTUARIES AND BEKTASHI PROPAGANDA XLIV. Introductory. 1. Bektashism and Orthodox Islam . . 2. . v. . . Tekke of Nusr-ed-din (Kirklar Tekke), Zile ' viii. ' x. . .564 ^'65-7 ..... ..... ..... ...... ...... ...... .... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... ..... ...... S. Nerses, Rumkale. vii. Chapel at Adalia ix. . 568-76 Shamaspur Tekke vi. 3. . Bektashism and Christianity in Asia Minor i. Haji Bektash Tekke ii. Haidar-es-Sultan Tekke iii. Tekke of Sidi Battal iv. 564-96 .... . Tomb Tomb . . of S. Polycarp ', Smyrna of S. Theodore ', Benderegli . . . .574 . . . . . xvii. xviii. xix. xxi. S. Spyridon, Corfu THE XLVI. . Naum, Okhrida Political XLV. of Yunuz Baba, Ainos of Turbali Sultan, Rini of Sersem Ali of Karaja Ahmed, L'skub xx. S. xxii. 4. Tekke Tekke Tekke Tekke Tekke at Athens Background RISE OE . . . 576-85 . . . 578 578 579 580 580 . . .581 . . .584 THE KARAOSMAXOGLU Intrusion of the Mevlcvi XLVII. Combination under 582 583 5^3 . . 597-603 ........ 4. Political 5^ 2 . 586-96 THE GIRDING OE THE SULTAN The 582 . . Introductory. 1. The Traditional Origin of the Girding Ceremony 2. The History of the Girding Ceremony 3. 574 574 575 575 . . xv. S. Eusebia, Selymbria xvi. 574 . Mamasun Tekke Bektashism and Christianity in Europe xi. Tekke of Sari Saltik, Kilgra xii. Tekke at Eski Baba xiii. Tekke of Binbiroglu Ahmed Baba xiv. Tekke of Akyazili Baba 571 572 573 573 604-22 .... ..... Mahmud COLUMNS OF ORDEAL . II . . . .... . . 604 604 607 610 618 623-35 Cc XLVIII. ix itents THE STYLITE HERMIT OF THE OLYMPIEUM 636-40 XLIX. WESTERN TRAVELLERS THROUGH EASTERN EYES L. 641-5 DIEUDONNfi DE GOZON AND THE DRAGON OF RHODES ..... ....... 646-62 The Story and its Development Tangible Evidence 1. 2. Dragon Processions De Gozon and the French Side of the Legend . 3. 4. . . SHEIKH EL BEDAWI OF TANTA LI. . . . . . . 671-88 OBSERVATIONS ON INCUBATION LIV. THE CALIPH MAMUN AND THE MAGIC FISH . THE THREE UNJUST DEEDS LVI. GRAVES OF THE ARABS IN ASIA MINOR LV. . THE MOSQUES OF THE ARABS IN . 689-95 . . 696-8 699-701 702-16 CONSTAN- ........ ..... TINOPLE 717-35 Introductory. 3. Arab Jami and its Traditions Superstition and Politics at Constantinople, 11570-1610 Kurshunlu Maghzen Jamisi 4. The Arab 1. 2. ..... ' LVIII. LIX. ' ' ' 3. LX. and Hagiology . THE PROPHECY OF THE RED APPLE Introductory. 2. in Folk-lore Legends Strategic ' Romantic Perversions ' . . . Legends A MODERN TRADITION OF JERUSALEM 717 718 721 726 730 736-40 .... ........ ....... ....... ........ THE MAIDEN'S CASTLE 1. 658 663-70 . LIII. LVII. 650 655 . TERRA LEMNIA LII. 646 741-50 741 742 744 748 751-4 x Con. mts 1. 2. 3. ..... ..... ........ ORIGINAL TEXTS LXI. The Parthenon as a 755-68 Mosque ......... ......... ..... ..... ......... .......... Lampedusa Mamasun 4. Eski Baba 5. 6. Hafiz Khalil (Akyazili Baba) TheBektashi 7>&fc*f of Thessaly 755 755 759 761 763 766 GLOSSARY 769 INDEX 771 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS The Sacred Fowls of Saint James Photograph. Map . . of Part of the former Turkish Empire, with an on the Distribution of the Bektashi in Albania inset Frontispiece Mr. C. Thomas ....... at end PART III MISCELLANEA XXV PLATO IN THE FOLK-LORE OF THE KONIA PLAIN ' miles west of Konia, the capital of the Seljuk princes of Rum, is a spring with a remark' able Hittite monument, known locally as the Spring of Plato (Eflatun Bunari). The monument consists of a mass of masonry built of colossal stones, the chief face ABOUT fifty ? being decorated with a number of rude human figures 2 sculptured in relief. The connexion of Plato's name with this monument has long, and rightly, been regarded as due not to Greek but to medieval Turkish traditions. 3 In the learning of the Arabs, Plato the divine holds a distinguished place. In Persia several philosophic Sufi sects claim to be his followers. 4 The culture of the Seljuk Turks was entirely derived from the Persian, and Konia has been from 1233 onwards the seat of the philosophic Mevlevi dervishes. We are not surprised to find that, at the Zinjirli medreseh in the neighbouring town of Karaman, students of the highest class were officially or that the name of Plato should called Platonists be known, at least to the learned, in medieval Konia. The connexion of Plato with the Hittite monument which bears his name is still not obvious. Some new light is thrown upon the question by the traditions 6 still current in Konia concerning the philosopher and The first edition of this chapter appeared in B.S.A. xviii, 265 ff. * See Hamilton, Asia Minor, ii, 350 W. H. Ward, in A.J.A. 1886, ' ' ? V 1 ; Perrot and Chipiez, Hist, de 3 734 if. and fig. 356. Ramsay, Pauline Studies, p. 177. 4 Malcolm, Hist, of Persia, ii, 272 f. 5 Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. i, 232, 405. 6 These came almost without exception from Sir W. M. Ramsay's servant, Prodromes Petrides. 49 ; Sarre, Reise in Kleinasien, p. 123 PArt, iv, B 2 ; Plato in the Folk-lore 364 * f the Konia Plain him in the description of this the of Asia Minor seventeenth-century Turkish by part 1 These references are three geographer Haji Khalfa. stray references to by in number. ' the existence of a tomb of Plato the 2 in the citadel at Konia. 3 This is also mentioned divine earlier by the thirteenth-century geographer Yakut, 4 one of Haji Khalfa's acknowledged sources. Yakut adds that the tomb was in the church by the mosque 5 This church is identified with that of S. Amphilochius by a note in the Pilgrimage of the Merchant Basil (1466) il y a la une eglise chretienne [consacree] selon eux, The first records 5 ' 5 . : ' a Platon, &, selon nous, a Amphilothee II repose la porte septentrionale [de porte grande 6 Pautel] et Phuile sainte decoule de lui jusqu'a present. The church of S. Amphilochius, a fourth-century bishop of Iconium, is still standing/ and in it is said to exist 8 a spring of Plato , probably the ayasma of the saint, considered as a well devised for astrological purposes. 9 entre & la (sic}. 5 ; ' 1 2 3 Tr. Armain, ii, 65 1 ff . ' ' and Socrates are given the title of divine as Prime Cause in their philosophies the tomb of Plato, Aristotle, having admitted a is placed by Haji Khalfa immediately after the orthodox Mohammedan pilgrimages at Konia. 3 P. 670, cf. Otter (Voyage, i, 61), who borrows direct from Haji Khalfa, as often, e.g., in the case of the Ivriz relief; a comparison with Haji Khalfa shows that he never visited this monument, though he is generally credited with the discovery. 4 The date of Yakut's Geography is generally given as 1224. 5 Af. Sarre, op. cit., p. 34, note cf. p. 125. 6 Ed. Khitrovo, I tin. Russes, p. 256. 7 Ramsay and Bell, Thousand and One Churches, figs. 328-30 incl. ; Ramsay, Cities of St. Paul, p. 380 and pi. xiv ; Pauline Studies, pp. 170 f. 8 Pauline Studies, p. 170. 9 For a well of this sort see the astroEvliya, Travels, I, ii, 60 nomer's well, which is one hundred and five cubits deep, and was dug ' by the famous astronomer AH Kushje for astronomical observations ; Plato ; ' : (temp. ' inkpool . . E. M. Sykes, Persia and its People, p. 140. The cf. of course a form of lekanomancy analogous to the method of divination still used in the East. Murad IV) use of the well * . is ; Associai The church is hold that tomb that his still with Water 365 vaguely connected with* Plato : some ' have heard his observatory, others there. I could see no trace of tomb or was it >d is inside the building, nor does the saint share ayasma ' ' Plato's connexion with the underground river sup- posed to flow beneath it. The second reference x ' is to the so-called ' river of marked on our maps) called Bunarbashi, near Madenshehr and the Thousand and Plato a village (not by ' One Churches.' In both these passages, name as at Eflatun Bunari, Plato's 2 and that in a associated with water-springs, is country where the water supply is regulated by mysterichannels. 3 Pre-Hellenic Iconium had a legend of a deluge in which the entire ous and still imperfectly known * 1 Op. cit., 735 p. : Norberg's translation Maaden (ii, Schari, alio nomine Eflatun Sui ' in 529). do not know this country well enough to say whether plane-trees, which in some parts habitually grow by springs, or some Greek placename derived from irXdravos [plane-tree], may have suggested the * I connexion. 3 ii, Ramsay, Cities of St. Paul, p. 323 ; cf. Hamilton, op. cit., i, 482 ; these channels are probably connected strange places With 342. ' 9 In his lake of Obruk (Sarre, op. cit., p. 74). of nos. Polites instances gives places /JouAiay/zeVot IJapaSocrecs, 59-67, for sins (no. 59 Kopais blocked the outlet for spite). Similarly imlike the devil-haunted : perfect knowledge is responsible for the tale heard by Goujon to the effect that objects thrown into the Jordan emerged at Messina because there was an underground connexion between the two (Terre Sainte, Lebanon herdsman blocked the outlet of a lake there as p. 225). A : but the herdsman's staff, having fallen into the lake, appeared in Persia, and so was instrumental in ultimately discovering the herdsman, who for a heavy reward unblocked the outlet of the lake (Kelly, Syria, p. 60, from Lamartine, Voyage en Orient, A similar mysterious underground connexion iii, 1 1 8 ff., cf. ibid, iv, 67). was supposed to exist between a well in Cairo and Zem-Zem at Mecca (Lee Childe, Un Hiver au Caire, p. 50 Le Bruyn, Voyage, Delft 1700, p. 1 88). It is instructive to compare with these the procedure followed in the case of the vanishing and reappearing stream of Samaden, Switzerland (Bund, Berne, 4 September, 1919). a result a river in Persia dried up, ; * 366 Plato in the Folk-lore Konia Plain the The whole plain was, and is, floods. to subject The missing link in the connexion is supplied by Haji ' Khalfa's third reference to Plato The inhabitants 2 of the country say that the plain of Konia was once a sea, which Plato caused to disappear.' 3 In our own times, Hamilton, the discoverer of Eflatun Bunari, heard at the lake of Egerdir a converse tradition * that eight hundred years ago it was all dry land and that a river ran through it until its course was stopped ? 4 The same legend is curby a magician named Eflat' rent at Beyshehr, where Plato is supposed to have blocked the outlet of the lake in order to bring its water to Konia, but to have desisted on finding that a 1 population perished. : . ? town was flooded by his operations. 5 Similarly, ' as the spot where Plato Eflatun with ', outlet of and blocked the cotton, pitch, large stones, a subterranean river which threatened to flood Konia The figure this legend is current also at Konia itself. Bunari is regarded : of Plato has become very vague. He is generally described as a Turkish bey, but is said by the more imaginative to have come from Bagdad. The role of the magician-philosopher-engineer Plato in the plain of Konia thus proves to be similar to that of the Minyans in Boeotia and of Herakles in Thessaly, at Lerna, and at Pheneos. He represents not only superhuman skill, magical or divine, but also the superior science of an age long past and dimly remem6 The conception of the mabered by its monuments. c 1 3 a ' 3 About Ismil, east of Konia. ibid., pp. 319 ff. P. 671, the saltness of L. Tatta and others in the district suggests * sea rather than a mere freshwater inundation. Ramsay, 5 From Prodromos Petrides. Op. cit.y i, 482. This non-magical side is well illustrated by the strictly utilitarian and rather commonplace works ascribed by Orientals to Apollonius of Tyana (^Belinas, see Steinschneider in Z. D. Morgenl. Ges. xlv, 439 ff. and Gottheil, ibid, xlvi, 466). Such are an economically heated bath 4 6 at Caesarea Mazaca (Haji Khalfa, tr. Armain, p. 676 ; cf. H. Earth, Magicians and Water makes water appear and vanish 367 who is doubtgician less aided in this particular instance by the frequency, of 1 mirage effects in the district, and that of the engineer by the subterranean water channels (duden) alluded to ? above. But the manipulation of the flow of water by magicians is not effected by ordinary means, or subject to the ordinary hydraulic rules. An apocryphal work of ' ' (Apollonius of Tyana) claims for its alleged ' 2 writer that he dir ected the flow of waters by talismans', that is, by the enchantment of spirits, persons, animals, ' 'or objects for the furtherance of that end. The talismans ? were generally buried in the earth or set up on ' columns. The belief in such talismans still persists In comparatively modern times a Pasha in the East. c Frank ? to dig for treasure, of Egypt, induced by a ' * stumbled in the process inadvertently on the talisman which prevented the silting up of a branch of the Nile. 3 Belinas ' The * talisman ? in this case was a huge negro holding broom, with which, evidently, he was supposed to remove the silt. We may surmise with some probability on the analogy of other talismans, that the Pasha's actual discovery was an ancient statue or relief, possibly in black basalt and therefore supposed to represent a negro. 4 a Similarly, Plato at Eflatun Bunari, having blocked the ? ' opening of the river, set talismans to guard it in the shape of the figures of the Hittite relief. His intention and the canal at Damascus (Le Strange, Palestine, p. 266). the other hand, the really remarkable engineering works of Alexander become so exaggerated as to be inexplicable save by magic (cf. In western folk-lore the rich legend-cycle e.g. Haji Khalfa, ii, 685). Reise, p. 57) On of Virgil covers the whole ground (see Comparetti, Virgil in the Middle Ages, passim). 1 2 3 4 Sarre, op. cit.^ p. 96. Gottheil in Z. D. Morgenl. Ges. xlvi, 470. See below, p. 732, and n. I. ' For the idolum in forma pueri Aethiopis low, p. 730, n. 2. ' seen by Fabri sec be- 368 Plato in the Folk-lore if the Konia Plain was of course beneficent, and ill-intentioned persons who wished to disturb his arrangements would be faced by a crowd of angry jinns. Somewhat similarly, one of the two giant columns at Urfa (Edessa) is regarded as a talisman, the removal of which would let loose floods on the city. 1 Whether any other in Christian tradition S. saint was credited with Amphilochius or a beneficent miracle similar to Plato's, as the archangel Michael certainly was 2 The fact that ' Plato's at Colossae, we cannot say. ' tomb was shown in a Christian church seems to favour such a supposition, but the substitution of names may have been made on quite untraceable grounds 3 even Eflatun and some a supposed resemblance between perverted form of Amphilochius is not impossibles Nor is there any need to suppose a survival or continuous tradition, since the natural conditions of the country have at all times been sufficient to account for the ; ' ' This tradition, which appears not to be recorded elsewhere, I have orally from Mr. John Orchardson of the Mac Andrews and Forbes ComThe other column at Urfa is held to conceal an immense pany. treasure, but no one dares search for it for fear of mistaking the right 1 column and causing a flood. 2 Ramsay, Cit. and Bisb., p. 215. For S. Michael's association with waters see Lueken, Michael, pp. 53, 131. 3 So the origin of the Ivriz river, with its mysterious source and dis- appearance, was locally attributed, for reasons entirely lost to us, not to Plato but to one of the Companions of the Prophet, see above, p. 106, n. i. 4 Note especially the form Amfhilotheos in the Pilgrimage of Basil, which would help the identification as containing the consonants,/, /, /. The similarity (?) between the names of saint and sage, suggested by me as a possible reason for their identification, was brought forward spontaneously as an explanation at Konia. It is of course possible that the original dedication of the church was to S. Plato of Ancyra, martyred under Diocletian and celebrated by the eastern Church on Nov. he was sufficiently important to have had a cult at Constantinople, but nothing connects him with Iconium. S. (ocrios) Amphilochius was never a full-fledged saint and many churches are known by their founders' names rather than by those of their patron saints. 1 8 ; Legendary Floods genesis of so simple a type of myth. 369 At Dineir, for instance, where somewhat similar conditions prevail, we need not connect the ancient legends of the Deluge with the modern folk-tale, located apparently at Sheikh Arab Gueul, of an infidel (giaur) dervish who flooded 2 Nor is a delugea town in revenge for ill-treatment, x ' ' the very instruclegend necessarily evidence of floods tive series of flood-legends given by Carnoy and Nicolaides 3 as current at Caesarea seems based merely on a gradual identification, probably by Armenians, of : 4 Argaeus with Ararat. Ramsay, Cit. and Bish., pp. 669 ff. Laborde, Asie Mineure, p. 105. The hero may again be Plato. Giaur is used as well as but-parast to designate pagans (von Diest, 1 2 nach Angora, p. 38, n. 6). Trad, de VAsie Mineure, pp. 222-3 cf* Scott-Stevenson, Ride Tozer, Turkish Arm., p. 333. There are through Asia Minor, p. 206 Tilsit 3 ? ; interesting deluge legends in Collin de Plancy, Diet, des Reliques, ii, 89. lake is expected one day to burst through and flood Granada (W. G. A Clark, Gazpacho, p. 156). 4 Cf. Hume Mont Ararat, Griffith, p. 79. Behind the Veil in Persia, p. 177 ; Leclercq, XXVI CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM UNDER THE SULTANS OF KONIA I the first appearance of the Ottomans, towards the close of the thirteenth century, Christian and Turk AT had already been living for the interior of Asia two centuries Minor under the side by side in rule of the Seljuk Rum. The political history of this period is still emerging from obscurity : the social and religious history has hardly been touched. The Byzantine his- sultans of torians, concerned only incidentally ready in partibuSy give us no more with provinces althan hints and we have none of those personal and intimate records which are apt to tell us much more of social conditions than the most elaborate chronicle. The golden age of the Sultanate of Rum is undoubtedly the reign of Ala-ed-din I (1219-34), whose capital, Konia, still in its decay bears witness by monument and inscription to the culture and artistic achievement of his time. Ala-ed-din was a highly educated man and an enlightened ruler. He was familiar with Christianity, 2 having spent eleven years in exile at Constantinople. One of his predecessors, Kaikhosru I (1192-9, 120410), who likewise spent an exile in Christendom, nearly became a Christian and married a Christian wife. 3 He was more than suspected of infidelity to Islam by his stricter Moslem neighbour of Aleppo. 4 Ala-ed-din s grandson, Az-ed-din, the son of a Christian mother, was said by the bishop of Pisidia to have ? 1 This chapter xix, 191 3 * ff. is additions, from the B.S.A. Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. i, 31. reprinted, with 2 some Sarre, Reise in Kleinasien, pp. 39 f. C. Huart, Konia, pp. 214 f: see above, p. 168, n. I. Ala-ed-din and Jelal-ed-din 371 been a Christian, and his sons, when at Constantinople, were admitted to the Sacrament. 1 Both Ala-ed-dm and his house were therefore familiar with Christianity and, if not actively sympathetic to it, at least without prejudice against it. Beside Ala-ed-din stands another striking figure, that of Jelal-ed-din, the mystic poet of Bokhara, who came to Konia in 1233 and is represented as a close and influential friend of the temporal ruler. Jelal-ed-din, with his friend and master in philosophy, Shems-ed-din of Tabriz (d. 1246), originated the order of dervishes known by the name of Mevlevi, who have throughout their history shown themselves humane and tolerant towards Christians and regard all religions as reconcilable on a philosophic basis. 2 Jelal-ed-din himself seems to have been acquainted with Greek 3 and to have assigned to Christ as a prophet a much higher position orthodox Moslem, contemporaries. 4 He appears, further, to have regarded himself specially as a missionary to the Greeks, and is reported by Eflaki to have said that God had a great regard for the Roman people (i.e. Rumi, 'Poj/zcuot), and, in answer to a prayer of Abu Bekr the first Caliph, made them a chief receptacle of his mercy in the same passage the metrical and dances of the Mevlevi are reprepoems rhythmic than his strictly ' ' ' ? : sented as devised to attract the mercurial temperament of the Greeks to Islam. 5 Several tales illustrating the 1 Pachymeres, ii, 24 ; iv, 5 ; Hammer-Hellert, Pears, Destr. of Greek Empire, p. 56. 2 See especially Eliot, Turkey in Europe, p. 185 lution in Turkey, p. 202. op. cit. ; cf. i, 45-7 ; (/. Ramsay, Revo- 3 of Jelal-ed-din's son some rhyming Gibb, Ottoman Poetry, i, 152 Greek verses of a mystic-philosophic sort, written in the Persian character, have come down to us (Krumbachcr, Byz. Litteratur, p. 81 1 ; ; Meyer, 4 5 in yz. Zeit. iv, 401). C. Field, Mystics and Saints of Islam, p. 205. Acts of the Adepts (13 10-53), * n Redhouse's translation of the nevi, p. 27 (13). Christianity and Islam under Sultans of Konia success of the Mevlevi propaganda among Christians 372 are related in Eflaki's collection. the anecdote of the abbot of the (to which we shall return), 1 Specially notable ' is monastery of Plato whose reputation ' for learn- ing extended to Constantinople, Trebizond, Sis, and the land of the Franks ; Jelal-ed-din himself visited the monastery, and there spent seven days and seven nights sitting in a cold spring. At the end of this time he came out unharmed and walked away, singing a hymn, to the astonishment of all. The abbot made oath that all he had read about the person and qualities of the Messiah, as also in the books of Abraham and Moses, were found in Jelal, as well as the grandeur and mien, of the prophets, and more besides '.* Two generations later, there lived in the same monastery an aged monk ' who had had similar with Jelal-ed-din and was visited by the dervishes of the neighbourhood. He told some of these that once, when Jelal-ed-din had spent forty days in meditation at the monastery, he had taken advantage of the occasion to ask him what was the advantage of Islam over Christianity, since the Koran said men relations should come to hell fire. Jelal replied by the monk's cloak, wrapped in his own, into an putting oven when they were taken out, the monk's was found to be scorched and charred by the fire, JelaPs only purified. The monk at once professed himself the disciple of Jelal. 3 From all this it seems clear that Jelal-ed-din, all alike : was conciliatory in his attitude towards Christianity and Christians. In the previous chapter * I have pointed out that the old church of S. Amphilochius at Konia, transformed by the Turks into a mosque, was venerated by Moslems from the thirteenth century onwards as the burial-place like his royal master, 1 Acts of the Adepts (1310-53), pp. 22 (7), 51 (33), 66 (53), 90 (85) ; the latter may refer to the conversion of KaXoicodvvrjs, the architect of the Blue Medreseh at 3 Ibid., p. 87 (81). Sivas. 2 4 Ibid., p. 72 (63). Cf. also above, p. 17. Plato a Link 373 c Plato the divine Philosopher *, while the Christian tradition, persisting despite the transformation of the church, still held that the grave in it was that of the Iconian bishop and saint Amphilochius. So late as the fifteenth century both religions shared in the ambiguous of cult. 1 The Moslem veneration of Plato at Konia, which is possibly to be traced to the influence of theMevlevi dervishes, or even to that of Jelal~ed-din himself, may have been expressly intended as a cult which Christian and Mohammedan might share on equal terms. For the ' learned of both religions Plato may be considered a ' philosophic abstraction, somewhat akin to Justinian's ? Holy Wisdom of God ; for the unlearned and superstitious Moslems he was a great magician and wonder worker ; for the Greeks and Armenians he remained, 6 in Konia at least, S. Amphilochius. The case for such rapprochement between Islam and Christianity as seems implied by the cult of Plato will be materially a strengthened relations certain In a if we can between find other evidence of friendly the Mevlevi and the Christians. A amount of tradition points in this direction. rocky gorge an hour north of Konia stands the ancient Greek monastery of S. Chariton. The monas2 tery is enclosed on three sides by walls and on the fourth by a precipitous cliff. The enclosure contains three churches, all wholly or partially excavated in the rock. Beside them is a small mosque of similar construction. The mosque simple and unobtrusive, a rectangular chamber with a plain prayer-niche (mibrab) cut in the rock. The Christians in charge of the monastery explain its presence by a legend that the son of Jelal-ed-din, falling, when hunting, from the cliff above the monastery, is Khitrovo, I tin. Russes, p. 256. Niebuhr found it inhabited (Reisebescbreibung, iii, 119) and saw a stone with an inscription of Michael Comnenus (see below, 1 2 P- 383). 374 Christianity and Islam under Sultans of Konia was preserved from injury by a mysterious old man who was afterwards identified from the eikon in the church with S. Chariton. The miracle is still commemorated by a yearly present of oil from the successors of Jelaled-din the Superior of the Mevlevi order is always a descendant of the Founder who, further, spend in one the mosque. 2 Chrisin night every year prayer J tian tradition thus represents Jelal-ed-din as at least half converted to Christianity by the miracle of S. Chari- Mevlevi tradition, on the other hand, asserts that the abbot of the monastery of Plato was converted ton. * 9 by the miracles of Jelal-ed-din to his philosophy the monastery of Plato is evidently identical with S. ; * ' Chariton's.3 We have thus found two originally Christian sanctuaries adapted for the veneration of both religions by the intrusion of the ambiguous Plato figure. One of these compromises certainly (possibly both) is due to the Mevlevi dervishes. Is there a corresponding con* 5 on the Moslem side ? In the great convent of the Mevlevi at Konia the cession The church of Sylata, a Greek village near Konia, receives a similar of and oil, here, too, the practice is referred to the Seljuk period, present the Greeks attributing it to Ala-ed-din himself (Pharasopoulos, Ta vAara, p. 1 32) and the Mevlevi to Jelal-ed-din (from Sir Edwin Pears, who was so informed by the present Superior of the Mevlevi). A similar story is told by Lady Duff Gordon of Egypt, where Copts still give offerings to the family of Abu-1-Hajjaj, the local saint of Luxor, in commemoration of a Christian saint's appearance to a descendant of Abu-1-Hajjaj 1 (Letters from Egypt, p. 283). a Mr. Vassos Vaianos of Sylata informs me that the then Chelebi also a grant of land to the monastery : the title-deeds were for some made time at S. Michael's, Sylata, (underground) has on but are now Mohammedan The * ' of the Dedes to the Mevlevi inscriptions referring lost. cell its walls. Acts of the Adepts, p. 87 (81). The monastery of Plato is here ' said to have been situated at the foot of a hill, with a cavern therein, from whence issued a stream of cold water ' evidently the ayasma of S. Chariton. 3 ' 9 Jelal-ed-din and his Christian Friend * founder, Jelal-ed-din el Rumi ', lies buried. His 375 tomb a place of pilgrimage for pious Mohammedans and especially for members of the Mevlevi order. Beside it is another tomb of which a curious legend is told. It is said to be that of a Christian who gave Jelal-ed-din such proofs of friendship and faithful service that the latter insisted that they should be buried side by side. There are at least three variant traditions as to the personality of the faithful friend. An Armenian version, told two hundred years ago to Paul Lucas, represents him as a 1 bishop and even gives his name, Efsepi (Eusebius). The Greek version states that he was the abbot of S. 2 Chariton, on whose relations with Jelal-ed-din we have remarked above. The Mevlevi themselves say that the second tomb contains a Christian monk converted by Jelal-ed-din.3 Thus the essential part of the legend, i.e. that a Christian ecclesiastic is buried beside Jelal-edis din, is acknowledged by all parties. Whether in point of fact the supposed tomb is indeed such may be questioned. It may well be a cenotaph which has come to In this case we can point to of some interest. In the convent of parallel the Mevlevi at Canea (Crete), founded only forty years ago, are two saints tombs, side by side and exactly Lucas, Voyage dans la Grece, i, 151. The legend is referred to also be regarded a tomb. as a modern 5 1 by other writers Travels, tr. (J. Pardoe, City of the Sultans, Belfour, p. i, 52 Macarius, ; 8). Orally in 1913 from Prodromes Petrides ; the abbot of S. Chariton introduced in the version of Levides (Moval rfj$ KaTTTraooKias, Both probably owe cf. N. Rizos, KaTTTraSoKiKa, p. 130. pp. 156 f.) to the of the something flepiypatfrij Archbishop Cyril, who says rov Mevlana loiov TrXjjcriov MejSAa [i.e. (p. 42) =Jelal-ed-Din] ?vat /cat fivfjiJ,a evos /caAoyepou rov "At* Movaarr/pfov [White r/yov/Jievov Monastery,' the modern Turkish name of S. Chari ton's] ra^ei/ros* Ki Kara Stara^tv rov loiov UTrepaya.TraWos' avrov> <f> 9 a> l/cetro /cat ftcxpt rwos [j,avpov KaXoyrjpiKov or/ceTracr/za, TO OTTOIOV OLTTO rpiaKovra /zere/JaAov els aAAo ^/ocD/za, Sta va /x^ 2 is : : . 3 On the spot through Prodromes Petrides, . . 376 Christianity and Islam under Sultans of Konia outward appearance. One of these is that of the founder, the other admittedly a cenotaph erected by the terms of the latter's will to commemorate his revered teacher. 1 Similarly, at Konia Jelal-ed-din may have intended what is now called the tomb of the monk ' rather as a commemorative monument to his honoured friend and this would be quite in keeping similar in * ; with their traditional relations. Whether the legend or any part of it is true or not, appearance the compromise on the For a third time an side we have sought. is rendered accessible to Iconian sanctuary artificially the sanctuary is in this Christian and Moslem at once case the centre of the Mevlevi dervishes, the tombchamber of their Founder himself. Second only to Jelal-ed-din in the veneration of the we have Moslem here to all : Mevlevi of Konia in a is Shems-ed-din of Tabriz, who lies much humbler mausoleum in a different quarter of This also has been a celebrated shrine. the town. 2 Schiltberger, one of the Christian prisoners of the battle of Nicopolis (1396), notes it alone of all the wonders of Konia. In ' a city called Konia ', says he, 'lies the saint, Schenisis, who was first an Infidel priest, and was secretly baptised ; and when his end approached, received from an Armenian priest the body of God in an apple '.3 This legend, rendering needless a second tomb, has the same effect as that of the central convent. Moslems could visit and venerate the tomb of Shems-ed-din, the dervish philosopher, while Christians saw in the same person a holy man who, born in darkness, had at length turned to the light, and as proof of his sanctity wrought mighty works after his death. We have thus found in Konia the temporal capital of ' a F. W. H. The authenticity of the tomb seems somewhat in Redhouse's Mesnevi, pp. 108 3 Hakluyt Society's edition, f. and preface, p. 40. doubtful (see Eflaki, p. x), Religious Fusion 377 the Seljluk dynasty and the spiritual centre of the Mevlevi dervishes, four sanctuaries which might be visited without violence to conscience by Christian and Mohammedan alike. We have found also in Ala-ed-din an enlightened and liberal monarch with no bias against Christianity, in Jelal-ed-din a philosophic mystic with Christian leanings, and in the abbot of S. Chariton if he is historical a Christian ecclesiastic evidently attracted by the spiritual personality of Jelal-eddin. To Ala-ed-din politically, as to the Mevlevi philosophically, the assimilation of Christian and Moslem was desirable. The Greek Church, here in central Asia Minor, was spiritually at a low ebb during the period in 1 question, It seems, therefore, possible that some sort of religious compromise on a philosophic basis was devised between Ala-ed-din, Jelal-ed-din, and the local Christian clergy, and deliberately fostered by some or all of these parties. The idea is not without parallels elsewhere Akbar, the Mogul emperor of India, an enlightened ruler and a philosopher, made in his time a somewhat similar 2 attempt to reconcile the various creeds of his subjects. : The movement at Konia may be regarded as a local and artificially accentuated manifestation of ideas widely current in the mystic heterodoxies of Islam, which would find great scope among the heterogeneous, and in religion primitive or degraded, population of medieval Asia Minor. Similar ideas of religious fusion formed in the fifteenth century the motive-power of the rebellion of Bedr-ed-din of Simav 3 and are to some extent potent to-day among the Bektashi sect in Albania, whose doctrines and organization seem to have been used for 1 For the diocese of Iconium about this period see Wachter, Verjall des Griechentums, pp. 16 18. * Bonet Maury, in Rev. Hist. Relig. xi, 152 3 See below, pp. 568-9. 3295** c ff., li, 153 S. 378 Christianity and Islam under Sultans of Konia 1 Such by Ali Pasha of Yannina. religions in countries of mixed population cater alike for the educated and the ignorant, providing for the former political purposes a philosophic standpoint, for the latter a full measure of mystery and superstition, and for all alike a convenient compromise and 1 a basis of mutual toleration. See below, pp. 586-92 and reff. XXVIT THE INSCRIPTIONS OF S. CHARITON'S following inscriptions from the monastery of Chariton near Konia are here published from the texts given in the extremely rare pamphlet of the patriarch Cyril VI on the province of Konia, 1 of which the Archaeological Society of Athens is fortunate enough to possess a complete copy. Of the author a short notice, to which nothing material seems to have been added by THE S. recent investigators, He is given by Papadopoulos-Vretos. 2 w^s born at Adrianople about 1750, became Archdeacon of the Patriarchate, and subsequently (after 1802) Metropolitan of Iconium and of Adrianople. In 1813, on the resignation of Jeremias IV, he was elected Patriarch as Cyril VI. In 1819, in consequence of an intrigue, he was deposed in favour of Gregory V and retired to his native town, where he was hung by the Turks at the outbreak of the Greek Revolution in June 1821. The map of the province of Iconium, to which the Description forms a supplement, was pubIt was reproduced on a lished in 1812 at Vienna. 3 smaller scale by Kiepert. The monastery 1 S. Chariton, near Konia, is de- v Biewr) 7rpoe/cSo#i/Tos' x a}P o yp a " Nvv irp&rov rfjs /xcyaAij? '^p^tcrarpaTrtas '/KOVI'OU. * Ev TO) IlaTpiapxiKto Tv7Toypa<f>ia) *Ev Hrei KSo0laa. 'IcrropcKT) <J>IKOV of 4 n^piypa^j] rov mVciKos TVTTOIS . 1815, sm. 8vo, pp. 73, of which the last seven (67-73 inclusive) are devoted to a (not very valuable) Hcpiypa^rj rrjs ASpiavovTroXcws Kai TIVOJV TOJV 7Tpt T7^9 @pQKr)S fJLpWV. ' For A. Papadopoulos-Vretos see Sathas, NeoeXXTjviKTj 0tAoAoyta, f. For Cyril cf. Sathas, op. cit., p. 678, and Z. Mathas, Kara212 pp. Aoyos F[aTpidpx<*>v> Athens, 1884, p. 166* (Nauplia, 1837, P- 2 7^)3 Ilivai; ^a>poypa^t/co9 rrjs fjLeydArjs ApxicrarpaTrias IKOVIOV, ev 2 1 VT), l8l2. Memoir uber die Karte von Kleinasien, pi. C 2 iii and pp. 180 if. 380 The scribed by Ramsay description is Inscriptions of S. Charitorfs * and recently by myself. 2 as follows Cyril's : * Among the hills near Sylata, in a ravine about an hour east of the latter and about an hour west of Konia, is the monastery of S. Chariton the Confessor, called in Turkish Ak Monastir White Monastery ] from the hills of white stone which sur[' round it, a foundation of S. Chariton. The monastery possesses a church dedicated to the Most Holy Mother of God of the Cave, also all the cells spacious and hewn out of the rock like a cave the door and chapels, six or seven in all,3 are rock-hewn caves Outside the enclosure is the of the church is to the south. Sacred Well below the level of the earth, which the Blessed Chariton excavated by a miracle from a sheer rock.* In front of the monastery are gardens and vineyards.' 5 5 ; : . . . The memory of S. Chariton is celebrated by the Greek church on September 28. According to the Synaxaria he was a native of Iconium, who lived in the time of Aurelian as a hermit in Palestine, where he died at an advanced age. A cave church founded by him was shown at a lavra called Pharan. Amongst other mirrecorded to have brought clear water out of a sheer rock (e aKporo^ov Tre'rpas v8a>p Stauye? eevey/<:a>v). The scene of this miracle is not recorded, but it is evidently conceived of on the lines of the striking of the rock by Moses. It does not suit the Ayasma of S. Chariton at Konia, which is a well some depth below the surface and approached by a flight of steps. The difficulty is realized by Cyril, who slightly twists the words of the Synaxaria (ava)pv<=v e d/cporo/xou XiOov) 6 to fit the Iconian monastery, which is probably a colony acles he ' is ' ' ' from 1 2 Palestine. Pauline Studies, p. 1 88 ; cf. Cities of St. Paul, p. 375. In B.S.A. xix, 193 ff. with a photograph reprinted above, pp. : 373 3 ff- There are now * two, dedicated to CiKpOTOHOV X100V. 4 aVO)pV^V 5 TJeptypa^Ty, pp. 45-7. S. Sabbas and 6 S. Amphilochius. XiOov for Text and Commentary 381 The inscriptions existing in Cyril's time at the monasI tery of S. Chariton are as follows : Over the door of the church outside I. MeydXr) earlv 86a rj TOV OLKOV TOVTOV r) z : ea^drrj vTrep rrjv T6t = A.D. 1067-8; the year of the world 6576 seventh indiction places our inscription in 1067. Konia was not taken by the Seljuks till 1086. If, as we suspect, S. Chariton of Konia was a foundation from Palestine, the date is explicable as that of a time of exodus from Palestine of monks driven out by Saracen oppression this movement was the cause of the foundation of the monastic colonies of Latmus and, probably, Athos. monk Mark is known to have been abbot of S. Sabbas about this time, 3 but the name is not enough to make 4 good the connexion. The wording of the inscription is evidently influenced by the prophecy of the second ' temple, saying, the glory of this latter house shall be 5 greater than of the former'. The : A Above the same II. door, inside 6 : ov Aeyco, 0O$ yap o vvwv KapSias, dv/catvtcr07y, /cat KaXXcepy^dj] 6 OTOKOV KCU d TTJS VTrepayias AeaTroivrj^ r/fjuajp Twos TO epyov ; TO ypd^a " Mapias, T7j9 emAeyo/zeV^s' ZVr^AatcortacrTjs', iraTpiapxovvTO$ TOV oiKov[JiVi.Kov TraTpidpxov Kvpov Fpriyopiov, /cat em BaoiXziov TOV va^aTaTov BaaiXeajs /cat AvTOKpaTOpos 'Pco/jtatcov Kvpov *Av$poviKov, v rat9 rmepais BaaiXevovTOs jueyaAoyeVou? MeyaXov SOV\TOV Ma^aovTi TOV Ka'iKaovar) /cat AvQzvTov rjfJL&v, 1 Nos. 1-4 are also given, are given Uepiypa^rj^ pp. 46-7. N. S. Rizos, KaTTTraSo/ct/ca, pp. 132 ff. by ea>0i> tat yypafjLfiva zv XiOco raSe. avTT]v [sc. Tr^v TTvA^v] They evidently after Cyril's copies, 2 3 77* See Krumbacher, Byz. Litter atur, p. 154. 4 Given by Rizos, 6 "EaojOev Rizos, p. 133. p. 132. 7rdva) Trjs CLVTTJS TruArj?. 5 The Haggai, ii, inscription is 9. given by The 382 TOV$ Inscriptions of 5. Chariton's <riAy> tvStiCT. j8. vrrofivrj^a MarOalov itpopovaxov KOI The year of the world 6797, indiction 2, corresponds Of the potentates mentioned, the patrito A.D. 1289. arch Gregory (II) reigned from 1283 to 1289,* the emperor Andronicus (II) from 1282 to 1332, and the sultan of Konia, Masud, son of Izz-ed-din Karkaus II, from 1283 to 1 294.* The relations between Christianity and Islam under theSeljuks of Konia were very friendly. 3 The Greeks were to know no such liberty in church building as this till the reign of the reforming sultan Mahmud II (1808-39), in whose reign we find again church inscriptions recording the Christian bishop and Turkish sultan. 4 ' The grave of this abbot lies outside the same door of the church, on the right as you go in, near the 5 wall, buried in the earth. III. 5 MOVOLGT&V TO /cAeos, de^VTjorou Kriropos Kai Kvpov Mardalov, KaOrjyovfjievov re rfjs fjiovfjs tret, ,90x7, IvSiKTiwvos iof No/Ji[3piov a '. /cetrat TOJV The date (6806, indiction i) is A.D. 1298. 6 used, as often on Athos, in the secondary sense of restorer or considerable benefactor, the monastery of Chariton having been founded, S. as we have seen, much earlier. IV. c Within the church opposite the door towards the 1 On him 2 Huart, Konia, 4 5 e.g. Tov TjvXrjs my see article * OTTOLOV TOV vaov 1 ets T?)v yfjv. 6 See F. Krumbacher, W. op. at. 9 p. 98. 3 p. 247. * Bithynica *, See above, pp. 370 in B.S.A. xiii, 294. Hyovfievov TO p,vfj[jLa KiTGLi K Segicw elmovcn nX^aiov TOV Rizos gives the inscription, p. 133. Hasluck, Atbos, pp. 61-2. ff. and Commentary 383 is a a marble sarcoin the on is which west, floor, grave l the with following inscription phagus "Text 5 : *Evravda Ketrcu Tropcfrvpoyevvrjrwv yovos Mi^a^A *A/j,ipaaxdvr)$, eyywv rov Travevyeveardrov Sicreyyovoi; ra>v ddXlfjiOJV rrop<f)vpoyvvrjra)v BaaiXecw Kvpiov *Ia>dvvov Kop,vr)vov Iv erei ,9609, IvScKr. ca' firjvl JVbc/z. a'. This inscription still survives and good texts have been published by Sterrett 2 and Cumont, 3 which show that our archbishop was but an indifferent copyist. The person mentioned in the inscription was a descendant of the royal house of Trebizond, who died in exile at the court of Konia in 1297. V. ' In the left aisle of the church, near the northern door of the screen in the wall of the Trpooxo/ziST? outside, ' 4 is another sarcophagus with these letters : 'Evravda KZLTCU evyeveardrojv /jLCLKaptrov , eiKOJV Se KaQapov re Xeya) rov eiKtov, rpicr/xcxfca/oo? "^X 5 7 ? TrayKciXov vlov Se seems impossible to get much from this text containing neither name nor date. Omissions seem to have occurred in CyriPs copy. It VI. A sixth inscription from S, Chariton Sterrett in his Epigrapbical Journey 6 from is given by a copy by Diamantides. 1 rrjs TrvXrjs TTpos St?cm>, tv ru* eSa For this err dvraj /cat etvai /Jbdpfjuapov cu? Kiflovpiov. IJLVYJUCL, yfj$ ciborium. s.v. use of Kipovpiov (ciborium) see Cange, Glossarium, 2 see also Greour -> no 22 9> from a copy by Diamantides Epi&- "EvSov rov vaov dvriKpv 9 Du J : - goire, in Rev. Instr. Pub. Belg. lii (1909), p. 13. 3 In yz. Zeit. iv (1895), pp. 99-105, from a new copy by Diamanin found Rizos, op. cit., p. 133. photograph. 4 "Eri, 19 rov dpiarpov ^opov rov vaov TrXrfaiov T^9j8optas 7ruA^s rov lepov f$ij[Jiaro$ ct? rov rot^ov TTJS 7rpoaKOp,i$fj$ H^ojOev erepov tides. and a It is also > > ypa/x/xara rdoe. see Karabashek, in Num. Zeit. ix (1877), p. 213 (quoting 6 No. 243. Ibn Batuta), further below, p. 506, n. 3. KtjSovptov 5 fJL For MX*/ XXVIII THE BLESSING OF THE WATERS annual Blessing of the Waters at Epiphany, to the Orthodox Church as the Great Consecration (Meyas 'Ayiaanos), is one of the most picturesque rites of modern Greece. The ceremony, which takes place in the open air, has been well and fully described in Miss Mary Hamilton's book, Greek Saints. 1 The a a cross into the sea, river, or officiating priest plunges even a cistern, according to the locality, and, taking it In out wet and dripping, sprinkles the bystanders. some places the cross is thrown in bodily and retrieved by one of the bystanders. The first person to touch the cross after its immersion is considered particularly lucky. After the official blessing the water is held to have beneficent power and the bystanders drink or wash in The sea and waters in general are consecrated by it. the ceremony for the ensuing year. In seaports this has THE known importance for shipping and seafarers, and in former times even Turks did not venture to put to sea a peculiar until the waters In 1915 had received their (Christian) blessing. 2 hitch in the procedings at Levkas caused considerable consternation. The cross thrown into the water stuck in the sand and could not be retrieved a : 1 Pp. 112 ff. Busbecq, Lettres (Paris, 1748), ii, no. Two doves are released at Athens as the cross is thrown into the water. This liberation of birds at church festivals is widespread in Brittany the Pardon des Qiseaux is the festival of S. Jean du Doigt, when various birds are released (see, 2 : Pardon of Guingamp, pp. 365 ff.) ; in Russia it is pious to loose birds at the Annunciation (Romanoff, Rites of the GrecoRussian Church, p. 125) ; cf. also the Roman custom at the feast of SS. Philip and James (Tuker and Malleson, Christian and Ecclesiastical e.g., Quetteville, Rome, i, 187). It is scarcely necessary to say that in these cases the symbolism is not the same as in the Greek Blessing of the Waters. Among Greeks 385 this was considered a presage of great disasters in the ensuing year, and it was particularly noted that the ceremony had no effect on the storm which was raging 1 at the time of its performance. Miss Hamilton makes a gallant attempt z to show that the Greek ceremony is a rain-charm and hints at a clasIt is true that the elements of the forms sical survival. immersion of a sacred object and the wetting the used, of the persons assisting at the ceremony, are used as rain-charms both in Greece and elsewhere. But the supposed allusions to rainfall in the songs quoted in support of the theory rest on mistranslation alone. The first song quoted (from Imbros) expresses the quite orthodox idea of consecrating springs and waters the second* also from Imbros, refers only to dew ; the third, which in the translation appears the strongest proof of all, refers not to rain, but merely to wetting , which is an ordinary use of the transitive verb /Jpcxco. 3 So far from the ceremony being even remotely a ; 5 c Greece, it is matched in nearly every detail by the corresponding Armenian ceremony. The latter is thus described by Struys, a Dutch traveller of the seventeenth century, who witnessed it at Shamakh: classical survival or peculiar to 1 IJarpLS, 7 J an X - 92 5 vv7Tia rov yeyovoTOS* rovrov TTpo- : KXrjOrj etfAoyo? avyKivrjcns /ca#* SXijv rrjv ol OprjaKoXrjTrroi /cat SetcrtSat/zoi'es' AevtcdSa, ISiairepcus Se x aP aKrriP^ovv ro TTpS/yfJia a)$ Trpoouovc^ov /xeyaAa? Karacrrpo<f>d$, rpofiepa dr^Tj/xara. XapaSid rrjv CLTTcuaLoSogiav /cat drreXTnoiav 77 OTrota e^ct /cara/CTTjptcrrt/CT) Aaj3et row irpoXrjTmKovs, efve /cat ^ TrapaTrjpyais TOJV, on, /cat 9dXaaaa e^aKoAovOei va ^atVerat JJLCTO, rov dytaa/xov, r) 2 ff. Op. cit., pp. 119 . 3 P. 127, [/Ltta 7repSt/ca] /cat jSpc^et rrjv . . . . , iraXw rraXw ^avajSpc^eTat Kat j8/>e^t rov d<f)evrr) /cat TTJ?, /cat Kvpd ra <f>rpd rrjs, which Miss Hamilton translates It sent rain down on the Lord, and again it rained and rained on our Lady, and again it rained and rained on its wings '. The true rendering is it [the partridge] wetted (i.e. sprinkled with water) our Lord, and again wetted ^erat * : ' itself and wetted our Lady, and again wetted itself and wetted its wings.' The Blessing of the Waters L'Eveque commence par chanter la Masse plus matin que 386 c puis il fait un sermon sur un Texte pris dans L'Evangile de ce jour ; a la fin duquel il annonce la benediction de la Riviere qu'on appelle Chatsche Schuran. 1 Pendant le ser- du coutume; mon Armeniens du Pays rendent autour du lieu ou se doit celebrer la Fete, avec la Croix & la banniere [L'Eveque] fit un signe auquel des Armeniens tous nus sauterent sur la glace & la rompirent en plusieurs endroits, pendant que PEveque s'amusoit a lire & le peuple a chanter des . . de 1'Eveque, tous les se . Himnes, des Pseaumes, & des Cantiques. rompue, le peuple se tut, & 1'on entendit Lorsque le la glace fut son des cloches, des cimbales & des trompettes, durant lequel FEveque avanga vers Pendroit ou Feau paroissoit & apres y avoir repandu de Fhuile il la benit avec une Croix enrichie de pierres precieuses benite, & pour confirmer la benediction il la plongea par trois fois dans Feau, fit la meme chose avec sa Croce, & dit ensuite quelques prieres qui ne durerent pas long-temps. A peine les eut-il finies que le peuple accourut en foule, les uns pour boire de cette eau, ; & pour s'en laver les pies, les mains, & le visage. Et en a partout d'une devotion singuliere, plusieurs se y depouillerent, & sauterent tous nus dans Feau, le zele & la ferveur les empechant de sentir le froid qui etoit extreme/ z les autres comme il The Armenian ceremony is also described by Taverhe some nier, though by misconception places it on Christmas Day. His account is as follows Then in all the Cities and Villages where the Armenians live, : f ' Nous croyons que ce mot devrait se transcrire plus exactement khatche tchrouin qui veut dire croix de Veau, ou faite sur Veau^ signe distinctif de cette ceremonie' (Note by E. Bore in UArmenie^ vol. ii of Chopin's Russie in the Wnivers Series, p. 134). Bore thought the 1 ceremony peculiar to the Armenian Church. 2 Struys, Voyages, pp. 245 f. The Armenian ceremony at Constantinople is mentioned by A. Galland,^wrw^/, i, 31. There is a picturesque account of the Blessing at Moscow in The Voyage of Osep Napea(i$$j), Mrs. Bishop (Journeys in Persia, ii, 312) deEpiphany, Vaujany (Caire, p. 332) the Coptic, and della Valle (Voyages, iv, 370) the Persian * Aspersion of Water ' on In 5 July, which may be a derivative from the Christian Epiphany. Albania Miss Durham saw sheaves, evidently firstfruit sheaves, dipped in the water (Burden of the Balkans, p. 124). in Hakluyt's edition. scribes the Nestorian Among Armenians 387 there be any River or Pond, they make ready two or three flat bottom'd Boats, spread with carpets to walk upon ; in one of which upon Christmas day they set up a kind of an altar. In the if all the Armenian clergy, as well of that the into Boats in their Habits, of the parts adjoining, get place with the Cross and Banner. Then they dip the Cross in the water three times, and every time they drop the Holy Oyl upon 5 After that they go through the Ordinary form of Baptism. it. morning by Sunrising as r To students of the terested in Greece, it Holy Land, but not to those inis probably a commonplace that almost all the details of the Greek and Armenian ceremonies are derived from the very early celebration of the Baptism of Christ Himself at the River Jordan. Antoninus of Piacenza, a sixth-century pilgrim, describes, the Epiphany ceremony at the Jordan at some length, not omitting some miraculous occurrences which he, in common with other devout pilgrims, doubtless believed he saw. z The following is a rough translation of Antoninus execrable Latin 5 : 4 On Epiphany Eve a great service is held attended by countpeople, and at the fourth or fifth cockcrow the vigil is less After Matins, at the first sign of daybreak, the congregation rises and the service is continued in the open air. The priest, supported by his deacons, descends into the river and, as soon as he begins to bless the water, the Jordan, roaring mightily, returns upon itself, the water above the place of blessing piles up, and the water below runs down to the sea, according to the words of the Psalmist, The sea saw andfled, Jordan was driven back.i All the Alexandrians who have ships send men on that day with pails 4 full of perfumes and balsam, and at the time when the water is blessed, before the baptism begins, they plunge these pails into the river and take of the consecrated water to use for asperging their ships before they put to sea. 5 celebrated. 1 Voyages, pp. 171 f. 2 Ed. Geyer, I tin. Hieros., 3 Ps. cxiv, 3. p. 4 200 MSS. Tobler, p. 15, xi). colaphos, obviously for calathos. (ed. Curiously, Jordan water was considered unlucky on board ship, at by western pilgrims ; cf. Fabri, Evagat. ii, 36, 43, and Fiisslein, ap. Mirike, Reise, p. 221. 5 least The Blessing 388 When the baptism is of the Waters down into finished, every one goes the river for a blessing, wearing shrouds and other garments of all sorts for their burial. 1 When all this has been which are to serve done, the water returns into own its bed.' The Greek and Armenian Epiphany ceremonies thus derive directly from a common source in Palestine, the fountain-head of the Christian religion. For the study of all such antiquities the principle here involved is important and too often neglected. In Greece particularly it has been kept in the background by the more fashionable idea of classical survival. A typical instance 2 is the The supposed equation of S. Elias to Helios. occupation of nearly every conspicuous height in Greece by chapels of S. Elias does not imply that the saint replaces Helios, though the arguments brought f6rward to support the theory are most ingenious. The prototype of the mountain dedicated to Elias is to be found at Carmel in Palestine, and the Elias of the Old Testa- ment is needed. a rain-making saint. No further explanation is Of the mountains in Greece not dedicated- to Elias a large majority, including, e.g., Mt. Athos, 3 are dedicated to the Transfiguration. Here, again, the connexion with the Bible story and Palestine is obvious. A further instance of a slightly different sort is that of S. Nicolas, the sea-saint of Orthodoxy, 4 who, despite the attempt to represent him as a survival of Artemis, 5 owes his vogue among seafarers simply and solely to the 1 The cheap printed cotton shrouds sold for this purpose at Jeruknown to all tourists according to Tobler (Topogr. von Jerusalem, ii, 706) they were already mentioned by Antoninus of Piacenza. Mohammedans similarly wet their grave clothes in the water of the wqll of Zem-Zem at Mecca (Burckhardt, Arabia, i, 276). For the salem are well : Kerbela practice see Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie, 2 See further above, p. 320, n. 3. 3 Wrong in Hasluck, The Athos Guide Athos, p. 19, n. iii, 202. I. Painting ascribes no sea miracles to him (Didron, Iconographie Chretienne, pp. 365-8). 5 Anichkof in Folk-Lore, v, 108-120. 4 to Palestinian Prototypes 389 a church on coast dangerous passed by position of the or from the West on every pilgrim ship Constantinople 1 The local coincidence has its way to the Holy Land. here and a bishop as at Sinope a gardener (S. Phocas), 2 at Pelusium a monk (S. Isidore), 3 all landsmen, into made and S. Paul the honour from mariners. S. sea-saints, while S. Peter the fisherman seafarer receive no special Michael in Symi 4 or S. George at Herakleia Perinthos5 may also from the position of their churches develop The personality of the a reputation as sea-saviours. saint is of very small importance as compared with his own position as the chief saint of a seafaring population, or with that of his church, on a site conspicuous from tjie sea or near a well-known point of danger. What is true of ceremonies and cults is true also of buildings and superstitions. The church of the Sepulchre and the Mosque of Omar in the Holy City have left their mark even on western Europe in the round 6 The the churches of sweating column Templars. ' of parody of the miracle in S. Helen's 8 The Greek Church has at all Jerusalem. S. Sophia's at Chapel ' ' ' 7 is a See above, p. 350. the cult of S. Phocas see Radermacher, in Arcbiv f. Religionsw. vii, 445 ff 3 The frequency of capes dedicated to S. Isidore (e.g. the eastern of Crete) shows he was a favourite saint with sailors, presumably point Egyptians. Whether S. Isidore of Pelusium is meant or S. Isidore of Alexandria (and Chios), a soldier, is immaterial. 1 2 On - Dawkins, in Emmanuel Coll. Mag. xviii, i8ff. cf. Michaelides, See also above, p. 344. KapTr. "AiajJiaTa, p. 22. 5 The chief thing he is famed for is the Covel, Diaries, p. 277 deliverance of poor mariners, and in the church was hang'd up to him infinities of dva^jLtara, dedicated by poor creatures which had escaped shipwreck ; most are little short pieces of halsers or cables or 6 smal ropes, having one end tipt with silver.' Hasluck, Letters, App. 7 See Antony of Novgorod in Khitrovo's I tin. Russes, p. 90 Sandys's Travels, p. 25 ; Aaron Hill, Ottoman Empire, p. 138 ; Einsler in Z.D.P.F. xvii, 303. 8 Fabri, Evagat. i, 293. Similarly, the legend of the chain of Khoja 4 ; ' : ; The Blessing of the Waters times been in more or less close touch with the Holy Land. The pilgrimage thither, though not held, ex390 cept among the Russians, of such spiritual importance as the pilgrimage to Mecca among Mohammedans, has nevertheless exercised a great influence on the lay popuIn religious ceremonies, cults, buildings, and lation. superstitions alike the connexion between the Orthodox world and Palestine is much stronger and more unbroken than that between the Orthodox world and It has not been affected by ethnoclassical antiquity. it has been fostered, not discouraged, and logical changes by the clergy. In all such questions of origines, therefore, parallels should be sought first in the Holy Land and the way thither. 1 t Mustafa Jamisi, Constantinople (for which see Carnoy and Nicolaides, Folklore de Constantinople, p. 112 ; Polites, IIapa86ai$, no. 28 ; van Millingen, Churches in Constant., p. 107) comes, under Mohammedan, not Christian influence, from Jerusalem (cf. Besant and Palmer, Jerusalem, 1908, p. 469 1 ; Le Strange, Palestine, pp. 151 ff.). Lucius (Anjange des Heiligenk., App. I, p. 507) remarks instructively on the small number of new ideas in religion. XXIX ' THE FORTY ' ' * ' Turkish geographical nomenclature certain round numbers are regularly employed in an arbitrary sense. Most important of these are a thousand and one (bin bir\ used to express the idea of countless ', and * forty * (kirk), which is similarly used for numerous \ 2 As examples of the first may be cited the wellknown thousand-and-oiie-column (Bin BIT Direk) cistern at Constantinople and the Thousand and one Churches (BinBirKilise) in Lycaonia. For the second we may instance several rivers called Kirk Gechid (' Forty Fords ', in Greek Sarandaporos), the town Kirk Agach (' Forty Trees '), springs called Kirk Gueuz (' Forty Eyes '), districts called Kirk In, Kirk Er (' Forty Caves ) and numerous others. Side by side with names like the foregoing, which ex- IN 4 ' c ' c ? ' 5 ? plain themselves if we read numerous' for forty', we find certain localities denominated simply 'the Forty' (Tk. KirklarJ Gr. Sardnda).* They are especially ' ' This chapter is reprinted with additions from B.S.A. xix, 221 ff. Numbers below forty, with the curious exception of five (cf. WaiArundcll, Asia Minor> i, 75), generally keep their pole, Travels^ p. 205 * Five therefore seems to signify several ', strict numerical value. ' 6 estimates a number greater than the eye two or three ; forty ' counts naturally, while a thousand and one implies a number beyond counting altogether. Arabs call the centipede the mother of forty1 * ; ' c ' ' * * four legs (Jessup, Women of the Arabs, p. 267). 3 Kirklar is shown by the plural termination to be a substantive, not ' an adjective. 4 For numbers other than forty used as place-names cf. Dokuz. nine near Konia (' ') (Huart, Konia^ p. 126), where we happen to know that the full name is Dokuz Hani Dervend (' Post of the Nine Houses'). Trianda (ra TpiaKovra, Ducas, p. 193 B), between Ephesus and Smyrna, is usually interpreted as commemorating the thirtieth ' The Forty 392 common in Pontus * but occur ' also elsewhere, as e.g. in Mysia, where there are at least two villages called 2 Kirklar, and in Caria, where the name is applied to a site with ruins of a church near the ancient Loryma 3 and to an ancient tomb east of Knidos. 4 Similarly mysterious are names like Kirklar Dagh (' Mountain of the Forty ', not Forty Mountains ') which, like the foregoing, imply an association with forty persons. These forties call for explanation. We have particularly to take into account the mystical associations of forty in Turkey and the Near East. Both in profane and sacred connexions the number forty (days, &c.) and groups of forty (persons, &c.) meet us at every turn. As to the first, in Turkish folk-tales the hero's wedding-feast regularly lasts forty days and * ' * * 5 * The forty days after child-birth,* forty nights '. after marriage, 6 and after death, 7 are critical periods, and during the c forty days ' between November 27 and 8 Robbers, January 5 evil spirits are unusually active. ' ' and peris go about in bands of forty,? and the number appears again and again in magic prescriptions. 10 ogres, jinns, milestone on the Roman road, but it should be remarked that there is a village of the same name in Rhodes, where this explanation is obviously impossible. 1 Gregoire in B.C.H. 1909, p. 27 ; Jerphanion in Mel. Fac. Or. (Beyrut), 1911, p. xxxviii. 2 (i) W. Near Pergamon and Kleinasiens) schungen, i, ; the latter west of Balia (Philippson, Karte des an old site (Philippson, Reisen und For- (2) is 36). 3 Chaviaras in /Japvacrcros', xiv, 537 4 Halliday in 5 Carnoy and 6 9 xxiii, 218. Nicolaides, Trad, de VAsie Mineure, pp. 308-310. 8 7 Ibid., p. 305. Ibid., p. 324. references to Kunos' Tiirkische Volksmarchen aus Adakale Ibid., p. 315. Two ff. F oik-Lore, ' which I owe to Mr. Halliday, go far to prove that the further definition are recognized in Turkish folk-lore without Forty as a band of spirits. 10 Cf., e.g., Abbott, Macedonian Folklore, p. 229 (forty paces) [Blunt], People of Turkey, ii, 257 (candle made from the fat of forty children) (pp. 84, 90), ' ; ; Christians Among 393 In the religious lore both of Christian and Mohammedan the same number constantly recurs. The great fasts of the Christians are of forty days, dervishes of the Khalveti order likewise practise fasting and mortification for periods of forty days, 1 the noviciate of the Mevlevi dervishes (a thousand and one days) is divided into periods of forty days. 2 There are forty Traditions of Mohammed 3 and so on. 4 As regards persons, again, we find in religion, corresponding to the secular groups of forty ogres, forty jinns, &c., numerous groups of forty saints. On the Christian side the most important are the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste 5 (Sivas), who met their death in a lake, still shown in the sixteenth century, 6 near the town. Remains of the bath associated with their martyrdom are pointed out at the present day, 7 as are their 8 reputed graves in an Armenian cemetery. d'Ohsson, Tableau, piates forty sins) 240 (carrying i, a corpse forty paces to burial ex- and passim. ; * Huart, Konia, p. 203. D'Ohsson, Tableau, ii, 308. 3 v. The of s. use the number forty occurs also Arbain. D'Herbelot, in the ritual of the ancient Greeks, but seems to have been derived by them from a Semitic source (Wide, Archiv f. Religionsw. 1909, p. 227), just as it has been by modern Greece and Turkey, and to some extent by Latin Christianity forty days' indulgences, e.g., are common in the Roman Church. Dr. Roscher's exhaustive essays on the number forty among the Semites (Abh. Sachs. Ges., Phil.-Hist. CL, 1909, Abh. 4) and among the Greeks (Verb. Sachs. Ges., Phil.-Hist. CL, Ixi (1909), Abh. ii) 1 ; render further elaboration of this point unnecessary. 4 Beduin, when ill, bathe for forty days in Pharaoh's bath at Sinai (Bussierre, Lettres, 5 De Glor. 6 ii, 235). Synax. CP. 9 Mar. Mart. I, xcvi. are mentioned already by Greg. Turon. See further above, p. 50. They Khitrovo, I tin. Russes, p. 245. A bath on the shore of the lake was Stud. Pont, ii, 225. heated to induce the freezing martyrs to recant and is usually depicted Its introduction into the in the art- type of the Forty of Sebaste. see Hasluck, Letters, legend of the Forty Martyrs seems strange the From the references given there Forty seem to be bath p. 1 06. 7 Cumont, : beris. 8 From Mr. Ekisler 3*95' * of Smyrna. The Forty of Sebaste D are reverenced ' ' Ih* Forty 394 Other groups of Forty (Christian) saints are connected with Sinai, 1 Melitene, 2 Adrianople 3 and other parts of Thrace, 4 and Rome. 5 In Palestine d'Arvieux records 6 a ruined church of the Forty at Hebron and a monas- 7 On the Mohammetery similarly dedicated close by. dan side we have certain groups of unlocalized spirits, such as the Forty Saints on Earth, 8 the Forty Abdals,? the I0 Forty Victims, and a group of Forty Saints half localized 11 Localized groups of by their appearance in S. Sophia. all over the Moslem world. At are found Saints Forty whom by the Armenians, to Children visited ' The ' as Kasun Manug = Forty ' ' Monastery of the Forty at Sivas was probably Armenian. In the already among the early paintings of S. Maria Antiqua [of the Church]. by Ainsworth West they figure they are known (Travels, ii, 12) Rome (Rushforth in Papers B.S.R. i, 109). Robinson, Palestine, i, 159, 181 Agnes Lewis, Horae Semiticae, p. ix; Ebers, Durch Gosen, pp. 341-54; Goldziher in Rev. Hist. Relig. ii, 320, and reff. ; Goujon, ferre Sainte, p. 317 ; Thevenot, Voyages, ii, 528. See especially Palmer, Desert of the Exodus, p. 119. 3 Procopius (de Aed. i, 7) mentions the finding of their remains at Three martyrs of Melitene are mentioned in the Constantinople. date 21 July ; but the tradition of the Forty and a under Synaxaria church said to contain their relics survive at Melitene (Malatia) itself (Texier, Asie Mineure, ii, 35). at 1 ; 3 Synax. CP. I Sept. But the Forty Saints (of Sebaste) are celebrated at Adrianople on 9 Mar. as elsewhere (Lavriotes, in QpqKiKj] ^Eirer^pLs, i, 32 flf.), and the monastery of Xeropotamou on Athos, which is specially connected with the Adrianople district, feasts on the same day. Delehaye, Culte des Martyrs, pp. 278, 281. other western groups are at Marseilles (Collin de Plancy, Ibid. Diet, des Reliques, ii, 341-3) ; at Lyons (Lucius, Anftinge des Heiligenk., p. 147), near Benevento (Baedeker, S. Italy, p. 221). 6 Memoires, ii, 236 cf. Hanauer, Folk-Lore of the Holy Land, p. 31, who is perhaps our most important authority. 7 Ibid., ii, 244. For the forty Martyrs at Jerusalem see Theoderi4 5 : : cus, 475. 8 9 10 De Locis Sanctis, ed. Tobler, p. 120. Cf. also Fabri, Evagat. Hahn mentions a group in Albania (Alb an. Studien, i, 90). D'Ohsson, Tableau, i, 104. Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. J. P. Brown, Dervishes, p. 163. i, ii, 156. XI Evliya, Travels, I, i, 60. Among Mohammedans 395 are the graves of Forty Martyrs who fell for the 1 Prophet, while Tunis boasts a corresponding sanctuary Medina of the Forty Volunteers of Sidi Okba, the conqueror of North Africa. 2 Other Moslem Forties are venerated at Tekrit (on the Tigris), 3 in the mosque of El Aksa at 6 4 5 Jerusalem, at Ramleh, at Damascus, in northern Syria on several mountains in the country of the Nosairi, 7 Menzaleh and elsewhere. 8 Other Moslem Forty cults are to be found in Cyprus,? at Yoros-Keui I0 and at Ak-Baba II near Constantinople, and in Egypt I i, at ' c to Burton, Pilgrimage 274. Amurath 3 G. L. 4 Baedeker, Palestine Bell, Al-Medinah and Meccah, London, 1906, 2 N. Davis, Ruined Cities, pp. 355 ff. to Amurath, p. 217. and Syria, p. 60. d'Arvieux, Memoir es, ii, 28 ; de Breves, Voyages, p. 103 ; Tobler, Topogr. von Jerusalem, ii, 82835 > Goujon, Terre Sainte, p. 106 ; V. Guerin, Descr. de la Pales. I, i, 42 ; Stern, Die 5 Ibid., p. 13 ; Moderne Turkei, Thevenot, Voyages, ii, 572. and Syria, p. 317 Lady Burton, Inner Life of Here they are called the Forty Companions of the Syria, p. 314. I was told by a native of Damascus that the attraction of this Prophet. sanctuary is a miraculously suspended stone which exudes a liquid good for sore eyes. This cult may or may not be derived from the one menIn an hole the Forty tioned by Thevenot (in Harris, Voyages, ii, 445) who were are to the Death buried, King or Basha of put by Martyrs Damascus for defiling a mosque, tho' 't was done by a Jewish Child ; 6 p. 171 Baedeker, Palestine ; ; ' : these Forty Christians taking who suffered East, II, i, much 126, for it it upon themselves in Prison.' and Goujon, Terre to deliver the rest, See also Pococke, Descr. of the Sainte, p. 31. ' Walpole, Ansayrii, iii, 340, mentions one of these Mountains of ' the Forty (Jebel el Arbain) near Latakia. Colonel T. E. Lawrence The Anatolian ' Kizilbash ', who are suptells me there are several. posed to profess a similar heresy to that of the Nosairi, have also a group of Forty Saints in their hagiology (Grenard, in Journ. Asiat., in, 1904, ' a volcano of the Forty p. 516). Farther east Sir P. M. Sykes found in Persian Baluchistan (Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, p. 134). 8 Goldziher, in Globus, Ixxi (1897), p. 239. At the mosque of the Forty at Suez 40 sheikhs, whom Napoleon shot, are buried (Le Bouli7 * Au Pays des Mysteres, pp. 23-4). I0 This cult is discussed below. Evliya, Travels, I, ii, 73. saints as Kirk Sultan (F.W.H.). a of known is This fortyfemale group caut, 9 II D 2 ' 396 and The Forty ' in Thessaly. The idea, then, of the in it has Saints nothing new or strange for Forty Mohammedans, so that it is natural to find them at-, at Larissa I tracted rather than otherwise towards Christian cults 2 bearing the name. The Forty Saints of Sinai, though Christian, are said to have been held in special honour by the fanatical sultan Selim I, 3 and of the numerous monasteries and churches dedicated to and containing relics of the Forty Saints of Sebaste at least one seems certainly to have been the name of Kirklar Tekke adopted into Islam under 9 the of Convent (* Forty ). This sanctuary, at a village, probably the ancient Sarin, near Zela in Pontus, is still visited by Christian as well as Moslem pilgrims. 4 In Cyprus, conquered by the Turks only in 1571 and always largely Christian by population, there is also a convent of the Forty (Kirklar Tekkesi). This sanctuary (near Nicosia) is likewise frequented both by Christians and Turks, though outwardly Mohammedan. 5 Some at least of the Moslem Forties cited above may have had a similar Christian past Tekrit in particular was a Christian centre with a great monastery as late as the ; 1 The graves of the Larissa Forty were formerly mosque (now destroyed) which bore their name shown at the (Kirklar Jami). 2 In Carmoly's Jewish Itineraires it is remarkable that the number instead, the saints are grouped in sevens, Forty does not occur twelves, or multiples of these numbers. 3 P. Meyer, Athoskloster, pp. 65 ff. Though Selim was a fanatical : Sunni Moslem, he was rather conciliatory than otherwise to Christians, owing, it was said, to the influence of a Greek wife. Cf. especially Hist. Pol., ap. Crusius, Turco-Graecia, p. 40, tyeaji;^ /ecu vaoi)$ rinerepovs, ova7Tp aTre/cAetacv 6 Trarrjp avrov. For his connexion with the S. Catherine on Sinai see Burckhardt, Syria, p. 543. See above, p. 50 and below, p. 574. 5 Hackett, Church of Cyprus, p. 421 ; Lukach, City of Dancing Dervishes, p. 80 ; Luke and Jardine, Handbook of Cyprus (1913), p. 47. Mr. Luke informs me that there are at this tekke some twenty-three monastery of * tombs below ground, and one large one, supposed to contain the seventeen remains of the other saints, above ground. Transferred to Islam 397 tenth century, and the Ramleh Forty are claimed by the Christians to this day as replacing, or identical with, the Forty of Sebaste. 2 At Kirk Kilise in Thrace there are traces of such a development. The name of the town is in all probability ' derived not, as would seem at first sight, from forty churches ', but from a church of the Forty Saints, perhaps those associated with the neighbouring town of Adrianople. The name and possibly also the site of this hypothetical church may be still commemorated by the modern and outwardly Moslem 3 * Convent of the Forty ? (Kirklar Tekke). Significant is the Turkish tradition ' that the true orthography of the name [of the town] is Kirk-Kemsi, forty persons, because the town was once sanctified by being the residence of that number of holy men, to whom they have dedicated a small 4 mosque, or oratory '. If Kirk Kilise stands really for Kirklar Kilise it is 1 Le Sachau (Am Euphrat und p. 57. Forty group of Tekrit to a Christian original. 2 de Breves, Voyages (1605), Tobler, Topogr. von Jerusalem, ii, 833 p. 103 ; Goldziher, in Globus, Ixxi (1897), p. 239 ; Conder in Survey This tradition may well be true, but there are of Palestine, ii, 270 ff some half-dozen Moslem pilgrimages of the Forty in Palestine (Conder, A ' Mosque of the Forty ' at Seilun (Conder, loc. loc. cit. v, 269). 1 Strange, E. Caliphate, Tigris, p. 88) refers the ; . 368 ; Clermont-Ganneau, Archaeological Researches in Pal. 299) is an ancient building of doubtful origin, by some supposed to be a synagogue. Goldziher (loc. cit.} remarks on the frequency of Moslem Forties both in Syria and Egypt, citing for the latter a ' Forty ? Bernard the at Menzaleh, which he considers not of Moslem origin. Wise (A.D. 867, ed. Wright, p. 24, mentions a monastery of the Forty outside the western gate of Alexandria, showing that the Christian cit. ii, ii, cult came early to Egypt. W. H. The Convent of the Forty is mentioned and this derivation of the name of the town suggested by M. Christodoulos, // &paKr), pp. 196, 245. The modern town of Kirk Kilise seems to 3 F. ' * f have begun its existence as a road-station between Constantinople > Shumla, and Rustchuk we know nothing of it in Byzantine times. 4 the Walsh, Journey, p. 147 cf. Frankland, Travels, i, 70, where : ; holy men are qualified as santons. ' * The Forty 398 obvious that other combinations may be interpreted in the same way. In particular Kirk Agach, the name of 1 a town near Pergamon and of a village in the Troad, * may be translated either simply Forty Trees or Tree of the Forty \ Sacred trees are common to Islam and Christianity, and one such has certainly given its name to the Thracian port of Dedeagach (' Saint's Tree ). 2 ' In the same category as the Convents of the Forty falls the name of a village near Adalia called Kirk Jamisi 3 Here there are, so far as I (' Mosque of the Forty ). ' ' ? ' ? know, no Christian traditions. The task of deciding between Christian and Moslem claims in such cases is, in view of the popularity of the 4 Forty-Saint group in both religions, very difficult. We have also to consider the third possibility, that places named after the Forty were originally associated not with saints at all, but merely with secular figures, brigands, ogres, jinns, peris^ &c., as the Caves of the Forty near Inje Su in Cappadocia are connected with forty jinns.* It is in fact most often impossible, owing ' to lack of evidence, to attribute the places named after the various forties to their rightful owners. Certain ' legends of various forties' were in the air, and became attached, for accidental or arbitrary reasons, to certain 1 * Tchihatcheff, Bospbore, p. 381. At Constantinople the great plane-tree with seven trunks near Buyuk Dere is called Kirk Agach (Byzantios, KajvaravTwovTroXis, ii, 157) as well as 'the Seven Brothers'. There seems to be a place called ' ' near Eyyub (Hammer, Constantinopolis, ii, 37 ; Forty Cypresses von Prokesch-Osten, Denkwiirdigkeiten, i, 430), and inside the city is c ' a Forty Fountain (Kirk Cheshme) or Fountain of the Forty (Murray's Constantinople, p. 52). Further investigation may (or may not) bring these sites into connexion with the cult of the Forty Martyrs, who were venerated at the capital as elsewhere (CP. Christiana, iv, 134 f.). 3 Ormerod and here the possessive Robinson, in B.S.A. xvii, 221 case of J ami shows that the Kirk is used substantially. Kirk Jamisi is an ancient, but not, to the a from Christian site. judge inscriptions, * and VAsie Trad, de Nicolaides, Mineure^ p. 357. Carnoy ' * : In 'Three Categories c 399 ' Christian Forties and their haunts are than the others to attract the notice of likely western travellers. In some cases, as at Sarin in Pontus, the Christian pedigree may be regarded as proved ; in others, e.g. the Kirklar Dagh above Amasia, an old city in the district of Sebaste, it is probable ; in others 1 again, like Haji Khalfa's Kirklar Dagh near Boli, nothing approaching certainty can be reached. On general grounds we may perhaps prefer to give the Forties in the radius of Sebaste (Sivas) to Christianity, and possibly to make a tentative division assigning probable localities. more such as ruined churches, and especially on lakes, since in the case of the Forty of Sebaste 2 a lake was the scene of their martyrdom, to Christian saints. Caves, on the other hand, are rather attributable, mountains but not exclusively, to the secular figures are equally suited for both categories of Forties. But the character of each individual site must be decided on religious sites, sites ; its own evidence. As to the origins and development of Christian cults of the Forty Saints an instructive illustration, showing the extreme fluidity of folk-tradition in such matters, Here Paul is to be found near Caesarea in Cappadocia. was shown a crypt containing numerous bones, some of which were undecayed. This crypt seems to have been discovered by Christians, by whom it was associated with a group of Forty Virgin Martyrs. We may surmise that sainthood was predicated from the Lucas 3 preservation of the bones, the traditional number Forty from their quantity, and their sex from some accidental 4 At the present day circumstance, such as a dream. Tr. Armain, in Vivien de S. Martin's Asie Minenre, ii, 718. The lake of Beyshehr was, probably on this account, named after the Forty Martyrs in medieval times. 3 Voyage dans la Grece, i, 139. 4 It is probable that this was due to the Armenian Christians, an always important element in the population of Caesarea ; the 1 3 ' ' The Forty this sanctuary has been brought into line with betterknown traditions, and service is celebrated in it on the 400 1 feast-day of the Forty (male) Martyrs of Sebaste. For Christians, every site marked by the discovery of a tomb of the Forty ? would form a new centre of the This is best cult, sending offshoots into the district. shown in the case of Sebaste, from which the actual ' of the Forty Martyrs were widely distributed. 2 For the Mysian group, 3 if these Forties are of Christian origin, 4 we can as yet point to no centre. For the ? the following explanation may be Carian Forties offered. In Rhodes, as we learn from the Pilgrimage of Grimemberg (1486), there was a church of the Forty Martyrs with a vault containing not forty but twenty This formed no obstacle to the pious sarcophagi. credulity of the Rhodians, who assigned two saints to each sarcophagus. The relics were eventually thrown into the sea by the Turks. 5 It is possibly to this centre relics c ? ' legend of Echmiadzin as given by Rycaut (Greek and Armenian Churches, pp. 398 ff.) speaks of a band of seventy virgin missionaries to Armenia, of whom forty died on their way thither cf. Tavernier, Voyages, : Tournefort, letter xix ; Tchamich, Hist, of Armenia, where the number is given as thirty-seven. I, iii ; i, 161, Cuinet, Turquie d? Asie, i, 312 ; Murray's Asia Minor, p. 51 ; y Bernardakis's account in fichos d Orient, xi (1908), p. 25, shows that 1 the tradition of female saints is still current : [Qerqlar] on y voit un grand nombre de croix gravees sur le paroi d'un rocher vertical. La au raconte des filles legende temps que persecutions quarante jeunes chretiennes s'etaient cachees dans une anfractuosite de rocher qui se trouve vis-a-vis et y avaient trouve la mort. Les Chretiens y viennent en pelerinage le jour de la fete des Quarante Martyrs de Sebaste." 2 Delehaye, Culte des Martyrs, p. 73. ' 4 Kirklar sites mentioned above i.e. the two ' 4 the two Kirk Agach sites cited on p. 398. 3 4 There is some slight presumption for (p. this in the fact that a coast- marked near Lectum on the Quaranta Wien. Sitzb. Akad. cxxiv, viii, 17). (Tomaschek, village SS. is 392) and possibly Italian portulans ' Danach ritten wir zu einer Kirche, zu den Vierzig Martyrern. Daselbst standen in einem tiefen Gewolbe noch zwanzig steinerne Sarge da haben 5 Ed. Goldfriedrich, liegt am Meer, geheissen p. 52 : : : Origin of their Cult 401 ' that we may affiliate the Forties of the opposite mainland. At the site called Saranda near Loryma there is a tradition and some equivocal ruins of a church. 1 Of the ancient tomb near Knidos * no Christian traditions are recorded. Neither place is known to the medieval cartographers by the name of Saranda, which is consistent with our theory. Any one familiar with the motifs used in Greek hagiology can imagine with what readiness bones thrown up by the sea on this coast after the sacrilegious act of the Turks would be connected by Christian populations with the Forty Saints of Rhodes. At the same time forty cults can arise independently of such distributing centres. Cesnola was shown, near Cape Pyla in Cyprus, a cave containing a quantity of bones, which his guide said were those of forty saints c Up to within a few years ago it had been the custom of the peasants to make a pilgrimage to this cave accompanied by their priests on the anniversary of the ninth of March [the feast of the Forty of Sebaste], but the Greek archbishop of Cyprus had ordered these pil3 However, an exactly grimages to be discontinued.' similar Cyprian cave-cult of the Forty Saints still exists and maintains its relations with the church near S. Chrysostomos in the district of Cyreneia. Here the saints' bones have proved to be the fossilized remains of wild beasts. 4 An abandoned Christian sanctuary of c the Forty in c c ' : . . . ? immer der genannten Heiligen Und je zwei nebeneinander in einem ein halb Jahr vordem waren die Tiirken in der gelegen. Kirche gewesen und brachen die Sarge auf und warfen der lieben Heiligen Gebeine in das Meer und zerschlugen und zerstachen alle wohl geschnittenen und gemalten Bilder/ 1 Chaviaras, in IJapvaaaos, xiv, 537 2 ff. Halliday, in Folk-Lore, xxiii, 218. M. H. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Gr. Sitten 3 Cyprus, p. 183. und Gebrduche auf Cypern, p. similar in same For remains the district which are, or were, attributed 257. ' to the * three hundred saints see Hackett, Church of Cyprus, p. 421. 4 9 ' The Forty district might become either secularized and 1 considered a haunt of forty jinns, or, as at Sarin, mohammedanized its fate would largely depend on 402 a Turkish ; the supposed attitude (maleficent or beneficent) of its 2 supernatural occupants towards the Turkish population. But this hypothetical development does not preclude the possibility of a Turkish sanctuary of the Forty Saints having been a from its origin Mohammedan, haunt of the forty jinns having been from its or origin secular. The c ' conversion by the Mevlevi of forty Christian monks who worked miracles in a cave at Sis in Cilicia (Eflaki, Acts of the Adepts, 1 in Redhouse's Mesnevi, p. 22) looks like another instance. 2 See above, p. 89, n. 5. XXX HAIDAR, KHOJA AHMED, KARAJA AHMED ' local account of the saint Haidar at Haidar-es' Sultan 2 is given by Crowfoot as follows Haidar was the son of the king of Persia and came from Khorassan from a town named Yassevi ; he was also called Khodja Ahmed and was the disciple of the famous Hadji Bektash. With the latter he travelled to Caesarea, and there took a Christian named Mene to wife, 3 and together they came to the place of his tomb, where they begat children and died the whole village now claiming descent from him. 4 The last clause makes clear the identity of Haidar as far as the village is concerned he is their sainted ancestor. Whether, as Crowfoot suggests, 5 he is confused with Haidar the father (not the son) of Ismail, the founder of the Safavi dynasty in Persia, is for present purposes immaterial. The Bektashi addition to the local legend consists, as we shall see, in the identification of Haidar with Khoja Ahmed Yasevi, who seems himself confounded with the Bektashi saint Karaja Ahmed both Ahmeds have been adopted into the Bektashi cycle. Ahmed of Yasi (in Turkestan) died in A.D. 6 1166-7 and had no connexion with Asia Minor or personally with Haji Bektash, since the latter died according to generally accepted accounts the date of his death (1337) anc^ THE : 5 : : 2 Above p. 52. Reprinted from B.S.A. xx, 120 ff. The survival of the name of the wife is extraordinary. In view of the oracular well which forms the chief attraction of the sanctuary (see above, p. 52), it seems worth suggesting that the Christian occupant (real or imaginary) of the site was S. Menas, who, on account of the popular derivation of his name from fjir)vva), is looked on by the Orthodox as the revealer of things hidden (cf. Carnoy and Nicolaides, 4 Trad, de VAsie Mineure, p. 195). J. R. Anthr. Inst. xxx, 309. 6 5 lbid. Ottoman Gibb, Poetry, i, 71, n. 2. p. 311. 1 3 9 Haidar, Khoja Ahmed, Karaja Ahmed 404 even his existence have been questioned x nearly two hundred years later. Ahmed Yasevi is, however, irrationally represented as the spiritual Master (not, as * ' said at Haidar-es-Sultan, the pupil) of Haji Bektash is and of a number of other dervishes, 2 who can at most have been influenced by his writings. 3 The spiritual pedigree of Haji Bektash from Ahmed Yasevi is fostered guarantee of their orthodoxy. Jt is Karaja Ahmed, not Khoja Ahmed, who generally figures as the pupil of Haji Bektash in Bektashi legend. He is mentioned by Saad-ed-din as a saint of Orkhan's * The Magnificent Garage Ahmed descended of reign the offspring of several Kings in the Countrey of Persia. After he had made a journey to the City of Gezib^ from thence he came into Greece [z. e. Rum, Asia Minor], and dwelt in a place nigh to Ak Hisar 4 his noble Sepulchre is there well known, and is a place of visit, or pilgrimage. the common Among people of the Countrey of Greece it is famous for a place of hearing prayer, and the very by the Bektashi as a : ; earth is The 5 profitable for evil diseases.' seventeenth-century traveller Evliya Efendi mentions already as a fact the relation between Haji Bektash and Karaja Ahmed as that of master and pupil. 6 It would seem that the tomb of Karaja Ahmed was occupied, like so many 1 Jacob, Beitrdge, p. others, by the Bektashi in their 2. 2 Evliya, Travels, ii, 20 ; for the spiritual affiliation of Haji ' ' Bektash to Khoja Ahmed see also the chain of the dervish orders by Abdi Efendi (d. 1783) in Mouradja d'Ohsson's Tableau, ii, pi. 102. 3 This chronological difficulty is admitted by learned Bektashi ; their version is that Khoja Ahmed foretold the coming of Haji Bektash and bequeathed him a book The as a pledge. two towns of this name, on the Sakaria. Seaman's Orchan, pp. 115-16. 6 He is spoken of as a Persian Prince (like the Haidar of Haidar-esSultan) who came to the court of Orkhan, was initiated by Haji Bektash, and at his death buried at Ak Hisar (Travels, ii, 21 cf. ' Kari (sic) Ahmed Sultan is said to have been one p. 215 ; at p. 20 of the dervishes sent by Ahmed Yasevi from Khorasan into Rum). 4 smaller of the 5 : * In Evliya 405 prosperous period on the pretext that the saint was spiritual founder's kin '. Presumably under Bektashi auspices, the cult of Kara j a Ahmed has spread widely from its original home on the Sakaria near Akhisar, where two or even three tekkes bear his name. 1 Ramsay 2 cites two more in the district of Ushak, and other reputed tombs of Karaja Ahmed exist in the great * 3 burial-ground at Skutari near Constantinople, and in Rumeli near Uskub at Tekke Keui. 4 The confusion which seems to exist at Haidar-esSultan between Khoj a Ahmed Yasevi and Karaja Ahmed found also in Evliya, who says that Ahmed Yasevi, an ancestor of his own, was a disciple of Haji Bektash, and on the same page that Haji Bektash was instructed by a pupil of Ahmed Yasevi and married his daughter. 5 The error arises from the familiar confusion between two persons of the same name, in this case Ahmed, is borne by two eminent saints, one the alleged master, the other the alleged pupil, of Haji Bektash. On junction with the Pursak (von Diest and Anton, Neue Forschungen, p. 28) ; (2) at Pashalar above Levke (von Diest, Tilsit nach Angora, p. 18) (3) just east of 1 (i) the banks of the Sakaria near its ; Tarakli (Skene, Anadol, p. 275). (i) Six hours SSW. of Ushak, three The hours NW. of Geubek ; famous place of healing (2) There is a Pauline Studies, village named Karaja p. 171). (Ramsay, Ahmedli south of Nefes Keui (Tavium). Quite possibly the original Kara (' black ') or Karaja (' blackish ') Ahmed was, like Haidar, an an hour from Liyen. eponymous latter tribal ancestor, successive is a heads of the tribe bearing his name having been buried in various places. Kizil (' red ') Ahmedli was divisions of the the name of a tribe settled in the Kastamuni district ; same tribe are often differentiated by colour-epithets (see above, p. 128). Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie, iv, 604; cf. Evliya, Travels, I, ii, 81 (' Convent of Kara Ahmed Sultan '), 83 (' Convent of Karaja Ahmed Sultan '). There is now no convent attached to the tomb, which is, however, kept in repair and venerated. The Bektashi still lay claim to the saint, though this grave has passed into other hands. 3 4 See above, pp. 274 ff. below, p. 582 (No. 19). 5 Travels, ii, 20. XXXI THE TOMB OF ' S. POLYCARP ' ' INTRODUCTORY history and authenticity of the so-called of THE Polycarp of S. a ' ' tomb Smyrna have lately formed the monograph by Pere S. Lorenzo of the Order at subject 2 S. Francis, who claims to have discovered the real of S. Polycarp in a vineyard at some and tomb church distance from the site tacitly accepted hitherto both by the Greek and Latin communities. The first section of of chapter attempts to trace as far as possible the history of the traditional tomb, the second to discuss the antiquity of its traditions and the value of tradition in general at Smyrna, the third to discuss the antidervish movement of 1656 to 1676 and the history of the tomb, the fourth to establish a point in the topography of ancient Smyrna on evidence arising from, or closely connected with, the former discussions. this i. The Traditional Tomb and its History of S. Polycarp stands prominent on a spur of the castle-hill immediately adjacent to the stadium where the saint is said to have suffered martyr- The so-called tomb ? ' dom in A.D. i66. 3 The tomb is Mohammedan in form, gables at either masonry, with and end, plastered over, painted green. a rectangular bier built in other Moslem saints' Like many large as tombs, very compared with those of ordinary mortals (which adhere to the proportions of an average man), measuring 3'3oxi-8o 1 3 3 it is Reprinted with additions from B.S.A. xx, 80 ff. S. Polycarpe et son Tombeau, Constantinople, 1911. For the date see Reville in Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. iv, 15, 17. Rev. Hist. Relig. iii (1881), pp. 369-381. "The metres. and It stands in the Of the two Mitre open with former cypresses at air 407 head old and wellgrown, forming a conspicuous landmark, and to it rags are affixed, in accordance with the well-known custom, by the humble clients of the saint. Both tomb and cypresses stand in a small enclosed cemetery with a roughly-built hut for the guardian. tomb of S. Polycarp at Smyrna is first mentioned in 1622, when the town was visited by the French missionary Pere Pacifique. His description is as follows foot. trees the is A : ' Au auant qu'estre ruinee, y a vne petite Cabane comme vn hermitage, ou loge vn Dernis [for Deruis], c'est vn Religieux Turc, & dans cette petite chambrette, il y a le Cercueil de sainct Policarpe sans son Corps, il est couuert dVn drap de couleur brune, & sur vn bout d'iceluy est posee la Mittre Episcopale du sainct qui est faicte en la maniere que elle est d'vne estoffe fort simple, i'ay cy dessus descript mais ouuragee dessus auec des broderies de fil de cotton a guise de Canetille, le nom de Dieu est escript en Arabe sur le front, Alla^ elle est doublee dedans comme de taffetas Colombin pasle & passe, elle est vn peu entamce par vn coing, quelqu'vn y en ayant couppe en cachette, les Turcs la tienncnt auec reuerence, parce qu'ils disent que sainct Policarpe estoit vn Euangeliste de il Dieu, & amy de leur Prophete Mahomet y a encore vne Calotte aupres, qu'on tient estre celle que le sainct mettoit sur sa teste, i'ay tenu dans mes mains 1'vne & 1'autre, ie diray pourtant en passant afin de desabuser ceux, qui comme le commun croiroient que cette Calotte fust aussi veritablement de sainct Policarpe qu'est la Mittre qu'ils ne croyent plus, parce que ie sgay de bone part que la veritable a este prise, & que celle-cy est supposee, a ce que les Turcs ne s'en aperceussent, f? qui pie furatus est ipse mihi dixit : celuy qui a fait ce pieux larcin me lieu ou 1 la Ville estoit : . . . : le dit a ? moy-mesme. 2 plain that Pere Pacifique regarded the mitre, and presumably the tomb also, as authentic. Stochove, ten It 1 i. is e. among the ruins on the hill below the castle gate 79, quoted below, p. 424, note 6. Bruyn, Voyage^ i, * Voyage de Perse, pp. 11 f. ; cf. Le ' The 408 Tomb ' of S. Poly carp ' * years later, makes abundantly clear that the mitre was no more than a dervish sheikh's cap or taj * his account is as follows it ; : * Avant que d'entrer dans le chasteau, nostre Janissaire nous bastiment faict en forme de chappelle, ou petit il nous disoit que Sainct Jean Polycarpe estoit enterre, lequel aussi bien parmy les Turcs que parmy les Chrestiens, a la repuA Pentree nous tation d'avoir este un Sainct personnage. vismes un Dervis ou Religieux Turc, lequel nous voyant nous saliia honnestement, & nous ayant diet qu'il falloit quitter les souliers, nous mena au lieu ou ils disent estre enterre ce Sainct. Nous y vismes une tombe couverte de deux robbes, Pune de aux pieds il y avoit camelot minime & Pautre de velour vert un baston ferre avec deux pointes, portant au milieu un croissant de Lune, semblable a ceux dont usent des pelerins Mahometans, au qui vont visiter le sepulchre de leur prophete a la Mecque chevet il y avoit la fagon d'une mithre, ayant un rebord avec trois pointes, ou estoit pique a Peguille en caracteres Arabesques, la Hilla heilla, halla ah erne t resul holla ce que nous fit des Perreur & ces Turcs, habits, baston, & mithre cognoistre que n'estoient point de ce Sainct mais de quelque malhcureux Mahometan. Les Turcs portent un grand respect & une devotion particuliere a ce lieu, ils y tiennent tousjours quelques lampes allumees, et a chaque Vendredy plusieurs y viennent mena dans un ; ; M . . . ; : faire leurs prieres.' 2 hardly necessary to remark that such a saint as John Polycarp has never existed. We have probably to reckon with a divergent Christian tradition as to the occupant of the tomb. La Boullaye (1653), who does not mention the tomb of S. Polycarp, indicates the existence of a grave of S. John at Smyrna, which is not mentioned by any other writer and is of course incompatible with the venerable church traditions placing ' His words are S. John's tomb at Ephesus. S. Jean estant mort en Tlsle de Patmos, ses Disciples le transIt is S. : Loir (1654) as " vne vieille Mytre faite selon la figure des nostres, mais d'vne estoffe qui " a m'est inconnue (Voyages^ p. 14). Voyage^ pp. 17 f. 1 The supposed mitre is last mentioned by Du Ambiguous Cult of the Saint 409 a et Smirne la suiuant tradiPenterrerent, porterent tion des Grecs, j'ay veu le lieu/ 1 In all probability the older and essentially popular tradition of the Greeks referred the tomb to S. John, the attribution to S. Polycarp being due to the more learned opinion of the Latin clergy, who cannot be traced at Smyrna before the end of the sixteenth century. It is significant that the oldest Greek church of Smyrna (in the Upper Quarter ') is dedicated to S. c 2 John, while the Latin parish claims S. Polycarp for its patron. To the Turks S. John would doubtless be the more acceptable, since S. John the Baptist, having a 3 recognized standing among Mussulmans, might be considered by them an evangelist of God '. In these, the earliest and most detailed accounts of the tomb and relics of S. Polycarp at Smyrna, there is to an unprejudiced eye no outward trace of anything more than a Turkish saint-cult associated by Christians, to judge by Stochove, as much with S. John as with It was probably one of those ambiguous S. Polycarp. cults organized by the Bektashi dervishes which Christians were encouraged to frequent. 4 Three notices of the tomb about the middle of the seventeenth century are of special interest 5 as showing that at this date it passed from Moslem to Christian ' 1 Voyages, p. 20. present cathedral, dedicated to S. Photine (the woman of Samaria), is of more recent date and probably owes its origin to the The 3 existing holy well associated not unnaturally with the saint. Menasik-el-Haj, tr. Bianchi, in Rec. de Voyages, ii, 115, on the former church of S. John at Damascus. 4 Cf. below, p. 564 ff. on Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda, especially no. 12. Near the tomb now shown as that of S. ' Polycarp or Yusuf Dede is at least one grave marked as that of a Bek' tashi dervish by the twelve-sided mitre (taj) of the order carved on its Bektashi mitres embroidered with the confession of faith, headstone. still 3 ' c like J. 5 Smyrna by Pacifique and Stochove, are mentioned by Brown, Dervishes, p. 151. The tomb of Polycarp is mentioned also by Le Bruyn, Spon, that seen at P. 3295-2 E ' The 41 o Tomb ' of S. Poly carp custody. Monconys, in 1648, does not mention the ' dervish guardian. The chapel was toute rompue et ' descouverte and the only thing to be seen in it was 1 D'Arvieux a tomb like that of a Turkish sheikh. (1654-6) expressly states that the tomb was in Greek hands : 6 Assez pres de ^amphitheatre [i.e. the theatre] sont les restes Elle Pfiglise de S. Jean. C'etoit la Cathedrale de Smirne. paroit avoir ete fort grande, & accompagnee d'un grand nombre de de chapelles. . . . De toutes ces Chapelles, assez entiere, dans laquelle est en reste une seule il un tombeau par des 2 Polycarpe/ bien garde Religieux Grecs, qu'ils disent etre celui de S. (1665) implies that the tomb and the humble two-roomed c chapel that contained it were in Christian hands and kept in some sort of repair Sepulchrum S. Polycarpi, quod in laterc montis versus Euroaustrum adhuc conservatur, Graeci die festo solenniter in- Thomas Smith 9 : ' . visunt : situm illuc est in quadam transeundum . . aedicula, ecclesiae forte sacello, In hoc alii, monumento contigua. per quam instaurando, si ab impressionibus aeriis, si a Turds, si a Christianis Occidentalibus, qui fragmenta marmoris quasi tot sacras reliquias exinde tollunt, laedatur temereturque, laudabilis illorum collocatur opera, olla fictili quoque illic apposita, in illic ductus, quam quisque fere pauculos aspros conjicit, ut . in . est, . omne aevum perennet/ 3 The change of ownership may have been due to the movement against dervish orders and superstitious cults promoted especially by the vizir Mohammed Kuprulu and the preacher Vani Efendi in the latter half of the seventeenth century. 4 D'Arvieux* account is further important as helping to explain the ambiguity of Stochove's S. John Poly carp '. It is evident that a group of ruins, located by our authors rather vaguely in the ' Wheler, and Tournefort, none of whose descriptions adds anything x material to our knowledge of it. Voyages, i, 425. 2 3 Ecclesiarum Memoires, i, 50. Notitia, p. 53. Septem ^ 3. Especially under Mohammed IV (1648-87), see below, Site of the Tomb Changed 411 the of and the had for theatre, vicinity castle-gate long been regarded as the remains of a great cathedral church dedicated to S. John. 1 The tomb and chapel of ' S. ? * Polycarp or S. John Polycarp were included in this group of ruins, but their exact position is nowhere ' exactly indicated. Pococke (1739) is the first author to refer clearly to ' the present tomb of Polycarp \ which he locates accurately at the north-west corner of the stadium, that is, with at least the length of the latter between it and 9 the considerable ruins known as the 'Church of S.John To Pere S. Lorenzo belongs the credit of having first . recognized this change of It site. seems at least prob- able that the traditional tomb of Polycarp moved from one end of the stadium to the other about the beginning of the eighteenth century, 2 and passed once more into this happened, whether, for exMoslem hands. Turks the the stole ample, sarcophagus, or set up a rival How tomb independently, we The former shall probably never know. rather suggested by Pococke's account, which runs as follows is : 6 It is said that great disorders had been committed here by the Greeks at the time of his [Polycarp's] festival ; and that a cadi laid hold on this pretence to get money, ordering that, in case any Christians came to it, the community of Christians should be obliged to pay such a sum ; but as he could not obtain his end, he put up a stone turbant on it, as if it were the tomb of some Mahometan saint, by which he thought to have his revenge in preventing the Christians from ever resorting to it again, 1 which hitherto has had See below, its effect.' 3 4. change of site is by no means unprecedented. The tomb of S. Antipas at Pergamon, which was supposed in the thirties to be in the mosque called S. Sophia (C. B. Elliott, Travels, ii, 127), is now shown outside the so-called Church of S. John ' (Lambakis, 'JEWa *AcrTp$, p. 284). Here again the Turks probably made difficulties * Such a c for Christians entering the mosque. 3 Descr. The of the East, II, ii, 36. E 2 whole story may, of course, be "The 412 The ' Tomb of S. Poly carp ? may have kept the Greeks away time and officially but a century of tradition, aided doubtless by the natural cupidity of the guardian, eventually overrode all artificial obstacles, and down to our own day both Greeks and Latins have connected the tomb with the name of Polycarp and frequented it. At the same time the site of the chapel seems to have been the scene of the official Greek service down to quite a late date. Stephan Schulz in 1753 speaks of the old two-roomed chapel as the church of 1 S. Polycarp, and von Prokesch-Osten in 1830 says that service was celebrated within living memory in an adjacent building bearing the same name. 2 Our deductions as to the history of the traditional Kadi's action from the tomb for a ; c tomb ' As early as 1622 an empty sarcophagus inside a humble building was associated with S. Polycarp and reverenced by the tomb was Mohammedan Greeks and Turks alike in form, and in charge of a dervish. About the middle are therefore somewhat as follows. 3 : of the seventeenth century it passed into Christian In the eighteenth the sarcophagus seems to hands. have been removed, or at least the cult transferred by the Turks to the site of the present tomb, while the supposed chapel continued to be reverenced by ChrisThe prestige of the sarcophagus made the outtians. wardly Turkish tomb still an object of reverence for Greeks, who were encouraged from interested motives by the custodian. Christian popular tradition still associates the tomb with S. Polycarp, though the Greek service in his a fable to account for the saint's 1 Mohammedan form of the alleged Christian tomb. Reise, in Paulus' Sammlung der Reisen (1801), vi, 105 ; Weber, passage (in Steinwald, Evang. Gemeinde zu * ' Smyrna, p. 30) identifies the chapel of S. Polycarp with substructures of the stadium recently removed. commenting on z 3 this Denkwurdigkeiten^ i, 520, quoted below, Sans son corps (Pacifique). 4. Yusuf Dede 413 celebrated in the stadium, and Latin in tradition, consequence of Pere S. Lorenzo's recent discoveries, is focussing on the vineyard site. It is interesting to note that the Mohammedan side of the cult has created for itself a new cycle of legend, The tomb is for investigated by Pere S. Lorenzo. Turks no longer the tomb of Polycarp, the friend of Mohammed ', but of Yusuf Dede, a Moslem warrior who fell before the castle-walls and carried his head to the tomb of Polycarp Both traditions were till recently reconciled by the guardian, who showed a bare spot of ground near the tomb as the burial-place of the Christian saint. 2 The spot where Yusuf fell, before the gates of the castle, is marked by a recent but promising honour is now ' V ' precinct containing a young cypress and a thorn-bush, but as yet no formal tomb, only a heap of stones. 3 This 1 Saints who carried their own heads are common in Turkish as in Christian hagiology ; for examples see Mirkovic, in Wiss. Mittb. Bosnien, i, 462 ; Evliya, Travels, I, ii, 68, II, 228 ; Durham, Burden of the Balkans, p. 228 ; Patsch, Das Sandschak Berat, p. 9. The theme affords a convenient explanation for the existence of two tombs attributed to the same saint. The 2 (S. spot formerly shown Lorenzo, is now covered by the guardian's cottage p. 205). The custom of throwing stones on graves, noticed in Asia Minor Schaffer (Cilicia, p. 29 ; cf. Bent, J. R. Antbr. Inst. xx, 275), by is in Herzegovina restricted to the graves of persons who have met their death by violence (Lilek, in Wiss. Mittb. Bosnien, viii, 272). 3 also by threw stones on Goliath's grave (Antoninus martyr, De the modern Yuruks (Garnett, Turkish Life, p. 202) and the Arabs of Syria (J. L. Porter, Damascus, Tristram (E. Customs, p. 101) says p. 318) also throw stones on graves. the cairns are to keep jackals away, but later (pp. 102-3) Sa 7 s passers Georgeakis and by curse the murderer as they throw the stone Pineau (Folk-Lore de Lesbos, p. 323) add that they should also pray for in Lesbos the cairns are called di/ade/iart'crr/cHat. the murdered man The practice may have arisen from a desire to hold down the uneasy Solomon walled upjinns in the pillars of the vaults under the ghost. Haram, and if a passer by fails to throw a stone, the jinns catch him Passers Locis Sanctis, ed. Tobler, p. 33 (xxxi)) : : ; (de Vogue, Syrie, p. 204). is It ' Th* 414 Tomb of S. Poly carp ' mark the spot where the saint's head is buried. instructive to remark that the negro village on the said to is of which Yusuf has become the tutelary it is hence saint, is of recent immigrants apparently that the new religious impetus has come which has swept the old tomb of Polycarp into its orbit. A dream come true, a prayer fulfilled, or some such accidental happening, is probably accountable. It is also to be theories based on the noticed, in view of survival coincidence of festivals, that the festival of Yusuf is celebrated in June I and that of his predecessor Polycarp castle-hill, : ' ' - in February. 2. The V alue of Tradition at A reputed tomb Smyrna of S. Polycarp, probably, as we have seen, not always at the same site, has thus been shown at Smyrna for nearly three centuries, that is, throughout the modern history of the town. The validity or otherwise of its claims to earlier traditions can only be It is not safe conjectured from general probabilities. ' to attach overmuch weight to tradition ', especially at Smyrna. In such identifications as that of the tomb of S. Polycarp we have throughout to remember that irrational speculation, based on dreams and other accidental circumstances, normally plays a large part. Indeed, religious tradition in the East is quite as easily manufactured as perpetuated, and varies in the most arbitrary manner, even without an apparent cause, such as a break in the history of a community. In the case of the tomb of S. Polycarp, it is a priori extremely unlikely that a tradition has survived even from the Middle Ages. One of the many long blanks in the history of Smyrna extends from the sack of the city by Timur (1402) to the renaissance of the seventeenth century. Our sole glimpse of the city in the 1 S. Lorenzo, p, 203. Relics of S. Poly carp 415 intervening period, which is afforded by Cepio's account of the Venetian sack in 1472, shows it as a purely Turkish 1 place. . As to the Middle Ages it is true that Sherif-ed-din, the historian of Timur, says that Smyrna was in his time a place of pilgrimage for Christians * but this need not refer to the cult, still less the traditional grave, of S. Polycarp. 3 Of the cult during the Prankish occupation (1344 to 1402), the only trace seems to be the fact that all known relics of S. Polycarp can be traced to Malta, 4 the later seat of the Knights of S. John, from whom Timur took Smyrna in 1402 there is thus a possibility that these relics were from Smyrna. In the fairly voluminous literature of the Prankish occupation there is no mention of a tomb, relics, or cult of S. PolyIf the relics then existed, they were probably carp. preserved in some church within the walls of the Knights' castle beside the harbour, which was the only part of the city in the hands of the Christians. When Smyrna emerges from the obscurity of the Middle Ages, which is not before the early years of the seventeenth century, the names of S. John and S. Polycarp are applied to existing monuments and sites absoThe following are associated with lutely at random. : : S. John : (i) A cave (near S. Veneranda, in the neighbourhood of the Jews' cemetery) to which he was said to have this was early appropriated by the Kadi to retired : serve as a cistern. 5 C f 1 * 3 Ap. Sathas, Mvr\\t,. J5AA. /OT. vii, 294. Tr. Petis de la Croix, iv, 46. In the thirteenth century an eikon of Christ was greatly revered there (G. Acrop., p. 56). 4 S. Lorenzo, op. cit., pp. 285-90. Two late fifteenth-century pilgrims, Joos van Ghistele ("T Voyage (1483), p. 335) and Griinemberg(Pilgerfahrt(i4.S6),p.$i) mention the head of S. Polycarp amongst the relics at Rhodes. 5 Stochove, Voyage^ p. 20 ; this is probably the modern Kpv</>ta c The 41 6 A (2) on the Tomb of S. Poly carp ' font used by S. John for baptism was shown the middle of the eighteenth cen- castle-hill in 1 tury. The mosque (3) in the castle was by some supposed to be a transformed church of S. John. 2 The columns of Namazgiah in the Jewish quarter (4.) were traditionally said to be those of a church of S. John.3 * A ? mile from the city (direction not specified, but not, so far as one can judge, on the castle-hill) were the walls of a church also, according to some, dedicated (5) to S. John. 4 In spite of the long medieval tradition of S. John's ' burial at Ephesus, the tradition of the Greeks in the seventeenth century pointed out his tomb at Smyrna. 5 With S. Polycarp were similarly associated, besides the tomb which we are discussing (i) A prison apparently near S. Veneranda, but the locality is not exactly indicated. 6 (6) 4 : ' ? , jfTavayca, a chapel in a subterranean watercourse (Oikonomos (1809), Ta 2a>6pcva, i, 338 ; Weber, in Jahrbuch, xiv, 186 f.). 1 Schulz (1753), Reise, p. 105. Le Bruyn, Voyage (Paris, 1725) i, 74 ; Spon, i, 232 ; Earl of SandIn ArundelPs time the same wich, Voyage, p. 308 ; Schulz, p. 104. have was said to been dedicated to the twelve Apostles (Asia building also it has been called the church of S. Polycarp (see Minor, ii, 394) * : The may have been to S. Demetrius (as Anc. ix, 114, basing on A eta et Diplom. i, 52), if, indeed, the building was not, as it has every appearance of being, a below). Fontrier, Rev. mosque from 3 real dedication fit. its origin. Oikonomos, Ta 2a)^6fiva 9 said to belong to (a) a ' these columns have also been i, 337 ' Palace of Alexander (De Burgo, Viaggio, i, : and (b) the Homereion (Museum Worsleyanum, ii, 43). T. Smith, Notitia, p. 53 Franciscani templum nuncupant D. Jobanni olim dedicabatur.' 461), c 4 : ; forte 5 La The Boullaye, Voyages (1653), p. 20, quoted above, p. 409. author does not mention the tomb of Polycarp, and is probably alluding to it 6 under De ' John ? this Burgo, name. Viaggio, i, 461 : is this Stochove's ' Cave of S. Sites Associated A (2) tree the saint's on the staff. castle-hill, S. 417 which had grown from Poly carp 1 The mosque (3) with in the castle is said by Oikonomos to have been a church dedicated to S. Polycarp, 2 by others, as we have seen, to S. John or the Apostles. (4) In 1851 a mutilated statue lying on the ground near the castle was pointed out as that of S. Polycarp. 3 The wholly speculative nature of the identifications made at Smyrna during the seventeenth and later censhown * 4 by the variety of traditions current as to the conspicuous group of ruins on the acropolis hill between the castle gate and the stadium. Three travellers (cPArvieux, Thevenot, and de Burgo) call this group of ruins a church of S. John, three others (Le Bruyn, Tournefort, and Lucas 4) a church of S. turies is Polycarp. 5 best of all The former identification seems certainly 6 old, though probably not authentic. D'Arvieux, as we ' II y a vn arbre que Ton dit Des Hayes (1621), Foiage, p. 343 estre venu du baston de Sainct Polycarpe, Euesque de ce lieu, qu'il planta, quand il fut pris pour estre martyrise.' The tree of S. Polycarp is called by Stochove a terebinth, by Spon (i, 232) a cherry, and by the 1 : botanist Tournefort a micocoulier or lotus. a Td 9 Jo>o//,eva, 337 i, * E7rdva)0v Se rovrov [sc. rov a/x<^i- Bedrpov] crre/Ct /cat /^epos IKCLVOV rrjs e/c/cATjatas* rov dytov UoXvKaprrov, ^era/^o/^cujueV??? etV rj^rj eprj/jiov raapiov [mosque], OTTOV tfro Kai 6 TOTTO? rov /jiaprvpiov /cat o rd<f>os avrov. The only mosque on the hill Lettres (1789), iii, 10. the castle walls which charts of 1834. 3 5 ' is Walpole, Ansayrii, marked Church of i, 25. 4 S. So also Sestini, was that inside ' Polycarp in Admiralty Voyage fait en 1714,1, 154. * tradition between The distinction may be due to a discrepancy in ' Greeks and Armenians similarly at Ephesus certain ruins are associated by the Armenians with S. John the Divine, by the Greeks with S. Panteleemon, each community holding service there on the appropriate day (Lambakis, 'Enra More/jes', p. 107). A church at Angora is similarly associated both with S. Clement and S. John (Perrot and Guillaume, Explor. de la Gala tie, p. 271), probably for the same : reason. more 6 A At Smyrna the S. John dedication, as more popular, is probably ancient. cathedral church of S. John, nntm'rlp the precincts of the sea The 41 8 ' Tomb of S. Poly carp ' have noted above, 1 seems to compromise by taking the chapel of S. Poly carp as part of the Church of S. John ', as Stochove did by fusing S. John and S. Polycarp into one person. A seventh authority, Edward ' Melton (1672), who describes unmistakably a conspicuous portion of the group of ruins, 2 considers it either a church of S. Polycarp or a temple of Janus. 3 Others have called the same ruin 5 ' a Judicatorium 4 , ' a Homer- eion ',5 the Palagio del Consiglio , and the Room of the Synod Drummond (1744) doubts whether to call it a Homereion, a public library, or a temple ' ? 6 ' V Prokesch (1830) accepts it as a church of Polycarp. Seventeenth-century classical archaeology at 8 Smyrna, probably initiated by William Petty in i634, of Janus. castle, is mentioned in the Prankish period at Smyrna (1344-1402) by the contemporary Anon. Romanus (in Muratori, Antiq. Ital. iii, 364) ' Era una Chiesa antiquissima, la quale hao nome Santo lanni. Dicesi che lo biato Santo lanni la edificab. Questa Chiesa fo lo Vescovato de quella Terra, nanti cha fossi destrutta la Cittate. Po' la : . . . destruttione era rimasta campestre.' This church lay juxta viam as one went to the (upper) castle (Job. Vitodurani Chronicon, ed. Eckhart, * P. 410. Corpus Hist. Med. Aev. \, 1909). 2 Van de twee zijden gelijk als in Zee- end Land-Reizen, p. 232 Kapellen door kleine muurtjens, die noch over eind staan, afgescheiden ' 3. zijn ; cf. below, 3 Tavernier's church of S. Polycarp near the sea, otherwise called the temple of Janus (Voyages, p. 32), is probably a confusion with the above identification his description is almost exactly Melton's. The La building generally known as the temple of Janus (Duloir, p. 15 20 Le and ; figured in Boullaye, p. Spon, i, 234 ; Bruyn, i, 79, &c.) Wheler's cut, stood on the low ground north of the city. Spon called it a Homereion and Stochove apparently a temple of Diana. Its seems have fixed to been (Le Bruyn, i, 79) by the discovery of identity * a statue of Janus,' probably a double herm. It may still be doubted whether the building was more than a Turkish turbe built of old blocks. * : : : 4 T. Smith, 5 Rycaut, Greek and Armenian Churches, p. 41 p. 53. ; (1754), travels, p. 116. 6 Gemelli Careri (1693), Giro del Mondo, 7 Pococke, Descr. of the East, II, 8 Michaelis, Ancient Marbles, p. ii, 36. u. i, 216. Alex. Drummond, Sites Associated with S. Poly carp is in the same empiric 419 The celebrated bust stage. in various authors as (i) castle-gate figures at the Helen of Troy, (2) Semiramis,* (3) the Amazon Smyrna^ and 4 (4) Apollo, not to mention (5) the Turkish legendary 1 heroine Coidasa,$ or Kadife. 6 It is apparent that the identifications this period, religious and secular made during alike, are simple guesswork, varying with the guide's fancy, and resting on no tradition inherited from the Middle Ages. The identification of the ruin or group of ruins called the church of S. John is the only one which is known to date from medieval times. 7 3. The Anti-dervish Movement 0/1656-76 At all times in Turkish history the dervish orders have exercised a considerable, if ill-defined, influence over At some periods, certain sections of the population. 8 e.g., at the end of the sixteenth century, political and other combinations have enhanced this influence to such an extent as to make them potentially important allies or dangerous enemies to the civil government. At the period we have mentioned one dervish-order, the Bektashi, set the seal on their ascendancy by changing their already existing secret connexion with the 1 F. Arnaud (1602), in de Vogue, Florilegium, p. 471 Stochove, ; Voyage, p. 19. z Le Bruyn, Voyage, i, 75 ; Spon, Voyage, i, 230. 3 Tournefort, Lett, xxii ; Pococke, II, ii, 36. 4 5 6 7 Monconys, Voyages, i, 424. Rycaut, Greek and Armenian Churches, p. 39. Carnoy and Nicolaides, Folk-Lore de Constantinople, p. 1 6 ff. The modern identification of ruins recently discovered in the Pere S. Lorenzo thus falls to the ground in so far as it is vineyard by based on the travellers' reports I have attempted to summarize. The ruins themselves are indeterminate, and the supposed tombstone of S. Pionius (S. Lorenzo, p. 315) no more than a portion of a granite bench inscribed (not FTHNHV but)-AHNH exedra put under the protection of Sipylene 8 See below, p. 611. : it is (cf. possibly from C.I.G. 3385-7 a tomb- incl.). The 420 an ' Tomb ' of S. Polycarp one. 1 This official connexion, backed by the sanction of the superstitious classes of the population, made the Janissary-Bektashi combination a very dangerous one during the succeeding period of weak monarchs and decadent national moral, and it continued to embarrass the Turkish government down to the abolition of the Janissaries and the fall of the Janissaries into official Bektashi in 1826. Recrudescent troubles with the Janissaries are one of the chief internal causes of the decay of the Ottoman power in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the seventeenth Osman II (161721) and Ibrahim (1640-8) made vain efforts to curtail their power, only to become their victims. 2 If we can point to one interlude of national revival, it is in the third quarter of the seventeenth century, notable for the last important extension of the Ottoman empire, the conquest of Crete. The cause of this revival lies, not in the ability of the sultan (Mohammed IV), but in that of his vizirs ; it dates from the appointment of the elder (Mohammed) Kuprulu in 1656 and ends with the death of his son Ahmed in 1676. With the turn of the century the Janissary-Bektashi combination is again all-powerful. The Kuprulus, father and son, attempted, not without temporary success, to make a stand against the power of the Janissaries in politics and the extraordinary prevalence of heterodoxy and superstition in religion, much of it due to dervish (sufi) influence, which threatened to undermine the Mohammedan faith in concrete instance of the expansion of the Turkey. dervish sects about this time is afforded by the fact that one Kadri sheikh, Ismail Rumi (d. 1643), founded no less than forty-eight convents. 3 Rycaut gives a long account of the numerous heterodox sects existing about A 1 3 3 D'Ohsson, Tableau, iii, 325. Poullet, Nouvelles Relations, i, 307. Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. xviii, 77. Political Attacks on Dervishes 421 of which, it is curious to note, were strongly impregnated with Christian ideas. Misri Efendi a celebrated Khalveti sheikh of Brusa, seems, like the founder of the Mevlevi, to have had leanings towards he is said to have frequented the bishop Christianity of Brusa and openly to have commended the Gospel. 1 A sheikh of Akhisar, whose name and order have not come down to us, is said to have been converted by an Arabic translation of the Gospel z and to have suffered martyrdom for Christianity in 1649 with twenty- two of his followers. 3 This particular tendency is no doubt due on the one hand to the permeation of Turkish society by Christian renegades and on the other to intermarriage with Christian women. The general falling away from the principles of Islam is to be attributed to closer contact with Europe and decreasing conviction of the invincibility of Turkish arms, and, consequently, of the unique position of the Mohammedan faith. The Kuprulu vizirs, regarding with apprehension these ominous symptoms, made a determined effort to root out the disease. Mohammed, called to office late in life for the express purpose of quelling an unusually dangerous rebellion of the Janissaries (1656), at once asserted his authority. Four thousand persons implicated in the movement, including several influential 4 dervishes, were at once executed by his orders and his this time, several : 1 Cantimir, Hist. Emp. Oth. ii, 228 f. For this see further Hasluck, Letters, p. 141. 3 Carayon, Rel. Ined. de la Compagnie de Jesus, pp. 228 ff. ; cf. Pacifique, Voyage de Perse, p. 54, for an account of two converted 2 Cf. Rycaut, Ottoman Empire, p. 64. towards Christianity may be traced of this movement beginnings back much further very (see Jacob, Bektaschijje, p. 29, and Hauser's note on p. 146 of his edition of Du Fresne Canaye's Voyage). dervishes martyred in Rhodes. The Hammer-Heller t, op. cit. xi, 17 d'Arvieux, Memoires, iv, 559 the same writer's Hist, of the Ottoman cf. Rycaut, Empire, p. 65 1 a. 8 Turks, p. (s. Evliya says 400,000 rebels were killed in 1649). 4 ; ; Anatolia by Kuprulu (I, i, 156). ; The 422 ' Tomb ' of S. Polycarp influence was felt throughout the empire till his death. we hear vaguely of action against During the dervish orders as such, apparently discriminating 1 La Guilletiere says that his son against the Mevlevi. banished all dervishes in the European provinces to in conformity with this order, the ParAsia Minor his vizirate : Athens, exploited according to him by dervishes as the centre of a superstitious cult, became once more an orthodox house of prayer. 2 A Bektashi (?) convent at Adrianople, long notorious for its scandals, was razed to the ground. 3 In the vizirate of the younger Kuprulu, Ahmed, who followed his father's policy, appeared an important ally in Vani Efendi, a persuasive preacher of the strictest Sunni principles, who obtained a great influence over the orthodox Sultan. As a member of the Ulema party, Vani was the determined foe of the dervish orders, 4 always suspected of heresy by the stricter Mussulmans. thenon at T. Smith in Ray's Voyages, ii, 58 ; d'Ohsson, Tableau, ii, 311 ; Tournefort (letter xiv) ascribes the move; Ubicini, Turquie, i, ment to Murad IV, probably wrongly, since the Mevlevi were considerably favoured in this reign (Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Qtt. 1 no 257, 316; d'Ohsson, Tableau, ii, 307) though they seem to have been implicated in the deposition (1648) of Sultan Ibrahim (HammerStern (Die Moderne Turkei, p. 117) Hellert, ix, 285: cf. xi, 5). in his follows Hammer account of this persecution of the merely ix, 2 Mevlevi. See above, pp. 14-16. Rycaut, Ottoman Empire, p. 69 cf. Jacob, Beitrdge, p. 15. 4 On Vani Efendi see Hammer-Hellert, op. cit., xi, 162 f., xii, 191, and xviii, 103. He was a native of Van and rose to eminence about after the siege of Vienna (1683), at which his prayers proved 1664 unsuccessful, he was banished to Kestel, near Brusa, where he died 3 ; ; the following year. Contemporaries estimate him very differently. regards him as a great hypocrite and a sworn enemy of Jews Hammer and Christians (op. cit. xii, 191) ; his famous religious argument with Nikusses (Sakkeliou in JeArcov '/crrop. 'Eraipclas, iii, 235 ; Panayotes in cf. Cantimir, ii, 61), being written from the Greek side, shows him the worst light. But the less-known discussion with Sir Thomas Baines, reported by Covel (Diaries, pp. 269 f.), exhibits him as a very liberalminded man, at least to Protestant (as ' non-idolatrous *) Christianity. Political Attacks on Dervishes . 423 His activity, which seems to date from 1664, was the religious counterpart of the political measures of the Kuprulus he opposed lawlessness in religion as they in A strict Puritan, he made a strong stand politics. against the mystic sufi doctrines professed by many members of the upper classes and the cult of saints and other superstitions in vogue among the lower. In 1670 he forbade the selling of wine/ laxity in regard to which has always been regarded as characteristic of the sufi He banished the Khalvcti dervish Sheikh Misri sects. of Brusa and the Kadri Karabash Ali of Skutari, and condemned the mystic poets of his time. 2 He made an effort to abolish the piping of the Mevlevi, 3 and the 4 public exercises of the dervishes in general. His attempt to stamp out the superstitious cult of Kanbur Dede near Khavsa 5 in Thrace is typical of his general policy and that of the Kuprulu vizirs it is in all probability paralleled by unrecorded action of the same sort elsewhere. The tomb of Polycarp is transferred from the keeping of Moslem dervishes to Greek monks by 6 The change may well have been due to the i657politico-religious movement we have described. ; : ' 4 4. "The Ruins on the Castle-hill We turn now to examine the ruins near the castleThe general position of this gate and the theatre. certain is made by a consensus of sevengroup of ruins teenth century authors of whom de Burgo and Tourne1 2 Hammer-Heller t, op. at. For Misri Ibid, xii, 45. 335. see further Cantimir, op. xi, cit. ii, 218 ff., Gibb, Ottoman Poetry, iii, 312. 3 Rycaut, Ottoman Empire, p. 68. 4 but the Covel, Diaries, p. 269 (* about 6 yeares since in 1676) Mevlevi were back into imperial favour by Covel's time (ibid., p. 168). 228 ff. ; ' ; 5 Hammer-Hellert, op. cit. xi, 250 (1667) ; the cult is probably identical with that of Sari Saltik at Eski Baba, below, pp. 431-2). 6 The date of d'Arvieux' departure from Smyrna. The 424 c Tomb fort are the clearest. 1 ' of S. Polycarp The ruins included (i) the so- called chapel of S. Polycarp, a building of no preten- containing two compartments, and (2) near this, and south-east of it 2 the conspicuous ruin shown in sions, Le Bruyn's 3 as a large arch or apse flanked by plate tower-like projections. By some authors both these are considered as parts of the cathedral of buildings 4 S. John, while by others the second is regarded as a separate building and called we by many names, of which, ' adopt that of Judicatorium '. The whole group of ruins seems to have been a good deal excavated by amateurs 6 and finally used as a quarry by the Turks in the latter half of the seventeenth century for the building of Sanjak Kale (1656) and certain 7 But considerable remains, especially of the mosques. as distinctive, shall 5 * Judicatorium ', existed into the early part of the nineteenth century and are perhaps indicated in Storari's map 8 (c. 1855). As regards the Judicatorium we are well documented. Besides Le Bruyn's drawing we have a con? * 1 The former from the 2 4 places them 200 paces from the castle (i, 460) and 100 ' ' amphitheatre Pococke, II, ii, 36. Certainly d'Arvieux (i, 461). 3 (i, 50) Reproduced in B.S.A. xx, PI. XI. (followed by Thevenot) and von 5 Above, 2, p. 418. Prokesch-Osten (quoted below). c 6 Le Bruyn, i, 79 A une petite lieue de la Ville, en allant vers le Chateau, on trouve, a ce que 1'on croit, Pendroit ou etoit Pancienne Smyrne \cf. Pacifique, quoted above, i,ad initJ] ; on y voit aussi encore quelques restes d'Antiquitez. C'est autour de-la qu'on trouve sous terre la plupart des Statues, comme il arriva dans le terns que * je demeurois a Constantinople [here follows an account of four statues sent to the French king, probably those mentioned in Gronovius Mem. Cosson. p. 36]. For other digging in this neighbourhood about the same period, see Galland's Journal, ii, 214 (1673) and cf. Omont, : Miss. Arcbeol. i, 209 (1680). della gran G. de Burgo (1686), i, 460 che non le resta altro fondamenta, hauendo Apostolo 7 Cf. : chiesa di S. Gio. gli Turchi portate via le pietre per fabbricare gli Castelli alia marina, sicome anche alcune 8 Moschee.' Reproduced in B.S.A. xx, PI. X, 2. 425 'Judicatonum temporary description by Smith, a plan by Drummond, and detailed notes by Pococke and von Prokesch-Osten. Smith's account as follows is : '[Prope sepulchrum Polycarpi exstat] saxeum aedificium, quod judicatorium fuisse videtur, tria conclavia habens eidem solo insistentia, quorum medium duodecim fere ab omni latere passuum est. Frontispicium ipsius ornarunt quatuor columnae, r quarum solae bases manent.' Pococke says of ( is it : a tradition that the cathedral [There the north side of the church was built on which seems probable, there being and had a portico before it, the propillars of which arc taken away the whose house of the room might bably synod archbishop, have been between this and the church.' 2 circus, some ruins that look like the remains of such a building ;] to the south east of it there is a fabric of three rooms, which . By far the clearest account of the building is . . Drum- mond's, who, though in doubt what to call it, took the trouble to secure a plan and measurements. The building is divided into three parallel compartments, communicating with each other by doorways in the partywalls. The whole was prefaced by a portico of four columns in antis (all missing). The central of the three compartments opened on the porch by a doorway, the others by windows. The dimensions of the building within the walls were 50 X 27 feet, of the temple 16 x 27 feet, and of the cloister 13 x 27 feet. The main entrance was 10 feet wide, the side doors 3^, and ' ' ' ' ' ' 1 Septem Ecclesianim Notitia, pp. 53 f. Descr. of the East, II, ii, 36. The Earl of Sandwich (Poyage, p. 308) * Descendmakes the relative positions of the buildings rather clearer an on the discover south-west the hill side, you castle], ing this [from stones cemented well of ancient building together, large square very " A Judicatorium "] vulgarly called Homer's School [i.e. our little lower is a small chapel consecrated to Saint Polycarp, whose sepulchre is to be seen at a small distance from it ... Near this chapel are the remains of a stadium.' 2 : . 3295-2 F . . The 426 ' Tomb ? of S. Poly carp The were 4 feet thick. 1 There are some discrepancies in these measurements, but the general idea is given by the plan. Von Prokesch-Osten's account of the same building, under the name of Chapel of S. Polycarp ', shows that it did not suffer materially in the next hundred years [Das Kirchlein des Heiligen Polykarpus] hoch auf dem Noch leben westlichen Abfall des Schlossberges gelegen ist. the windows 3 feet. walls * : * Es bestand Viele, die sich des Gottesdienstes darin erinnern. aus drei Raumen, langlich und klein, finster und enge, voll Nischen und Gewolben, und war aus Granitblocken des Schlosses gebaut worden. In der linken Capelle soil der Predigtstuhl, in der mittleren ein Gnadenbild gestanden haben. Der Eingang ging durch einen von Saulen getragenen, bedeckten Vorhof. Die Saulen sind verschwunden, aber die Bogen * greifen noch aus den Mauern vor. 5 these descriptions we gather a perfectly clear idea of the .plan of the building. As to the elevation, for which Le Bruyn's drawing is our only source, we can only be certain that the central compartment was higher than the others. This arrangement, as suggesting a nave and aisles, has led to the supposition that the building was a church. Nothing in the plan, the absence of an however, warrants that supposition From all : conclusive against it. The position, moreover, apse outside the medieval citadel and at the same time re mote from the port, is not a likely one for a cathedral. All the buildings in this direction seem to belong to is ancient, not to medieval, Smyrna. 1 Travels (London, 1754), pp. 116 2 see f. (plan faces p. 118). this author in Jahrbilcher also Denkzuurdigkeiten, i, 520 ; der Liter atur (Vienna), Ixvii (1834), dnzeigerbl., p. 62. The last Plan of of are marked on Storari's this vestiges building Smyrna (1855) Ruine, between the castle gate and the south-east end of the stadium. Fontrier (Rev. &t. Anc. ix, 114) says that this site is now occupied by a vineyard in which stone water-pipes have been found. The vineyard as mentioned of S. is the Poly carp. site of Pere S. Lorenzo's supposed church and tomb Judicatorium 427 further evident that our seventeenth-century ' authorities saw their church of S. John ? in a great * complex of ruined building, of which the Judicatorium ', if included at all, is but a portion. De Burgo, * for instance, gives the dimensions of the church of S. ' * John as 158 x 38 paces or nearly as large as the court of the great mosque at Damascus. Smith's chapel of ? * ' S. Polycarp is joined to the Judicatorium by a long series of vaults set in a row ', evidently interpreted by some as the remains of the great church. Another It is * ' interpretation The is possible. Dr. Weber, in his minute and learned study of the aqueducts of Smyrna, traces the high-pressure ' aqueduct of Kara-Bunar step by step up to the very saddle of the castle hill where the Judicatorium stood. 2 I have myself seen stone pipes from it hereabouts (in the vineyard of Pere S Lorenzo's discoveries) 3 late ' ' ' . , and in recent times there has come to light at some spot on the castle hill an inscription 4 duplicating C./.G. 3147 and recording repairs early in the reign of Hadrian to an aqueduct known from C./.G. 3146 to have been built about A.D. 80. 5 The exact provenance of C./.G. the finding of the second but unknown, 3146, 3147, copy of the latter on the castle hill is strong evidence for connecting all three, not (as Dr. Weber) 6 with the lower (Ak-Bunar), but with the upper (Kara-Bunar) is 1 3 2 Jahrbiick, xiv, 4 fi. cited above. 114, 139 (181), now in the Greek Museum at Viaggio^ i, 461. ^ Cf. Fontrier, Rev. Et. Anc. * ix, Movazlov, 1880, p. v8aro$ drroKafraaTaOevTos VTTO Baiftiov Tpaiavov Smyrna .' The text is a duplicate of C.I.G. 3147=^ avOwTTaTov Tov\\Xov ' : \ \ Dittenberger, Orient. Gr. Inscrr. no. 478, now at Trinity College, Cambridge. For the date see Weber, loc. cit., p. 174. 5 For this date see Weber, loc. cit., and Dittenberger, Orient Gr. Inscrr. no. 477. Smith (p. 53) found a dedication to Hadrian built into ' the chapel of S. Polycarp '. 6 Jahrbuck, xiv, 167, 174. Dr. Weber seems to have been biassed * by his opinion that the temple of Zeus Akraios stood on Windmill Hill '. ' ' Tomb of S. Polycarp aqueduct. Dr. Weber found no trace of any aqueduct within the walls of the fortress, but odd blocks of stone The 428 from the Kara-Bunar aqueduct, have been discovered near the theatre, and in the Upper 1 Quarter of the Greeks, both on the slopes of the castle piping, apparently hill. ' ' tempting to suggest that the Judicatorium formed the ornamental terminus of the Kara-Bunar aqueduct or Aqua Traiana. The high site on the saddle of the castle hill was particularly fitted for one of these buildings, generally called nymphaea, which served the double purpose of public fountains and dividicula or points for the distribution of water by The smaller channels to different parts of a town. three narrow and dark chambers of the Judicatorium may have been cisterns or settling chambers It is * ' ? ' for the water. Fine specimens of this class of monument are to be found elsewhere in Asia Minor, at Aspendus, and especi2 The exedra of Herodes at Olympia is ally Side. a monument of the same order. If, as is not impossible, such a building stood on the castle hill at Smyrna, and especially if it formed one end of a public open space such as an agora? the mistake of the earlier travellers is c readily explained. 9 The debris of such a group of build- colonnades and lines of shops and the triple building at one end, might easily suggest an immense ruined church with a number of fallen sidechapels and the chancel still standing. But excavation alone can turn such conjectures into proof. ings, 1 with Weber, its loc. cit., pp. 19 f. 2 Dunn, Baukunst der Romer, pp. 168 ff. Lanckoronski, Stddte Pamphyliens und Pisidiens, i, PI. xxx (Side). 3 For an agora in a similar position between lower town and citadel we may compare those of Assos and Pergamon. Ramsay (Seven Churches, p. 260, cf. Calder in Studies in History and Art^ &c., p. 104) conjectures that the Golden Street of Smyrna ended in the neighbourhood of our hypothetical agora : XXXII SARI SALTIK ' At Kaliakra I. legend of Sari Saltik, set down by Evliya Efendi middle of the seventeenth century from particulars retailed to him by the dervishes of Kaliakra 2 (Kilgra) near Varna, is an example of the growth of religious myth not without value for the appreciation of similar tales in Greek and other mythologies. It has THE in the positive interest as shedding some light on that very obscure subject, the influence of the dervish also a more orders on Turkish religion and politics. The main as of are the follows story points certain dervish, by name Mohammed Bokhara, : A called also Sari Saltik Sultan, who was a disciple of the celebrated Khoja Ahmed of Yasi [d. A.D. 1166-7] and a companion of Haji Bektash [d. A.D. 1337], came to the court of the Ottoman sultan Orkhan [1326-60], and after the conquest of Brusa was sent with seventy disIn his missionary journey Sari ciples into Europe. the visited at Saltik Crimea, Muscovy, and Poland Danzig he killed the patriarch Svity Nikola ', and, assuming his robes, in this guise made many converts to Islam. 3 He also delivered the kingdom of Dobruja from a seven-headed dragon, to which the two daughters of : ' A much poorer version of this chapter appeared in B.S.A. xix 2 Travels, ii, 70-72, cf. 20, 21. (1912-3), pp. 203-8. 3 This curious incident is twice related (I, ii, 245) 'Saltuk Mohammed went disguised into Poland, killed the monk Sari Saltuk, whose name he 1 : took, and dwelt in his cell ' ' ; (ii, Svity Nicola the patriarch, whose 70) name he killed, adopted his habit, and by thousands to Islam.' At Danzig he conversed with is the same this as Sari Saltuk whom means converted many Sari Saltik 430 the king were exposed as victims, cutting off first three, and then the remaining four, of its heads with a wooden During this adventure, a monk picked up the and tongues of the three heads first cut off and, armed with these trophies, claimed to have slain the sword. ears 1 dragon himself. Sari Saltik then proposed an ordeal to decide the rival claims. Both he and the monk were bound and put into an immense cauldron (kazan, whence, according to the legend, the name of of fire 2 the Kazan Balkan in Bulgaria). This was placed on the fire, whereupon the monk was burnt to death but Sari Saltik suffered no hurt. The king of Dobruja was in consequence converted to Islam. Before his death the saint gave orders that his body should be placed in seven coffins, since seven kings should contend for its possession. This came to pass each king took a coffin, and each coffin was found, when opened, to contain the body. The seven kingdoms blessed by the possession of the saint's remains are given as (i) Muscovy, where the saint is held in great honour as Svity Nikola (S. Nicolas) (2) Poland, where his : ; tomb at much Danzig (3) Bohemia, frequented where the coffin was shown at Pezzunijah (4) Sweden, which possessed a tomb at Bivanjah (5) Adrianople, near which (at Eski Baba) is another tomb (6) Moldavia, where the tomb was shown at Baba Dagh; and (7) Dobruja,. in which district was the convent of Kaliakra containing the seventh tomb. The veracious history concludes with the remark that in Christian is ; ' ' ; ' ? ; ; ' 1 The incident of the false claim is a well-known episode in folk of dragon slayings (Hartland, Perseus, iii, 47 Cosquin, Contes de Lorraine, i, 61 ; Monnier, Contes Populaires en Italic, p. 288 ; cf. below p. 434). In the Near East it figures in the Bulgarian legend of S. Elias (Shishmanova, Legendes Relig. Bulg., pp. 87 ff.) as well as in stories ; the Turkish of Sari Saltik. 1 For the ordeal by fire of the Hist. Orient., p. 477 p. 498. ; ' 9 monks of Sidi Ghazi possibly also in see Hottinger, of George Hungary, see below, His Seven Tombs 431 countries Sari Saltuk is generally called S. Nicolas, is much revered, and Christian monks ask alms under his auspices.' At 2. Eski Baba Of the seven towns said to have contained tombs of * Sari Saltik, four, if we include Muscovy as referring to the Crimea, are in lands actually conquered by the Turks, three in Christian Europe. The fable of the existence of the latter group can be dismissed at once as based on nothing more than the arbitrary identification of Sari Saltik with S. Nicolas. 1 In the case of three of the four Turkish tombs we can supplement, and to some extent check, Evliya's legend. The Kaliakra tomb, in a ruined fortress of the same name on a headland north of Varna, is still visited by 2 It is probable local Christians as that of S. Nicolas. that this was the original (pre-Mohammedan) dedication of the sanctuary ; it is certainly appropriate to the coast-site, and the fortress of Kaliakra was in Byzantine hands till A.D. I37O 3 so that it is difficult to imagine a break in the cult. The tomb at Eski Baba was, and ' * ' a famous sanctuary, frequented for healing both by Greeks and Turks. The building is said to be an old Greek church of S. Nicolas. 4 The association with Sari is, This saint is evidently chosen, not only because one or two of the sanctuaries occupied by Sari Saltik had been churches of S. Nicolas 1 (see below, p. 578), but also on account of the extraordinary popularity of the latter in the countries first touched by the propaganda, Russia and Bulgarian peasants are said to believe that, when God dies, Nicolas will succeed him (Slade, Travels in Turkey, and ed., p. 344). Bulgaria. S. 3 3 For Cf. its frequentation by Turks see below, p. 578. i, 95, 528, in Miklosich and Miiller, Acta et Diplom. Ada Pair, Gr. * This Church [of. S Nicolas] is but very handsome, in standing pretty the same forme almost with Sta. Sophia, with a great Cupola over the body of it but the outward wall is scaloped.' Eski Baba is mentioned under that name, thus implying the cult, as early as 1553 (Verantius, 4 J. Covel, Diaries (1675), p. 186 intire. ; It is but : little . . . Sari Saltik 432 Saltik locally seems to be late and arbitrary known as Kanbur Dede (' I ; S. the saint was Humpback Baba Dagh, which appears to have been the 2 '). starting point of the cult in Europe, will be discussed in the next section. At Baba Dagh 3. If such a story as that of Sari Saltik were told by Pausanias of prehistoric Greeks, it would be interpreted as an echo either of a movement of peoples, a conquest, or, at the very least, commercial or missionary activity, extending far beyond the limits which we know in the present case to be credible. Even with the historical background we possess, any interpretation of the story which pretends to disentangle the medley of fact and fiction contained in it must be regarded as tentative. The following claims to be no more than a suggestion. The town of Baba Dagh in Moldavia was founded by 3 In Bayezid II in 1489 and colonized with Tatars. all probability a pre-existing Christian cult was then mohammedanized. The Mohammedan saint with whom the site was associated is most likely identical with Baba Saltuk, a saint who had given his name already half a century earlier to a town near Sudak in the Crimea. 4 For other references see above, Jirecek, Heerstrasse, p. 167). and for texts below, pp. 761-3. pp. 54-5 1 The existence of a village Saltiklu in the vicinity may have aided ap. the identification. 3 For further details see above, p. 55, and notes. 3 Hadji Khalfa, Rumeli und Bosna, p. 28 ; Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. xvi, 247 ; cf. Vassif Efendi, Guerre de Ij6g-~J4, p. 281. Sari His great missionary consistently associated with Tatars. were among the Tatars of Heshdek in Muscovy and Lipka in Poland (Evliya, I, ii, 245 cf. ii, 70). Apart from his connexion with the Bektashi he was claimed as patron by the guild of buzaare for the greater part Tatar gipsies makers, who, says Evliya, it should be remarked also that buza is yellow (sari) in (I, ii, 245) colour (it is a fermented liquor made from barley). 4 Ibn Batuta, tr. Sanguinetti, ii, 416, 445. There may be also a contamination between Saltik of Bokhara and Satok JBogra, Khan of Saltik is successes ; c : ' At Baba Dagh 433 We may saint l well imagine that Baba Saltuk was a tribal imported by the Tatar colonists to Baba Dagh. Bayezid's foundation at Baba Dagh included, as Evliya tells us, a mosque, an imaret, a college, a bath, a khan, and a monument of the saint. In all probability dervishes were attached to the cult from the first ; by these or their successors Sari Saltik was brought into the cycle of Haji Bektash, the reputed founder of the Bektashi order. The basis of the legend of the seven coffins and seven tombs is probably to be sought in some folk-story turning on the immense size of the hero/* This legend was used for the purposes of their own religious propaganda by the Bektashi dervishes, who probably occupied, or justified their occupation of, the two other sanctuaries of Rumeli on this pretext. 3 The further extension of the legend to non-Ottoman countries may perhaps be considered as politico-religious propaganda, devised again by the Bektashi in their character of warrior-dervishes, 4 to stimulate good Mohammedans to the conquest of the lands in which the saint's reputed tombs lay.5 The identification of Sari Saltik with the Christian S. Nicolas is only one of the many Turkestan, a semilegendary personage of the tenth century who is credited with having been the first Turkish ruler to embrace Islam The mention of a (see Grenard in Journ. Asiat. xv (1900), pp. 5 ff). dervish Sari Salte in a Kurdish folk-story (Jaba, Recueil de Recits Kurdes, p. 94) may mark a stage in the westward journey of the Sari myth, or may be due merely to Bektashi propaganda in Kurdistan. See also below, p. 576, n. 3. 2 Cf. the similar legend of Digenes Akritas (Polites, /7a/>aSocrets no. it is hard to distinguish cause and effect since this 131) type of legend Saltik 1 > , : may equally well arise from a desire to reconcile conflicting claims See above, pp. 234 ff. claim as their own any saints called Baba, see were said to They to a hero's remains. 3 below, p. 567, and note 4 4. Their connexion with the pp. 419 Janissaries is well known, see above, flf. 5 The fiction of the three tombs in Christendom may, however, have been devised merely to bring the total up to the mystic number seven. Sari Saltik 434 manifestations of their philosophic creed that all religions are one. The sanctuaries of Kaliakra and Eski Baba are, as we have seen, probably old churches of S. Nicolas. The incident of the ordeal by fire to decide between the rival claims of Sari Saltik and the Christian monk suggests that a Christian saint was supplanted, and from the dragon legend (located at Kaliakra) we should naturally infer that this saint was S. George. But in a nearly 1 identical Bulgarian folk-story, which includes the episodes of (i) the rescue of the princess, (2) the vindication of the dragon-slayer against a false claim, and (3) the conversion of the king, the hero is the Prophet Elias. On the other hand, in a Bosnian variant both and S. George are introduced, each in his proper the former as the sender of thunder, the character, S. Elias latter as a dragon-slayer. 2 a compression of this. The Bulgarian legend may be was supplanted, we know from contemporary history that such a transition from Christianity to Islam is quite possible in the Crimea and the Balkans. If we had no history to guide us, we might at logically assume that the slaying of Svity Nikola Whatever saint * ? Danzig, a legend very similar in form, implied the victory of Islam here also, after which we should proceed to accept the successful propagation of Islam in Muscovy, Bohemia, and Sweden At Kruya 4. The likewise as historical fact. Sari Saltik legend has spread further to Albania, where the ' ' type of legend was evidently L. Shishmanova, Legendes Relig. Bulg.^ pp. 87 ff. The lake here mentioned as the abode of the dragon points to Baba Dagh rather than S. George 1 Kaliakra as the place where this story was localized. But both places were probably brought into the story like Kruya and Alessio (see below, pp. 435-6) in Albania. A localized (?) S. George legend from Varna is given by Polites in Aaoypa<f>ia iv, 234. For another account of S. Elias and the dragon see Sbornik za narodni oumotvorenia, vol. v. y 2 Hartland, Perseus, iii. 41. . At Kruya 435 The episode of Sari Saltik and the already current. dragon is located near Kruya, and the importation of the nameb of the hero is certainly to be attributed to the Bektashi sect, who are specially influential in this part of Albania. At Kruya the dragon lived by day in 1 and by night in a church. Sari Saltik arrived at the town incognito, assuming the part of a humble dervish, the day before the sacrifice of the King's daughter was to take place. In the morning, he accompanied the princess on her way to the dragon's haunt, a cave armed with a wooden sword and a cypress staff. With the latter he produced a miraculous spring, with the former he cut off the dragon's seven heads, putting the points of the seven tongues in his pocket. He then retired to obscurity. The princess's hand being offered to her unknown deliverer, the false claim episode is developed, but the Christian monk does not figure. The true hero, Sari Saltik, is at length discovered, resigns the hand of the princess, and claims only the right to live as a hermit in the dragon's cave. This being granted, he lives there till he is told by the man who brings him his food that the people of the land are plotting against his life, and that he is in imminent danger. On hearing this, the saint throws the melon he was about to eat, with his knife in it, into the air, and they remain to this day, turned to stone in the roof of his cave. He himself retired to Corfu in three strides, which are marked by a footprint at each stage (Kruya, 2 Bazaar Shiakh, Durazzo) eventually he died at Corfu. 3 Here again, rationalizing on orthodox lines, we should For the secular form see von Hahn, Allan. Studien, ii, 167. The ' ' ' ' ; 1 in the Chimarra district (M. Hamilton, Greek similar type. The fight of S. George and the of Saints, pp. 32 f.) is localized also in Old Serbia (Mackenzie and dragon Irby, Turks, Greeks, and Slavons, pp. 672 f.). 2 This footprint (called Jurmi Scbeintit) is in a chapel half an hour from the town of Kruya (Ippen, Skutari, p. 77). legend of S. Donatus is 3 Degrand, Haute Albanie, pp. 236 ff. Sari Saltik 436 suppose that Islam, represented by Sari Saltik, had but a short-lived victory at Kruya,andwas eventually forced to retire ; but why to Corfu, which has never been Turkish ? In the light of history we might infer that the ejected dragon-slayer was in reality not Sari Saltik, but his Christian predecessor, possibly S. George, whom the Albanians of Alessio claimed as a compatriot. 1 But probably at best but a partial explanation. The of Sari Saltik is amongst other things a stalkingfigure horse for Bektashi propaganda amongst Christians. Like the Mevlevi, the Bektashi order has always been concilia3 the number of its adherents in tory to Christianity Albania, especially in the district of Koritza, many villages of which are said to have been converted within the last hundred years to Islam, or rather to Bektashism, shows that their policy has had considerable success. It is for the purposes of this propaganda that the identification of Sari Saltik with the universally popular Christian saint Nicolas was devised. Other important local saints were identified in the same manner. Examples are S. Naum, the Christian healer of Lake Okhrida, to whom Bektashi of the Koritza district make pilgrimage as Sari Saltik, 3 and S. Spyridon the patron of Corfu. 4 The latter identification is the explanation of the Bektashi ' legend of the flight of Sari Saltik to the Christian island. this is ; ' 1 W Itineraries (1462), p. 119. This is a confusion with It was Alessio that Sari Saltik to Kastriotes George (Skanderbeg). after his victory threw the carcase of the dragon ; Lesh, the Albanian Wey, name of the town, von Hahn, op. at. signifies corpse i, (Degrand, op. cit., pp. 174, 238 ; cf. 137). * See For the tolerant attitude of a especially below, pp. 564 if. Hurufi dervish in the fifteenth century see below, p. 568, n. 3. The traces of Christianity in Bektashi doctrine are discussed at length by Jacob, Bektaschijje, pp. 29 3 4 ff . W. H. from a Greek priest at S. Naum. Miss Durham heard this at Kruya (Burden F. of the Balkans, p. 304), Albanian Bektashi at Uskub, from the sheikh of the tekke at Aivali in Thessaly, and from the (Greek) abbot of S. Naum. I from a southern His Forty "Tombs 437 Possibly similar propaganda purposes explain the variations in a version of the Kilgra legend found by Degrand in a manuscript at Tirana in Albania. 1 This manuscript 2 is said by Jacob to be the Vilayet nameh of Hajim Sultan, a sixteenth century Bektashi saint whose tomb venerated near Ushak in Asia Minor. 3 In this version Sari Saltik ordered forty coffins to be prepared after his death, and, as in the other legend of the seven coffins, each of them was found to contain his body. The king of the Dobruja examined the forty corpses, and, observing that one of them moved its hand, decided that this was the genuine body of the dead saint. He therefore buried it in the centre of a circle formed by the other thirty-nine. This looks like an attempt to attach the legend of Sari Saltik to some locality associated with the Forty Saints, possibly Kirk Kilise in Thrace, 4 or even SS. Quaranta in Albania. 5 is Bektashi Propaganda Side by side with such adoptions or attempted adoptions by the Bektashi of Christian saints and sanctuaries we find the converse phenomenon, viz., the adoption by Christians of Bektashi saints and sanctuaries with the consent, or even encouragement, of the Bektashi. Examples are the identification of the tekke of Aivali in Thessaly with the site of a monastery dedicated to S. 6 George, of the tekke of Sersem Ali at Kalkandelen with an earlier monastery of S. Elias, 7 and of the central 5. Haute Albanie, pp. 240 1 2 Beitrage, p. 2, n. 4. R. Asiat. Soc. 1907, p. J. ff. The work is also mentioned by Browne in 561 (3). 4 See above, p. 397. Jacob, Bektaschijje, p. 27. ' 5 For the ruined ' monastery containing forty underground chamAli of bers, at SS. Quaranta see Hasluck, Letters, p. 10, and pi. 6. Yannina whose connexion with the Bektashi and the Sari Saltik legend is 3 discussed below, restored the adjoining fortress (Petrides in riapvaaaos, N. Greece^ i, n.). But a Bektashi tekke has never ii, 642 ; cf. Leake, existed there. 6 Below, p. 582. . 7 Ibid. Sari Saltik 438 Bektashi tekke near Kirshehr in Anatolia with an ancient 1 monastery of S. Charalambos. find thus in our own times, as in those of Ala-ed-. din of Konia, z a distinct rapprochement between an order of dervishes and popular Christianity, probably forwarded by the dervishes with a view to establishing a common basis of religion for both creeds. In the area touched by the Bektashi, as in the Mevlevi radius, the chief outward manifestation of this rapprochement is the attempt to render certain sanctuaries accessible to both parties by pious fictions. 3 The Bektashi undoubtedly aimed at an ultimate religious supremacy in the countries touched by their propaganda. At the time of the Turkish revolution they had still hopes of a Bektashi state in Albania. 4 Such a religious supremacy could hope to hold its own if supported by a sympathetic civil power. As regards the Mevlevi movement at Konia, we have hinted at such an alliance between the We Mevlevi, represented by their founder, Jelal-ed-din, and the ruling house. 5 In the case of Albania the evidence for a similar combination is much stronger. 6 There, particularly in southern Albania, Bektashism, though Asiatic Even in origin, has in such places as Crete now its chief stronghold. and Lycia the majority of professed dervishes of the order seem to be Albanians. If the grave of Sersem Ali at Kalkandelen is genuine, Bektashism must have been introduced into this country before 1550.? Mohammedanism 1 of any sort in Albania 2 is of com- 3 Below, p. 571. Above, pp. 370 ff. Below, pp. 564-96. 4 This I have on 5 Bektashi Above, p. 377. good authority. * 6 Brailsford (Macedonia, p. 244) goes so far as to say that nearly every Albanian at all events in the South who has any interest in religion at all, is a member of the Bektashi sect.' 7 Jacob, Bektaschijje, p. 27. A false prophet, claiming to be an incarnation of Ali, appeared in Albania in 1607 (Ambassade de Gontaut Biron, p. 138). See, however, below, p. 524. Bektashi Propaganda in Albania 439 recent the Turkish conquest having date, paratively been late and partial. Before it the population was Christian. There was little or no colonization of the country by genuine Turks, as was the case in some other the Moslem Albanians to-day thus parts of Rumeli a to represent very large extent Christians converted 1 at various dates. The southern part of the country remains to this day a patchwork of Christians (Epirus) and Mohammedans, many of the latter being converts of the last hundred and fifty years and adherents of the Bektashi. This is the country which once bid fair to become an independent state under Ali Pasha of Yannina (d. 1822), who owed his power, firstly, to his own astounding energy and force of character and, secondly, to his alliance with the Bektashi, of which a full account : * given elsewhere. We shall there find evidence of Ali's interest in Bektashi propaganda in his own district of Yannina and at Kruya, both of which districts are to-day strongly is Bektashi, in Thessaly, a province which came under his political influence, and at Skutari, where his designs were evidently discovered and thwarted in time. It is thus extremely probable that the Bektashi under All's auspices were responsible for much of the recent conversion to apparent Islam in Epirus and elsewhere, 3 and that the phenomena which we barely detect in Seljuk Konia during the thirteenth century were repeated only a hundred years ago in Albania. It is even possible that Ali's well-known designs on the Ionian islands 4 are partially or wholly responsible for the identification of S. Spyridon of Corfu with the Bektashi saint Sari Saltik. T. Arnold, Preaching of Islam, 2 Below, pp. 586 ff. pp. 152 3 For the the rise in these forced of Russia part possibly played by 1 For the conversion of Albania see ff. conversions to Islam see below, p. 471. 4 Beauchamp, Vie cFAli Pacha^ pp. 163, 194 405, 450- ; Holland, Travels^ i, XXXIII S. JOHN THE RUSSIAN < ' c the Russian \ whose body is preserved at * Urgub, is a little-known Greek neo-saint of great local repute. According to the official tradition, 2 the saint was made prisoner in Russia 3 at the age of fifteen by the Turks during their wars with Peter the Great, and served a local bey at Urgub for many years as stable- S . JOHN I boy, retaining his faith, whereas his fellow-captives became Turks, thereby, of course, bettering their condition considerably. S. John died in 1738 and on 27 May, the anniversary of his death, his sainthood was duly established by the appearance on his grave of a supernatural light. 4 Miracles by him begin to be recorded as when body was preserved intact in a fire. In the sixties S. John is said to have appeared to a woman who had lost her child and to have revealed to her that it had been murdered and by whom. Another miracle said to have been wrought by the saint during his lifetime is an obvious plagiarism from Turkish hagioearly as 1837, his how the poor stable-boy miraculously conveyed to his master, then on pilgrimage at Mecca, a plate of pilaf, which duly arrived smoking hot. 5 The same fact is related of at least two Turkish saints. 6 In the nineties 7 a large church was built to enshrine logy. It relates For neo-saints see below, pp. 452-9. This is given by Oberhummer and Zimmerer, Durcb Syrien, pp. 211 f. A Life of the saint is said to be on sale at Urgub and at the Russian monastery on Athos, but I have not seen it. 3 He is generally called JTpo/coTnos which suggests Perekop in Russia as his place of origin, but on the whole it is not likely that natives of Urgub would know his Russian birthplace. 4 For sainthood Kinnelr, Journey through Asia Minor, p. 88. 1 2 1 , revealed by supernatural lights see above, p. 254. 5 Oberhummer and Zimmerer, op. cit., p. 211, n. 6 7 See above, p. 293. Archelaos, 2lvacro$ 9 p. 117. Russian Renegades 441 the remains the building was completed by funds raised by the sale of the saint's right hand to certain Russian monks of Athos. 1 It appears to be preserved at the skete of the Thebaid. 2 At the same time, probably, a conventional picture of the saint, framed in smaller ones representing his miracles, was painted, of which prints are sold in the church.^ As regards the real date of S. John, it is probably about a century later than the traditional. It is in the first place remarkable that he is not mentioned by the 4 who described Archbishop Cyril, Urgub in 1815. In the second, Kinneir, 5 who passed through Yuzgat in 1813, found there a considerable number of Russian prisoners from the war of 1807-8, who had renounced their faith, like S. John's companions, married Turkish women and settled down in the country. It seems highly probable that the neo-saint of Urgub is to be referred to the same period. 6 That is, he may have refused to renegade with his companions and may have been popularly canonized accordingly. Oberhummer and Zimmerer, op. cit., p. 212 Pharasopoulos, To, : 1 ; " 27uAara, pp. 72, 95 ; Smyrnakes, Ayiov "Opos, p. 674. 3 3 F. W. H. Smyrnakes, loc. cit. 4 also does not mention Uepiypa^rj. Rizos, KaiTTraSoKiKa (1856) he mostly copies Cyril, however. the cult 5 Journey through Asia Minor, p. 88 (quoted above, p. 97, n. 2). 6 French deserters from the army of Egypt established themselves in the service of local beys they renegaded, took Turkish names, and had harems, slaves, &c., and, though (southern) French of no birth or edu: : their new co-religionists Hist. iii, 87). Orient., p. 462, cites (Chateaubriand, Hottinger, from George of Hungary cases of voluntary conversions among natives cation, enjoyed considerable privileges among Itiner. who came, poor, to work in Turkish towns to their material advantage to renegade. Establishing of Bosnia, Albania, Serbia, and found it ' ' the probable date of S. John the Russian is not without importance ' for the theory of the presence of Galatians remarked in Asia Minor by Ramsay and others. In general, in dealing with transported populations the latest date of the supposed immigration is the best * ' the alleged Galatians may be no more than the descendants of the Russian prisoners of the war of 1807-8. * : 3295-' G XXXIV RENEGADE SAINTS 1270 S. Louis, king of France, died of a fever on the site of Carthage, while crusading against the Moors his remains were embalmed and duly buried of Tunis In 1841, on the spot where the in his native land. his saint breathed last, the government of Louis royal Philippe erected a commemorative cenotaph in the IN : Arab 1 years later Beule, in his Fouilles a Carthage* notes the curious local tradition there current to the effect that S. Louis was identical with Twenty style. marabut named Bu Said, patron saint of a village of the same name in the immediate neighbourhood. The pious Christian, the story ran, had before his death embraced Islam and assumed a Mohammedan name. To those familiar with the vagaries of popular canonia Mohammedan countries, 3 the existence of a Mohammedan cult of S. Louis will cause little surprise. zation in There every probability that the tradition is, as Beule 4 suggests, late, and that its immediate cause was the erection of the French cenotaph in the style of the country. For the Tunisian peasant such a monument implies a saint the presumed occupant of S. Louis's cenotaph doubtless proved no less gracious to his petitioners than any other marabut, while the legend of S. Louis's conversion and his identity with Sidi Bu Said is : 1 126 f., quoting Beule, Fouilles a L. Michel, Tunis, p. 238. Montet (Culte des cf. Carthage, p. 17 Saints Musulmans, p. 24) found that the Moslems of Tunis venerate Sebillot (Folk-Lore de France, iv, 344) quotes Michel's S. Louis. account. 2 P. 3 See above, pp. 255-7. 17. 4 For a Chateaubriand instance, long account of the death of gives S. Louis at Carthage, but makes no mention of any local tradition Poire, Tunisia Fran$aise, pp. : (Itiner. iii, 196). A Sultan's Secret Conversion 443 accounted for the apparent anomaly of a Christian saint's efficacy as intercessor for Moslems. The legend is particularly interesting as focussing several ideas widely current in Mohammedan circles and often closely paralleled, as we shall see, in Christian These ideas predicate a special aptitude for sainthood in persons spontaneously converted from the rival religion animae naturaliter islamicae whose hagiology. secret leaning towards the true faith is often manifested only by posthumous miracles. Inside this class, potentates and men of authority like S. Louis form and interesting category. a charac- teristic We may take first the Franciscan legend of the deathbed conversion of the sultan of Egypt. 1 The legend is history up to a certain point, S. Francis being really received by the sultan and well treated. 2 The tale goes on that the sultan was so much impressed by the preaching and personality of S. Francis that he gave him every facility for preaching. The saint, however, saw that his mission was more profitable elsewhere, and decided to leave the country. On his taking leave of the sultan the he was prepared to embrace Christianity, but he did so, both he himself and S. Francis would latter said that, if be assassinated. S. Francis therefore promised that he would send two friars who would It happened that after S. baptize and so save him. the death Francis's sultan, being ill and on the point of death, remembered this promise and stationed guards on all his frontiers with orders to conduct to him at once two Franciscan friars, if they should appear. At the same time S. Francis appeared to two friars and ordered them to go to the sultan and save his soul. Thus, the sultan received absolution and died in a state of grace. 3 after his death 1 2 Fioretti of S. Francis, ch. xxiv. Castries, Collect. 3 Cf. VIslam, pp. 339 Maxima, v ? ff., citing William of Tyre^.D. Martene, 689. the similar stories of Shems-ed-din secretly converted to G 2 Renegade Saints With the Franciscan story may be compared that of the supposed conversion to Islam of the emperor Hera- 444 clius. It is, I believe, historical that Mohammed sent to him, as to other potentates of his time, an embassy which seems to have been less rudely received by Hera' 1 Arab writers boast that he clius than by the others. was really converted to Islamism ', 2 in conformity with which tradition the Turks treated as a saint's a remark- able sarcophagus discovered about 1837 * n or near arsenal at Galata and reputed that of Heraclius. 3 ^e In stories polite treatment from a of rival potentate religion is considered explicable only on the hypothesis that the potentate was secretly in favour of the religion represented by the persons this and the Franciscan a 4 politely treated. Christianity (see above, pp. 87, 376), of the converted slave whose tomb is venerated at Tatar Bazarjik (see above, p. 206), and the caliph El Hakim, said by the Copts to have ended his days in a convent (see 2 n - below, p. 450, n. 2). Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ed. Bury, I v, See above, p. 355, n. I. 395 (quoted above, p. 355, *> . Miss Pardoe, City of the Sultans, i, 420 , quoted above, pp. 354-5. 4 In the same way Christian tradition represents (see Collin de des Diet, Plancy, Reliques, i, 284-6) Gamaliel as a crypto-Christian because of his treatment of the Apostles (Acts, v, 34 ff.). Similarly, Publius of Malta (Acts, xxviii, 7 ff.) has a church in Citta Vecchia (Baedeker, S. Italy, p. 445). Rubriquis says that the Nestorians considered several heathen potentates Christians, simply because they had treated Christians well (Baring Gould, Curious Myths, 1st Series, Fabri says the Soldan of his time (Kotube, presumably Kait ii, p. 50). was his kindly disposed to Christians and should be prayed for Bey) conversion even to Christianity was not impossible, if a Christian, * maturus, eloquens, et auctoritativus ', were to read to him what Magister Nicolaus de Cusa had said about the Koran (Evagat. i, 478). The younger Pliny is supposed to have been converted by Titus in the tale may have been Crete (Migne, Diet, des Apocryphes, ii, 1047) concocted at Como, but probably arose from a combination of the mildness of Pliny's letters about the Christians, the conversion by Titus in Crete of a proconsul Secundus, and the existence at Como of a S. Secundus, one of the Theban Legion. 3 : : Psychology of Conversion 445 In contradistinction to such a fortuitously Moslem saint as S. Louis, authentic renegade saints, of which there are probably numerous examples, admit of a rational explanation. convert to Islam is not unnaturally regarded as a person specially illuminated by God, being thus enabled to see the true faith in spite of the errors of his upbringing. There is ground for such a supposition in the fact that real converts see themselves in this light for instance, S. Paul and S. Augustine, converted by instantaneous miracle in the one case and after a long spiritual struggle in the other, assumed that their conversion was proof of their election and framed their theory of predestination accordingly. 1 In Islam the idea is assisted by a passage of the Koran which says, * They unto whom we have given the scriptures which were revealed before it [the Koran], believe in the same and when it is read unto them, say, believe therein ; it is certainly the truth from our Lord These shall receive verily we were Moslems before this. A : We ; : their reward twice. * 2 The prototype of the spontaneous convert is of course Abraham, 3 who, according to Talmudic and Koranic was the son of an idolater divinely called to the worship of the True God. Similar conversions are tradition, related of saints in historical times. At Bagdad tomb of Maaruf Cerchi Abu Daher, who the was born of is Christian parents but steadfastly refused to recognize ' the Trinity by repeating the formula, In the name of That is, they consider that, since they were neither born nor coerced into Christianity, God had obviously sought them out for His purposes and taken trouble to secure them. Paul lays stress on his extreme Judaism and Augustine on his stormy past as incongruous things, just as cruder people almost boast of what sinners they have been before conversion. To such minds the only inference possible is that they have been in some way chosen arbitrarily. 1 2 3 (Chandos Classics), ch. xxviii, p. 294. For pre-Islamic Moslems and pre-Christian Christians Sale's ed. pp. 72-3. see above, Renegade Saints the Father/ &c., for which he substituted the Mohammedan monotheistic invocation, In the name of God, His mother punished him by shutting all merciful'. him up in a dark cellar and feeding him on bread and water, evidently supposing him to be obsessed by a demon. Maaruf refused the bread and water and was found after forty days surrounded by a halo of miraculous light, a sure sign of sanctity. His mother, however, confirmed in her idea of his obsession, drove him from the house. He then openly confessed to the faith of Islam and eventually became a great Mohammedan savant* The same theory of divine instruction may be pre- 446 ' A curious instance dicated of any spontaneous convert. is reported from Syria by d'Arvieux of a young Venetian who in the seventeenth century turned Turk ' for the basest motives. He was so ill-instructed that he could 2 only lift the finger, thus attesting the unity of God, ' ' and La, say, la, Mehemed,' but this was accepted as God had assuredly predestined him to be a Mussulman and had put the soul of a Turk into the body of a Christian for the express purpose of manifest- proof that ing Himself by a miracle, inasmuch as without being instructed the convert had pronounced the name of the Prophet.^ Even faith 6 after may be death a Christian dead in the Christian received into the true faith. parmy nous autres, qu'ils a en tousiours quelques-vns, Infidelles, y d'ouurir illuminer & Pentendement, grace ils tiennent que il Thus nomment a & laours, ou fait ceste qui Dieu les guider au vray Niebuhr, Voyage en Arable, ii, 246. in extremis hold up the first finger to profess their faith, that being the simplest way of indicating the central dogma of the Unity of God (Castries, L? Islam, p. 196). Lifting the finger is part of 2 Moslems the ordinary prayer (Lane, Mod. Egyptians, i, 98). 3 D'Arvieux, Voyage dans la Palestine, ed. de 48 ff. la Roque, pp. ueaa chemin de & i salut.' ransjerrea omo entre eux 7 10 omo a des il 447 meschans Conversely, y viure en tenebres, & suivre pour leur loy des Chrestiens, & que Dieu ne voulat permettre reprouuez, qu'il perdition, la ' * 7 jrom laisse corps de ses esleus soiet apres la mort, contaminez & honnis, par la compagnie des Infidelles & meschans, a ordonne septante deux mille chameaux, qui continuellement transportent que les corps des Chrestiens qui meurent Musulmans, dans les sepultures des Turcs, & les Turcs qui entre eux meurent Chrestiens les ou Infidelles, dans la sepulture des Chrestiens.' 2 This again, like the theory of secret believers above, warranted by a text of the Koran 3 which runs, O * is true believers, whoever of you apostatizeth from his religion, God will certainly bring other people to supply his place \ Illustrative of this is a story told to GervaisCourtellemont at Mecca itself. An Indian king had come to Mecca, intending to assure his salvation by burial in the Maala cemetery there. To prove to him that such ideas were vain and superstitious, he was taken by night and shown the camels engaged in bringing there for burial the bodies of pious Moslems who had died elsewhere, in the place of reprobate Moslems who had been buried in the Maala. The same ghostly agency transferred their bodies to the former graves of the just. 4 This tale is not only reminiscent of the Koran text but is also a rebuke to formalism, 5 implying that the holiest graveyard does not secure salvation and that judgement by externals may be wrong, since God alone knows the heart. In another story told to GervaisCourtellemont at Mecca a romantic motif is introduced. De 1 2 Breves, Voyages (1628), p. 24. Sale's ed., ch. v, p. 80. 3 4 a la Voyage Dr. Zwemer suggests that Al Ghazali 5 (c. Ibid., pp. 24-5. Mecque, 1896, pp. 104-5. noo) started the idea in a different form, viz. that at the Resurrection bad Moslems would be excused Hell and their places taken by Jews and Christians. This is probably in the same cycle of thought, but it sounds to me like a fanatic's counterblast to the idea that it be a good Christian than a is bad Moslem. better in the sight of God to Renegade Saints The son of a Moorish Andalusian king, he was told, was enslaved and in the service of a Christian monarch as gardener, when he fell in love with his master's daughter. She begged him to change his religion and marry her* He refused, however, and eventually persuaded her to pronounce the sacred formula, There is no God but God and Mohammed is His Prophet. The intrigue was discovered and the princess died. The captive prince, wishing in memory of his love to keep a bracelet he had given her and which had been buried with her, opened her tomb in order to take the bracelet. To his surprise he found in the tomb the body of an old Arab with a pearl chaplet, which, without knowing what he was doing, he took. On going later to Mecca, he was challenged by a Meccan to account for his possession of the chaplet, which the Meccan recognized as buried with his father at Mecca. The prince told his story and the old man's grave was opened to test it. In the grave was found the body of the princess, transferred, as a true believer, by the camels. 1 This story, as may be any such told in Mecca, is evidently widely circulated. At Monastir I found an open turbe 2 which is said to mark a grave where a khoja was buried, but in which they afterwards discovered the body of a non-Mohammedan princess. 3 A similar tale of recent and historical transference and exchange was told to 448 c 5 Gervais-Courtellemont, op. cit., pp. 106 if. There may be here omitted an incident of miraculous liberation, for which see below, pp. 663-7. The addition of the marvellous substitution of the body of a Female for a male may be due to some legend of the Roman monument outside Algiers, which is known as the Grave [of the Roman or] of 1 ' :he Christian Woman ' (Berbrugger, Tombeau de la Chretienne), though have not been able, so far, to find evidence in support of such a The mention of Andalusia, however, points to a Maghrabi :heory. el Andalus is used in the Arabian Nights for ;ource Spain. 2 In a graveyard where the rain-prayer is made. 3 F. W. H. See above, p. 360, n. I. A rather dull variant is given [ ' ' : 3y Pierotti, Legendes Racontees, pp. 64 if. Open Turbes 449 l Duff Gordon in Egypt she herself was told Lady that thou knowest that wherever thou art buried, thou : c wilt assuredly live in a and attenuated version Muslim grave \ a A vulgarized Mills from Nablus. is given by dreamt that a certain prominent Christian, recently dead, had been transferred by four men to the Moslem cemetery. 3 The dream was considered sufficient proof of the miracle and the grave left undisturbed by any test of the dream the original theme also is A Moslem : entirely lost sight of. Corfu The ambiguous sex of S. Spyridon may be a trace of the same story. reason of the application of the story to an open turbe is possibly that these are commonly built by women for the shelter and retreat of themselves and other women mourning their dead.5 They are thus really not tombs at all, though sometimes dedicated formally to saints, especially Khidr. They may consequently be named from either the (male) saint to whom 6 This they are dedicated or the (female) dedicator. to the foothold apparent ambiguity gives popular miraculous story. To return once more to renegade saints, it is clear that a genuine convert to Islam would be likely in his enthusiasm for his new faith to exhibit all the outward marks of saintly life, while, on the other hand, an imat 4 The postor had everything to gain by punctiliousness in matters of religion. 7 Such punctiliousness would in its 1 Letters from Egypt, p. 199. 3 J. Mills, a Ibid., p. 198. Three Months, p. 156. 4 Lafont, Trois Mois en Albanie, p. 50. Note, however, that the Bektashi claim that S. Spyridon is really Sari Saltik and Sari may, by to Sara, suggest a female see below, pp. 583-4. See above, p. 325, n. 4. 6 The * Khidrlik ' turbe at Angora, for instance, is now thought of as the tomb of Bula Khatun above, p. 325). (F. W. H. 7 Folk-Lore C/*. Hanauer, of the Holy Land, pp. 147 ff., for a story of a Moslem who made his fortune by pretending to be a renegade. Probably, too, the assumption of the role of ascete or fool-saint would its likeness : 5 : 45 Renegade Saints turn confirm the already existing idea of the special sanctity of renegades and would come easily enough among a credulous people, the more so that continence is not essential to Moslem sainthood. In addition, the numerous class of renegades who turned Turk for convenience and rose by their ability to enviable posic ' from their inevitable detractors. Such was the case of an Armenian renegade mentioned by cPArvieux. Instigated by fear of jealous rivals, who threw doubts on the genuineness of his conversion, he proclaimed it by a signal act of piety, which took the form of seizing a Christian church and consecrating it as a mosque. 1 Similarly, the caliph El Hakim destroyed, it was alleged, the church of the tions might affect fanatic zeal as a protection Holy Sepulchre to prove his anti-Christian tendencies to those of his enemies who accused him of favouring the Christians because of his Christian mother. 2 Not a few renegades to Islam were of western origin. 3 Their European upbringing would, certainly in the late centuries, give them an intellectual superiority over the in reasonably capable hands have proved an excellent speculation, and, would be less open to calumny than a political having popular career with its greater prizes and risks. The converse of the sanctity to from attaching renegades Christianity is the severity of the punishment meted out to renegades from Islam examples are S. John, son of a dervish of Konitza and martyred at Vrachori, the sheikh of Akhisar, who turned with twelve of his followers, and the Shazeli dervishes a basis, : of Syria who renegaded about 1870 pp. 452-9. 1 D'Arvieux, Memoires, ii, 373. for : all of these see below, UArch. Rom., Williams, The Holy City, i, 346 ff. cf. Corroyer, this act His of sacrilege, to death was attributed p. 20$. mysterious as also his reputed withdrawal to a Christian convent, for which see 2 : Artin Pasha, ii, be who 247), rebuilt. C'antes du Nil, says it was For him see Fabri also (Evagat. pp. 19-20. son who allowed the Sepulchre church to his 3 An excellent example is Manzur Efendi, a renegade Frenchman who became Ali Pasha of Yannina's chief gunner and wrote an interest- ing book of Memoires of the Pasha : see the bibliography, s. v. Renegade Frenchmen at Kairuan 451 masses, which could be effectively exploited for purposes of charlatanry. A most remarkable example of this comes from North Africa. A celebrated mar abut, who had formerly been a blacksmith, died at Kairuan in 1856, leaving behind him a number of prophecies engraved on sword-blades, which in times of stress were consulted like oracles. In 88 1 the French were about to march on Kairuan and 1 so caused there the greatest consternation, whereupon the imam in charge of the prophetic swords proposed to consult them. This was done the oracle left no doubt that the city must be surrendered without resistance, and the white flag was at once hoisted. The curious part is that the imam in question was a French renegade, 1 : at Elboeuf, who had sejourne a la Trappe, a la 5 Chartreuse, et a Frigolet before embracing Islam. ' born He had himself forged the sword-blade consulted, but no one questioned his authority, for tres instruit, orateur, parlant bien Parabe, habitue aux jeunes et a Pabstinence, Si Ahmed acquit par ses predications enflammees dans les cafes de Tunis et les mosquees de Kairouan, une grande reputation de saintete/ He died a Moslem * . . . in 1885 at Kairuan. 2 1 Kairuan is of course a very holy city. Tunisie Fran$aise, pp. 200 ff. Poire, are from Plauchut's account in the Rev. 2 : the quotations in the text 15 Oct. 1890, Deux Mondes, Ahmed was the son of M. Lefebvre Durufle, a senator under the Empire (Poire, op. cit., p. 205) the sword is still shown at Kairuan p. 832. Si : The Ahmed is perfectly in harmony with part played by the traditions of defaitistes marabouts, for which see Montet, Culte des (ibid.). faints Musulmans, Si p. 33. XXXV NEO-MARTYRS OF THE ORTHODOX CHURCH passions of the Greek neo-martyrs are of considerable interest both for the study of hagiology THE and as affording curious sidelights on the the Greek Church under the Turkish yoke. of history A Lexicon of all the Saints, published at Athens in 1904,* enumerates over forty saints who suffered death for their faith chiefly in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and this list could probably be early nineteenth centuries considerably lengthened by the inclusion of martyrs who perished during and after the Greek Revolution. 2 Whether on account of the growing fanaticism of the Turks or merely the insufficiency of early documents, only a small minority of the recorded martyrdoms occurred before the latter half of the seventeenth in general : century. 3 * KOV TOJV Aylwv Trdvrojv rf)$ *0p9o$6ov *EKKXr)aia$ by B. A ZCOTOS JWoAoTTos, Athens, 1904. The other main sources for the lives of Greek neo-saints are the Patriarchal list (ap. Sathas, Meor. JEtySA. iii, 605 if.) from 1492 to 1811, the Neov MaprvpoXoyiov giving a list from 1492 onwards (the Athens edition of 1856 adds S. George of Yannina dated 1830), and the NOV Aei[jLa)vdpi,ov. . Martyrs unmentioned in these lists are the Anonymous of Tenos recorded by de la Magdeleine, Miroir Ottoman, p. 67, as martyred about 1670, and perhaps the Athanasius mentioned by Wilson, NarraA martyr may tive of the Greek Mission, p. 402, a martyr of 1819. f also be forgotten. Wheler saw the Xttyavov of S. Philothea ( Oaca) at Athens, but she is not now known, according to Kambouroglous, see her life in N. AL/JLOJV. pp. 43 ff. *Ioropia, i, 173 ff., iii, 189 3 The Patriarchal list (ap. Sathas) gives the martyrs' names, birthand dates, occasionally their place of martyrdom. According to places, 2 : this list there was one martyr in the fifteenth century, with 15 in the 39 in the eighteenth, and 7 in the sixteenth, 31 in the seventeenth, nineteenth (up to 1811). Types 453 personalities of the martyrs included in the it is Lexicon, noteworthy that nearly all are men in a humble station of life, many of them not renowned As to the On the Passions are extraordinarily candid. A good instance is the case of the three (anonymous) martyrs of Agrinion, who masqueraded as Turkish tax-collectors and, wearing Turkish dress and using the exclusively Mohammedan salutation Selam Aleikum for the purpose, were on this account haled before the Kadi and offered the choice of apostasy 1 or death. To choose the latter rather than the former is regarded, and rightly, as the supreme test by it the sins of a lifetime were regarded as honourably erased. The supernatural details added to the recitals are, in comparison with those in earlier saints lives, Greek and Latin alike, insignificant. As a general rule the neo-martyrs seem to have been men who ' turned Turk for various motives, often in extreme youth, 2 or were alleged by the Turks to have done so. 3 After a shorter or longer period they repented and publicly avowed themselves Christians. 4 The Turfor their virtues. this point ; 5 ? and their doom, if they persisted, In one or two cases the convert was a Turk one certainly was not an orthodox Moslem, was kish law was certain. by birth : 5 ov, p. N. explicit 704 (three anonymous martyrs of Agrinion in 1786) Neov Mapr., p. 55 (Loukas, tailor in : AeifAwv., pp. 491 if. Cf. cf. Mytilene, martyred in 1564). 2 Cf. Michaud and Poujoulat, Corresp. d'Orient, i, 221, for a Greek martyred about 1830 for blaspheming the Islam he had embraced in youth. Cf. the extraordinary case of a Greek of Alashehr (Philadelphia) who, perverted in childhood, repented at twenty-five and was visited 3 by a number of Turkish sorcerers who attempted to draw him back to the true faith (Ntov Mapr., p. 74) by their magic arts. 4 A case is that of Damaskenos who renegaded in youth, repented, became a monk, and in 1681 a voluntary martyr (Neov Mapr. p. 96). 5 About all 1540 a mufti turned Christian with his son and pupils were burned (Gerlach, Tage-Sucb, p. 58). A Turk preaching Chris9 : 454 Neo-Martyrs of the Orthodox Church but deeply imbued with the mystic teaching of the 1 A case is recorded in which a Turk was dervishes. converted by his Christian wife.* A few martyrs only were actuated by the passion for martyrdom, 3 such as was evidenced by S. Ignatius and some early martyrs, 4 and of their own free will blasphemed Islam and its 5 Prophet before the Kadi. This morbid state of mind was to some extent shared by renegades it was doubtless an effect of their remorse. It is greatly to the credit of the Turks that at least one case is recorded where a renegade monk, stimulated doubtless by a similar morbid craving, went before the Kadi and blasphemed, not Mohammed but Christ, and was at once beheaded. 6 The ex-renegades, who form the bulk of the martyrs, were converted to Islam in various ways. 7 Many were : and therefore martyred is mentioned by Hauser in his notes on Canaye's Voyage (1573), p. 146. Two dervishes were baptized and martyred in Rhodes in 1622, miraculous lights being seen on their tombs (Pacifique, Voyage de Perse, p. 54). A dervish of Akhisar (Thyatira) was converted to Christianity with twenty-two of his followers and martyred in 1649 (Carayon, ReL Ined. de la Compagnie de Other cases are mentioned by the Ntov Mapr., "Jesus, pp. 228 ff.). of Kastoria), and the JV Atipuv p. 217 (' dervish p. 33 (Saint Jacob tianity ' '. ., Alexander). 1 S. John of Konitza (N. ACC/JLOJV., p. 331), who was a Bektashi sheikh's son. 2 A^IKOV, p. 288 (Ahmed, martyred 1682), also in ATe'ov Mapr., p. 99. AcgiKov, p. 181 (Anastasios of S. Vlasios, 1743), p. 552. Cf. Neov Mapr., p. 39 (S. John of Yannina, 1526), p. 86 (Gabriel of Aloni, 1676), p. 87 (Kyprianos, 1679), P- IO 4 (Romanes of Constantinople). 4 Delehaye, Culte des Martyrs, p. 7 cf. Allard, Dern. Persec., p. 141 ; Le Blant, Persec. et Martyrs, pp. 99 ff., especially 103 ff. and 134. For the merit of voluntary martyrdom see Eulogius, Lib. Memor. Sanct. See also Castries, IS Islam, pp. 90 ff. 22, 24. i, 5 Ntov Mapr., pp. 47, 54, 55, 63, 68 (SS. M. Mavroudis, Dem. Tornaras, Joannes KouUkas, Nicolas of Trikkala, Jordanis of Trebizond). 6 for the psychology of Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. xii, 45 the renegade see Allard, Hist, des Persec., p. 306. 7 De Maillet (Descr. de fgypte, ii, 207) records a curious case of the apostasy and martyrdom of a Franciscan. 3 : : Repentant Renegades 455 circumcised by force while young, 1 many in their cups made the Profession of Faith * and were held to it when sober by their Turkish boon-companions. The motives of the Turks in pressing a conversion of this sort are not generally represented as malicious, and might, indeed, have been the result of a genuine or fuddled attachment. 3 Occasionally their motives were political 4 and sometimes a Greek was merely slandered by a rival. 5 There are a few cases where the apostasy was more or less forced on the Christian, either by a love affair with a Moslem woman 6 or by malicious interpretation of 7 phrases lightly said. A renegade convinced of his 8 error generally made his some other monastic centre away from way 9 the world, confessed, and was put to penance by his to Athos 1 N4ov Mapr., or p. 65 (Theophilus), p. 67 (Markos of Smyrna), p. 71 (Nicolas of Karaman). 2 Anastasios was circumcised practised against him by when mad because of his deserted fiancee's family the magic (Nzov Mapr., cf. ibid., p. 80, for Joannes Navkleros of Kos, p. 81 for Nicolas the general merchant, p. 99 for Paul the Russian. 3 So our own countryman, Thomas Dallam, the organist, who p. 71) : brought Queen Elizabeth's present to the sultan, was entreated to stay and turn Turk for no more interested reason than the see his the pleasure Imperial pages took in his company and his skill Travels, p. 73 (* towe jemaglanes, who is keepers of that house, touke me in theire armes and kissed me, and used many perswations to have me staye with the Grand Sinyor and sarve him '). in the Seraglio : Neov Mapr., pp. 63, 73, 79, 8l, IOI. 102. Ibid., p. 77 cf. pp. 54, 55, 65, 67, 70, 92, 93, Cf. especially Cosmas of Berat slandered by Jews (Wheler, Journey into Greece, 4 5 : p. 124). AZ&KOV, pp. 392 (Demetrius of Chios, 1802 cf. N. ACI/JLOJV., and the 1802 N. cf. Bulgarian, Aeipajv., p. 88). 543-4 (John p. 18) 7 Cf. Nicolas the general merchant, in Neov Mapr., p. 81. 6 : : 8 Cf. Leake, North. Greece, iii, 137; Hartley, Researches (1831), p. 57. There is a special service for repentant renegades (cf. Jowett, U Christian Researches, pp. 20-22 Islam, pp. 323 cf. Castries, Rycaut, Greek and Armenian Churches, p. 287). : 9 N. Patmos in A^LKOV, Aeinojv., pp. 113 if. p. 360 (George of New and ff. Ephesus, 1801) : cf. Neo-Martyrs of the Orthodox Church 1 confessor. It was generally held that the guilt of could be apostasy purged only by martyrdom, so that a permanent refuge in a monastery was impossible. The penitent, fortified by prayer and fasting, then returned to the place where he had renounced Christianity, and, his down turban before a Turkish throwing court, declared that he returned to his original faith. The judge generally used every means in his power to persuade the new convert to return to Islam, and allowed him several 2 At the end of this days to reconsider his decision. grace the saint was beheaded or hanged in public. The 456 fortitude of some such victims excited the admiration not only of their co-religionists but of their Catholic nor, as we shall see, were the Turks contemporaries : altogether unmoved. While the body was still exposed, or even while the prisoner was still in jail, signs of his sainthood were eagerly looked for. The most generally accepted token was a phosphorescent light (an idea doubtless derived from the tongues of fire at Pentecost) hovering over the Another was the prisoner, the corpse, or the grave. failure of the body to decompose by the time prescribed Greek custom for the gathering up of the bones by The validity of these signs depended on (ai>a*o/uS77).3 the presumption that the deceased had died a martyr. Both Turks and Greeks consider that if a body does not decompose before the prescribed time, it is either that of a great saint or a great sinner. the phosphorescent light was seen 1 Consequently, when by the Turkish au thori- Rycaut (Greek and Armenian Churches, pp. 285 ment varied for if.) says the treat- Under repentant renegades according age. fourteen they were given only bread and water for and made forty days to pray day and night. If over fourteen, they had numerous fasts and continual prayer to observe, and for six or seven years were not allowed to communicate. to Cf. Ncov Mapr., p. 74 (Demetrios of Alashehr). A^IKOV, p. 250 (S. Argyrios, 1725) Wheler, Journey into Greece, Neov Mapr., pp. 33, 81, 93, 107. 123 (Gerasimos of Crete) a 3 p. : : ties Miracles by Neo-Martyrs round the body of a martyr, they held that 457 * God ' was burning him but were quite consistently preto pared acknowledge his innocence, if it were found that this light had not consumed the body. 1 In this case the saint was recognized by Turks as divinely vindicated, and in some cases is reported to have performed posthumous miracles for Turks. 2 ; . The miracles performed by the neo-martyrs are of the usual sort attributed to the other saints in the Greek c calendar. The missionary Hartley, walking over the ruins of Tripolitza, in the year 1828, happened to in- whether the plague was of frequent occurquire rence in that place. The answer implied that the plague had never visited the town since the martyrdom of a certain individual of the class just described (i.e. a neo-martyr). 3 Particularly interesting is the case of one George, a neo-martyr of Scala Nova, who appeared < to a sick Carpathiote who in classical fashion incubated at the tomb of the saint. The saint appeared to the patient in his sleep under the form of S. Panteleemon . . . ' ' popular Orthodox healing saint) and, with a staff he carried, touched the ailing part, the patient being of ' course healed. 4 A closer parallel to the ancient in* cubation at Epidaurus could hardly be desired. The canonization of saints of this type seems to have depended mainly on the popular voice. If it was generally admitted that the choice between apostasy and death had been offered to the person executed, especially if his sanctity had been borne out by the tokens (a ov, p. 560 (John of Sphakia, 1811 cf. N. Aeifiwv., p. 328). similar proof was the refusal of the street dogs to touch the corpse of the saint in Neov. Mapr., p. 107 (Athanasius of Adalia, 1700). : A AC&KOV, p. 368 (George of Grevena, 1810). the Turks in 1830 to make Christians renegade. 2 3 Researches, p. 58. Ae&Kov, p. 362 (George of also in N. /lei/xcov., p. 113). 4 3295-2 Scala H Nova It was the policy of = New Ephesus, 1801 : Neo-Martyrs of 458 Orthodox Church the we have his described or by posthumous healing miracles, popular canonization was secure. A person, of whose veracity I have no doubt, informed me ', says Hartley, that he saw a Greek at Tzesme, named Gabriel His countrymen, from a Sandalges, hanged by the Turks. cause which I cannot recal, believed that he died a martyr. In * c consequence, a painter was employed to sketch his features, and the portrait was forthwith suswhile he was still hanging the and in church, worship paid him under the name of pended ; ' Stratolates.' In other cases the canonization of the saint was ordered by the local bishop. An instance of this is recorded by Hartley, as follows : c A Spezziot, who had commanded a brig of war during the Revolution, gave me the following fact. Two young Spezziotes, who had been the juvenile companions of my informant from the days of childhood, had the misfortune to be shipwrecked on the Island of Scio. Having fled for refuge to a Greek of the island, he had the baseness to betray them. On being brought before the Turkish Pasha, he offered them ' the alternative of embracing the Mussulman religion, or of death. The young men manifested that fortitude in the cause of their faith which has been so often witnessed in the Turkish Empire. They professed their readiness to submit to the worst extremities, rather than abjure their religion. The menace of the Pasha was executed, and they died the death of martyrdom. The Bishop of Scio addressed a Letter to the Spezziotes, informing them, not only of the martyrdom of their two country. . . men, but also of the observation of the luminous appearance, which is the indication of Saintship. On the strength of this occurrence, he exhorted them to place the pictures of the two young men in their church, and to address to them a course of worship (aKoXov9ia). The admonition of the Bishop was duly informant asserted, their pictures are now receiving this worship though his own recollection of these young men led him to suppose that it was altogether misattended to : and, as my : directed/ 1 * Researches, p. 55. 2 Ibid., pp. 55-56. An Impostor Canonized 459 In conclusion, as illustrating the essentially popular nature of such saint-cults, we may cite the case of an eighteenth-century ascetic of Katirli in Bithynia, Auxen- He gained an immense following, and, it is said, also immense wealth, by his reputation for sanctity and He seems to have been a disrepumiracle-working. tios. table character and to have owed his success partly to the backing of a deposed patriarch of Constantinople and partly to his influence over women. The reigning prelate, having tried in vain by means of his emissaries to put an end to Auxentios' vogue, at last called for Turkish intervention. The impostor was inveigled into a boat, strangled, and thrown into the Sea of Marmara. The inhabitants interred his body in their church, and down to the sixties, in spite of all ecclesiastical protests, reverenced it as a miracle-working relic. 1 Kleonymos and Papadopoulos, BiQvviKd, pp. 95 f. ; Sir James Gedeon, in NeoXoyos, Sept. 1887, no. 5481 i, 359 f. ; KaraAoyos , p. 129 (in Sathas, Mea. BifiX. in), 175 1-2, and KaOpeTTrrjs PvvaiKwv ; Koumas, */CTT. *AvOp. Ilpd^zcw, x, Le Mont Saint398 ff. ; Vie de saint Auxence> ed. Leon Clugnet Auxence, by R. P. Jules Pargoire ; Nzov Mapr., p. 108. 1 Porter, Turkey, Dapontes, '/ar. ; 1 ; H2 XXXVI STAG AND SAINT * and in Christianity tales are told connecting stags with saints. On the Moslem side is the story that Kaigusuz Baba, while still in the world, went hunting and, having shot a stag, was amazed to in Islam BOTH turn into a venerable dervish. In remorse, he forthwith left the world for the cloister. 2 Another saint was converted by Haji Bektash, who showed him on his own person the wounds which the future saint had inflicted on a stag. 3 Haji Bektash was the spiritual 4 Karaja disciple of Kara (otherwise Kara j a Ahmed) bears the meaning of stag. These stories are founded on the belief that deer are the familiars of forest-dwelling hermits, who, by their sympathy with the natural world, can milk and ride on them, 5 that is, use wild animals as domestic more extravagant stories attribute to desert hermits the same 6 power with regard to lions. A possible contributory cause of the generation of such myths is the use of deersee it : : This chapter has been written up by M. M. H. A degradation of this story may See above, pp. 290-1. perhaps be discerned in the succouring of the Chelebi's son at Konia by S. Chariton (see above pp. 373-4 f.)> where the saint may have been originally the stag which led to the mishap and subse1 2 quent miracle. 3 F. W. H. 5 Geyikli Baba rode on Evliya, Travels, ii, 21 : cf. ii, 215. a stag to the siege of Brusa (Evliya, Travels, 4 the Khalveti great-grandfather of Halil Khalid rode every Mecca on a stag (Halil Halid, Diary of a Turk, p. 5). The same Geyikli Baba tamed deer and lived on their milk (Carnoy and his Nicolaides, Trad, de Constantinople, p. 10 cf. above, p. 290) ; ii, 24) ; Friday to : name means 6 literally Stag Dervish. Ahmed Rifai (Degrand, Haute Albanie, p. 229). The same told of Haji Bektash in Cholet, Voyage, p. 47, and also of e.g. tale is Mohammed (by Cappadocian Greeks) : see above, p. 289, and 2, to Moslems 461 the skins as prayer-mats, which are looked upon 2 vehicles of miraculous journeys, in the ecstasy of contemplation, to Mecca and elsewhere. Such probably is the origin of the belief that the deer-skin preserved in the family of Halil Khalid belonged to the stag which carried HaliPs dervish ancestor regularly to Mecca for the Friday prayer. 3 In general, stags are holy animals and it is unlucky to shoot them. 4 In Pont us they built the enclosure of a saint's grave. 5 They are said to offer themselves for the kurban sacrifice, when other animals fail 6 on this account their horns are often hung in tekkes? Dervishes 8 can, and do, take the form of stags. Finally, another source of legends of conversion by stags is the fact that stag-hunting is the typical employment of rich and Stags holy 1 as ; worldly young men. On the Christian side, in the East, 9 Mamas of Cappadocia, who was martyred under Aurelian, milked deer I0 and is said in Cyprus to have ridden on a lion. 11 Even in western Europe similar miracles occur. Ia Thus Van Lennep (Travels, ii, 46) says the most appreciated prayer-mats S. 1 are the skins of the stag, the roebuck, and the wild goat. 2 For miraculous journeys in general see above, pp. 285-7. 3 Halil Halid, 4 Carnoy and Nicolaides, Trad, de Constantinople, loc. at. p. 10. White in Most. World, ix, II. 6 The miracle is a very old one (cf. Plutarch, F. W. H. is and found also on the Christian side (a stag offered p. 10) to Simeon S. the hermit, celebrated on July 26). slaughter 5 Professor Lucullus, itself for See above, p. 231, and n. 7. Cf, above, p. 460 (Kaigusuz Baba, Haji Bektash). 9 See above, p. 460 (Kaigusuz Baba), and below, p. 465 (S. Eustace, S. Hubert of Liege). 10 Synax. Cp., Sept. 2 ; Greg. Naz., Or. xliv, cap. xii ; Basilius, In Mamantem Allard, Dern. Persec., p. 259, where, however, his date is 7 8 : given as July 17. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Gr. Sitten und Gebrauche auf Cypern, p. 162. similarly extravagant story deals with Ephraim Angaua, for whom see above, p. 289, n. 2. 12 See Maury, Croy. du Moyen Age, pp. 256 ff. 11 M. A Stag and Saint 462 x S. Telo of Brittany rode on a stag, while S. Maximus of 2 Turin, being spied upon, sent a miraculous thirst on the spy and afterwards relieved it by introducing him to a deer which gave him milk. S. Grilles of Provence 3 used to milk a/ieer and was accidentally wounded in mis- it by a royal hunting party. On the festival of Rieul deer came from the forest, entered the church, and remained on the tomb of the saint during mass. 4 The take for S. 5 English S. Guthlac sheltered a stag from its pursuers. Conversion by a supernatural stag occurs in the legend of S. Eustace, supposed to have been martyred under Hadrian. 6 This tale is as follows Roman officer, named Placidus, was hunting near Rome. His hounds brought to bay a stag with a cruci: A fix 1 between Maury, its 7 which cried out, I. Ibid., Sept. said to have come * Why pursuest Ada SS., June 25. This sixth-century saint (otherwise Aegidius) * op. cit., p. 259. 3 * horns, is from Greece. Collin de Plancy, Diet, des Reliques, i, 28. Hutton, English Saints, p. 225. In general, he had power over wild things. A gazelle, hunted by the sickly son of the Sultan Sanjar, took refuge in the mud house built over the tomb of the Imam Riza near the city of Tus. The prince's horse shied away from the tomb, whereupon the prince surmised he was on holy ground, dismounted, and, praying at the tomb, was at once miraculously healed (D. M. Donaldson in Mosl. World, ix, 1919, pp. 293-4). This story combines the themes of the hunted animal which takes sanctuary (e.g. S. Guthlac's the stag in Sebillot, Folk-Lore de France, i, 169 the wild sow in stag Greg. Turon., Vitae Patrum, xii, ch, ii) and of the plague-smitten prince guided by an animal to cure (e. g. Bladud at Bath, Philoktetes 5 : : &c.), for 6 Ada which see further below, p. 686. The SS., Sept. 20. legend is certainly prior to the schism between the Churches, as it occurs in Synax. Cp. also. S. Bracchion's conversion was very similar (Maury, op. cit., p. 257). 7 In the Greek life, which is the source of all known lives and probably dates before Metaphrastes (tenth century), the text runs: *im jxi> r&v Kpdra)v rov \d<f>ov rov rvirov rov riplov aravpov virep TTJV Aa/LtTrporrjra rov r/Xiov Aa/ZTrovra, ji^croy Sc TOJV Kcpdrcov rrjv cticova rov 00<f>6pov The 5 crcujLtarosr. antithesis indicated is to be noted. The earliest mention of S, Stags effect Conversions 463 thou me ? I am Jesus Christ.' Here, the main theme sudden conversion effected by a miraculous beast. * is After his conversion Placidus took the name of Eusta2 thius, endured a number of Job-like trials, and was eventually martyred, showing great fortitude in his death (EvardSios). The two halves of the story are quite distinct and by S. John Damascenus, who lived all his life in Syria and and died before 754. It is therefore possible that the legend of Syrian origin, in which case it is interesting to find that an Arabic Eustace is Palestine is expression speaks of the sun's rays as the horns of a deer (H. B. Tristram, ' ' ' ' Eastern Customs, p. 172). horns for rays in Hebrew (e.g. in Cf. c Exodus, xxxiv, 29, where the Authorized Version reads Moses put Is the introduction of the stag forth horns', and Habakkuk, iii, 4). into the Eustace story caused or helped by a misunderstanding by the Greek translator of this metaphor or of a gloss which has crept into the The by the position of the head between its horns. stag's du Moyen Age, p. 260) Maury, however, ingeniously explains (Croy. the introduction of the stag by a confusion between it and the unicorn and the ancient symbolical reference of the stag to Ps. xli, I. This may have been contributory, but in the East the stag is a holy man ; Eustathius' stag is Christ, and the stag wounded by Kaigusuz (above, The A eta do not p. 460) assumed the form of a venerable dervish. text ? crucifix eikons ignore the difficulty raised and merely place it on the much towards a solution, being late : they make the stag itself The second early mention of S. Eustace is speak, not the crucifix. by the patriarch Nicephorus, who lived in the early ninth century. Both he and S. John Damascenus were of the pro-image party, so that if the story originated in Syria, as suggested, we may owe it to the Miracles desire of the pro-image party to stimulate image worship. probably produced for some such reason are the statue of the Virgin at Damascus, half of which came alive and talked (Baronius, s. a. 870, quoted by Collin de Plancy, Diet, des Reliques, ii, 332) and the bleeding crucifix of Beyrut, which is mentioned by Theodericus (c. 1172 ed. Tobler, p. 109) and by the German pilgrim of 1507 quoted by Rohricht, in Z.D.P.7. x, 202. See further Hasluck, Letters, p. 199, and for help : bleeding hosts and crucifixes in general see Maury, op. cit., p. 287. 1 The wording is evidently influenced by the conversion of S. Paul (Aets, ix, 4, 5). Balaam's ass is the prototype for the beast with human voice. 2 De Voragine, Legenda Aurea, p. 525 Saints 9 s.v. : cf. P. Guerin, Vie des Stag and Saint 1 may possibly even belong to two different persons. The confusion may perhaps be explained by supposing Placidus to be a translation of *Havx<>o$, and *Havx<<o$ to be a bad reading ofEvaroxios appropriate for the hunts- 464 man motif as Evarddios is for trials and martyrdom. It is noteworthy that the West uses the bastard form Eustatbius. It is highly probable that the whole story belongs to the class of edifying, as opposed to historical, legends, of which the type is Barlaam and Joasaph 2 to this class belong also S. Christopher 3 and the similarly un: whose noted, combines the motifs of the supernatural stag and the ferrying of Christ in disguise, analogous to the Christopher story. The heroes of these edifying tales seem to have no very definite cult centre or place of burial perhaps that is characteristic. The transformation of Christ into animal form is unknown to me in the Christian cycle, 5 though the Devil favours such disguises. The pagan gods of antiquity and Hinduism, Buddha, and, as we have seen, Moslem saints, have no such scruples. In the case of S. Eustace the difficulty is partly evaded by the introduction of the crucifix. 6 Deriving directly from the first Eustathius story, perhaps because the relics of S. Eustace are mainly in 7 Belgium, we have the legend of the Belgian S. Hubert, localized S. Julian, 4 story, be it : 1 The by most Jud. 4 life of S. Eustace is doubted an historical Placidus (Josephus, De Bell. 2 3 Hastings' EncycL of Religion, s.v. May 9. Feb. 12. The Legenda Aurea seems the first source authenticity of the details of the There authorities. iv, 6). Ada SS., is See further Hasluck, Letters, p. 167. 5 Cf., however, two very popular French stories in which Christ and the Virgin respectively take the form of butterflies (S6billot, Folk-Lore de France, iii, 333). known. 6 Barlaam and Joasaph is known to be of Buddhist origin. There is some reason to believe that the prototype of all stag stories is Buddhist : see Jatakas, tr. Cowell. 7 Acta p. 258. SS., Nov. 3 : martyred in 727. See further Maury, op. cit., 465 Typical Worldly Pursuits who is converted, not from paganism, but from indifference. The story x varies only in the fact that he was hunting on a feast-day of the Church. This variation has no doubt been introduced in order to make the story more moral, S. Hubert as a Christian needing no conversion from paganism. This idea of hunting as the 2 typical worldly pursuit, found also on the Moslem side, 3 is much used in popular mythology and corresponds to dancing in women. Many great lords and even kings, including King Arthur, have been punished for neglecting church for its sake, and have been condemned to hunt eternally in woods or in the sky. 4 1 Jean de Matha, died 1213 (A eta SS., Feb. 8), and S. Felix of Valois, died 1212 (Ada SS., Nov. 20), founders of the Trinitarian order, were given an omen of their future foundation by the apparition of a stag bearing a red and blue cross between its horns. This is an aetiological tale composed to account miraculously for the badge of the order and explain the name of the first monastery, Cerfroid, near Meaux. For similarly aetiological reasons the Trinitarian convent at Murviedro in Spain, which was founded in 1266, is said to be on the site of an ancient temple of Diana (Bradshaw's Spain, p. 85). Hare (Walks in Rome, ii, 200) gives a compact account of the legends of SS. Hubert, Felix, Eustace, and Julian. S. 2 Cf. Kaigusuz Baba, above, p. 460. For France see Sebillot, op. cit. i, 168, 169, 278 : cf. also iv, 13, The typical bourgeois faults corresponding are, for men, cutting 292. 3 wood or hedging (Greg. Turon., De Mirac. S. Mart. Ill, xxix) for women, washing linen (Sebillot, op. cit. ii, 425, 426, 427), or dancing ; (Sebillot, iv, 26, 42) or baking (Greg. Turon., For dancing Sundays or holy days. Chaire Franfaise, p. 447. 4 Sebillot, of. cit. i, 168. see also loc. cit. Lecoy de on Marche, La Ill, xxxi) la XXXVII THE SAINTS OF ARMUDLU hot springs of Armudlu, in the valley above the village of the same name on Bos Burun (Cape Posei- THE dium) opposite Mudania, are dedicated, according to the Greeks, to three saints, Nymphodora, Metrodora, and Menodora. 1 The conjunction of three female saints 2 is rare in the Greek calendar, and the names suspicious, but the Christian cult is early. The saints were, according to tradition, put to death in the reign of Maximian at Nicomedia. As early as the tenth century their martyrdom celebrated by is this date their 3 Symeon Metaphrastes at tomb was shown near the hot springs : ' * and they were already considered notable miracleworkers. 4 They had a church at Constantinople already ancient in I34I, 5 and their relics are still preserved at the monastery of Lavra on Athos. 6 At the springs of Armudlu are shown the ayasma of the saints (in the bath-chamber built for the accommodation of visitors Acta SS. and Synax. CP., Sept. 10 ; cf. Bill. Hag. Gr., p. 177. Cf. the equally unconvincing Cappadocian triad Speusippus, Elasippus, and Mesippus (Rendel Harris, Dioscuri, pp. 52 if.). Are ' they the three children who lie at Langres in a tomb of bronze with a Latin inscription saying they were sent by the king of Persia to rid * 2 ' the town of demons (Collin de Plancy, Diet, des Reliques, i, 20) ? 3 Migne, Pair. Gr. cxv, 653 ff. 4 Cf. Sym. Met., p. 664 rd<f>ov avrols ev rw rrjs reXecojaews e^ojaav roTTCo . . TfJiv6$ re els Szvpo Trpo ra> Ta</>a) avrwv icpov ISpvrai oiovei riva Trora/Ltov, ZvSov Trpox^ovra Oavfjiara ; Synax. loc. cit. : . : OaTTTOvrcn, 7T\r)crlov orjfjiepov 5 i, Acta T&V 0pjJLajv vBdrcov, TroAAa? idaeis eats rrjs eVtreAoCaat. Patr., xcviii, in Miklosich and Miiller, Acta et Diplom. Gr. 221. 6 the art type of the three Smyrnakes, *Ayiov "Opo?, p. 394 in the is given *Epp,r)Via Zajypdtfrajv (in Didron, Iconographie : saints Cbretienne, p. 380). A Classical Survival 467 to the springs) and the place of their burial a few paces further down the valley, where there are amorphous rubble ruins of Roman or Byzantine date. The earth of the grave is used medicinally. 1 female triad, though rare in the Byzantine calen2 is common enough in ancient mythology, where the dar, figures are called Eumenides, Graces, Nymphs, &c. The A nymphs of springs commonly appear in art as a triad, 3 and they are naturally connected with hot springs and their healing properties. 4 At least one ancient inscription has been found at the Armudlu baths, which is (slight) evidence of their frebut this is on the face of quentation in ancient times : it probable. fesses to have Further, a local writer of the sixties pro' seen in the bath itself a picture in relief ? of the three saints 5 In 1913 I could find no trace of such a relief, but the bath was too full at the time of my visit for a satisfactory examination local people spoke vaguely of figures (which did not the visible the connect before with saints) they bath was repaired with cement. The use of a pagan relief as a Christian eikon is not unprecedented ; numer' ous instances of reliefs of the Thracian horseman are cited by Dumont as serving in Thrace for eikons of . (avayeyXvfjifjLevr) elKcbv) * ' : ' 6 There therefore a strong presumption that the cult of the three saints of Armudlu is based on S. George. an earlier 1 P. is worship of the nymphs. G. Makris, Ta KanpXl, TTpos OepaTTciav Tracroiv TOJV 2 Above, p, 38 : ot mcrroi Aa/z/Javouat yr\v aaQevzi&v. p. 466. See especially Imhoof-Blumer in Journ. Int. Num. 1908, pp. 181 ff. 4 Of., e.g., Cumont, Stud. Pont, ii, 124, iii, 37 if., on the nymphs at Kafsa near Amasia. 3 p. 96 cf. P. G. Makris, ToKanpXl of an ct/o6v. (1888), p. 38, speaks simply 6 Melanges cTArcheologie et d?pigrapbie, p. 219. A horseman relief is worshipped as an eikon of S. Demetrius at the village church of Luzani in Lower Macedonia, see above, p. 190. 5 Kleonymos, BiOvviKa (1867), who ; The Saints 468 of Armudlu of Armudlu contains a fairly equal mixture of Turks and Greeks, and the bath is naturally frequented by both. Beside it are two Moslem graves, one of which is known to be that of a patient who died at the baths. Only lapse of time and suitable exploitation are needed to bring these into relation with the hot and the unknown dedes will under favourable springs circumstances succeed to the heritage of the nymphs and the saints. The village : XXXVIII THE CRYPTO-CHRISTIANS OF TREBIZOND 1 the number of crypto-Christians among the heterodox tribes of Asia Minor has probably been considerably exaggerated, it cannot be denied that crypto-Christians exist or that cases of forced conversion 2 affecting large sections of the population can be cited. But under the Ottoman Turks at least there is very little historical evidence for conversion on a large scale in Asia Minor. So long as the rayahs were not danger' ' ous, they could be milked better than True Believers, and conversion en masse was to no one's interest. Exceptionally in the district of Trebizond we have both a credible legend of conversion and an existent THOUGH population, outwardly some cases to retain Mohammedan, which seems in something from the more ancient in others to practise it in secret. Of the first category may be cited certain villages in the district faith and of Rizeh, which, though Mohammedan by profession, preserve some memories of the rite of baptism and speak, not Turkish, but Armenian. 3 Crypto-Christians proper, belonging to the Greek rite and Greek by speech, also 1 Reprinted fromJ.H.S. xli, 199 ff. Individual conversions are in a different category and have probably at all times taken place to a greater or less extent. Cf. Burckhardt, 2 who the case of a Meccan sherif family, which, being entrusted with the rule of the mountain, became crypto-Christians in order to have more hold over the Christians of Lebanon. Lady Syria, p. 197, cites Burton (Inner Life of Syria, p. 146) records wholesale local conversions which took place in Syria on account of government or private oppression. 3 Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie, with the Armenians of the hundred years ago ' i, 121. Batum These people seem to be identical two district, who were converted ' (Smith and Dwight, Missionary Researches in Armenia, 1834, p. 457). The Crypto-Ckristians 470 of Trebizond recent years in the neighbourhood of Trec they were known generally as Stavriotae \ from a village Stavra in the ecclesiastical district of Gumush-hane. They are said at one time to have numbered 20,000 in the vilayets of Sivas, Angora, and Trebizond : now all have returned to the open profes1 The local authorities refer these sion of their faith. populations to a persecution which arose at the end of the seventeenth century and resulted in the conversion of 8,000 families and the flight of many others to the Crimea and elsewhere. Of the converted Greeks some were till lately to be found in the mining district of existed bizond till : Kromna and were but only outwardly Mussulman a reverted most to open Christianity about i86o. Others are settled in the regions of Rizeh and Ophis ; 3 all retain their language and some, in spite of their changed religion, jealously preserve their Christian sacred books. All the traditions of the persecution at Trebizond seem to go back to one source. 4 The date (c. 1665) is fixed rather arbitrarily after the building date of a ' certain famous house which is supposed to mark a high' water mark of Christian 5 prosperity and more particu; R. Janin, in tc'hos d'Orient, xiv (1912), pp. 495-505. Cuinet Asie, i, 12) says there are 12,000 to 15,000 Kromlis, living (Turquie in nine villages not far from Trebizond. 1 2 3 S. loannides, 'laropia TpaTre^ovvros, pp. 134-5* For the Ophites cf. M. Deffner, /7ei>re '-EjSSo/zaSes" napa rot? apvyaiOpijaKois ev "Oc^et, in 'Ecrria, 1877, no. 87, pp. 547-50. Apparently S. loannides, '/oro/na TpaTrc^owro?, pp. 132 ff., which followed by Triandaphyllides, /Tovrt/ca, p. 56, and preface to the same author's Ol ^uyaSe?. E. L Kyriakides, '/crro/Ho, rfjs Movrjs UovfjLeXa, pp. 91 ff., adds a reference to Papadopoulos-Kerameus, 4 is David's i, 150-65, for a contemporary poem. of Trebizond be the For the source of all. Christian history may practices of the Stavriotae of Lazistan (the Ophite crypto-Christians f ) see Pears, Turkey, p. 266 f. Ramsay, Impressions of Turkey, p. 241. 5 The Trapezuntine crypto-Christians are also mentioned casually by Hamilton, Asia Minor, i, 340 Smith and Dwight, op. cit., p. 453 ; Flandin and Coste, Voyage en Perse (1840-1), i, 38, who call the sect Fontes Hist. Trapez. ; ; Anti-Christian Fanaticism of the Turks 471 larly by the transformation of two churches (S. Sophia and S. Philip) into mosques a few years later. But the real dates of these transformations are given by Evliya I as 1573 and 1577 respectively, while the date of the house is irrelevant. It thus seems probable that we have to reckon with two outbursts of anti-Christian fanaticism in the sixteenth and seventeenth a centuries respectively. We may surmise, but cannot prove, that these were due to political circumstances, the earlier 3 perhaps to the battle of Lepanto and the later to the Russian aggressions. 4 Kroumi (from Kromna, one of their villages) or Messo-Messo (' halfThe best and most recent account of them is given by and-half ') He draws for their chos d'Orient, xiv (1912), pp. 495-55 early history on the Greek authors mentioned above, and for recent events on local sources, describing the gradual return of the crypto- Janin in Christians to open profession of their faith. They are now said to be undergoing a forced re-conversion to Islam (JlarpLs, April 16, 1915). 1 He wrote about the middle of the seventeenth century. ii, 45-6. 2 Two Cappadocian villages near Nevshehr are said by Oberhummer and Zimmerer to have been converted to Islam a hundred and eighty ' years ago (Durch Syrien, p. 143). There was an unsuccessful Turkish campaign in 1677 against the Russians. It is to be noted that Trebi' zond is particularly accessible to Russian agents. See below, p. 723. Cf. also Hobhouse, Albania, ii, 976. 4 About the same time, Thomas Smith at Constantinople mentions ' that a certain Prophecy, of no small Authority, runs in the minds of all the People, and has gained great credit and belief among them, that their Empire shall be ruined by a Northern Nation, which has white 3 The Interpretation is as various as their Fancy. character on the Moscovites ; and the poor Greeks flatter and yellowish Hair. Some fix this . Others look upon themselves that they are to be their Deliverers ' the Sweeds as the persons described in the Prophecy (Ray's Voyages, ' ' This is the Yellow Race of the Prophecy of Cons tan tine ii, 80 f.). . . (Carnoy and Nicolaides, Folk-Lore de Constantinople, pp. 48 , &c.) Gerlach, Tage-Buck, have to been found in the tomb of ConThe was said text p. 102). stantine and to have been interpreted by the patriarch Gennadius, 9 ' according to the regular machinery of apocryphal discoveries (see current already in the sixteenth century (cf. below, p. 716). As the Russians are Orthodox and the Swedes Lutheran the prophecy more probably refers to the former and may have been *The Crypto-Christians of 472 The Greek Trebizond authors give some curious details of the secret Christianity of their compatriots in the Trebizond concocted about the time we first hear of it, as Ivan the Terrible was then showing that the Russians would one day be dangerous. It for instance, probably revived regularly when Russia threatened Volney (Voyage, i, 42) found the prophecy common among the Turks about 1784, during the Turko-Russian war to which the treaty of Kainarjik put an end. Similarly, Hobhouse heard it during his in Turkey. The eighteenth century K. Dapontes speaks of wanderings 9 rr}$ E\cad^T TO>V Eavdtbv jU-cyaA^sr BacriXicrcrrjs (Karros Xapiratv, p. 195), presumably with the prophecy in mind. In his time Burckhardt * ' found that the Syrians made no mystery of it the Yellow King * ' was merely another way of saying Emperor of Russia (Syria, p. 40). : : Du (/TapaSocreis', ii, 669, drawing on Glossar., s.v.flavus), the prophecy appears first in Roger de According to Polites Cange, Hoveden, who says that a prophecy written up over the Golden Gate of Constantinople stated that a Yellow King, who was a Latin, should enter by it. As the Flavian Theodosius built the Golden Gate, there may have been a long Latin inscription, full of abbreviations and containing the word Flavins over the gate. This, misread, may have It is interesting that the prophecy should have originated the idea. been applied first to a conqueror rather than a deliverer. Something of the same confusion as to the Yellow Race appears in the tenthcentury 'Opdcrzis of Daniel (Polites, TJa/oaSocrcts', ii, 665 ff. ; Migne, Diet, des Apocrypbes, ii, 188), alleged to have been found by Leo the Wise in the tomb of Daniel, the Daniel in question having been a monk, confounded with the Biblical prophet. The *0pdai$ may thus be merely another name for Leo's oracles. Such discoveries of magic books in graves are rather interesting they add prestige to the books * in question the discovery sounds genuine owing to the practice of cf. L. Cahun, Excursions sur les Bords burying books with the dead de VEupbrate, p. 263, who found a copy of the Koran in a sheikh's tomb he had opened. I myself heard the same tale at Manisa. In such cases the Koran is possibly intended to help the dead in the examination he undergoes from the two angels after death, for which see especially d'Ohsson, Tableau, i, 239, and Lane, Mod. Egyptians, later : ' : : 265 (above, p. 250). The practice among Moslems may derive ultimately from Jewish custom. Jewish rabbis are frequently buried with a pentateuch (a perfect copy is never used) hence discoveries of holy books in Jewish prophets' graves are numerous (cf. Loftus, Travels in Cbaldaea, p. 36, and Migne, Diet, des Apocrypbes, ii, 1309). Emile Deschamps, Au Pays d'Apbrodite, p. 230, and Tischendorf, TerreSainte, p. 201, both mention a gospel found in the tomb of Barnabas ii, : 473 Crypto-Jews They kept the Orthodox fasts strictly. Their children were baptized, and habitually bore a Christian and a Turkish name for secret and public use respectively ' * district. : siich Turkish names as Mehmet and 'AH were how' As to marriage, they never gave their ever, avoided. daughters to Turks, but the men were not averse to taking wives from among their Turkish neighbours. In this case the parties were married secretly according to the Christian rite in one of the monasteries before the consummation of the marriage. If pressure were necessary, the bridegroom threatened to leave his bride. When a crypto-Christian died, the burial service was read for him in a Christian church while he was being Mollahs were sent to the crypto-Christian interred. villages in Ramazan, but were got out of the way when were held. 1 I mention here for the curiosity of the subject a community of crypto- Jews alleged to exist in the neighbourhood of Pergamon at a village named Trachalla. This * accordvillage was visited by MacFarlane in 1828-9 services : ing to his account, the inhabitants betray their Jewish origin by their physical type and, though in externals Mohammedans by We religion, keep Saturday as a holiday. can only suppose them to be an offshoot of the In the Jewish instances, the book, not the holy man, is as they prohibit images and are eager for knowledge to the essential which the sacred book is the key, this book becomes almost an object of adoration with them. At Tedif near Aleppo a certain synagogue was greatly venerated by Jews on account of an ancient manuscript in Cyprus. : A pentateuch written by kept there (Pococke, Voyages, iii, 495). Esdras was preserved in a synagogue of Old Cairo it was so holy that people could not look on it and live (Carmoly, Itineraires, pp. 527, : A glance at the half 542-3 : cf. Pierotti, Legendes Racontees, p. 39). stone, half flesh image of the Virgin in the Syrian convent of Sidnaya had the same fatal effect (J. L. Porter, Damascus, p. 130 ; cf. Ludolf, De Itinere, pp. and Baronius, 1 2 99 s. ff., Maundrell, Voyage, Utrecht, 1705, pp. 220-1, a. 870). Triandaphyllides, TIovriKa, pp. 55-92. Constantinople, ii, 335 ff. 3295.2 ! fbe Crypto-Christians 474 of Trebizond 1 Turco-Jewish (Dunmeh} community of Smyrna, probably attracted to the Pergamon district by its prosperity under the rule of the Karaosmanoglu family during the eighteenth century.* 1 The heresy of Sabatai Tsevi, the seventeenth-century Messiah whose followers turned with him to Islam, had much hold in Smyrna, though its chief connexions are now with Salonica. A follower of his, Daniel Israel, was expelled by the Kadi from Smyrna in 1703, but seems to have been still living there in 1717 (G. Cuper, Lettres, pp. 396, 398). 2 Crypto-Christians are recorded elsewhere Walpole mentions also. a group of five such Albanian villages in the Morea (Travels, p. 292). Professor R. M. Dawkins heard in Crete that during the Greek revolution of 1821 many Cretan crypto-Christians declared themselves openly for Christianity and were massacred accordingly. A long article by R. Michell in the Nineteenth Century for May 1908 describes ' the Lino-Vamvaki (lit. linen-cotton ') of Cyprus. Hahn cites the Karamuratadhes of the middle Voyussa in Albania as recent and partial converts to Islam (Alban. Studien, p. 36). The alleged date (1760) of their conversion squares well with the accounts of the Vallahadhes in south-west Macedonia, for whom see Wace and Thompson, Nomads of no f. and Margaret M. Their turning seems to have been part of a considerable movement in the Balkans during the eighteenth century, when the Russian danger caused the Turks to put pressure on their rayab populations to convert. It may be noted that the Vallahadhes preserve their churches as they were, especially at Vrosdan, Vrondiza, and Vinyani, and frequent them at certain seasons or so my informants assert. A community of some 400 souls exists at the present day in the heart of Constantinople itself, in the Top Kapu Serai quarter, which lies between the east end of S. Sophia the Balkans, p. 29 ; Berard, Macedoine, pp. Hasluck, in Contemp. Rev., 1924, pp. 225 if. ; and the Serai walls outwardly they are Moslem and attend the mosque, but in secret they have eikons they are very poor and live by making beads. Crypto-Christians are mentioned in Bosnia by Boue (ItineOn the raires, iii, 407), and in south Albania (ibid, iii, 407-8). in Islam see G. Jacob, Bektaschijje, p. 29. in general phenomenon : : XXXIX LISTS OF HETERODOX TRIBES i. (i) Turuk Tribes According to Tsakyroglous, Uepl 13 FiovpovKtDVy pp. ff. In the north-west portion of the Aidin vilayet Ahmedli part at Kula, part at Simav in the adjoining vilayet of Brusa. about Attala as far as At-alan. Altji ('AXraC) Anamasli in the kaza of Demirji. It has 50 tents and 70 houses (dam), 16,000 beasts, and pays 15,000 (a) : : : : piastres in verghi. about Salikli, and extends into the vilayet Arapli of Brusa. Chakal in the sanjak of Sarukhan. in the kaza of Kula. Charik all over the vilayet of Aidin. It is a very Farsak rich and populous tribe, counting 1,200 families. Gueuk Musali in kaza of Demirji, above the village of Injikler. It has 50 houses and 50 tents. it Ivatli about Karneit possesses 22 tents. at Selge and Alashehr, extending south as Kacbar far as Nazli. A large and important tribe divided : : : : : : : : into maballas, Kula-Kachar, Keles-Kachar, Ovax Kachar, &c. Kara Tekkeli winters about Smyrna. Khurzum :* in the vilayets of Aidin and Brusa. Kizil Ke chili at Prinar-Keui, in the mudirlik of It has 800 tents, 60,000 beasts, Selenti (Kula). : : and pays 60,000 piastres Kombach about Soma. taxes. : 1 Vambery adds * Selge Kachar. I 2 Vambery's Khorgun. Lists of Heterodox Tribes 476 between Alashehr and Salikli and in the Brusa. of vilayet kaza of Kula, in the neighbourhood of Narinjali Manavli : : Omur Baba Dagh up to Denizli. between Ushak and Esme. Sarach between Nazli and Denizli, and in the Sari Tekkeli Brusa. of vilayet kaza of Kula. It has 60 houses. Shehidli winters at Uluborlu, summers at Afiun Sheikhli Kara Hisar. It is divided into ten kabilehs (includ: : : : ing Arpat-sheikhli, Kisat-sheikhli, Haji-sheikhli), possesses 70-80 tents and 200 houses, and pays 15,000 piastres taxes. Soma and the Taghji Bendirli (or Tangji Bendir) vilayet of Brusa. : (b) South-western and other Abdal Uluborlu and : elsewhere. Akdaghli : about Nazli. Ak-kozali. Alaja Koyunlu Konia. Allah-Abeli Sarukhan. : : up to sanjak of Injeli. : also in vilayet of Brusa. Dosuti-Arapli. Eski Turuk. Eshpek ('EoxrrcK)' Geigel. Gerinisli : Nazli to Giushji Nazli. about Guzel-beyli Nazli. : Harmandali. Chambar vilayets of Aidin and Brusa. : Chepni Deriji: vilayets of Aidin and Brusa. : Burkhan : . Mughla. Beylikli. Bolni of Aidin vilayet districts an important Hartal. y Igneji ( IyvT) : sanjak of Sarukhan. tribe,scattered all over Imir-hariji the Aidin vilayet. Sarukhan. about Nazli. Jerid Chitmi. Dede Karkinli of Sarukhan. sanjak : of : : sanjak Karafakoglu vilayets of Aidin and Brusa. : Turuks Karamanli Nazli : Muzan to Karayaghjili. Keusfceler : Nazli Kilaz. Rakbman. Saatji-Karali (SaarQ 1 KapoAc) about Nazli. Kirtish. sanjak of Sarukhan. also in Kizil-Ishikli the vilayet of Brusa. Koja-Beyli: vilayets of Aidin and Brusa. Musarlarli sanjak of Sarukhan. Sari-Keckili. : Task Evli. Tekkeli : Mainly in vilayet of : Tel-aldi. (e) : Rumli or Urumli. Piroglu. Tapanli. lerkiani. Risfan. Turkmen. (d) Exclusively in vilayet of Nazli. Tataganli: about Karagach. Konia Durgut important tribe, perhaps Mongolian. : Teraji. : (c) also in vilayet : of Brusa. Omurlu. Isbartar. Kislilerli 477 Adana : Berber. Menemenji* Karsant. 2 Sirkentili* Additional (habitat not specified) : Barakli. Kechili. Chaban. Mersinli. Chebrekli (Kurds). Imrazli. Nihar. Kalabak. Ze'ibekli. ' Tarazli. Karandirlik. * 1 Satchi Karali in Vambery. according to Grothe (7orderasienexfedition^ subdivisions of the Afshar tribe. 3 These are, ii, 145), Lists of Heterodox Tribes 478 (ii) (a) In Cilicia, Tarsus according to Langlois, Cilicie, pp. 21 ff. : Baxis and H. Hasanoglu with 300 H[ouses]. Kalaunlu with 30 H. Karakaialu with 700 T[entsj. Kara-tekkeli with 150 H. Melemenji with 3,000 H. Puran and Mustafa-bey with 200 T. Sor tan and Kujuoglou with 500 H. Tekkeli with 600 H. Thoroglu with 300 H. (b) Adana : Busdagan [Bosdaghan] with 1,400 T. Daundarlu with 200 T. Farsak z with 800 T. Jerid with 1,200 T. Kara-hajelu with 500 H. Karitinlu with 100 T. Kerim-oglu with 2,500 T. Khozanoglu with 500 H. Sarkanteli-oglu with 800 T. Tajerlu with 1,200 T. (r) Marash : Haji Koyunlu with 120 T. Jejale with 200 T. Kilisle with 400 T. 2. Turkoman Tribes P. RusselPs list as published in Niebuhr's Voyage (i) en Arable (Amsterdam), ii, 336 ff. 2 1 Mentioned by Bertrandon de la Brocquiere, p. 8. of the [Niebuhr complains difficulty he had experienced in making out the list because Russell had sent him no transcription of the Turkish names and he himself knew no Turkish. To facilitate use of the list by readers with no knowledge of Turkish I have sometimes inserted in square brackets a transcription more in harmony than Niebuhr's with * also Turkomans 479 (a) In country of Sivas and Angora : Agbsje Kiuneli [Akje Kudsjikli [Kuchuklu] 10,000 T. Koyunlu] 500 T. : : Lek 1,000 T. Pehlivanli !5,oooT. Scham Biadli 500 T. j4uscbir[j4vshar]:$ooT. Beberli 1,000 T. : : Dsjerid [Jerid] (b) 500 T. : In Sivas district : : Dsjefrghanli [Jaferagbanl{\ Eilebkeli [Ilbekli : : : : Ilbegli] 200 T. 2,000 T. (half in Aleppo district). Irak 1,000 T. : (summer at Sivas, winter at Zor). 500 T. Kulindsjefli Rihanli: 2,000 T. (summer Sufulir [Sofular] 500 T. : at Sivas, winter at Aleppo). : In Angora district Burenik 1 2,000 T. : (<:) : (d) In Aintab district 100 T. : Dade Kirkan Dindischli Ditumli : : : 500 T. 3,000 T. Dsjadsjeli [Jajeli] Kirsak Musa (e) : 1,000 T. : 2,000 T. Beikli \Musa Beyikli (? Musabegli)} : 500 T. In Caesarea district Dadli 200 T. (summer at Caesarea, winter in Urfa : : pasbalik). Karadsjekerd \Karaja Kurd] 500 T. Kuluk [Kulak] zoo T. (summer at Caesarea, winter at Adana). : : (/) In Aleppo district : Auliscbli [Aulasbli] : 200 T. the spelling usually adopted by my husband. In some cases, however, the Turkish names are too corrupt even for a rough rendering. Professor Margoliouth has kindly helped me with the transcriptions. M. M. H.J Lists of Heterodox Tribes 480 (g) In Damascus district Kabeli : 1 ,000 : T. Kara Kojunli [K. Koyunlu] 500 T. (h) Syria, mostly Damascus pasbalik : : Aiali 1,000 T. Asehdiuli [Azedinli] Fidsjeli : 500 T. 2,000 T. In Urfa pasbalik : 500 T. : 500 T. Tucbtamarli 500 T. Scherefli T. : : : : Baujindir \Baindir\ 12,000 T. Mahmalenli: 500 T. Bekdeli : 300 T. (ii) : Saradsjdller [Sarajalar] Ausferli [Auzarli] 1,000 T. Eilner \Imir\ 500 (i) 200 T. : Kikli \Geikli\ : : List according to Burckhardt, "Travels in Syria, PP- 633 ff. (a) Rihanli 3,000 tents : : north-west of Aleppo winter in mountains of Gorun : Antioch plain, summer and Albistan. in Sab- tribes of Rihanli : Aoutsbar 20 horsemen. 100 horsemen Babaderlu mountains of Simon. 200 horsemen from Badjazze (Baias Cheuslu Coudanlut 600 horsemen. Delikanli 600 horsemen. Hallalu 60 horsemen. Kara Abmetli 150 horsemen. Kara Soleimanlu 50 horsemen. Karken 20 horsemen. Leuklu 100 horsemen. Okugu 50 horsemen. : : : : : : : : : : : : : J 500 horsemen 60 horsemen. Serigialar Toroun : 1 : [Niebuhr's Saradjalar. : Maden. M. M. H.] S. ?). Turkomans (Z>) 48 1 between Badjazze (Baias ?) and Adana Jerid winter in plains, summer in the Armenian moun: : tains. Sub- tribes of Jerid Aoutshar. \Karaja- Karegialar : lar\. Bosdagan. Leek. 1 Jerid. Tegir. 2 Peblivanli (c) live in district : of Bosurk Angora) and near Constantinople day's distance from the Rihanli. (d) ( ? Bozuk, near summer one ; winter in Haimaneh district near Angora formerly near Aleppo. Rishwans : Sub-tribes of the Risbwans : Mandolli. Deleyanli. Gelikanli. (e) Omar Karashukli : near Bir on Euphrates. 3 For comparison (iii) Anli. I add the own 1 These speak 2 Cf. Grothe's Tedjerli, below, p. 482. a language of their list 4 of sub-tribes of (Burckhardt, op. cit, 9 p. 642). A comparison with the list of the Turkomans of Luristan as given Rawlinson He (in J.R.G.S., ix, 1839, 103) is also of interest. by Ulaki and Mai Ahmedi, with 400 enumerates them as follows families, wintering at Sar Dasht and Dizful, summering at Japalak and Silakhir Bukhtiyariwand with 600 families and the same habitat as Duraki with 400 families, summering at Chahar Mahal the above Sallaki with 2,000 families, summering at and wintering as above Burburud Kunursi with 1,000 families, summering at Feridun and about Zardah Kuh, wintering at Ram Hormuz, Janniki-Garmasir, and about Shuster Suhuni with 1,500 families, habitat as Kunursi Mahmud Saleh with 1,000 families and same habitat Mogul with 500 families, Memiwand with 4,000, and Zallaki with 4,000, all with habitat Bawai with 3,000 families, Urak and Shaluh combined as Kunursi with 2,500 families, summering at Bazuft and wintering at Susan and Mai Amir. 4 [The corrections are Sir Harry Lamb's. M. M. H.] 3 : : : : : : : : : Lists of Heterodox Tribes 482 the AFSHARS given by H. Grothe, Vorder asienex- pedition, ii, 145, n. 2. Awschar. Hiir- Uschak. Beisgitli. Djedjeli Salmanly. Jaidji- Uscb\ak\. Karsanty. Kekili Uschak. Djerid. Kirli. Farsak. Kosan. Hadji Mustafa Ali-Us- Melemendji. Scbabbacb. Bosdan [Bosdaghan]. cbak. Hadji Mustafa Redje\b\ Tedjerli. Uscbak. Hodjan All [Hojanli], Torun. (iv) KuRDS 1 of Cilicia according to Langlois, Cilicie, p. 23. Afsbar with 3,000 T. Karalar with 600 T. 1 Some Kurds Yezidi (Langlois, at Caesarea. are pagan, op. cit., some p. 23). Karsanteliwiih i,3ooT. Lek with 150 T. are Sunni, They and some are said to winter at Adana and be summer XL HAJI BEKTASH AND THE JANISSARIES INTRODUCTORY institution of the first Turkish standing army, of the famous corps Janissaries, enrolled by the sultans from a tithe taken on Christian children, is the subject of a picturesque legend till recently accepted as fact by the gravest historians. This legend associates the Ottoman sultan Orkhan with the saint Haji Bektash as co-founders of the Janissary system. Orkhan, the story runs, having raised his first levy of Christian youths for the corps, sent them to Haji Bektash, whom they found in the neighbourhood of Amasia, to crave his benediction. Haji Bektash, laying his hand on the heads of the new recruits, invoked the blessing of heaven on the this the cheri or was of the name ; origin yeni troops of the corps, by westerns corrupted into Janissary. In commemoration, as was said, of this benediction, the Janissaries wore attached to their head-dress a flap or pendant of cloth, supposed to represent the sleeve of the saint's habit, which had so fallen as he raised his hand to the recruits' heads in the act of blessing them. 1 In this legend, which cannot be traced farther back than the second half of the sixteenth century, two centuries later than the events related, Orkhan and Haji Bektash are represented as the civil and religious founders respectively of the Janissaries. Orkhan and the Janissaries are of course historical ; the date of the foundation of the Janissaries has been disputed, and the ' ' 1 Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. version n. 3- is Ott., given by Evliya, Travels, i, I, ii, 123 106. f. A slightly different See also below, p. 613, Haji Bektasb and the Janissaries existence of an historical Haji Bektash called in quesOur investigation will thus concentrate on three tion. 484 points 1. 2. 3. : The date of the foundation of the Janissaries. The personality of Haji Bektash. The connexion of Haji Bektash with the Janis- saries. I. The Date of the Institution of the Janissaries authority has won general acceptance for the story given above, if we go behind von Hammer we find in the various authorities very conflicting accounts of the origin of the Janissaries, and especially in the matter of date ; their institution is attributed to the reigns of at least four sultans, viz. 1. Osman I this is the version of (1299 to 1326) is Chalcondyles, who supposed to have died shortly 1 after the fall of Constantinople. this is the canonized 2. Orkhan (1326 to 1360) version accepted by von Hammer on the authority of the Turkish historians Neshri (early sixteenth century) and Ali (d. 1599). The name of the vizir immediately responsible for the Janissary system is given as Kara Though von Hammer's : : : Khalil.* 3. Mur ad I ( 1 360 to 1 3 89) is credited with the institu- tion of the Janissaries by two Venetian Relations of the late sixteenth century, 3 by Marsigli, 4 and by Cantimir. 5 6 4. Murad II (1421 to 1451), by Giovio and George1 P. 8 P. : TOVTOV la^v avrov, rrjv Ovpas 2 BamXcws . . , rdiv dptar'Yjv [see below, p. diro^i^aaOai d/jL<f>* 486] xaXovat,. Ott. i, 123 f., and note, p. 384. Relazioni Alberi, degli Ambasciatori Veneti, ser. Ill, vol. iii, p. 343 in and ser. Ill, vol. ii, p. 331 (Lorenzo in 1592). 1590), (Moro Hist. Emp. 3 4 5 6 ttat Mil. de VEmp. Ott., p, 67. i, 34,/.tf. 1362. Cited by Leunclavius, Pandectes, 35. Giovio's treatise on the Turks (Cose de Turchi) is dated 1531 by the introductory letter of Christian Children Levy 1 wicz, as by other authorities of less 485 independent value.* The usual explanation of these puzzling discrepancies has been hitherto to assume that the Janissary system was instituted by an early sultan and reformed or systematized by Murad I or II. For this there is considerable authority, 3 though the nature of the changes introduced by the reformer remains vague. The distinctive feature of the Janissary system is the recruitment of the corps from a levy of the Christian children of the Empire, who were forcibly converted and Of the levy of specially trained for their profession. children as practised in the seventeenth century Evliya gives the following account. ' sets out Every seven years a Colonel of the Janissaries with five or six hundred men for Rumeli, to draft from all the villages, Albanese, Greek, Albanian, Servian, and Bulgarian boys. The seven or eight thousand boys collected in that way, according to the institute of Sultan Orkhan, sanctified by the benediction of Haji Begtash, are dressed in the town of Uskub, in jackets (Muwahadi) of red Aba, with a cleft on the shoulders, and with caps of red felt. Arrived at Constantinople, their are in names register, and they are called Ajemoghput down lans, receiving twenty aspers, and half a piece of cloth a year. The best are given to the artillery, the armourers, and the . . . Bostanji, because this . . the heaviest service. is . 3 4 Georgewicz returned from his Turkish captivity not later than 1544, when he wrote his widely read De Turcorum Moribus Epitome. 2 Geuffroy, Court du Grant Turc, Paris, 1546, cited by Leunclavius, see also Nicolay, Raisz und Schijfart> p. 144 of the Pandectes, 35 The voyage was made in 155 1, but the author edition. Antwerp (1577) takes most of his information on the Turks from earlier authors. 3 ra [' A^ovparrfs} np&ros rots iavviTt>dpoi$ Cf. Phrantzes, 92 B TraXaioOev a TO avro JJLGV ray/xa UXOVGW e^a/Houro Trpovofiia 1 : ' : ere/Hz? avvrjOeias Kal 4 Evliya, Travels, raeis I, ii, /cat eVSu/iara fj0i>. Breves states that in villages of sometimes parents passed their children 210. mixed population Moslem De off as Christian in order to assure de Ruiner un Turc 9 p. 24). One them a career as Janissaries (Moyens source of profit was the payments Haji Bektash and 486 Of the Janissaries of Christian children for service there is no hint in the early accounts of the Janissaries. Especially notable is the silence of Ibn Batuta, a Moorish traveller who visited the court of Orkhan of Schiltberger, a prisoner of Nikopolis ( 1 396) who passed many years as a slave in western Asia; and of Bertrandon de la Brocquiere, a Burgundian soldier who travelled overland from Syria into Europe in 1432-3, taking a special and professional interest in Turkish milithis systematic collection ; tary affairs. The truth seems to be that the earlier sultans maintained a kind of bodyguard or corps d? elite formed of 1 bought or captured slaves. As in other Mohammedan countries, the sultan had the right to one-fifth of all 2 In the case prisoners as of all booty captured in war. of the early Turkish sultans the prisoners would be mainly Christians. This force was reorganized by one of the Murads the prisoners were induced to abjure : their faith by the privileges the service offered, and The members of specially trained in the arts of war. this corps are called by Chalcondyles 4 and by Ducas 3 (who mentions presence at the battle of Nikopolis) rropra or dvpa, which the latter explains as indicating that these troops stood at the sultan's gate. 5 In later made its to the Janissaries by the former Syria, p. 654. : cf. by local Christians in order to avoid oppression Niebuhr, Voyage en Arable, \\, 296 Burckhardt, Dawkins heard a similar tale told in Crete of ; Professor For the steps in a Janissary's and Janissary see Quiclet, Voyages, the grandfather of Professor Hatzidakis. career from ajemoghlan to bostanji p. 211. 1 * Cf. Bertrandon de la Brocquiere, cd. Wright, pp. 347, 349. This right was exercised as late as the seventeenth century by the Ottoman sultans (Evliya, Travels, I,ii, 170). p. 463) quotes George of Hungary as Hottinger (Hist. Orient., saying that the sultans claimed one tenth only of the booty. 4 P. 8 P. Chalcondyles, pp. 121-2 P. (quoted above). Ka\irai olov Ovpa ToviraXa[ot TovpKoi] olrwesTTopTOL riov rfj$ av\fj$. At this time Ducas says they were all bought slaves and over 10,000 in number Sanuto (Diarii, i, 398) records 8,000 in 1496; 3 5 P. 52 : : Levy of Christian Children 487 whom these duties were Kapu Kulu (' Slaves of the perhaps assume was the original times certain Janissaries to entrusted were denominated Gate ? x ) which we may of the early sultans' guards. The earliest occurrence of the word Janissary (yevir&pi title translated veoauAAe/o-os arparos =yeni sheri), at least in a Christian author, seems to be that of Ducas in the middle of the fifteenth century the Janissaries of his time were still largely Christian prisoners of war. 2 It is hard to believe that the levy of Christian children, : always a bitter grievance to the Greeks, is thus passed over by a Greek author if the system already existed yet in some form it certainly did, since in the Capitulations of Pera (1453) the children of the Perote Genoese are expressly exempted from impressment. 3 The truth is, probably, that the levy of children was not yet systematized. So late as 1472 Cippico describes the Janissaries as recruited largely from the sultan's fifth of the prisoners of war only when prisoners were not available in sufficient quantity were the numbers made up by the forcible impressment of Christian children. 4 So that the organization of the system, so far from dating back to Orkhan or even Murad I, must be referred to a date subsequent to 1472. : ; time. This (op. cit.) states that there were 12,000 in his with the gate has evidently (through janud) aided in the formation of the western word Janissary y which is used by English and French writers long after the dispersal of the corps for what is now called a kavass (cf. J. Farley, Two Tears in Syria, p. 198 Lady Duff Gordon, Letters from Egypt, p. 87; Lubomirski, Jerusalem, p. The fantastic derivations given by de Vigenere, Illustr. sur 285). Chalcondile, p. 69 (in de Mezeray, Hist, des Turcs, vol. ii), may be Georgewicz association ; ignored. 1 Marsigli, ttat Mil. de 3 Miklosich and Miiller, in Atti Soc. Lig. xiii, 228. VEmp. * Ott. 9 p. 66. Ada et Diplom. Gr. iii, 287-8 : Pp. 137 f. cf. Belgrano, ' In Sathas, Mvr)p. 'EXX. 'Icrr. vii, 281 Se non possono avere a' Cristiani loro sudditi per ogni parte forza prigioni, togliono per del loro imperio i lor figliuoli.' 4 : Haji Bektasb and 488 The Personality 2. The the Janissaries of traditional Haji Bektash Haji Bektash represented as having his name (Bektashi) as well as having blessed the Janissaries. He was both missionary and warrior. In the former character he is said to have established through his disciples seven hundred convents (tekkes) of dervishes, one in each of the towns conquered by Orkhan, 1 in the latter to have taken part with Orkhan in the siege of Brusa. 2 The is founded the dervish order which bears connexion with Orkhan is firmly established by tradition in the seventeenth century. According to the latest authorities, however, the heretical Hurufi, about 1400, usurped the tomb of Haji Bektash near Kirshehr and foisted their own doctrines those of Haji Bektash on the latter's disciples. 3 From this time onwards has existed the (merely nominal) connexion of the Bektashi sect with Haji Bektash ; the long cycle of legend attaching to the saint's name seems to be the invention of the usurpers. The earliest European writer who mentions Haji Bektash, George of Hungary, passed part of a long captivity in Turkey, apparently near Eskishehr, in the early years of the fifteenth century, yet knows the saint 4 Ashik Pasha Zade, the only as a patron of pilgrims. 5 earliest Turkish historian, whose family was from the district of Kirshehr, where Haji Bektash lies buried, as 1 2 Evliya Efendi, Travels, Ibid, ii, 4. The ii, 21. Brusa cycle is evidently devised to bridge the gap between Orkhan's capital and the habitat of Haji Bektash, as also to give the prestige of antiquity to Bektashi foundations in Brusa. Further details of the life and apocryphal works of Haji Bektash are 3 See above, p. 135. 19 f. and ii, 70. ' Hatschi Pettesch, xv alius vocatus Est : Turcorum, cap. quod interpretatur quasi adiutorius peregrinationis, qui etiam multum invocatur et veneratur maxime a peregrinis, qui eius auxilium experiri given by Evliya, 4 ii, De Moribus dicuntur.' 5 He lived in Jardin the reign of Bayezid II (1482-1512) des Mosquees, p. 31 (318), in Hist. Emf. : cf. Ott. xviii. von Hammer, 489 Haji Bektash connexion with Orkhan, giving the following Personality of denies his account of him : '.[Hajee Begtash] had never any connection with the Ottoman Sultans. He came from Khorassan with his brother Mentish and they established themselves at Siwas near to Baba Ilias. At a later period they went to Caisarieh, from which place his brother returned to their own country by Siwas, and was killed on the way. Begtash, whilst on his way from Caisarieh to the Kaza Ujuk died, and was interred there where his holy tomb * still exists/ 3 Here we have an early author from Haji Bektash's own country stoutly denying his traditional connexion with the early Ottoman sultans, which is on the face of it improbable, since neither the Amasia district, in which the Blessing of the Janissaries is generally located, 3 nor the site of the saint's tomb became part of the Ottoman dominions till comparatively late. The words of Ashik Pasha Zade may have also a positive value, and the clue to the elusive personality of Haji Bektash may lie in his statement that the saint was the brother of Mentish '. 4 Following this clue, we have already concluded that the original Haji Bektash was no more than the eponymous ancestor of the Bektashli tribe, kinsmen of the tribe which had his brother Mentish for ancestor. ' ' ' 3. The Connexion of Haji Bektash with the Janissaries From a tribal eponym worshipped in a village Haji influence of the Bektash easily became, under the Perhaps Kazi Vyuk Boghaz near Koch Hisar. 1 Ashik Pasha Zade, quoted by J. P. Brown, Dervishes, p. 141. The spot is generally given as Su Kenar, near Amasia. In the district of Amasia, Haji Khalfa (tr. Armain, p. 683) notes (between Turkhal and Merzifun) the tomb of a certain Haji Baba who ' made a wall This miracle is especially characteristic of Haji Bektash (see walk'. 3 3 above, p. 289 (for account Above, 3295.2 it at Beybazar for his association cf. with the p. 341. K Evliya, Travels^ district of ii, Amasia. 240) and may Haji Bektash and the Janissaries powerful sect which adopted him, a saint respected by a larger community. The so-called Bektashi sect, growing 490 power, eventually captured the Janissary organization. The Janissaries adopted Haji Bektash as their patron and were all affiliated to the sect. From 1591 onwards I the General this connexion was officially recognized of the Bektashi was given the honorary title of Colonel of Janissaries, and dervishes of the order were regularly quartered in the Janissaries' barracks and marched with in ; them in public processions before this official and on campaign. recognition that we first It is just hear of the legend connecting Haji Bektash with the corps. There are two distinct cycles of legend concerning the connexion of Haji Bektash with the Janissaries (1) The canonized version, as we have seen, lays stress on the formal consecration of the new troops by : Haji Bektash, which takes place in Asia Minor during the reign and at the instance of Sultan Orkhan. This version, including the incident of the sleeve, occurs at 2 least as early as the second half of the sixteenth century. The story was not, however, universally accepted, and its authenticity is denied by the contemporary historians Tash-Kupru-Zade (d. 1560) and Ali (d. I599). 3 In the second version of the legend Haji Bektash The institution of the Janissaries is associated with Murad I and his martyr's death on the field of Kossovo. Haji Bektash is introduced somewhat awkwardly and loses his life with the sultan. The Janissaries are instituted in accordance with his (2) plays a less conspicuous part. dying instructions or as a tribute to his memory. Our versions of this legend date from the seventeenth and 1 D'Ohsson, Tableau, ii, 312 ; iii, 325. Leunclavius, Pandectes, 35. 3 Jacob, Beitrdge, p. 3 ; the same author says that the incident is mentioned neither by Neshri nor by Saad-ed-din. The latter, indeed, connects the head-dress of the Janissaries with the Mevlevi order, see a below, p. 613, and n. 3. Janissaries instituted by Murad I 491 it been but have to current eighteenth centuries, appears 1 earlier, since a Venetian Relazione of I59O speaks of the institution of the Janissaries by Murad I in memory of one of his Santons Aribietas (sic) \ Rycaut gives the c story as follows 6 In the time that the Warlike and Victorious Sultan Amurath passed with his army into Servia, and overcame Lazarus, the Despot of that Countrey, and slew him in Battel, Bedash was then a preacher to Amurath, who amongst other his Admonitions forewarned him of trusting the Servians ; but Amurath, out of his couragious spirit relying on his own Wisedom and Force, admitted a certain Nobleman called Vilvo, upon pretence of doing him homage, to approach near him and kiss his hand, who having his Dagger ready and concealed, stabbed Amurath to the heart, and with that blow made him a Martyr. Bectash knowing that this treacherous death of his Prince, must needs also be the cause of his, for being so near his person, and prophesying of this fatal stroke, sought not to prevent it, but made preparations for his own death. And in order thereunto provided himself with a white Robe with long Sleeves, which he proffered to all those which were his Admirers, and Proselytes, to be kissed as a mark of their obedience to him and his Insti: tutions. * This Bectash at his death cut off one of his sleeves and put on the head of one of his religious men, part of which huny down on his shoulders saying, " after this you shall be *Janiz>aries" which signified a new militia and from that time begun it , ; their original institution zaries wear Caps falling called Ketche: Aaron in detail * ; so this is the reason why the Jani- behind after the manner of sleeves, * Hill gives a similar story with slight variations : The death of Bectajh immediately fucceeded that of AmuBlow and not preventing was cut in pieces by the furious Guards, as a party in the Treafon ; but forefeeing eafily, rath, for having often prophefy'd the it, tho' near the Sultan's Perfon, he 1 Alberi, Relaztoni degli Ambasciatori Veneti, ser. Ill, vol. 3 Rycaut, Ottoman Empire, p. 72. K 2 iii, p. 343. Haji Bektash and the Janissaries what Fate would foon befall him, he rent off a long Sleeve, 492 which he wore continually on his Right Arm, and putting upon the Head of one of the Soldiers, cried out prophetically the Turkish Language, Life from my Death Jball like a Phoenix faring, To Guard from Dangers your Succeeding King. it in THIS faid, he Fell, a bloody Victim to the Soldiers Anger, but had his Prophecy compleatly verified in the Firft Year of the next Sultan's Reign, who reflecting ferioufly on the Fate of Bectajh, refolved to take fome Method of perpetuating his Memory, and Inftituted a New Order of the Militia, by the Name ofjanifaries, who to this Day in Imitation of the Sleeve which Bectajh put upon the Soldiers Head, are all obliged to wear a Headpiece fac'd with pollifli'd Steel, to which is faftned a large piece of Buff, that falling in a moderate Breadth from the Crown of their Head fpreads gradually wider to the midle of their Backs.' There ' no corresponding cycle of legend to connect Haji Bektash with the less prominent figure of Murad II, who, however, as a matter of history, seems to have been much under the influence of dervishes. 2 To sum up, the legendary connexion between Haji Bektash and the Janissaries cannot be traced farther back than the second half of the sixteenth century, and at least two respectable authors 3 of this date deny its It therefore antedates by only a few authenticity. years the official recognition of the connexion between the Bektashi dervishes and the Janissaries. I have attempted elsewhere to show that every point in the legend, which is devised to increase the power and is prestige of the Bektashi, can be paralleled 1 Ottoman Empire (1710), by similar, p. 19. Phrantzes (p. 92) says that Murad II, after his abdication and retirement, himself assumed the dervish habit at Brusa (varepov <f>dvrj avr) SepjStOTjs yzveaQai r^yovv /xova^oj, Kal eV rfj Upovcrr) Trepaaas cyeWro) cf. Hottinger, Hist. Orient., pp. 482 ff., quoting George of * : Hungary. 3 Tash-Kupru-Zade and All. Conclusions 493 and equally apocryphal, legends connecting the origins 1 of the Janissaries with the MevlevL Our conclusions . Janissaries from opposed to the prisoners of are thus (i) that the recruiting of the 2 specially trained Christian children, as much war older and bodyguard, was a employment of for the sultan's slaves gradual change put on a regular footing in the fifteenth century at earliest ; (2) that Haji Bektash was originally a tribal saint afterwards exploited by the Hurufi-Bektashi sect and arbitrarily adopted by the Janissaries and (3) that the canonized legend of Haji Bektash, Orkhan, and the first Janissaries is entirely fictitious and probably devised to forward the Bektashi intrigue, which resulted in the capture ' of the Janissary organization and in the official recognition of Haji Bektash as its spiritual patron and of the Bektashi order as its : * spiritual allies. 1 B.S.A., xix, 214, note I reprinted below, p. 613, n. 3. In South Albania, Fadil Bey Klissura informed me, it is said that Haji Bektash was seized in childhood and brought up as a Moham: 2 medan later on he studied Christianity and, recognizing its superiority, ; invented Bektashism as a link between the two religions. This is a combination of the Janissary-Christian children tradition and of the fact that Bektashis than either is and Christians with Sunnis. are more friendly with each other XLI GEORGE OF HUNGARY, CHAPTER XV INTRODUCTORY T HE following is a chapter (xv) translated from a tract published anonymously towards the end of the fifteenth century and entitled Tractatus de Moribus The author, variof George ously Hungary and as George von Muhlenbach, was a slave in Turkey during the middle years of the century (about 1436-58) and on internal evidence seems to have been employed by a Turkoman bey as herdsman in the interior of Asia Minor. It appears that the district with which he was familiar included the pilgrimages of Sidi Ghazi, buried near Eskishehr, of Haji Bektash, buried in the village of the same name, and of Ashik Pasha, buried at Kirshehr ; the clerical studies he had already begun at condictionibus et nequicia Turcorum. known as Schebesch (in German Miihlenbach) when Murad II took the town in 1436 explain the interest he took in Turkish religious practice. 1 Beyond the special value 1 According to his own account (quoted by Cuspinian, De Turcorum 8 verso, who seems the only source of Schloezer's vague note on George in his Krit. Hist. Neben Stunden, p. 91), George was born about 1420 in the province of Siebenbiirgen (Lat. Septem Castra, Origin?, f. name of whence his Orient, pp. 457-8). Septemcastrensis monachus in Hottinger, Hist. On his release from captivity he became a Dominican monk (cf. Quetif, Script. Ord. Praedic. i, 901 a) and finally died at Rome, where he was buried in the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, according to Quetif, loc. cit., and a manuscript gloss on the British Museum copy I A. 19161 of the undated edition of his Tractatus, which was published at Rome c. 1481 the gloss adds that his tomb was famous for its miracles. The church in question is a Dominican ; foundation (cf. Baedeker, Central It., p. 211). Hottinger (op. cit., monachus, pp. 457-8, 459) rightly distinguishes Septemcastrensis author of Tractatus de Moribus Turcoman, from Bartholomaeus Sidi Gbazi 495 of the passage for Turkish popular religion, the lively picture of social conditions among country Turks at this date more than justifies its publication. Translation Among others of this sect, who after their death have become and famous for false signs and prodigies, there is one principal, who hath great repute and veneHis name is Sedichasi* which is, ration in all Turkey. still are being interpreted, S. Victor or Victorious among saints. His sepulchre and shrine are on the marches of the Ottomans and the Karamans, and, though these two be oftentimes at loggerheads, one invading the lands of the other, yet none dare ever draw near to his sepulchre or do scathe to the lands that are near it. For, as hath oftentimes been proven, if any venture this, upon them And the falleth the mighty vengeance of the saint. common voice of all hath it that none of them that implore his help in any necessity whatsoever, but especially in the works of war and in the conduct of battles, hath ever been cheated of his desire. And this is proved by the great number of vows that are paid each year by the king, the princes, and the common folk at his sepulchre in money, in all sorts of beasts, and in kind. For he hath very great fame and reputation, not only among the Turks, but also among all nations of that persuasion. And would say that I for these signs prodigies he hath greater repute among M and Mohamme- whereas Hammerone with the is Prater George of Hungary, is also to be of from George Hungary, who lived about the Magister distinguished same time and wrote various mathematical tracts. [In expanding into the above note the somewhat scanty indications left by my husband I have had much assistance from Dr. H. Thomas and Mr. Wharton Georgewicz, author of De Turcorum Hellert (Hist. Emp. Ott. Our author, who other. of the British 1 Sidi Museum. ii, or ibus Epitome, 290) incorrectly identifies M. M. H.] Ghazi [Said-el-Ghazi] buried near Eskishehr pp. 705-10). (see below, George of Hungary dans in general than hath Saint Anthony 496 among Chris- tians. And another called Hatschi Pettesch* which is, being interpreted, as who should say Pilgrims' Help ; he also is much invoked and revered, most of all by there is who are said to receive his help. called Ascik passa, who hath his name is called, as it were, Patron of Love ; he is said to aid persons newly wed, or in the travail of childpilgrims, Another is from love and birth, or in the quarrels of such-like necessities. husband and wife, or other Alwan passa 2 grants concord to them that are at strife, and of him men say that to them that seek him he appears now Sheycb passa as a 3 youth and now solaces them that as an old man. are troubled and afflicted. in those parts where I dwelt there were many aforetime held for saints whose names are forgotten. But None the sepulchres are held in great veneraare distressed for rain, or for fair they weather, or for any such-like need, they do meet toless their tion, for, if gether at the sepulchres of these, and, having their made go home with vows and orisons, great hope they be heard. And at these meetings I oftentimes consorted with them, hoping that I might eat of the good things they carried with them to feast withal. But among these are two whose names they know, and of these one is called Goivelmir tchin and the other Bartbschum passa.* In those same parts men were used to tell their marvellous doings, and chiefly in the guardshall Haji Bektash: for the derivation of the name see below, p. 575, n. 5. Probably Elwan Chelebi, buried near Chorum (Anderson, Stud. Pont, i, 9 if cf. above, p. 48. ' ' 3 Cf. Lucas's Chek Baba (Foy age fait en 1714, i, 180), probably the patron of the still existing Sheikhli tribe (see above, p. 337). 1 2 . 4 : For these two suggestion. difficult and perhaps corrupt names I can make no Goivelmir Tcbin 497 most ing and keeping of sheep and other beasts ; this of all of him who is called Goivelmir tchin, of whom my Lady herself was used often to tell that she had received great blessings from him in the keeping of her calves. For this cause she was fain each year to vow and pay a certain measure of butter, and would add also thereto, If I forget or neglect to pay my vow, anon saying, And she bade me also invoke him if I suffer therefor.' ' wolf vexed me as I fed my sheep. Nor can I forbear to speak of a story my Lord was often wont to tell. One day, as he said, a bull of his herd was missing when the rest returned from pasture. And anon he called together the neighbours, as is the custom in those parts, each equipping himself as for the chase, with bow, arrows, and dogs, and, setting forth that same evening, searched the nearer woods, but found no trace and returned. On the morrow in like manner they ranged over all the pasture-grounds and came at nothing. On the third day, as it drew on to even and they were returning, weary and forlorn of all hope, on a sudden my Lord as he pondered bethought him and took a vow to this effect, that for the love of the saint Goivelmir tchin, if the beast should be found, he would eat with the pilgrims a hot loaf with butter laid a V And while thereon, the which they call paslama he still thought thereon, on a sudden there was a runthe bull was ning together and a shouting, and lo found, caught by the horns in a certain forked tree. And the marvel was the greater insomuch that for three days they had ranged that same place, nor (save for a miracle) could the bull have been spared by wild beasts. Then my Lord spake to them all of the vow ' ! he had made, and they marvelled greatly and gave thanks unto God and praised the name of Goivelmir tchin and so returned home with joy and gladness, not alone 1 Paslama, a word or vegetables. still in use, is a sort of ' c pasty containing meat George of Hungary for the finding of the bull, but also for the miracle which had been vouchsafed unto them. And there is another named Chiderelles* who is before all a helper of travellers in need. Such is his repute in all Turkey that there is scarce any man to be found that hath not himself experienced his help or heard of others that have so done. He manifesteth himself in the shape of a traveller riding on a grey horse, and anon relieveth the distressed wayfarer, whether he hath called on him, or whether, knowing not his name, he hath but commended himself to God, as I have heard on several hands. But another marvel also must I tell for its manifest truth, and this is told by men who were themselves at that time living. Now there were on a time certain religious men of that place which was near to us, 2 and these were slandered that they had made a complot against the king. Who, being exceeding wroth thereat, gave order that they should all be burnt alive. But he that was chief among them, after that he had essayed vainly to excuse or justify himself and his fellows, did publicly protest his innocence and theirs, and himself before the king entered first into the furnace to be burned. And for that the fire fled back before him, he went unscathed and abated the rage of the king and saved himself and his fellows from imminent peril of death, leaving unto his descendants and to all people of that persuasion this solemn ensample. And the shoes that with him went unscathed in the furnace are conserved to this day in those parts. And there was another which still lived in the flesh not far from those parts where I abode. And of his 498 1 Turkish S. George \ with whom he shares the see above, pp. 320 ff. the convent of Sidi Ghazi cf. Menavino, Cose Turcbesche Possibly Khidr-Elles, the c spring festival (April 23) 2 : : (1548), p. 60. Divination by a Living Saint 499 mighty deeds there are very many that I have heard told whereof I hold my peace. But his fame was so bruited abroad that in every place where men frequented and gathered together there was talk of his true divinations of hidden matters and mostly of things lost or stolen ; insomuch that through him thieves and robbers ceased from the land in his time, for none dared show his head, and, though they laid many snares to catch him, yet could they do him no hurt. And what is a far greater marvel, to many of them that came to him he revealed their secret thoughts ere yet they had made them known to him. XLII GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE BEKTASHI ' INTRODUCTORY the following pages an attempt has been made to bring together scattered notices from printed sources regarding the geographical distribution of the Bektashi sect, as indicated by the position of existing, or formerly 2 I have further inexisting, convents of the order. cluded such information on this subject as I have been able to obtain from my own journeys and inquiries (1913-15) among the Bektashi nearly all this information is gathered from Bektashi sources, and much from more than one such source. I hope to have made a fairly complete record of Bektashi establishments in Albania, now the most important sphere of their activities, and a substantial basis for further inquiry in the other countries where the sect is to be found, with the exception of Asia Minor, for which my sources are in- IN : adequate. From the evidence at our disposal the Bektashi establishments in Asia Minor would seem to be grouped most thickly in the Kizilbash or Shia Mohammedan districts, especially (i) in the vilayets of 'Angora and Sivas, and (2) in the south-west corner (Lycia) of that of Konia, where the Shia tribes are known from their 3 occupation as Takhtaji ( wood-cutters '). For the third great stronghold of Anatolian Shias, the Kurdish vilayets of Kharput and Erzerum, no information as to Bektashi c tekkes is available. In Europe, southern Albania, with its population of Christians converted in relatively recent times to Islam, An earlier edition of this chapter appeared in the B.S.A. xxi, 84 ff. 1 2 3 On the Bektashi and their organisation see above, pp. 159 See above, pp. I58f. ff. Types of Bektashi Saints 501 the only country in which the Bektashi are strongly represented at the present day. Crete, where their numbers were till recently considerable, and the Kastoria district of Macedonia present the same phenomenon of Bektashism grafted on a Christian population. Elsewhere one sees traces of successful propaganda amongst the immigrant Asiatic village communities, is which were probably half pagan and wholly nomadic at their first appearance in Europe. Such are the Ko1 niari' of southern Macedonia and Thessaly, the Yuruks of the Rhodope, and the Tatars of the Dobruja. From ' the number of tekkes traceable, in the Adrianople dis- seems legitimate to suppose that such military centres, owing to the close connexion which existed for more than two centuries between the Bektashi and the Janissaries, formed at one time important foci of missionary endeavour. It seems possible to detect a characteristic variation in the types of Bektashi saint venerated in Anatolia, European Turkey, and Albania respectively. In Anatolia the typical saint is regarded as a missionary more or less 2 closely connected withHaji Bektash himself, and consequently so remote as to be mythical. In European Turkey the saints are again remote and ancient, being referred to the period of the Turkish conquest, but they are regarded primarily as warriors rather than as missionaries. This points to the development of Bektashism in these countries under the auspices of the Janissary Bektashi combination in the sixteenth and following centuries. In Albania the typical saint is again a mis' ' sionary, but differs both from the Anatolian and the Rumelian types in laying no claim to great antiquity trict ' especially, it ' : [Now transferred to Asia Minor according to the Treaty of Lausanne M. M. H.]. (1923). a The seven hundred convents of Cf. Evliya, Travels^ ii, 20 f. 1 4 : Dervishes, Begtashi, which actually exist in Turkey, are derived from the seven hundred dervishes of Haji Begtash.' Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi the Bektashi propaganda in Albania dates confessedly from the eighteenth century and the saints are historical 502 persons. We may further remark as regards the position of Bektashi tekkes that, whereas those of other orders are generally found in, or in the immediate neighbourhood of, the larger centres of population, those of the Bektashi are situated, as a rule, either in quite isolated positions or on the outskirts of villages. This is due, no doubt, partly to the fact that their propaganda and in- fluence largely touch rustic populations, and partly to the hostility with which they are regarded by the Sunni 1 clergy. We may reasonably assume that, between the capture of the Janissaries by the Bektashi (about 1590) and the destruction of the former (1826), the provincial garrisons of Janissaries, like that of Constantinople, had a resident Bektashi sheikh in their barracks, and presumably a tekke within easy reach. These have, since 1826, ceased to exist as such, but the saints' mausolea still often to be found in, or at the entrance to, Turkish citadels may very probably be a surviving remnant of original Bektashi establishments connected with the Janissaries. We turn now to the enumeration of the tekkes. i. A. Asia Minor Vilayet of Angora. The reputed founder of buried at the village bearing sect, Haji Bektash, his name near Kirshehr in central Asia Minor. 2 AdjoinHAJI BEKTASH (PiR-Evi). the lies 1 main purpose, according to my information, is to keep the of way worldly temptations. M. M. H.] 2 of the tomb (Travels, ii, 21) ' Haji Bektash died in Evliya says Sultan Orkhan's reign, and was buried in his presence in the capital of Crimea, where a Titar princess raised a monument over his tomb. This monument having fallen into decay Sheitdn Murad, a Beg of Caesarea of Sultan Suleiman's time, restored and covered it with lead.' [Its dervishes out of the : Haji Bektash 503 ing the tomb is a convent (tekke\ called Pir-evi (' House 5 of the patron Saint ) which forms the head-quarters of the Bektashi order and its adherents. It contains, besides the tomb of the founder, that of Balum Sultan, a very important Bektashi saint, reputed the founder of one of the four branches into which the sect is divided his tomb is in the part of the convent devoted to the celibate (mujerred) dervishes. The tekke is further remarkable as containing a mosque with minaret, served by a kboja of the orthodox Nakshbandi order ; this is an innovation of Mahmud IPs time (1826), emphasizing the Sunni version of Haji Bektash, which represents him : Nakshbandi sheikh. 1 The tekke was formerly supported by the revenues of 362 villages, the inhabitants of which were affiliated as a to the Bektashi order. The number of these villages has been gradually reduced on various pretexts by the government to twenty-four. 2 The revenues of the tekke , estimated at .60,000, are divided between the rival heads 3 of the order, the Akhi Dede, or Dede Baba, and the Chelebi. Of these the former resides in the convent of Haji Bektash and under him are eight other Babas, each * having a separate residency (konak), who preside over the various departments of work carried on in the tekke , The capital of Crimea is obviously a mistake for Kirshehr, possibly ? ' * * Tatdr princess '. At the present day the cauldrons in the kitchen of the convent, which are among the sights ' of the place, are said to have been given by the Tatar Khan/ who is owing to the proximity of the curiously identified with Orkhan (Prof. White in Contemp. Rev. y Nov. *9*3> P- 6 9S)1 The tekke of Haji Bektash has been described by P. Lucas, Voyage Moval Ka7rira8oKta$ Levides, i, rfjs 124 p. 98 Naumann, Font Goldnen Horn, pp. 193 Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie, i, 341 dans la Grece, ; 9 ; ; ff. ; Prof. White, in Contemp. Rev. y below, pp. 571-2. 2 From Cuinet, doubt correctly 3 loc. cit. 9 except the for his time, as 42. See above, pp. l6i ff. Nov. 1913, pp. 690 last figure, ff. which he See also gives, no Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi directing the labours of the probationers under them. Their respective spheres are the buttery (Kilerji Baba), the bakery (Ekmekji Baba), the kitchen (Ashji Baba), the stables (Ataji Baba), the guest-house (Mehmandar Baba), the mausoleum of Balum Sultan (Balum Evi), and the vineyards (Dede Bagh, Hanbagh). The Chelebi lives outside the convent. Other tekkes recorded in the same vilayet are the 504 following : BEYBAZAR (near). West of this town, on the Sakaria, is the turbe (mausoleum, of Emrem Yunuz Sultan, who is described by Lejean, evidently from an ignorant local informant, as un sultan koniarite qui y a ete enseveli avec sa fille et ses deux filsV Emrem Yunuz is in * reality claimed by the Bektashi as a saint belonging to their order. There seems to be no establishment here, held in reverence locally. 2 CHORUM (near). Ten kilometres west of Chorum, R. Kiepert's map marks (from a native source) Sidim Sultan. Evliya mentions the place as, in his time, the ' site of a convent of bareheaded and barefooted though the tomb Begtashi is '. 3 ANGORA On the Husain Dagh, a mountain east of Angora, is the tomb of Husain Ghazi, 4 an Arab In Evliya's warrior-saint adopted by the Bektashi. time there was a convent of a hundred Bektashi dervishes here and a much-frequented yearly festival. 5 There is now only a mausoleum (turbe} kept up by the Bairami dervishes of Angora. 6 YUZGAT (near). Here there is said to be a tekke at 1 2 see G. Lejean, in Bull. Soc. Geog. xvii (1869), p. 64. Anderson in J.H.S. xix, p. 70. For Emrem Yunuz Gibb (Ottoman Poetry, i, century 3 5 (near). : 164), who places him in the (' early fourteenth also above, p. 291. Travels, ii, 4 223. Evliya, Travels, ii, 228 ; cj. See below, pp. 711-2. Haji Khalfa, Djihannuma, P- 703. 6 Yunuz Imre ') Perrot and Guillaume, Explor. de la Galatie, i, 283. tr. Armain, Vilayet of Angora 505 a place called Mujur, which does not figure on our maps, but is distinct from the village of the same name near Kirshehr. ALAJA (near). The Shamaspur tekke ^ containing a second grave of the Arab warrior Husain Ghazi, belongs to the order, but is now abandoned. 1 KIRSHEHR. A tekke called Akhi-evren in this district was cited to me by a Bektashi dervish. 2 A saint of the same name, described as a companion in arms of Sultan Osman, is mentioned by Haji Khalfa as buried at Akshehr. 3 A third (?) saint, Ahiwiran or Ahi Baba of Caesarea, buried at Denizli, is said by Evliya to be the patron of Turkish tanners. A somewhat confused anecdote apparently derives his name from Awren, wild beast. 4 A tekke of Ak Elven (sic) exists at Angora. The name is evidently one of those which have suffered from popular etymology. The original form may be Akhi + eren. Eren means saint ', while Akbi is the Arabic for ' 1 For references see below, p. 711, n. 2. Perrot found two or three Bektashi dervishes there in 1861 (Souvenirs d?un Voyage^ p. 418). * Khalveti saint Akbi Mirim, who died at Akshehr in 1409-10, A mentioned by Jacob (Beitrdge, p. 80, n. 3) his tomb may well have changed hands, like many others, affiliation to the newcomers' order is : being axiomatic. Plakhi Quran in MenasikHadji Ouren in Armain's translation in 12 Akbi Oren Hist. Emp. Ott. i, Hammer-Hellert, el-Haj, p. where the tomb of Said Mahmud 112, Huart, Konia, p. 248 (cf. Kbe'irani at Akshehr is described). 4 Travels^ I, ii, 206 [Ahweran of Caesarea] was a great saint in the time of the Seljuk family. It is a famous story that, it having been hinted to the king that Ahibaba paid no duties, and the collectors having come to him in execution, they were all frightened away by a wild beast (Awren) starting from the middle of his shop, and which 3 ; ; c : accompanied him to the king, who being equally frightened out of his wits, was very happy to allow him the permission asked, to bury the His tomb is a great establishment in the gardens of collectors killed. and all the Turkish tanners acknowledge the town of Denizli In the last variation of the name this Ahuawren to be their patron.' . . . there seems to be a play on Abua^ a fabulous beast like a syren (C. White, Constantinople^ 3295-2 i, 174). L Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi my brother, and has a special signification in connexion with the important society or Brotherhood ', known already in the early fourteenth century to Ibn Batuta as a widespread social league among the Turkomans of 1 Seljuk Asia Minor, and later as a political combination of some importance.* Among the Bektashi the word Akhi is preserved in the title of the sheikh of the convent of Haji Bektash, and they had formerly at least a sub* division called the Brothers of Rum (i.e. Anatolia) '.3 It may be that at some time in their history they amalgamated with, and eventually absorbed, the Turkoman 506 ' ' Brotherhood 9 . There Kirshehr). stone guarded by a Bektashi dervish. 4 MUJUR (near PATUK SULTAN. This saint vent of the same (Kirshehr) B. is is here a sacred buried in a village con- district. Vilayet of Konia. NEVSHEHR Here there is said to be a Bektashi the tekke containing grave of a saint named Nusr-ed-din. ADALIA. The order possesses a tekke here which seems to be of minor importance. ELMALI had formerly a tekke containing the tomb of Haidar Baba ; this is one of the convents destroyed in The town (or district?) is also known as the 1826. 5 burial-place of Abdal Musa, a very celebrated saint. (near). Ibn Batuta, tr. Lee, pp. 68 ff. tr. Sanguinetti, ii, 260 ff. ' Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. i, 214. On the Brotherhood see Karabashek in Num. Zeit. 1877, pp. 213 ff. 3 Akbeean-i-Room the corresponding (Brown, Dervishes, p. 142) subdivisions were the Ghazis (warriors), Abdals (asketes), and Sisters of Rum. In Seaman's Orcban, p. 108, Acbifrater is given as a grade in dervish communities. Dr. F. Babinger (in Z. D. Morgenl. Ges. 1 ; ' 3 : Ixxvi, 1922, p. 135, n. 4) accepts Turkish and means Jean Deny's suggestion that akhi (i) chevalerie, (2) confrerie religieuse, de metier. 5 Jacob, Bektaschijje, p. 28, (Cairo). 4 cf. and is (3) corps Cholet, Voyage^ p. 48. See below Beitrdge, pp. 14, 85. Vilayets of Konia and Smyrna 507 There is a village called Tekke about twelve kilometres S. by W. of the town. Elmali is the centre of the district inhabited by the primitive Shia tribes known as Takhtaji ( wood-cutters '). But the lay members of the order seem here, as in Albania, to include some wellto-do landowners and town-dwellers. c 1 GILEVJI, three hours north of Elmali, has a tekke 2 containing the grave of Kilerji Baba, a disciple of Abdal Musa. FINEKA, the port of Elmali, has a tekke with grave of Kiafi Baba. This may be identical with the tekke mentioned by Petersen and von Luschan as existing on the site of Limyra there were two dervishes here in 1884.3 GUL HISAR, thirty kilometres south-east of Tefeni, in the northern part of this district, contains a tekke with the grave of Yaman Ali Baba. : C. Vilayet of Smyrna (Aidin). There is now a small Bektashi tekke here the grave of Hasan Baba, in the quarter of containing Kiatib Oglu on the outskirts of the town. Bektashi gravestones are to be seen in the small cemetery sur' ' 4 rounding the tomb of Polycarp on the castle hill. TEIRE. Here there are two tekkes, one of which contains the grave of Khorasanli Ali Baba. DAONAS. Here is buried one of the successors (khalife) of Haji Bektash, Sari Ismail Sultan. DENIZLI seems to be, or to have been, an important Bektashi centre. There are said to be three tekkes in the district. Within a radius of two hours are the SMYRNA. 1 Von Luschan, z Cf. above, p. 504. Lykien, ii, 203. Lykien, ii, 204 n. I note also, still nearer Fineka, a village Halaj, the name of which suggests Bektashi associations. Manzur-el-Halaj is claimed by the Bektashi as the spiritual master of their great saint Fazil Yezdan (Degrand, Haute Albanie, p. 229) and a forerunner of the 3 4 sect. L 2 See above, p. 409, n. 4. Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi tombs of the saints Teslim Sultan and Dede Sultan. At Karagach I is that of Niazi [Baba]. YATAGAN (near Kara Euyuk, in the south of the vilarich and important tekke containing the grave yet). c ' of a saint Jatagundie (Yatagan Dede ?) was visited here by Paul Lucas in the early years of the eighteenth 2 It was one of the Bektashi foundations century. destroyed in 1826, but seems since to have revived to some extent. Yatagan Baba is reputed the master of Abdal Musa. 3 Another tekke at the same place contains the grave of Abdi Bey Sultan. MENEMEN. The tekke here contains the grave of Bakri Baba. MAN ISA. The Bektashi have no tekke at Manisa since the persecution of 1826, but claim that they were important there, and that the graves of Aine Ali and Niazi 508 A belong by right to their order. TULUM BUNAR. The newly rebuilt turbe of Jafer the Kasaba line (near Baba, a conspicuous object from station) is claimed by the Bektashi as part of a convent dissolved in 1826. Tulum Bunar Vilayet of Brusa (Khudavendkiar). BRUSA, though the Bektashi have now no footing there, seems formerly to have been a great stronghold D. 1 Perhaps Kabagach, near Serai Keui, where Kiepert's map marks a tekke. V'oy age fait * un Couvent, ou 1'on garde pred'un Mahometan nomine Jatagundie, qu'on dit corps avoir opere de grandes merveilles dans tout le Pai's. La Mosquee ou est tres-belle & il a 60 chandeliers bien il dedans entretenue repose y massif dix de de un & fort haut, d'argent pieds grand nombre de d'or & sont Deux Dervis cens d'argent. lampes emploiez au service de cette Mosquee ils ont une tres-bien fournie Bibliotheque Comme cette Mosquee a des revenus immenses, il y a une fondation 2 cieusement en IJI4, i, 171 f. : le ; ; . . . pour nourrir & loger tous les passans, & on y exerce Phospitalite avec beaucoup de charite,' cf. below, p. 566. 3 See above, Elmali, and below, Cairo. Vilayet of Brusa 509 The following graves are those of (real or supposed) Bektashi saints of the order. 1 : Abdal Murad. To this was attached a tekke, reputed of Sultan Orkhan's foundation * the saint himself is said by the sixteenth-century historian Saad-ed-din to have been a holy man of this reign, 3 though his connexion with the Bektashi is not noticed, and is probably apocryphal. Evliya calls him a companion of Haji Bektash. 4 The tekke is mentioned in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, 5 and the tomb of the saint still exists. 6 Geyikli Eaba is regarded as the contemporary and companion in arms of Abdal Murad, and, like him, a follower of Haji Bektash and one of Ahmed Yasevi's 7 The connexion with Haji Bektash and his apostles. is a late Musa. 8 development as in the case of Abdal cycle Ramadan Eaba is spoken of by Evliya as * buried in a pleasant meadow at Brussa in a convent of Begtashis,' * but is claimedfor theNakshbandi order by AssadEfendi. 10 Sheikh Kili. The foundation of the tekke attached to this tomb was ascribed by Evliya to Orkhan. 11 Akbeyik Sultan. This saint is assigned by the same author both to the Bektashi 12 and the Bairami. 13 ; Cf. Assad Efendi, Destr. des Janissaires, p. 302 ; the expulsion of the Bektashi from Brusa in 1826 was witnessed by Laborde (Asie 1 Mineure, p. 24). Orkhan himself is buried at Brusa and Evliya, Travels, ii, 8, 24. to his tomb visit every Friday, play the drum, and use the reputed 2 is beads on the tomb (Bussierre, Lettres, 3 In Seaman's Orchan, p. 119. 5 Sestini, Lettere Odeporiche, Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie, i, 154). i, 117 4 Loc. at. von Hammer, JBrussa, p. 57 ; Kandis, IJpovaa, p. 153. Ahmed Yasevi and his introduction ; 6 iv, 29. 7 On Evliya, Travels, ii, 21, 24. into the Bektashi cycle see above, pp. 403-5. 8 Cf. Seaman's Orchan, p. 116. 9 Travels, ii, 27 ; cf. von Hammer, Brussa, p. 56. JI Destr. des Janissaires, p. 300. Evliya, Travels, Ibid, ii, 8. 10 13 ii, 8. J3 It should be noted that Haji Bairam himself Ibid, ii, 26. claimed by the Bektashi at the present day. is 510 Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi Other Bektashi tekkes exist, or are known to have existed, at the following places in the Brusa vilayet. SIDI GHAZI, a village south of Eskishehr. The saint buried in the tekke, who has given his name to the village, is a celebrated warrior of the Arab period ; his grave was discovered already in Seljuk times, and the foundation came into the hands of the Bektashi at 1 The tekke still least as early as the sixteenth century. 2 exists, though the foundation is much decayed. Near, and west of it, is the tekke of Suja-ed-din, who is mentioned by Jacob as an important Bektashi saint. 3 This tekke seems also to be kept up. Those of Melek Baba and Urian Baba in the same district are now dissolved. BESH KARISH (near Altin Tash and the railway station, Ihsanieh). Here is buried Resul Ali Sultan or Resul Baba, a khalife of Haji Bektash. 4 REJEB (three hours from Ushak). Here is buried the Kolu Achik Hajim Sultan. 5 The tekke is now disused and administered by a steward (muteveli), but seems to be of some local importance. BALUKISR. Another khalife^ Said Jemal Sultan, is buried in this district. 6 I have no information as to the khalife tekke. The vilayet of Brusa seems to have been a stronghold of the Bektashi in the fifties of the last century. 7 DARDANELLES. 8 Though no tekke exists here to-day, See Browne, J. R. Asiat. Soc., 1907, p. 568, where a Hurufi MS. been copied here in 1545-6 ; and cf. Menavino, Cose Turcbescbe [1548], p. 60. 2 For details and bibliography of this tekke see below, pp. 705-10. 1 is said to have 3 5 6 Ibid. near which 7 4 Bektascbijje, p. 28. Ibid. The is site may be looked for at Tekke Keui near Kebsud, a village Bektashler. C. MacFarlane, Turkey and 8 Jacob, Bektaschijje, p. 27. its Destiny, i, 501. Strictly speaking, the town of the Dardanelles is not in the Brusa province, but forms the capital of an independent sub-prefecture (sanjak). 511 Vilayet of Kastamuni a it was Bektashi centre before 1826, on acprobably count of the number of Janissaries quartered there. ruined and deserted tekke exists outside the village of It bears the Seraijik, in the valley of the Rhodius. name of the saint interred in it (Inje or Injir Eaba) and A is still 1 visited as a pilgrimage. Le Chevalier in the early years of the present century describes a tekke ^ apparently Bektashi, possibly identical with the above. 2 E. Vilayet of Kastamuni. Evliya describes in this district the pilgrimage of Koji Baba, one of the disciples of Haji Bektash, who was buried in a convent bearing his name. ' There is no other building but the convent ; the tomb is adorned with lamps and candelabras. His [i.e. the saint's] banner, drum, habit, and carpet are all preserved, as though he were himself present. The Tur- KALEJIK (near). comans have great faith in this saint.' 3 CHANGRI (near). At the village of Airak, north of the Kizil Irmak river, in this district, Evliya found a large and hospitable convent, containing a hundred dervishes this saint and the tomb of Mohammed Shah Dede came with Haji Begtash from Khorassan to the court ; c of Bayazid I M F. Vilayet of Sivas. SIVAS. In the town is a recent tekke ^ called Maksumler (' the infants ), 5 founded by a certain Khalil Pasha, ? From Mr. R. Grech, of the Dardanelles. Derriere la ville s'etend une large plaine au Propontide, p. 14 milieu de laquelle on trouve un Teke ou convent de derviches, entoure 1 * 2 : de vignes et de jardins delicieux. Ces solitaires donnent au pays qui Pexemple de Phospitalite la plus affectueuse ils offrent leurs plus beaux fruits et leurs cellules au voyageur fatigue, et de la meilleur foi du monde lui font admirer un cerceuil de quarante pieds, les avoisine, qui contient 3 5 Travels, : les reliques ii, du gcant qui les a fondes.' 4 236. Or Maksum Pak (Pers. pak=' pure '). Ibid, ii, 236. Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi afterwards governor of Beyrut. About fifty years ago, a dervish is said to have discovered by revelation the graves of two infants (maksum), who were identified with Ali Eftar, son of the fifth Imam (Mohammed Bakir), and Sali, son of the seventh (Musa Kiazim) ; these infants are regarded as martyrs. 1 The infant son of Khalil Pasha is also buried in the tekke. AMASIA. Here is a tekke containing the grave of Piri Baba. DIVRIJI (near). Three hours from Divriji is a recent tekke founded by a learned Bektashi sheikh named Gani 512 Baba and called Andahar Tekkesi. 2 Three important tekkes in this (strongly Shia) vilayet are mentioned by Evliya in the seventeenth century, of which the first two certainly exist. These are MARSOVAN, with tomb of Piri Dede, a companion of Haji Bektash. In Evliya's time there were 200 dervishes there, and the convent was supported by the revenues of 366 villages.^ There seems lately to have been a kind of revival' in which immigrants from Trans: ' caucasia (Kars district) have played an important part. OSMANJIK, with tomb of Koyun Baba, who came with Haji Bektash from Khorasan. All the inhabitants of the town were in Evliya's time affiliated to the Bektashi. 4 The foundation seems now to have passed into other hands, and the saint to be known as Pambuk Baba '.5 BARUGUNDE (near Shabin Kara Hisar). This tekke contained the tomb of Behlul of Samarkand and those of the Choban family. 6 It is probably the Chobanli Tekke marked on R. Kiepert's map due south of Shabin * * ' 1 This is probably the pilgrimage of the Kizibash Kurds at Sivas mentioned by Molyneux-Seel as the tomb of Hasan (see above, 4 ' P- ISO). 2 Perhaps from Anzaghar, marked south of Divriji in R. Kiepert's 3 Travels, ii, 215 ; cf. above, pp. 38-9. map. 4 Ibid, : ii, 96 cf. Jacob, Bektascbijje, p. 28, and Haji Khalfa, tr. 6 5 See Armain, ii, 681. above, pp. 95-6. Evliya, Travels, ii, 205. Vilayet of Sivas 513 the to Kara Hisar, on road Erzinjian. Evliya also makes brief mention of a Bektashi tekke of Mohammed Shah near Echmiadzin. 1 list, however incomplete, of Anatolian centres in which there is now no Bektashi establishment, may be of service to future inquirers. The following places have been cited to me as such by Bektashi informants A : Adana, Aintab, Angora, Beyshehr, Brusa, Caesarea, 2 Dardanelles, Isbarta, Karaman, Konia, Manisa,Marash Melasso, Mersina, Nazli, Pyrgi, Tarsus,Trebizond. The absence of Bektashi at Angora is accounted for by the local predominance of the Bairami order, and at Konia, Karaman, 3 and Manisa by the position held there by the Mevlevi. Adana, 4 Aidin, Caesarea, 5 and Pyrgi 6 are notoriously black Sunni towns. SHAMAKH. The farthest extension of Bektashism eastwards seems to be marked by the important tekke visited by Evliya at Shamakh, near Baku. This contained the tomb of Pir Merizat and was supported by the revenues of 300 villages, the inhabitants of which were mostly affiliated to the order.? The Kurds of the Dersim recognize Haji Bektash, and one Bektashi tekke is said to exist in Kurdistan. 8 ' ' 1 Ibid, 2 A tekke is said to have existed there till ii, 125. 1826. Davis (Asiatic Turkey, p. 295) speaks of the Valideh Tekke here as it is of course Mevlevi. Bektashi 4 But I have heard of a Niebuhr, Reisebeschreibung, iii, 118. Cf. learned Bektashi baba resident in this vilayet at Jebel-Bereket (Yarput), which perhaps implies the existence of propaganda among the local 3 : Turkoman tribes. Assad Efendi, Destr. desjanissaires, pp. 314, 317 ; cf. (for Caesarea) Skene, Anadol, p. 159. 6 Assad Efendi, loc. cit. Amasia had in 1826 the same reputation, but has now a Bektashi tekke, as has Teire (for which see SchlechtaWssehrd, Denk. Wien. Akad., P.-H. CL viii, 1857, *> 47)5 ; 160. 7 Travels, 8 Taylor seems to have found a tekke at Arabkir in 1860 (J.R.G.S., ii, 1868, xxxviii, 312). 514 Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi 2. Mesopotamia In Mesopotamia there are Bektashi tekkes in the these are neighbourhood of the Shia holy-places rather rest-houses for Bektashi pilgrims than regular tekkes. They are at BAGDAD (with tomb of Gulgul 1 Baba), KAZIMAIN (a suburb of Bagdad sacred for Shias as containing the tombs of the Imams Musa and Jafer : Sadik), There seem to Syria (certainly not at Damascus KERBELA, NEJEF, and SAMARA. be no Bektashi tekkes in or Jerusalem), where the population seems to be in sympathy with dervishes in general. little Egypt Bektashi convent on the Mokattam 3. CAIRO. The above the citadel the only establishment of the order in Egypt. A great cave in the precincts of the convent serves as turbe or mausoleum ; the chief saint buried in it (reputed the founder of the convent) is named 2 3 Kaigusuz Sultan. He was a pupil of Abdal Musa and brought the Bektashi faith to Egypt. He is said to have been a prince by birth, and bore in the world the name of Sultanzade Ghaibi. His reputation is great among the Bektashi, who regard him as the founder of the fourth branch of the order. It seems unlikely that the grave of Kaigusuz is authentic or that the convent is of great antiquity. this slope of the 4 is Pococke and Perry, Mokattam pretty who examined carefully in the first 1 Niebuhr, Voyage en Arable^ ii, 242, 244. Kaigusuz is said to be a word used by the Bektashi for pilaf. ' Vaujany, Caire, pp. 284 f., translates the name as Papa Sans-Souci '. Mr. W. S. Edmonds was told at the tekke that the word meant devil3 See above, s. v. Elmali, p. 506. may-care. 4 This view is borne out the by history of the tomb and tekke given 3 to Mr. Edmonds by the dervishes in 1917. The original tekke, they said, was founded A. H. 806 (A. D. 1403-4) by Kaigusuz Sultan at Kasr-el-Aini, which is on the east bank of the Nile opposite Roda In A. H. 844 Island and about one and a half miles south of Cairo. had D. The Bektashis been Sultan died. (A. 1440-1) Kaigusuz friendly 515 Egypt ' of seventeenth the notice half grottoes but century, no tekke ; the latter says expressly that the grottoes were uninhabited. 1 The foundation may thus be connected with the spread of Bektashism in the later years of the eighteenth century and not improbably with the Albanian mercenaries who served at this time in Egypt, possibly with Mohammed Ali himself, who is said by some Bektashi to have been a member of their sect. The same is said of Omer Vrioni, of Berat, who seems to have done some soldiering in Egypt. The following description of the Cairo establishment of the Bektashi seems the best available The tekiya projects from the hill, and may be distinguished from afar by a bank of verdant foliage with which it is fronted. Ascending a long flight of steps and passing through a small garden, you enter the tekiya, which has lately been rebuilt for the dervishes by the Khedive Ismail z and some of the princesses. 3 The hall for the devotions of the members, the rooms of the shekh, and the sumptuous kitchen may be inspected. The small open court of the tekiya leads into an ancient quarry penetrating the rock for more than 200 feet. A pathway of matting enclosed by a wooden railing leads to the innermost recess, where lies buried the Shekh Abdallah el-Maghawri, i. e. of the Grotto or Cave (Maghara). His original name was ' : ' . . . . . . Jelali dervishes, who then occupied the present tekke, and therefore Kaigusuz Sultan and succeeding dedes were buried in the with the present tekke. tekke ; In A. H. 1212 (A. D. 1797-8) the in A. H. 1242 (A. D. 1826-7) [the year of Jelalis left Mahmud the present IPs destruction of the Janissaries and Bektashi tekkes. F. W. H.] the Kasr-el-Aini tekke was given to the Kadri dervishes who now have it, and in A. H. 1269 (A D - I 852~3) the Egyptian government for the first time appointed a dede to the present tekke of Kaigusuz Sultan. 2 1 View oj the Levant, p. 234. 1863-79. 3 A Cf. Baedeker, Egypt (1898), p. 53 handsomely gilt coffin here * is said to contain the remains of a female relative of the Khedive evidently buried here as a benefactress of the tekke. * ' : Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi Keghusuz, and he was a native of Adalia. Sent as deputy to Egypt to propagate the doctrines of the frater1 nity, he settled there and took the name of Abdallah.' At the present day the tekke of Kaigusuz at Cairo appears to be the only Bektashi establishment in Egypt or indeed in North Africa. The sect may owe its here to the floating Albanian population persistence the present abbot is a Tosk Albanian. The sect formerly held also the tekke of Kasr-el-Aini in Old Cairo, which is claimed by Assad Efendi as an 2 The tekke is original foundation of the Nakshbandi. first mentioned by Pococke, who, however, does not state to which order it belonged. 3 Wilkinson says it was founded by the Bektashi and belonged to them till transferred to the Kadri by Ibrahim Pasha. 4 This, it will be seen, is substantially the history supplied to Mr. Edmonds by the present dervishes. 5 516 ; Constantinople The following list of Bektashi tekkes existing at the capital was given me at the tekke of Shehidler above Rumeli Hisar. 6 4. A. 1. 2. European side. YEDI KULE (Kazli Cheshme), Sheikh Abdullah. TOP KAPU, Sheikh Abdullah. 1 Murray's Eygpt (1900), p. 29. Vaujany (Caire, pp. 284 f.) says the cave has been excavated in the rock and measures 75 X 75 metres ; the convent was formerly a poor construction of crude brick, but was rebuilt in 1872. A view from the outside is figured by Migeon, Mr. Edmonds adds that the tomb is at the very end of Caire, p. 82. the cave, being approached by about twenty yards of causeway along which sick people roll themselves for cure. 2 Destr. des Janissaires, p. 300. 3 Descr. of the East, i, 29. Modern Egypt, i, 287 cf. Browne inj. R. Asiat. Soc. 1907, 573, from which the tekke appears to have been Bektashi as late as 1808. : 5 Above, 6 Similar p. 514, n. 4. are given by Tschudi in Jacob, Bektaschijje, pp. 51 and Depont and Coppolani, Confreries Musulmanes, pp. 530-1. lists ff., 517 Constantinople 4. KARIADIN (above Eyyub), Sheikh Hafiz Baba. SUDLIJA, Sheikh Husain Baba. 5. KARAGACH 3. (near Kiaghit Khane), Sheikh Munir Baba. 6. RUMELI HISAR (Shehidler). Nos. I and 2 are for celibates. The sheikhs of 6 are of Anatolian descent, and the office is hereditary. B. Asiatic side. 7. CHAMLIJA. 8. MERDIVEN KEUI. This important tekke is said by the Bektashi to contain the grave of a very ancient * warrior-saint, Shahkuli, who fought against Constan? tine and was here buried. The name of the founder of the tekke was given me as Mehemet AH Baba, and that of the present sheikh as Haji Ahmed Baba. The tekke is also said to contain the grave of Azbi Chaush, who conducted Misri Efendi to exile and was converted by him on the way. 1 At the suppression of the Order in 1826, there were fourteen convents in the capital,* of which nine were demolished.^ These were at (i) Yedi Kule, (2) Eyyub, (3) Sudlija, (4) (7) Karagach, Merdiven Keui, (5) Shehidlik,* (6) Eukuz Liman, 5 and (8) It thus appears that since Chamlija, (9) Skutari. 6 1826 the Bektashi have Brown, Dervishes, p. 164 for Misri Efendi, a seventeenth-century poet and heresiarch with a leaning towards Bektashi doctrines, see Cantimir, Hist. Emp. Otb. ii, 218, 228 ff. Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp and Gibb, Ottoman Poetry, iii, 312. Ott. xii, 45 1 ; ; ; * Rosen, Gescbichte der Ttirkei, i, 19. Assad Efendi, Destr. desjanissaires, p. 316. 4 The destruction of this tekke is mentioned by C. MacFarlane, is and its It cited as Destiny, i, 504. Turkey belonging to the Melami3 yun by J. P. Brown (Dervishes, p. 175). 5 Mentioned also by Evliya, Travels, stantinopolis, 6 ii, I, ii, 81 ; Hammer, Con- 322. Probably the tekke containing the tomb of Karaja whom see above, pp. 403 ff.), of which the turbe survives. Ahmed (on Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi managed to reinstate themselves in seven out of the nine proscribed tekkes, and to add one (Top Kapu) to the number of their Constantinople establishments. 1 Of tekkes formerly occupied by the Bektashi in the Constantinople district we can cite RUMELI HISAR. Durmish Dede, a sailors saint who died in the reign of Ahmed I, was buried on the point of Rumeli Hisar. 2 This tekke is now in the hands of the Khalveti. ISTRANJA, in the hills north-east of Constantinople. 3 518 : 5 Turkey in Europe. In this country, and particularly in the neighbourhood of Adrianople, the Bektashi had many tekkes most of which were destroyed in the persecution of 1826. 5. ', A. Gallipoli Peninsula* There are still two tekkes here at KILIJ BAHR (opposite the town of Dardanelles) and AK BASHI (Sestos). This latter is a simple cell, tenanted 5 by one dervish, who acts as guardian to the tomb of Ghazi Fazil Beg, one of the companions of Suleiman Pasha in his first invasion of Europe. 6 JB. District of Adrianople. This district has been in its day a great stronghold of Bektashism. At Adrianople itself, a disreputable tekke on the hill called Khidrlik was suppressed already in 1 There were three Bektashi pp. 530 2 tekkes about 1850 (Brown, Dervishes, .). ' the Dervishes Begtashi superin27, 68, 70 : ' tend it [the pilgrimage] with their drums and lamps ; cf. HammerHellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. xviii, 85. Evliya, Travels, I, ii, ' is a convent of Begtashis they hunt for make and of hams.' which deer, Emperor harts, roes, they 4 This district, now isolated, was probably connected with Adrianople by a chain of tekkes down to 1826. The maps mark many tekkes between the two points, most of which, I am informed, are now farms. 5 As in E. D. Clarke's time (Travels, iii, 86). 3 Ibid., I, ii, 88 : there the 6 Cf. Saad-ed-din, in Seaman's Orchan, p. 80. ; 1 1 64 1, 519 Adrianople than in and in 1826 no less the sixteen convents were confiscated. The country round Adrianople, especially to the west of the city, into which district a numerous Turkish nomad population has been 2 imported from Asia at various dates, preserves the names of many destroyed tekkes which have in recent years town and district developed into farms or villages. East of Adrianople two such tekkes have left traditions behind them. These are ESKI BABA, on the main road to Constantinople. The saint here buried was identified with Sari Saltik, a famous Bektashi saint. The turbe is said to be an ancient church of S. Nicolas it is still frequented by Christians as well : ; Mohammedans. 3 BUNAR HISAR, some as miles east of Kirk Kilise. The tekke seems to have been confiscated in 1826, but the grave of the saint, Binbiroglu Ahmed Baba, was still later a pilgrimage for Turks. The tekke is now a farm. 4 South of Adrianople, Slade, 5 in 1830, notes the sites of several Bektashi tekkes ruined during the attempted suppression of the order by Sultan Mahmud II. At FERE j IK, on the hill above the village, he found Covel cf. Rycaut, Ottoman Empire, p. 69. was formerly a Greek church of S. George 1 Jacob, Beitrage, p. 16 ; (Diaries, p. 248) says there at this point. 2 Hammer-Heller t, Hist. sent to Philippopolis district) 3 ^ Emp. Ott. i, 330 (Turks from Menemen Baker, Turkey in Europe, p. 382. also above, pp. 431-2. See below, pp. 578-9 See below, p. 579- This is the tekke which is said formerly to ; cf. : * have contained an inscription in Ancient Syrian' letters 'like nails*, probably the inscribed pillar set up by Darius at the sources of the Tearus (Jochmus,y.#.G.S., xxiv (1854), p. 44 see E. Unger,Jahrbuch, I believe this Arch. Anz* 1915, pp. 3 ff.) pillar may have been 6 the like the sacred stone at Tekke Keui (see Bektashi, adopted by Macedonia below), as an additional attraction to the tekke of Bunar Hisar. Its cuneiform writing was probably recognized as Ancient ' some had in dervish who the visited Shia sanctuaries Syrian by where cuneiform monuments are common. Mesopotamia ; ' ' 5 Travels, p. 470. Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi the ruins of a tekke and a tomb-chamber containing the graves of five dervishes. The chief of these, he was informed, was Ibrahim Baba of the Bektashi order. Five miles farther on was the tomb of another Bektashi saint, Nefes Baba, who was said to have come from Gallipoli with the first Turkish conquerors, and to have founded a tekke here. Nefes Baba was the son of the 1 King of Fez. Some miles farther on was a third Bektashi tekke, containing the tomb of a certain Rustem 3 Baba, which Slade did not visit. KESHAN. There is here a small tekke in the town itself, tenanted by a baba and servitors (Albanians). DOMUZ DERE (near Keshan). This tekke is tenanted by an abbot and three or four dervishes. Its history is particularly interesting in relation to the question of Bektashi usurpations. According to local tradition, borne out, as we shall see, by very solid evidence, the tekke was originally a small Greek monastery of S. George. The Bektashi are said to have gained a footing there during or after an epidemic of plague, which depopulated the neighbouring (Christian) village of 520 This * have happened about sixty years ago ', very possibly at the time of the last great outbreak of plague in European Turkey, which took place in 1836-9,3 almost within living memory. At the present time the feast-day of S. George is still Chiltik. is said to Domuz Dere by a panegyris of a social is which character, frequented both by Turks and Greeks the representatives of the two religions do not mix together more than is necessary. The original church celebrated at ; 1 This is too evidently an inference from his and metaph. name (nefes=< Breath * ' Spirit '). For a good account of Turkish Nefes ogli [sic] see Hottinger, Hist. Orient, pp. 478-9, basing on Georgewicz, Epitome. 2 probable Bektashi tekke on the outskirts of Ainos may be recog- A nized in the building called Tunuz Baba Tekkesi (Lambakis in riov Xpiar. *Apx<uo\. 'Ercupelas, H', 28). Cf. below, p. 581. 3 Edmund Spencer, Travels^ ii, 378 ff. - ' ' Ambiguous Sanctuaries 521 of S. George has been divided by the dervishes into several compartments, including living-rooms and a tomb-chamber for the abbots' graves the compart; ment including the * original ' sanctuary still preserves the upper part of the screen (templon), and on its north wall is an ancient eikon of S. George flanked by lighted lamps. This has been actually seen by my informant. So recent and so well-documented * a case of Bektashi usurpation as this must be regarded as a warning against excess of scepticism in appreciating legends current elsewhere, and resting solely on tradition, of similar occurrences. What happened at Domuz Dere probably 2 happened mutatis mutandis at Eski Baba, and may have happened at many other ambiguous sanctuaries the story of the Christian eikon jealously guarded at the ' * ; tekke of Rini, 3 if it be a fable, is at least a fable not without historical parallels. At the same time tradition must not be accepted blindly. We know for a fact that transformed into many Christian churches have been ' mosques by the Turks. Yet the traditions as to the Christian past of mosques are often demonstrably false notoriously so in the case of the mosque of Isa Bey or c Church of S. John at Ephesus. West of Adrianople, as we have said, Bektashi establishments were thickly planted, but most were destroyed ' ; ' in 1826. At KUSH KAVAK, from Adrianople to main road leading and Gumuljina, a tekkeis said at the fork of the Kirjali by the Bektashi still to exist. It may be that of Ohad Baba, marked on the War Office map just north of the village. DIMETOKA. 1 After my Tekke s of Kizil Deli Sultan in husband's death I this dis- learned that his plausible informant had been detected supplying false information to a British War Department. Had my husband known this, he might have been more sceptical of his statements on Domuz Dere. M.M.H. 2 Above, 3295.2 3 p. 519. M See below, p. 766, n. 4. Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi x as among those trict are mentioned by Assad Efendi demolished in 1826. The name of the saint is shown on our maps in the district due west of Dimetoka, which adjoins the Kirjali district transferred by the treaty of Bucharest to Bulgaria. 522 6. Bulgaria KIRJALI, the district adjoining that of Adrianople on the west and lately ceded to Bulgaria, contains the grave and tekke of the Bektashi saint Said Ali Sultan. The tekke was destroyed by the Bulgars in the last war, the turbe (mausoleum) being spared. HASKOVO, between Philippopolis and the frontier, half a day north of Kirjali, possesses (or possessed) a tekke with the grave of Mustafa Baba.* It is, as usual, at some distance from the town. RAZGRAD (near). There was also till recently an isolated tekke containing the grave of Hasan Demir Baba Pehlivan, who lived ' 400 years ago ' and per- formed number of miracles. The a early in the nineteenth century Pasha of Rustchuk. 3 tekke was founded by Hasan Pehlivan Baba, A good description of it, the legend 1 Destr. des Janissaires, p. 325 : special instructions regarding these tekkes are given in the text of the firman printed by the same author ' at pp. 325 if. Vous vous rendrez d'abord a Adrianople ; la, de : concert avec Mohammed-Assad-Pacha, gouverneur de Tcharmen, vous expulserez des tekies de Kizil-Deli-Sultan les bektachis qui s'y trouvent Notre intention est de destiner au casernement des . . . corps de soldats de Mahomet qui pourront par suite etre formes dans ces contrees les batiments spacieux et commodes de quelques-uns de ces etablissements, et de transformer les grandes salles en mosquees.' For Kizil Deli Sultan see also Brown, Dervishes, p. 325 ; Jacob, Bektascbijje, p. 28. 3 The tekke seems to be mentioned by Quiclet (Voyages, p. 149). An Albanian Bektashi informant assures me that no Bektashi establishment now exists here, but is contradicted by Midhat Bey Frasheri who, though not himself an adherent of the order, comes of a Bektashi family and was resident in Bulgaria at the time of my inquiries. 3 Jirecek, Bulgarien, p. 411. Bulgaria and Rumania 523 of the buried hero, and a block of the tekke and its 1 surroundings are given by Kanitz. RUSTCHUK now has a tekke built about 1920 by Baba 2 Kamber, formerly abbot of Kichok in Albania. A tekke of Mustafa Baba, between Rustchuk and mentioned by Jacob. 3 Silistria, is Elsewhere in Bulgaria there community is said to be a Bektashi at Selvi in the district of Tirnovo, but my informant does not know whether they possess a tekke. An Albanian dervish at Melchan 5 told me there was formerly a tekke at Tirnovo itself, but it had been destroyed already before the Balkan War. 4 Rumania 7. Three tekkes of the Bektashi are the present frontiers of Rumania mentioned within : At BABA DAGH was a Bektashi convent containing 6 one of the graves of Sari Saltik. At KILGRA (Kaliakra) on the Black Sea, Evliya visited a tekke of Bektashi containing another reputed grave of the same saint. 7 I am informed that the site is now completely deserted, though it remains Moslems and Christians alike. BALCHIK (near). Here was formerly a pilgrimage for a Bektashi tekke of great importance, one of the largest in Rumeli. The saint there buried was called Hafiz Khalil Baba, or Akyazili Baba, and was by Christians identified with 8 S. Athanasius. 8. ' new Serbia ? i. e. Serbian Macedonia, tekkes are Serbia said to exist, or to have existed, at the following places ; In 1 298 ff. (pp. 535 f. in the French translation ; see above, Niebuhr, Reisebeschreibung^ iii, 174. M. M. H. from several Albanians in 1923 ; see below, p. 544. 4 Midhat 5 See below, p. 546. Bey Frasheri. Beitrage, p. 17. 3 6 7 cit. iii, Op. p. 296) 2 , ; cf. ii, 72 ; See above, pp. 429-31. Evliya, Travels, cf. below, pp. 575 8 M 2 f. See above, pp. 90-2. Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi many of them seem to have been destroyed during and after the Balkan war N ASTIR. Here there is a small tekke in the town, the with grave of Husain Baba, the founder, dated 524 : Mo 1872-3 ; this tekke was unharmed in 1914. It is mutehhil. In the neighbourhood I there were two tekkes. At KISHOVA was a tekke founded by Khidr Babar, said to be old, and tenanted formerly by six or seven It was mutehhil. On the death of the last dervishes. baba the tekke was shut up and the Serbs arranged a church of S. Nicolas in it, saying it had formerly been such. At KANADLAR still exists a large tekke said to have been founded about 200 years ago by Dikmen Baba, whom Kurd Baba succeeded. USKUB. Here there were, before the war, two Bektashi tekkes named after Mustafa Baba and Suleiman Baba, the latter a recent establishment apparently exno abbot at Mustafa There was then tinct in 1923. Baba's, only a married dervish. Other tekkes in KALKANDELEN. this district are, or were, at Here still exists a large and : impor- tant tekke containing the supposed grave of Sersem Ali. This tekke was founded by Riza Pasha (d. 1822), at the instance of Muharrebe Baba, who discovered, by revelaz The tekke stands within tion, the tomb of Sersem Ali. high walls, each pierced by a handsome gateway, just outside the town. The buildings include a rectangle of lodgings for the dervishes, two oratories (meidari), the tombs of Sersem Ali, Muharrebe Baba, Riza Pasha, and others, a large open mesjid standing on columns, guestrooms, kitchens, and farm buildings. All these seem to be of the date of the foundation ; they are for the most 1 Part of this section is by M.M.H. and based on information collected locally in 1923. 2 See below, p. 592, and, for Sersem Ali, Jacob, Bektaschijje, p. 28. Serbia 525 part picturesque and rather elaborate wooden buildings Pleasant fruit and flower-gardens are included in the precinct. At TEKKE KEUI, near the station of Alexandrovo, between Kumanovo and Uskub, is a small tekke with the grave of Karaja Ahmed. The cult has been discussed by Evans ; l it now seems likely that this site will be transferred to Christianity. 2 with deep porticoes. There were also tekkes at ISHTIP and KUPRULU. STRUMijA 3 (Strumnitza, in ' New Serbia '). In this Balkan war, a Bektashi tekke containing the grave of a saint Ismail Baba, and a hot spring attributed to the agency of the saint's foot. This tekke is now destroyed. 4 In the Albanian district of Serbian Macedonia there district there was, before the were three tekkes. At JAKOVA still exists a new tekke built by the present abbot, Hafiz Baba. The IPEK tekke no longer survives. The PRIZREND tekke built by the learned Haji Adem Baba, who now lives privately in Jakova, has been converted into a Serbian orphanage. A small tekke exists at Dibra. 9. A. 6 Macedonia. (a) SALON ICA. western outskirts Balkan war. 1 Greece A existing on the town was of the destroyed during the tekke formerly * Below, p. 582. InJ.H.S. xxi, 202 if. fully above, pp. 274 ff. This tekke was in Bulgaria till after the European war. From an Albanian dervish at Melchan (below, p. 546), who ; 3 * formerly resided at Strumija. 5 This tekke is mentioned by Brailsford, Macedonia, p. 247, and In his Aujeune Roy aunt e d'Albame, 86. UAlbame Inconnue, p. Jaray, pp. 96-109, Jaray describes the tekkes of Ipek, Jakova, and Prizrend. 6 This section describes the Bektashi position as it was in Greece Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi The tekke is situated at the entrance (b) KASTORIA. to the town on the Fiorina road. Small, insignificant, and in 1915 tenanted only by an abbot, who was gone 1 in 1 92 1, it is said to be ancient and formerly important. It suffered during the persecution of 1826. The chief saint buried here, Kasim Baba, 2 is supposed to have lived at the time of the Turkish conquest, and enjoys considerable local fame as a posthumous miracle-worker. He is said during his lifetime to have converted many Christians by the somewhat crude method of hurling from the hill on the landward side of the isthmus of Kastoria a huge rock, which crashed into a church full of worshippers. Of a second tekke > occupied within living memory, at Toplitza (near the barracks) only the turbe and grave of The Bektashi also lay Sanjakdar Ali Baba remain. claim to the grave of Aidin Baba, in a humble turbe on the outskirts of the gipsy quarter. (c) In the district of Anaselitza, west of the markettown of Lapsista, the Bektashi have a considerable following. The Moslem element in the population is here supposed to have been converted in recent times, a hundred and fifty years ago being the usual esti3 This is borne out by the fact that the Moslems mate. 526 c ' speak Greek, and in some villages have deserted churches 5 (not converted into mosques), to which they show considerable respect. The Bektashi tekkes serving this district are at Vodin question (called Vallahadhes) 4 Lausanne (1923) came into operation removed the Moslems to Asia Minor. until the Treaty of ' 2 M.M.H. Kuch in Albania left his 3 hand [Some also claims his real M.M.H. converted much grave ; cj. in 1924 below, p. 547. and He at Elbassan. certainly cemeteries contain tombstones dated as earlier, much as for certain of their 350 years ago. Possibly there was a big movement at the traditional date. M.M.H.] 4 For the Vallahadhes see the references given above, p. 8, n. I. 5 For these see above, p. 8, n. I ad Jin. Greek Macedonia 527 horina, two and a half hours west of Lapsista, and at Odra, high up on the slopes of the Pindus range. Both tekkes are connected with the same saint, Emineh Baba, who seems He is said to have been executed at Monastir in A.H. 1007 (1598-9) for professing the unorthodox opinions of Manzur~el-Halaj, who is claimed by the Bektashi as an early preacher of 1 their doctrines and a Emineh precursor of their order. to his sister on the appeared night of his execution at her home in Lapsista she was preparing a meal to which guests were invited. He helped his sister in her to be historical. ; preparations, and afterwards sat down to table. Some of the guests, noticing that he took nothing, pressed him to eat, which he refused to do, on the ground that he was fasting. Finally, however, yielding to their importunity, he ate, with the words If you had not made ' me eat, I should have visited you every evening.' He then disappeared. 2 VODHORINA. The tekke here is an ordinary house in the village, the turbes of former abbots being as usual some little distance away and not architecturally remarkable. It is said to have suffered in 1826 and is now occupied by an abbot only, who is from the district and claims direct descent from Emineh Baba,3 the tekke being mutehbil. A room of the house itself contains a plain commemorative cenotaph of Emineh Baba, his habit (kbirka), and other relics ; this room is used by the sick for incubation. Other cenotaphs of the saint 1 He lived in the early part of the fourth century of the Hejira and his opinions at Bagdad. See Hastings's Encycl. of was martyred for Relig. s.v. Hallaj. 2 From the abbot at Vodhorina. Has the story any relation to S. Luke's account (xxiv, 30 ff.) of Christ's appearance to the disciples after the Resurrection ? The district is, as above stated, recently converted. 3 [Confirmed by his relative, the (mujerred) abbot of Odra. Dated tombs of the intervening abbots exist in the village of Vodhorina. M.M.H.] 528 Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi are said to exist at Kapishtitza (near Biglishta) Monastir. ODRA and at 1 Vodhorina, a small establishment occupied by an abbot and two or three dervishes, all local but one, who is an Albanian. The present abbot founded the tekke some forty years ago it is mujerred, unlike his kinsman's at Vodhorina. The great attraction is a cave or chasm in the mountain, said to have been formed miraculously by Emineh Baba, who smote the mountain with his sword. Local Greek tradition identifies the Odra site with that of a former church of S. Menas, to whom is attributed the miracle of the cave the habit of Emineh at Vodhorina, which is of no great antiquity, is also believed to be that of S. Menas. The identification may be due merely to the verbal assimilation of the names Emineh and "Ac Mr/vS. is, like : ; in the Sari Gueul district, is a of three Bektashi tekkes. The district in question group is inhabited entirely by Anatolian Turks (' Koniari '), who were settled there in the early years of the Turkish conquest and preserve their language and customs unchanged. By religion they are partly Bektashi and partly (d) Near Kozani, Sunni Mohammedans. JUMA. The most important tekke of this group is built on a slight eminence just outside the village of the same name. It has every appearance of prosperity, and is occupied by an abbot and nine or ten dervishes. The saints buried in the adjoining turbe are Piri Baba and Erbei Baba. Their date is unknown, but the turbe was repaired, according to an inscription, by two dervishes fanatical (implying the existence of a foundation) in A.H. 1143 (1730-1), while in the surrounding cemetery several 2 Unlike most tekkes in this graves are slightly older. He evidently confused, perhaps wilfully, with Khirka Baba, an (apparently historical) orthodox sheikh of Monastir who 'disappeared', 1 is leaving, like 2 behind him TheoldestisA.il. 1113. Emineh, M.M.H. his habit ; see above, p. 358. Greek Macedonia 529 district, Juma seems to be a place of considerable religious importance. It is much frequented in May (especially Wednesdays and Saturdays) by Moslem women on account of the reputation of its sacred well for the cure of sterility. I was told by the abbot that Christian women made use of this well on Sundays, and, though this was denied by educated Greeks of Kozani, it may be true of the less advanced women of the adjacent Bulgarian villages. The turbe of the saints is used for incubation by lunatics, and contains a club and an axe, regarded as personal relics of the saints, which are used for the cure (by contact with the affected part) of There various ailments. is also a very simple oracle, in an earthenware ball, consisting suspended from the roof of the turbe by a string. The inquirer swings the ball away from him ; if it strikes him on its return swing, the answer to his question is in the affirmative. BAGHJE, in a healthy and pleasant position among trees and running water in the hills above the village of 1 The an insignificant house, occupied by an abbot from Aintab and his servants the abbot came by an untimely end in 1921 and no successor had been appointed up to 1923.* The turbe, which contains the grave of Ghazi Ali Baba, a saint of vague antiquity, was rebuilt in 1915. BUJAK, between the villages of Keusheler and Sofular, is now subordinated to Juma and has no abbot. It boasts the grave of Memi Bey Sultan and is inhabited by married dervishes. About it are many graves, one as old as A.II. IO5I, 3 marked by the Bektashi taj\ their number confirming the statement that Bujak was formerly the largest tekke of the three but never recovered from its losses in i826. 4 An egg suspended in Topjilar. tekke itself is : 1 This * M.M.H. village is Sunni, its neighbour, Ine Obasi, Bektashi. 3 M.M.H. This is A.D. 1641-2. 4 [Except Ine Obasi, all the villages in this district are now Sunni, but inspection revealed Bektashi headstones in all the cemeteries. Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi Memi Bey's turbe is used for divination about the welfare of the absent, the procedure being parallel to that of the wishing oracle at Juma. 1 At INELI, between the Sari Gueul district and Kayalar, there is a turbe with the tomb of Ghazi Baba. The property of the tekkes at Juma and Bujak was confiscated in 1826 and acquired by a rich Greek of Kozani, who, however, never prospered after his sacric legious purchase. The land was bought back about ' forty years ago and the tekkes reopened. Vague traditions as to the Christian origins of these foundations are current in Kozani. Some say that all Christian church lands were seized at the Turkish conquest and that monasteries then became tekkes others are equally certain that Ali Pasha was responsible. The dedications of the supplanted monasteries are similarly disputed. Juma is variously said to occupy the site of a church of S. George or of S. Elias Baghje of S. Elias or of S. Demetrius ; and Bujak perhaps one of S. George. The site of Baghje certainly suggests that of a Greek monas- 530 ; ; but a site suitable for a monastery is equally suitable for a tekke, and the abbot informed me that in the considerable agricultural and building operations which have taken place under his direction, no evidence of former buildings has come to light. Christians frequent tery, three tekkes for healing purposes. ELASSONA. Here there is a small tekke beside the (<?) In Serfije (Serbia) road on the outskirts of the town. all 1915 it was occupied by an (Albanian) abbot only, in 2 1922 he, too, was gone and the tekke shut and deserted. The Greeks say it was founded after the union of Thessaly with Greece (1882), but the occupants hold that it is a good deal older. The chief saint is Sali Baba, who is buried in a simple turbe with the (two) successive abbots of the tekke, the late incumbent being the third Evidently the Bektashi movement had ramified very widely before * 1826. M.M.H. M.M.H. M.M.H.] : 531 Thessaly the turbe is dated 1250 (1834-5). Sail Baba is repre1 sented as a saint of much earlier date, who enjoyed a local vogue before the turbe was built at the instance of the first abbot (Nejib Baba), and at the expense of We have here, to all appearance, certain local beys. a documented instance of the occupation of a popular saint-cult by the Bektashi. 2 Nejib Baba probably established himself as guardian of the grave, and received instructions in a vision as to the building of the turbe from 3 its saintly occupant. It is at first sight surprising to find AIKATERINI. (/) a Bektashi tekke in what is now a purely Greek coast- but Leake's account shows that in his time the local landowners were Moslems, and the bey of the 4 the village was connected by marriage with Ali Pasha tekke was probably inter alia a road-post like All's foundations in Thessaly. 5 district ; : B. Thessaly. All available evidence points to the period and influence of Ali Pasha as responsible for the propagation of Bektashism in this province, ceded to Greece in 1882 ; this evidence is the stronger as coming from several independent sources. RINI. The sole remaining Bektashi tekke in Thessaly 6 In 1914, is at Rini, between Velestino and Pharsala. ' the formula for the period of the Turz See below, p. 566. 3 This is the a of typical development purely popular cult into a dervish establishment carried one step further than in the case of the 1 Five hundred years ago ', kish conquest. tomb of Risk Baba at Candia (see below, Crete). [Circumstances having permitted me to make more extensive researches locally than my husband, I found in Albania, where new tekkes are constantly being The tekke is built, that this is true in some cases, not in others. his actual within a built round few grave, years of his death, frequently to perpetuate the memory of some dervish, who had won especial esteem in his lifetime, but died away from the tekke within which he had 4 lived. N. M.M.H.] Greece, iii, 415. 5 See below, p. 533. 6 See below, p. 582. 532 Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi I found it tenanted only by an (Albanian) abbot and servitors. The rest of the dervishes, who seem also to have been Albanians, left at the time of the Balkan war. The tekke is beautifully situated and appears prosperous. Two of the saints Turbali Sultan, Jafer, and Mustafa, all reputed warriors of the period of the Turkish conquest, and (2) of certain venerated sheikhs, stand before the great gate of the tekke. These turbes are of some architectural interest, and seem at least as early as the seventeenth century ; in this they differ from most Bektashi buildings I have turbes containing the tombs (i) which are unpretentious and obviously recent. * According to local savants the tekke was originally a Latin monastery, dedicated to S. George or S. Demetrius, and was occupied by dervishes from Konia (Mevseen, levi ?) in the first half of the seventeenth century. Ali it Pasha transferred escaped the of to and the down 1826, persecutions occupation of the country by the Greeks, and even after, had a bad reputation as the resort of brigands and other bad characters. 2 So late as 1888 there were 54 dervishes in it to the Bektashi ; residence. Other Bektashi tekkes in the province, now no longer existent, were established, according to the local authorities, by Ali and dissolved in 1826, at the following places : (i) Near TATAR, at the spot called Tekke and marked 3 by a fine grove of cypresses. The present proprietor of the site, now a farm (chiftlik), Mr. P. Apostolides, kindly informs me that it was till recently in the hands of the Mevlevi order, 4 and that of the buildings an octagonal turbe is preserved, which is supposed to contain the tomb of the founder. His name was given me 1 3 4 2 See below, p. 766. Cf. below, p. 767. Mentioned by Leake, N. Greece, i, 445. It may have passed from the Bektashi to the Mevlevi in 1826 ; cf. below, p. 553. 533 Thessaly The at Rini as Balli Baba. rest of the buildings were burnt in the war of I897. 1 (2) Near the village of KUPEKLI was ing the grave of Shahin Baba. a tekke contain- The tekke of HASAN BABA at of Tempe 2 is represented by the entrance to the the local authorities gorge as another Bektashi convent founded or supported by AH in order to control the traffic of the important road the saint is, I believe, through the defile. Though ' claimed by the Nakshbandi, Baba more generally denotes a Bektashi saint, and Hasan Baba seems to be represented as a warrior-saint of the usual Bektashi type. On the other hand, Dodwell's drawing (1805) shows the (3) 9 mosque and minaret, which latter is an unusual feature in a Bektashi convent. Edward Lear, * in the fifties, describes the dervish in charge as steeple hatted \ which rather points to the Mevlevi as the then occupants. At the fall of the Bektashi (1826), they were in the ascendant by the favour of Sultan Mahmud II. 3 All these tekkes are said by local Greeks to have been tekke with a made use of for political purposes by AH, and their sites on or near important highways to have been selected with that intent. All's political connexion with the order is discussed elsewhere. 4 Bektashis, however, state that the tekkes were founded at the time of the Turkish conquest. (4) tekke 1 At TRIKKALA Leake found built by AH himself. 5 The and prosperous tekke was the head-quarters of the Turkish staff (Bigham, With 2 a large the Turkish Army Dodwell, Views in Greece, Spirit of the East, Urquhart, Tzvixt Greek and Turk, 3 Below pp. 620 ff. on Tour through Greece, Lear, Albania, p. 406 II, vi (cf. ii, May 9 in Tbessaly, p. 92). 27 ; ; ii, 107) ; Chirol, p. 114. 4 See also below, pp. 586 ff. has Trikkala been adorned Greece, iv, 284 by the Pasha lately with a new Tekieh, or college of Bektashli dervises,on the site of a former He has not only removed several old buildings to give more one. air to this college, but has endowed it with property in and space 5 N. c : Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi AGIA (near). A Bektashi tekke at Aidinli, three miles north-west of Agia (Magnesia) is mentioned by Leake as seems to be being built by Ali Pasha in 1809.* This ' convent of the Alicouli with mentioned identical by 534 ' 2 Pouqueville. * At LARISSA the ', whoSe tombs were Forty Saints ' ' at seen the to be formerly Mosque of the Forty (Kirklar Jami), now destroyed, are claimed by the Bektashi. C. Crete. The Bektashi of Crete are now distributed in the three chief towns of the island, Candia, Rethymo, and There was formerly a tekke at H. Vlasios, a village two hours south of Candia. At obtained from a Bektashi layman approximate Canea. Mohammedan Canea I of the strength of the order in the three towns before and after the troubles of 1897, which resulted in a considerable emigration of Moslem Cretans to Asia Minor, Tripolitania, and the Sporades. This movement is reflected in the statistics, which are given for statistics what they are worth : (i) Before 1897. Candia Rethymo Canea The district . . . . . . 5,000 3,000 (2) . . . . . . . . Present day. About 500 1,000 .... 200 70 south of Candia was that in which the khans, shops, and houses, and has added some fields on the banks of the There are now about fifteen of these Mahometan monks in Letbaeus. the house with a Sheikh or Chief, who is married to an loannite woman, as well lodged and dressed as many a Pasha. Besides his own there are comfortable for the very dervises, and lodgings apartments, for convenience the of strangers.' reception every * 1 N. At Aidinli, Aty Pasha is now building a Greece, iv, 413 and : Tekieh for 2 le his favourite Bektashlis.' Voyage dans Teke, la Grece^ iii, qui est le plus riche Bektadgis.* The sheikh, de 61 la 4 : . . . le bourg turc d'Alicouli, dont de Pordre dcs Thessalie, est le chef-lieu Ahmed, was an acquaintance of Pouqueville's. Crete 535 Moslem element was strongest. It is hardly necessary Moslem Cretans are of Cretan blood and to say that the represent the indigenous element converted from Christianity since the Turkish conquest. The small number of Bektashi at Canea, the capital of the island and an important town, is accounted for by the fact that the Mevlevi are strong there, as also, owing to the floating ? population of Tripolines (' Halikuti ) from Benghazi, the Rifai. CANDIA. The tekke lies on the main road threequarters of an hour south of the town, near the site of Knossos and the village of Fortezza. 1 It was founded before the fall of Candia (1669), in 1650 2 by a celebrated saint named Khorasanli Ali Dede, who is buried there. The present venerable sheikh, who has the title an Albanian from Kolonia and a celibate was married, and at his death it was thought more expedient for the convent that a celibate should succeed him. There are about a dozen derThe tekke vishes, many of whom seem to be Albanian. has every appearance of prosperity and good management. Outside the New Gate of Candia is the tomb of Risk of khalife^ is ; his predecessor Baba, who is distinguished by the segmented taj on his headstone as a Bektashi saint. To judge by the mass of rags affixed to a tree in his precinct he is a very popular intercessor. A small hut built beside the grave is that of a self-appointed guardian of the tomb, who is buried beside the saint. The tekke at RETHYMO contains the grave of Hasan Baba. At CANEA there is now no tekke owing to Bek1 The is described, with a photograph of the meidan, by Hall BibL Arch. 1913, pp. 147 ff. and pi. 39, and mentioned by tekke in Proc. Soc. Spratt, Crete, 2 Of this i, 81. was assured there was documentary evidence by a learned Bektashi layman of Candia. The Turkish head-quarters during the long 3 See below, p. 537, n. 4. siege of Candia were at Fortezza, I Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi 1 A Bektashi warrior-saint Mustafa tashi migration. Ghazi is buried under an open turbe on the outskirts of the town ; his headstone bears the taj of the order. This tomb is much frequented by the Tripolines on 536 May D. 22. Epirus. In this region Bektashism seems to have taken no permanent root south of latitude 40. In spite of Ali Pasha's patronage, 2 the Bektashi admit that they have never possessed a tekke at Yannina, his capital, where the only trace of them is the tomb of Hasan Sheret Baba, a saint of Ali's time, and that of Ali himself, the headstone of which was formerly distinguished by the regulation Bektashi taj 2 On the road between Yannina which formerly existed is now we may probably regard it as one of Alps and Metzovo deserted ; ' ' strategic a tekke foundations devised to control the impor- tant pass into Thessaly. 4 At KONITZA exists what is said to be a very old tekke. HusainBaba is the oldest baba buried there, with Turabi Baba beside him. The present abbot is Haidar Baba. 5 10. Albania The great stronghold of modern Bektashism is Albania, especially south Albania, where nine-tenths of 1 The sheikh formerly in charge was invited by Cretan Bektashi and minister to them, but he died refugees in Benghazi to come without founding a tekke there ; to the predominance of the Rifai this would have been difficult owing and Senussi sects in that district. 2 See below, pp. 586 ff. This is shown in a drawing of the tomb in Walsh's Constantinople, and was mentioned to me as proof of Ali's connexion with the sect by an elderly Epirote, who remembered seeing it. The headstone is 3 now replaced by a wooden post. See above, Thessaly. 5 The son of a dervish sheikh at Konitza (probably therefore a Bekin 1814 ( S. John the Vrachori was for at tashi) martyred Christianity N. life see of Konitza for whose ', Aeifiwv., p. 331 ; cf, Neomartyr 4 c above, p. 449, n. 7). Albania the Moslem population are said 537 by Bektashis to be Bektashi, one-tenth only of the Ghegs of the north adhering to the sect. As to the history of Bektashism in south Albania (sometimes called North Epirus), my researches have been able to establish the leading facts (i) that it is of comparatively recent introduction, and (2) that the firm root it has taken is mainly due to the influence of Ali Pasha (1759-1822), who was himself a member of the order. 1 The Tosks regard the tekke of Kastoria 2 as the most ancient in their country, but Kastoria belongs geographically to Macedonia. The date of this tekke is vague, and, as elsewhere in Rumeli, the saint there buried is referred to the period of the Turkish conquest, and his personality is frankly superhuman. On the Albanian side of the mountains, on the other hand, the dates of the saints are known and recent, 3 and they have no pretensions to be more than the founders of the tekkes where their bones lie. In point of antiquity the Argyrokastro foundations claim to be earlier than Ali The Koritza Pasha, but can produce no evidence. group, Konitza, the important tekke of Frasheri, and some others are admittedly foundations of Ali's contemporaries, while many others confess to a much later : origin. With very few exceptions the saints buried in Albanian tekkes seem to be of small religious importance, the living abbot being much more considered. 4 To an This idea was put forward long ago on the evidence of tradition, is no safe guide, since a figure like Ali's bulks large in popular thought and is apt to absorb much that does not belong to it. 2 Above, Macedonia. 3 C/"., however, Hasan Dede of Klissura, alleged to be 350-400 years 1 which old (below, p. 543). khalifes as well as by the Akhi Dede area khalifes exist at Argyrokastro, In Albanian the of Haji Bektash. A and Prizrend. Turan (Tepelen), khalife seems to be a higher grade of abbot, cf. above, p. 507. M.M.H. 4 Abbots may be appointed by 3295.3 N Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi outsider it appears that the Albanian temperament has evolved a form of Bektashism in which the social organization rather than the religious-superstitious side is uppermost. This is borne out also by externals ; the Bektashi tekkes throughout the district have no dis- 538 tinguishing marks and no set plan. are generally built good country houses, and situated just outside villages, more rarely in proximity to considerable towns. The tombs of the saints are in simply and They solidly, like very simple turbes standing well away from the main buildings, it is said for reasons of health. Characteristic of the time at which Bektashism won the era of the French Revoluits foothold in Albania is the tion prominence given here, in theory at least, to certain liberal ideas, such as the Brotherhood of Man and the unimportance of the dogmas and formalities of religion as compared with conduct. Both these ideas and the quietist doctrines, which to some extent depend on them, are latent in much dervish thought but they are radically opposed to the stern ideal of Islam propagated by the sword which animated the Janissaries in their days of conquest, and which shows itself in the conception of the earlier Bektashi saints as superhuman champions of the Faith. The persecution of Sultan Mahmud (1826) touched the Albanian Bektashi lightly, owing not only to the fact that the movement in Albania had not reached its height, but also doubtless to the wildness and inaccessiwe may well believe, indeed, that bility of the country it was a refuge for Bektashi proscribed elsewhere, cerfor those of Albanian birth. tainly The only orders competing with the Bektashi in southern Albania were the orthodox Sadi (at Liaskovik) and the Khalveti ; of this latter an offshoot, known as the Hayati, 1 has or had establishments at ; ; 1 I can find in printed sources no mention of this order or sub-order. Their patron is said to be Hasan of Basra. They can, I think, hardly Albania 539 x Tepelen (burnt), Liaskovik (burnt), Koritza (ruined), Biglishta, Changeri, Progti, and Okhrida. The KhalvetiHayati are said to have come into Albania later than the Bektashi, but are shown by the date over the portal of their ruined tekke at Liaskovik (1211 = 1796-7) to be no recent intruders. Sultan Abdul Mejid (1839-61) is said not only to have abstained from persecuting the Bektashi, but to have given positive orders that they were not to be molested. 2 Abdul Hamid seems to have suspected them,, and is said to have sent a special emissary to Albania to report on the extent of the heresy and the number of tekkes, but no persecution or active measures followed. His suspicions were probably based on the participation of the Bektashi in the national movement of 1880-1, when the cession of part of southern Albania to Greece was under discussion, and the southern Albanians rose under Abdul Bey Frasheri, ostensibly to save the threatened provinces to Turkey, but really aiming at an independent Albanian The state. of the Bektashi order in Epirus during the troubles succeeding the Balkan war were enormous, many tekkes having been burnt to the ground, and most of the remainder looted of everything moveable by the Epirote irregulars. The nominal excuse for this was (i) that the order was implicated in the national Albanian (and therefore anti-Greek) movement, and (2) that some tekkes were suspected of having harboured not only bands but fugitives from justice (the two categories largely overlap) and to have shared their losses c ? be identical with Rycaut's Hayetti (Ottoman Empire, p. 61), an heretical with Christian leanings, the Khalveti being regarded as orthodox. Fadil Bey Klissura regards the Hayati also as orthodox. 1 This is presumably the establishment mentioned by Miss Durham, Burden of the Balkans, p. 242. z Aravantinos (Xpovoypa<f>ia, rfjs *HirtLpov (1857), "> I ^) nc>tes, evidently with surprise, that in his day many of the inhabitants of Argyrokastro were openly Bektashi. sect N 2 Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi plunder. To this the Bektashi would probably reply that they were natural allies, by blood and language, of the Albanian cause and that hospitality, irrespective of persons, is the rule of the order. It is clear that in such a country the evident prosperity of the tekkes, whatever the character of their inmates, would be sufficient to several derattract the cupidity of guerrilla captains vishes are said to have been murdered because they would not or could not disclose the whereabouts of their supposed wealth. Further north the chief Bektashi district is that of Malakastra, a Tosk district lying between the River Voyussa (Aous) and that of Berat (Lumi Beratit). Numerous Bektashi tekkes existed here before the war, but all were then destroyed, because such as escaped the Greek irregulars immediately after the war were burnt 1 by the Gheg followers of Essad Pasha of Tirana. The history of the conversion of this district to Bektashism is vague all seem agreed that it is recent, certainly more recent than in Epirus. There seems considerable probability that the beginnings of the propaganda are as old as the time of Ali Pasha, since we know that the sect was established further north (at Kruya, ^.>.) in his time, and some Bektashi claim that Omer Vrioni of Berat 2 and a certain Mahmud Bey of Valona, contem3 Traces of poraries of Ali, were in the movement. Bektashism are to be found both at Valona and at Berat, and neither Omer nor Mahmud is, like Ali, a great figure to which popular tradition refers all events indiscriminately. Still further north Bektashism is only sporadic owing to the strong Sunni opinions and consequent opposition of the Ghegs. 540 ; : the great-grandson of the murderer of Mimi, below, p. 550. beys of Berat are said to be Bektashi (they denied this in 1 Essad 2 The 1923 to 3 is M. M. H.). Degrand (Haute Albanie, p. 21 1) cites Bey of Kavaya as a member of the sect. also a contemporary Ibrahim Argyrokastro in Albania 541 The following * is a list of the Bektashi tekkes in Albania before the Balkan war. Villages with tekkes are grouped with their market towns. i. ARGYROKASTRO. Bektashism is said to have gained a footing here about 150 years ago \ Ali Pasha's influence was strong here owing to the marriage of his sister to a powerful local bey. 2 The chief tekke is that of Haji Suleiman Baba, delightfully situated on a small isolated eminence near the town. Before the Balkan war twenty dervishes resided here there are now rather fewer. The history of the tekke cannot be traced for more than 90 years ; the earliest of the four turbes containing the graves of deceased abbots dates only from ' ; 862-3 but according to legend Argyrokastro was visited 3 vague early date by the Bektashi saints Hasan Baba (really a Nakshbandi) and Mustafa Baba, of whom the The abbot is a khalife.* latter is buried here. Asim Baba's tekke on the other side of Argyrokastro was founded * two hundred years ago and is reckoned one of the oldest in Albania. The founder and his successor are buried on either side of the gateway so that they 1 , at a ' pray for all who enter. There are now seven dervishes with the learned Selim Baba as abbot. The Rule no spirits are allowed of the tekke is unusually strict and dervishes are forbidden to quit the tekke grounds. In addition, they wear a four-ridged taj outside the ordinary twelve-ridged Bektashi hat in souvenir of 1 826, when only by adopting some such disguise could Bek- may : tashi dervishes escape destruction. The tekke of Zeynel Abidin Baba, and Haji Suleiman's, is now between the town deserted. It is 133 years old. point onwards most of the information given comes 1923 notebooks, as conditions were then more normal in Albania than when my husband travelled. M. M. H.] 2 Leake, N. Greece, i, 40 cf. Hahn, Alban. Studien, p. 35. * 3 See above, p. 537, n. 4. See above, pp. 356-7. 1 [From from this my own ; Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi Four hours S.E. of Argyrokastro at Melan near NEPRAVISHTA there is a tekke which was founded sixty years ago as an offshoot of Asim Baba's tekke at Argyro- 542 kastro. ii. At TEPELEN, the a Bektashi tekke * birthplace of Ali, there was never but there were, and are, several in the villages of the district. These are : VELIKIOT, an old foundation, which has been closed since its destruction by Sultan Mahmud. Husain Baba was the oldest of its saints. TURAN, two hours from Tepelen. The tekke was founded about 1900, having had only two abbots, Ali Baba, who died A.H. 1324^.0. 1906-7), and the present incumbent. The tekke is rich and has now twelve der2 its abbot is a kbalife. vishes MEMALIA, a rich tekke about eighty years old, with : Husain Baba as chief saint. Destroyed, like Turan, by Greek irregulars, it was rebuilt, only to be overthrown by the earthquake which recently devastated the Tepelen area. There are now only two dervishes. MARICHAN is about thirty years old, being founded by Baba Musa who died during the Greek occupation of south Albania. It has lately been rebuilt by the who 3 formerly occupied the tekke of Kichok. Further along the right bank of the River Voyussa in the Malakastra district are the following tekkes. KOSHDAN, a rich tekke, which is about no years old, the present abbot being the sixth in succession. Ismail Baba is the saint. KRAHAS is about fifty years old, four babas, of whom Husain Baba is the first, being buried here. The Tekieh or convent of dervises noted by Leake (N. Greece, i, 31) on the slopes of Mount Trebeshin across the river from Tepelen was the summer quarters of the Tepelen Khalveti dervishes, whom Haji Khalil Baba founded five hundred years ago. They are now dervishes 1 ' ' * * altogether in Tepelen and the mountain establishment shut up. 2 3 See See above, p. 537, n. 4. below, p. 544. settled is Malakastra in Albania At KUTA Rifaat Baba has just made his own 543 house into a tekke. DRIZAR was founded by Jelal Baba some twenty years ago. The KREMENAR tekke was founded about fifteen years Hasan Baba, who has not yet rebuilt it and lives ago by for the present at Krahas. KAPANI was founded about twenty-two years ago by Baba Ismail, who is now dead. OSMAN ZEZA is eighteen years old its founder, Baba : is Elias, dead. On PLESHNIK no information was forthcoming. The GRESHITZA tekke is about sixty years old, its founder being Husain Baba. At ARANITAS there is as yet no tekke, but a baba has for some years been living there in a house, which will no doubt later become a tekke. At HEKALI there is a turbe but no tekke. Patsch noted a cemetery containing graves marked by the Bektashi 1 taj. LAPOLETS, a small, insignificant tekke, was founded by buried there. The tekke is actually situated at Grenchie, a mile away. At VALONA Patsch saw the grave of a Bektashi saint, Kosum Baba. z He is sometimes called Kuzu Baba it is said that leave to build a tekke by his grave was the Turkish from government but refused, requested He is now called Valona being fanatically Sunni. Nuri Baba, who is now : Shemsi Baba and tended by a Sunni khoja. iii. At KLISSURA, east of Tepelen, the beys are Bektashis, and men swear by Hasan Dede, a local saint who was brother of a local chief, Jadikula. Northwards along the Berat road lie several tekkes. The first reached is SUKA, a recent establishment which shares its baba with Prishta, of which it is a dependency. 1 2 is Berat, p. 117. Ibid. p. 9 ; cf. Durham, Burden of the Balkans , p. 274. Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi 544 Dervish Ibrahim, who is left in charge during the baba's absence, was formerly Sunni and a khoja. PRISHTA is the richest tekke in Albania, owning Suka and three other chiftliks. It was founded about 1860 by Tahir Baba, who is buried there. At BUBES there is no tekke, but only the turbe of Talib Baba, who died about 1890. At KICHOK the tekke which Baba Kamber made about 1890 has not been rebuilt. The dervishes have gone to Marichan, Baba Kamber to Bulgaria, where he has built a tekke at RustchuL The poor tekke of 1 GLAVA was built about forty years ago by Ismail Baba. The RABIA tekke was founded about thirty-six years ago by Baba Suleiman. The tekke at by Islam Baba. A KOMARI was founded twenty At present there is no baba. tekke was built fifteen years ago Gumani The THREPEL years ago by Husain Baba at near PANARET. tekke was founded fifty years ago by Behlul Baba. iv. The high road leads east of Klissura to Premet, passing the following tekkes 3 DusHK,near the village of Grobova, founded twentyfive years ago by Ahmed Baba. ALI POSTIVAN, with a baba and three dervishes, : founded twenty years ago. The buried saint is Ab- dullah Baba. is now no tekke, but only and an attendant dervish. At KOSHINA there for travellers a lodging Three-quarters of the Moslem population of PREMET Bektashi. On the slope of the hill above the town there was formerly a tekke 3 founded by Bektash Baba is ', 1 3 3 See above, p. 523. This site has not been identified with certainty. The tekke is described by Miss Durham, Burden of the Balkans, p. 228. Liaskovik in Albania 545 about thirty-five years ago as an offshoot from Frasheri for the greater convenience of the Premet Bektashis. Both Bektash Baba and his successor, Ismail, lie buried in the town beside the grave of Haji Baba, a very old of Khorasan ', who died at 300 years ago Premet, but protruded his hand from his grave to 1 signify that he wished to be transferred to Kesaraka, where he accordingly now rests. In 1915 Greek troops were quartered in the tekke, so the abbot and dervishes betook themselves to the town annexe, where they have since remained, the tekke proper being now used by the Albanians as a barracks. v. A few hours from Premet on the Koritza road is LIASKOVIK. The population of this (till the war) thriv2 The tekke just outing hill-town is largely Bektashi. side it, on a hill above the Kolonia road, is said to have been about thirty-five years old it contained the grave of the founder Abiddin Baba, and housed seven or eight dervishes. The new tekke has been under construction since 1921, but there is only an abbot as yet in residence. vi. On the road to Kolonia (otherwise Herseka) there is the tekke of Sianolas near BARM ASH. It was founded by Baba Suleiman about forty years ago and had the tomb of Hasan Baba and five dervishes before the war. It still has an abbot and one dervish, but has by no means recovered from its destruction by the Greeks. At ISTARIA near Herseka, in the Baruch mahalla, there saint ' c ' ; poor tekke with only one dervish in residence. It was founded thirty years ago by Husain Baba, who is buried in it. Sick people incubate here. At KRESHOVA there is a richer tekke, founded by Hasan Baba and enlarged by Jemal Baba. There are a is now three dervishes besides the abbot. vii. In the Koritza district 3 there are four tekkes. 1 * 3 See below, p. 547. Durham, Burden of the Balkans, p. 217. At Koritza itself there is the tomb of Koja Mir Akhor tended by Cf. Geographical Distribution of the Bektasbi is KIATOROM, Forty minutes along the road to Kolonia ' said to have been built by Bekir Efendi 150 years ago ', to have suffered under Sultan Mahmud, and to have been restored by Kiazim Baba forty years ago, both Bekir and Kiazim being buried in it. The buildings look about forty years old. There are now three dervishes and an abbot, the latter's appointment dating 546 from 1918. TURAN, with four dervishes in 1923, is abbot had then been three years absent. close by. The Its fourth dated A.H. 1307 (A.D. 1889-90). an hour and a half from Koritza along the Moschopolis road and stands on high ground above the village of the same name. The tekke was looted by the Greek insurgents, but the solid and homely buildings were spared. The date of its foundation is given c as a hundred and eight years ago one of its two abbot's grave MELCHAN is is ' : simple octagonal turbes is inscribed A.H. 1221. The founder, Husain Baba, is buried in an undated tomb ; his successor, Abdullah Baba, lies in a grave dated A.H. 1274. In relatio'n to him an extraordinary story is now told. When the French army was at Koritza, a major dreamt that Abdullah Baba was beating him for having entered the turbe without taking off his boots. He was so much impressed that he put up a notice on the turbe forbidding any one to enter shod. Whatever the reason, the notice in French and Turkish was there in 1923, with the Frenchman's signature appended unfortunately, not on Abdullah's turbe but the other. An abbot and a descendant and much visited by Bektasliis. When Master of the he caught a Koran as it slipped from the In return he was offered a favour and chose to possess the land where his horse should die. He then went on his travels and his horse died at Platza (^crever in Albanian) near Koritza. This Ali refers to me Kemal the founder told tale, by Bey Klissura, evidently of the Koja Mir Akhor Jamisi at Constantinople, who is buried in his Horse to a certain sultan, sultan's hands. Albanian birthplace (Hammer-Hellert, Jardin des Mosquees, (412), in Hist. Emp. Ott. xviii), Koritza. p. 42 Koritza in Albania six dervishes were in residence in 1923. 547 There is no mesjid, the antechamber of one of the turbes being used as such when required. The tekke of KUCH is situated half an hour beyond Biglishta on the road from Koritza to Fiorina and Kastoria in Macedonia. A village of the same name is near. The tekke is said to be one of the oldest in ' five Albania, having been founded by Kasim Baba, hundred years ago His tomb is in a turbe a quarter of an hour away, pilgrimages being made to it every Monday and Friday. Elbassan and Kastoria also claim to have his tomb, but, according to Kuch, theirs are In only cenotaphs, the genuine grave is at Kuch. a turbe near the tekke seven saints lie buried. After Mahmud IPs persecution, Ibrahim Baba refounded the tekke in A. H. 1295, while Hafiz Baba built the new He was shot dead by the buildings in A. H. 1324. Greeks, his bloodstained taj being shown to visitors, as also the bloodstains on the floor, which resist all attempts at washing them away. In 1923 there were an abbot and three dervishes living in the tekke. The important Christian monastery of S. NAUM on Lake Okhrida is visited by Bektashi as a pilgrimage. 2 viii. KESARAKA, some hours north-west of Kolonia, is a mutehhil convent. Before the war there were five or six dervishes besides the abbot, now the abbot only is left ; the tekke is not very popular, dervishes preferring the celibate system. The foundation was due to Haji Baba of Khorasan, who died, as related above, 3 He lies in a handsome turbe, which the at Premet. Greeks looted but did not entirely destroy. ix. The pleasant tekke of FRASHERI is situated amid fantastic scenery some hours south-west of Kesaraka. Before the war it was large and important, being tenanted by about twenty dervishes, and containing the tomb of 1 9 . 1 2 See above, p. 526. Above, p. 435 f., below, p. 583. 3 P. 545. , Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi the sheikh Nasibi. This saint, who was a contemporary of Ali Pasha, is much revered, and it is said that the Tosks use his name in asseverations instead of God's. 548 His original name was Moharrem Baba, but when he made his pilgrimage to the tekke of Haji Bektash, the door of the tekke opened to him of its own accord, and the abbot, recognizing a miracle, said, It is thy fate (nasib) '. Nasibi, with Sheikh Ali and Sheikh Mimi, is said to have foretold to Ali Pasha his brilliant future, warning him also of the fate which would overtake him The tekke, together with if he failed to govern justly. the tomb of Nasibi, was burnt to the ground in 1914, but it has since been almost entirely rebuilt. To the south-east of Frasheri there are three turbes about twelve years old, at Polena near GADUCHI, BITISHT, and BRESHDAN respectively. Ismail Baba is the saint of Gaduchi, the others are nameless. x x. North of the Frasheri area is the tekke of BACHKA whose present abbot is the sixth in succession, the tekke having been founded about sixty years ago by Hamid Baba of Melchan. After its recent destruction it is once more in going order. The tekke of DERVISHEI to the south, with an abbot only, is a chiftlik of Bachka. Between Gyeres and Kulmak, on the slopes of Mount TOMOR, there is another tekke reputed the oldest in Albania and dedicated to Abbas Ali, son of Ali. There are said to be seven dervishes in residence. In August a great panegyris is held there, both Bektashis and Chris' , tians frequenting it. 2 The tekke of SHIMIRDEN 1 is situated some hours north Vrepska, north of Bachka, is a Khalveti pilgrimage, not a Bektashi, B.S.A. xxi, 118. as indicated in The Cf. Baldacci, in Boll. R. Soc. Geogr. (Roma), 1914, p. 978. for all religions and sects in this district is by Mt. Tomor, according to Ali Kemal Klissura. As at Kalkandelen I found 2 most binding oath equated to the Bektashi saint Ali, I suspect that the Tomor the Christians. For the difficulty of completely ascendthe mountain at the August panegyris see Hasluck, Letters, p. 3. ing S. Elias saint is S. Elias to Elbassan in Albania of Tomoritza. five years It ago and 549 was founded by Mustafa Baba fiftyconsidered a good place to visit for is 1 purposes of prayer. xi. The next Bektashi region is BERAT. Here there was a handsome tekke before the war, under Baba Kamber, but it has not yet been rebuilt. The actual site is at Vilabisht, a little south of Berat. xii. The tekke half an hour east of ELBASSAN was destroyed by the Ghegs and is temporarily housed in what was formerly the granary of the tekke , but fruittrees, flowers, and running water combine to make the site a paradise. The founder was Mustafa Baba, who is buried here. Lately there has been an improvement in the relations of Sunnis and Bektashis in North Albania, even in Elbassan, where there are said to be now about five hundred Bektashi families. The reason is mainly the emphasis laid by the Bektashis on patriotism Kasim Baba * left his hand at Elbassan. Bektashi z,iarets at Durazzo and Bazaar Shiakh may be inferred from Degrand's version of the Sari Saltik 3 The population of Tirana is said by the same legend. author to be equally divided between the Bektashi and as a virtue. Rifai sects. 4 The population of KRUYA seems to be almost exclusively Bektashi. Its extraordinary importance as a place of Bektashi pilgrimage is brought out by Degrand's interesting account of the saints' tombs, tradi5 Bektionally 366 in number, in and about the town. tashism seems to have been introduced here towards the end of the eighteenth century by Ali Pasha's agent, Sheikh Mimi, who founded a tekke at Kruya in 1807 and xiii. 1 It is probably the Shent Mrain mentioned by my husband in B.S.A. xxi, 121. None of my Albanian informants could identify it in z See above, pp. 526, 547. that form. M. M. H. 3 Haute Albanie^ p. 240. Ibid. 9 pp. 221 8. Bosnian, vii, 60. 5 : cf. 4 Ibid., p. 194. ff., and in Wiss. Mittb. Ippen, Skutari, pp. 71 Geographical Distribution of the Bektashi at first made common cause with the local chief, Kaplan Pasha Topdan, as against his neighbour the Pasha of Skutari, 1 who was hostile to Ali of Yannina. The missionary sheikh afterwards fell out with Kaplan Pasha, either, as the latter said, because he had been bought by the Pasha of Skutari, or possibly because he suspected Kaplan Pasha himself of similar disloyalty to Ali and the Bektashi party. Kaplan ordered Mimi to quit Kruya ; the sheikh retaliated by an unsuccessful attempt to murder the pasha, which cost him his own life. But public feeling in Kruya was so strong for Mimi, that the were unable to reside there, and moved Topdan family 2 The family quarrel of the Topdans with to Tirana. the Bektashi is, as we have seen, perpetuated by their modern representative, Essad Pasha. Kruya is one of the many places associated with the adventures of the Bektashi saint Sari Saltik. 3 Of the two chief tekkes there, one (' Mali Kruyes ) is two hours and a half's steep climb up the mountain behind 4 Kruya town. It contains a grave of Sari Saltik. The masonry at the spring is dated A. H. 1 190. The shrine is 550 ? noted for its cures. The tekke and is deserted in winter. At the tekke in the plain is mutehhil, like Kesaraka, Fusha Kruyes ? the chief buried saint is Baba Ali, who is said to date from 150-200 years back and to be older than Sheikh Mimi. An abbot and three dervishes are living there, but the tekke was burnt by the Ghegs and is as yet only half rebuilt. In the precinct are two remarkable trees, one with flat, plank-like branches being said to have sprung (' ) So we find Kaplan at the end of the eighteenth century celebrated over his rival by building a turbe to the Bektashi saint Hamza 2 Baba (Ippen, Skutari, p. 71). Degrand, Haute Albanie^ p. 210. 3 See ff. I have above, pp. 435 heard, but not very definitely, of a hitherto unrecorded tomb of Sari Saltik at Khass, between Skutari and see, however, Miss Durham, Burden of the Balkans, p. 304. Jakova 1 a victory : His saddle and pilaf-dish were turned into stone on the KruyaShushi road, where they may still be seen. 4 Austro-Hungary 551 from a plank stuck in the ground by Baba All of san, who was a contemporary of Skanderbeg. Khora- At GIORMI beyond Mamures on the Skutari road is a big tekke founded about 130 years ago by there Haidar Baba. From Skutari the Bektashi were banished for political reasons in the time of Ali Pasha 1 and seem never to have regained a footing there. At MARTANESH, on the head waters of the river Mati, there were two tekkes before the war. That of Balum Sultan, on the mountain, was built in the time of Mahmud Pasha of Skutari and was burnt by the Serbs a few years ago they added insult to injury by shaving the abbot's beard off. Their attack on the tekke in the town was foiled by the townspeople, though they are mainly Sunnis and fanatical at that. This lower tekke was built twenty-five years ago by Haji Husain Baba of Kruya. There are now two dervishes besides the abbot in it the mountain tekke has not been rebuilt. xv. In the DIBRA region in East Albania there is a tekke at Blatza near Humesh which was built thirty the Ghegs destroyed it. years ago by Yusuf Baba xiv. : ; : ii. A. Austro-Hungary Bosnia. There has been no Bektashi tekke in Bosnia since 1903, though the sect lingers on and the communities are visited from time to time by sheikhs from Albania z . B. Budapest. The Gul still farthest outpost of Bektashism is the tekke of Baba, a relic of the Turkish occupation, which is one of the minor sights of the Hungarian 3 1 capital. 3 Ibid., p. 73. Ippen, Skutari) p. 36. M. Walker, Old Tracks, See E. Browne, Travels (1673), p. 34 p. 289 J. P. Brown, Dervishes, p. 89 ; Die Osterreickiscbe-ungariscbe Monarchic in Wort und Bild : Ungarn (III), p. 96 ; Baedeker, Austria3 ; ; Hungary (1905), p. 345 : Boue, Turq. d'Europs, Hi, 404. XLII1 < BEKTASHI PAGES ' INTRODUCTORY following text is a translation of an Albanian Bektashi pamphlet which has a considerable reputation among members of that sect. The original is written in the Tosk dialect of Albanian by Nairn Bey, * a native of Frasheri and brother of the historian Sami THE Frasheri, who organized through the Bektashi tekkes a national movement in 1880-1, when the cession of part of southern Albania Bey and of a certain Abdul Bey to Greece was under discussion. 2 This movement was Hamid Abdul on the undersecretly authorized by standing that it should be a mock conspiracy designed to throw dust in the eyes of Europe and save the Albanian provinces to Turkey. Abdul Bey, however, intended His plans were it as a blow for Albanian independence. few his hundred followers deprematurely betrayed, feated, and he himself made prisoner. While Albania formed part of the Turkish empire, Nairn Bey's pamphlet passed through two editions, printed respec3 4 tively at Bucharest in 1896 and at Salonica in 1910 in a mixed character based on Roman, but borrowing letters also from the Cyrillic and Greek. It is now 5 everywhere on sale in Albania. Albanian being known to few persons outside the still Balkan peninsula, I availed myself of the kindness of See above, p. 539, and Hasluck, Letter-s, p. 74. c See the bluebooks of these dates on Rectification of the Greek Frontier/ 3 Legrand, Bibliographie Albanaise^ no. 608. [A copy of this edition is now in the British Museum. M. M. H.] 1 2 4 Of this I was lucky enough to secure a copy in 1915, through my Mr. Micu Hondrosom of Bucharest, and it is from this that the 5 M. M. H. below is translated. friend text Commentary 553 Professor Charitonidis, a native of Tepelen, who to Greeks interested in Albanian studies is well known for his series of Greek- Albanian school books, and thus I secured a literal translation of the Albanian text into this I have myself made an English version, the short paragraphs of the original which preserving seem in character with the aphoristic and didactic nature of the work. 1 Greek; from The pamphlet is entitled Fletore e Bektashiniet, which may perhaps be rendered Bektashi Pages.* Inside is the second title Bektashite (' The Bektashi '). It consists of thirty-two i6mo pages, of which sixteen are occupied with the prose exposition of Bektashism, the rest by rhymed religious poems here omitted. complete ignorance of Albanian renders any commentary on the style impossible. The matter is specially My interesting for freedom from dogma and myinsistence on ethics. The doctrine of the its thology and its brotherhood of entire man is a familiar feature in much der- vish thought and is always to the fore in Albanian Bektashism. The national Albanian sentiments expressed, and the inculcation of patriotism as the highest of virtues, are characteristic of the nineteenth century awakening of national consciousness among the Balkan peoples, and have a special interest author's family connexions. 3 on account of the Particularly interesting is the fact that the prescribed prayers are not in Arabic, the sacred language of Islam, but in Albanian, the vernacular tongue. 4 Similarly, the Arabic and Persian religious terms in common use among the Turkish Bektashi have been replaced, wherever possible, by native translations or equivalents not always very satisfactory. 1 Assonances, which are characteristic of such works and probably calculated as aids to the student's memory, are noted on pp. 6, 15, and * 2 17 of the original. Literally Leaves of Bektashism.' 3 See above, pp. 539, 552. 4 A o brief glossary is given, pp. 562-3. * 554 Bektashi Pages i. The Translation Bektashi believe in the Great true saints Mohammed Ali, Lord and in the Kadije, Fatima, and Hasan and Husain. In the Twelve Imams, who are Ali, Hasan, Husain, Zein-el-Abidin, Mohammed Bakir, Jafer Kiazim, Ali Riza, Mohammed Teki, Ali Askeri, Mohammed Mehdi. Sadik, Musa Neki, Hasan The father of them all is Ali and their mother Fatima. They believe also in all the saints, both ancient and modern, because they believe in Good and worship it. And as they believe in these and love them, so also do they in Moses and Miriam and Jesus and their servants. For their first [founder] they hold Jafer Sadik and for x their patron-saint Haji Bektash Veli, who is descended of the same family. All these have said, Do good and abstain from evil '. In this saying the Bektashi believe. * Truth and justice, intelligence the virtues are supreme. The faith of the Bektashi is a and wisdom, and broad wisdom, brotherhood, friendship, Way love, 2 all lighted by humanity, and the virtues. all On one side of it are the flowers of knowledge, other the flowers of truth. on the Without knowledge and without truth no man can become a Bektashi. For the Bektashi the Universe is God. But in this world man is the representative of God. The True God, with the angels and Paradise and all that is good, are found in the virtues of man. In his vices are found the Devil and all evil. 1 The word used (plak = * old man ') the translation of the Persian is pir which bears the same sense in religion. a The simple Albanian word for way (udha) 9 ' usual Arabic tank. ' is used instead of the Doctrines 555 Therefore they love and practise good and abstain from evil. All things are in man, yea, even the to manifest Himself, when He wished His image and The True God, since He made man in does not die but is likeness. Bektashi believe that man only changed and made different, and is always in the presence of God, because the Father is hidden to the children. He who does good finds good, he who does evil finds evil. He who transgresses self with the against humanity identifies him- beasts. The Way of the Bektashi is open and broad it is the Way of Wisdom and of goodness to all who have intel: ligence. Man is not bound, but free in answerable for all his acts. But he has a all respects, and he is mind which reasons, knowledge by which to choose, a soul which recognizes, and a heart which discerns, and a conscience which weighs all his deeds. Thus he has all that is necessary and needs no help from Since the Lord has granted him in himself all things of which he has need. As the man, so is the woman, one in kind and not without. separated. In very great misfortune a man may be divorced from in case of great need he may take a second wife. his wife In order that there may be no occasion when the wife is far from her family, the way of the Bektashi is pre: ferable. 1 The woman does not veil or cover her face save only with the veil of modesty. * Explained as meaning superior to the ordinary Islamic marriage law because avoiding the difficulties caused by a divorce where the wife's family lives a long way off and she cannot easily return to her 1 ' father's house. ' ' Bektashi Pages Way of the Bektashi the faith is modesty and chastity, wisdom, and all the virtues. Every ill deed, all vices, follies, and infidelities are forbidden and accursed in this Way. This is the Way of God and of all the Saints. The Bektashi have for the book of their faith the Universe, and especially mankind, because the Lord AH ' once said, Man is the book which speaks, 1 faith consists in speech, but the ignorant have added thereto. Faith is in the heart, it is not in the written book/ The Bektashi keeps unspotted his heart, his soul, his mind, and his conscience ; and his body also, his clothes, 556 In the his abode, and his dwelling, his honour, and his good name. Not only among themselves but also with all men the Bektashi are spiritual brothers. They love as themselves their neighbours, both Mussulman and Christian, and they conduct themselves blamelessly towards all humanity. they love their country and their countrymen, because this is the fairest of all virtues. The Bektashi loves humanity, helps poverty, pities and grieves from his heart a good spirit is in him. Because this is the Way if he is not such, he is without the Way. The Bektashi, that he may make a good entry into the Way, must be virtuous and perfect in all things. But more than all : : Whosoever is in this Way is called a Bektashi and has no further need. But whosoever will draw nearer obtains permission from the Father 2 and becomes an Inner [brother]. 3 Note the assonance (Nyeriu eshtefietoreya qefiet). permission granted by the Father is a kind of diploma Baba or head of a convent and testifying to the candithe given by 1 2 The * ' ' date's proficiency in the 3 Or ' Esoteric * ' c ' the ; Turkish term being, I am * Way.' word is again Albanian, the corresponding olan. dahile told, Admission The 557 Inner [brother] must be very virtuous in all things. Whosoever of the Inner [brethren] wishes to take the habit and become a Poor [brother], which is called dervish, obtains a fresh Permission from the Father. But in this case he cannot put it off again, for it is not lawful. The Poor must be of humanity, be must, wise, humble, and if any gentle. man insult or strike him, he must not curse or abuse [his aggressor] but suffer it. The Poor [brother], if he is married before he takes the habit, may remain in wedlock after his election, [brother] a servant He and very abiding in his family and in his house. But when he takes the vow never to marry, he obtains a new Permission, but he cannot take back his word. The unmarried Poor [brothers] live in a house which Tekke or Dargab. They have one Chief who is called Father and Guide. Every Poor [brother] has a task or service of his own. The eldest of them is called Leader, and it is he who leads to the Guide those who wish to take Permissions. When there are many Fathers, they choose one of them and make him Chief he is called Grandfather. called is : There are a good number as far [advanced] as this, and the work of the Way is well completed. 1 But sometimes there are many Grandfathers then they choose from among them and make him Great : Grandfather. layman to become an Inner [brother] or for an Inner [brother] to become a Poor [brother], he must For a Poor receive a Permission from the Father, [brother] to become a Father he must receive a Permission from the Grandfather. The Father, Grandfather, and Great Grandfather, For 1 i. Way. e. a an aspirant may well be content with so much progress in the 'Bektashi Pages' 558 who are called Guides, must all be things pertaining to the Way. men perfect in all Whosoever obtains a Permission from the Guides enters into the Choir of the Saints, since all the saints are linked together hand in hand, and thus he enters into this company, and into the Chain of these Lords, as in a dance. he who enters this Way leaves behind and retains only his virtues. With an unclean heart, with an evil soul, with a bad conscience, he cannot enter among the Saints who draw near to God. Here must he know himself, for he who knows himself knows what God is. He must be [like] a gentle lamb, not [like] a wild For all his this reason vices beast. He must be reasonable, just, learned, lovable, are necessary to a man. and have all the virtues which This is the Way of Virtue, of Friendship, of Wisdom, and of Brotherhood. It is a great sin that a man should cast into this Way, full of fair and fragrant flowers, thorns and prickles, as do the ignorant. Because this Way begins from Good and ends in Good. The Guide who ' grants a Permission says : To-day thou hast taken the hand of God, thou hast been made one with the Saints. Therefore lay hold on Good, and be of their Way, and forget Evil. Take not where thou hast not given, honour great and small, avoid slanders, uncleannesses, perversities, and all evil ; and enter into brotherhood/ &c., &c. The Bektashi looks on the wife of his neighbour as his sister, on every poor old woman as his mother, on every poor man as his brother, and on all men as his friends. His conscience is good, his heart full of gratitude, his soul sweet, for this Way is Good alone. Without these things no Bektashi can exist. Brotherhood, peace, love, virtue, nearness to God, Fasts and Prayers 559 all and the virtues are the friendship, good conscience, lights of the Way. Before all things love is an approach and an interpretation of the Way. With all this, however, the Bektashi also have a kind of fast and a form of prayer. For a fast they have the mourning they keep for the Passion of Kerbela, the first ten days of the month which Moharrem. In these days some do not drink water, but this is excessive, since on the evening of the ninth day the warfare ceased, and it was not till the tenth after midday that the Imam Husain fell with his men, and then only is called they were without water. For this reason the fast is kept for ten days, but abstention from water is practised only from the evening of the ninth till the afternoon of the tenth. But let whoso will abstain also from water while he fasts. This shows the love the Bektashi bear to all the Saints. They have called niyas others rather : a fashion of prayer among them which is this the instructed use very seldom, the more This prayer often. may be made in the houses which are called jami. But in the houses of prayer they may make the other prayer, which is called namaz,. For the Bektashi do not reject this prayer, just as they do not reject the fast of the month which is called Ramazan, nor any of the humanity. religious duties, since all are needful to He who serves in a house of prayer makes betrothals and marriages, buries the dead, and performs all his services and duties. The Bektashi before and after food pray as follows O True Lord, increase and multiply, for Thou dost : ' ' Bektasbi Pages' nourish and conserve the Universe. All good cometh from Thee, for man and for all beasts Thou preparest the life. May Thy Goodness and Mercy never forsake 560 us. Great Lord ! Mohammed Ali Ye Twelve Imams Haji Bektash Veli May our prayer All ye Saints come before you.' ! ! ! ! At feasts and marriages they pray thus Great and True Lord, give and multiply Thy favour to mankind. Send not upon us grief and misery. Grant to us all good things. Show us the way of Righteousness, and leave us not in darkness. Blessed be Thy name now and for evermore, Lord Mohammed Ali Kadije Fatima Hasan and Husain All ye Saints Haji Bektash Veli come before our prayers you/ May True Lord, at Thy At betrothals they pray thus and in name command Grant concord and love, Thy and us deliver us from evil. Grant give Thy blessing, us plenty and all good things. In the name of David and Solomon, in the name of Aaron and Moses, and of Husain, in the name of Haji Bektash Veli, in the name of all our Lords tf : ! ! ! ! ! ! ' : ! ! Way of Mohammed Ali, in the teaching of the Jafer Sadik In the Imam ' ! * Unite them marriage they add these words as Thou didst unite Adam and Eve, Mohammed and Kadije, Ali and Fatima. Grant them life and length of days, and good and obedient children. May the Door be open for ever/ &c., &c. At deaths they pray thus At a : : 6 Lord great night in day. and Thou buriest day in night and true, leadest forth the living from the Thou dead, and the dead from the living. All things come from Thee and return unto Thee again. Forgive the sins of mankind for Thy glory's sake And lead us to ! Thou art the Light of Light. our prayer come before Thee eternally,' &c., &c. the Light, for May Tolerance The Bektashi 561 mourn only with dirges and wailings. They do not bury the dead tears, in the grave : never with they mourn [them] in their hearts. * They always speak well of the dead, saying, May his soul shine and may it be filled with joy The Way of the Bektashi holds all men, yea, all men, friends, and looks on them as one soul and one body. ' ! But this is recognized [only ?] by the learned and reasoning Bektashi. The true Bektashi respect a man of whatsoever religion he may be, they hold him their brother and their beloved, they never look on him as a stranger. no religion, but respect all. Nor do they the books of any religion or the [doctrine of the] They reject future reject life. The Bektashi keep for a holy day Bairam, the first day of the month which is called Sheval. Their second feast is on the first ten days of the month called Dilhije, the New Day (which is called Nevruz) * on the tenth of March, and the eleventh of the month called Moharrem.* During the ten days of the Passion they read the Passions of the Imams. The Guides, who pray and worship Truth and Goodand reject Falsehood and Evil, and regard all mankind as one family, and love it according to the Way of Mohammed AH these must be men of intelligence, of great wisdom, with zeal for adequate learning, for the unlearned and perverse man is wood unhewn, 3 the unness lettered as is the novice. 4 Let the Guides be men of truth, let them be without vices such as they have now, let them have integrity, 1 The A Persiai} New Year's feast. * See above, p. 559. widely spread Greek proverb (avOpcurros aypd^aros v\ov d7T\Kr)Tov) cf. Polites, JTapoi/u'cu, i, 279. 4 Note the assonance of the Albanian equivalent (i pa dituri eshu si 3 : i mituri). c 562 let them Bektasbi Pages forsake greed, pride * and folly, drink and and all the evils which drunkenness, lying and injustice, are without the Way of Humanity. Let them strive night and day for the nation to which the Father calls them and vouches for them that they will work with the chiefs and the notables for the salvation of Albania and the Albanians, for the education and civilization of their nation and their country, for their language, and for all progress and improvement. Let them be peaceable, let them remember the poor, let them shun evil and folly, let them cast into the Way all works that are needful for mankind and for religion, and let them forward all things good. Together with the chiefs and notables let them encourage love, brotherhood, unity, and friendship among all Albanians let not the Mussulmans be divided from the Christians, and the Christians from the Mussulmans, but let both work together. Let them strain towards enlightenment, that the Albanian, who was once reputed throughout all the world, be not despised to-day. All these things for those that have intelligence and who reason and work with zeal and with good sense are not hard tasks, but very light. When they accomplish these things, then will I call them Fathers and Guides but to-day I cannot so call them. 1 : : 2. Glossary of Albanian Religious Terms 2 Ata, baba, father. Brendes (dabile olan, Tk.), interior, esoteric. Dede (Tk.) ( =gyg) 9 grandfather. Fakir (Tk.) ( = varfe\ poor, dervish. Gyg ( = dede), grandfather. The sentence with which the pamphlet closes contains, perhaps 9 characteristically, an assonance (pa sot s u dyem dot). 2 Non-Albanian terms which are in everyday use among Turks are 1 described as Turkish. M.M.H. Jami Albanian Religious *Terms (Tk.), house of prayer. Murshid (Arab.) (udhe-rrefenies\ guide. Niyas (Tk.), request. Pir (Pers.) ( =plak), old man, patron saint. Plak =pir)j old Shpenes, leader. ( Udha (=Arab. man tarik), patron saint. way Udhe-rrefenies (=murshid), guide. Varfe ( ^fakir), poor, dervish. 563 XLIV AMBIGUOUS SANCTUARIES AND BEKTASHI PROPAGANDA * INTRODUCTORY stratification of cults at famous sanctuaries of the ancient world, reflected for the most part in their local mythology, has long been interpreted as evidence of the invasion of older by newer gods and THE A religious systems. religion carried by a conquering race or by a missionary priesthood to alien lands super- imposes itself, by force or persuasion, on an indigenous cult ; the process is expressed in mythological terms under the figure of a personal combat between the rival gods or of the reception of the new god by the old. 2 Eventually either one god or the other succumbs and disappears or is relegated to an inferior position ; or, again, the two may be more or less completely identified and fused. Of the religions of antiquity it is seldom possible to do more than conjecture by what methods ' ' and processes these transitions were actually carried out. The paper which follows is an attempt to examine some phenomena of the superimposition of cult in the case of a modern Mohammedan sect the Bektashi acting on the sanctuaries of the mixed populations of Turkey and in particular on Christian saint-cults. So far as we can see, where Bektashism has gained ground at the expense of Christianity, this has been accomplished without violence, either by processes analogous to that known to the ancient world as the ' reception of the new god by the old, or simply by the identification of ' 1 This chapter is an enlarged and corrected version of the which appeared in B.S.A. xx (1913-14), pp. 94-122. * See above, pp. 58 ff. article Bektashi Usurpations in Asia Minor the two personalities. The c 565 ' ambiguous sanctuary, claimed and frequented by both religions, seems to represent a distinct stage of development the period of equipoise, as it were in the transition both from Christianity to Bektashism and, in the rare cases where political and other circumstances are favourable, from Bektashism to Christianity. BEKTASHISM AND ORTHODOX ISLAM Usurpation of alien sanctuaries seems to have played an important part in the spread of Bektashism from the i. beginning. In the first place it is now generally recognized that the sect acquired its present name by such a usurpation. The Anatolian saint Haji Bektash has in reality nothing to do with the doctrines of the sect which bears his name. The real founder of the socalled Bektashi was a Persian mystic named Fadlullah, and the original name of the sect Hurufi. Shortly after Fadlullah's death his disciples introduced the Hurufi doctrines to the inmates of the convent of Haji Bektash (near Kirshehr in Asia Minor) as the hidden learning of Haji Bektash himself, under the shelter of whose name the Hurufi henceforth disseminated their doctrines, which are heretical and blasphemous to orthodox Moslems. 1 The methods used by the Hurufi-Bektashi to appropriate the sanctuary of Haji Bektash were evidently used by them elsewhere for the spread of their gospel. We may suppose that the persons administering tribal and other sanctuaries were won over, probably by more or less complete initiation into the secret learning of the Bektashi and the increase of power and prestige thereby afforded. The worshippers were satisfied by some apocryphal legend connecting their saint with 2 Haji Bektash or a saint of his cycle, and probably by an 1 2 Above, p. 160. So in ancient Athens the newcomer Asklepios is foisted on the 566 Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda increased output of miracles ; the sanctuary with its clientele would be thenceforth affiliated to the Bektashi organization. In the case of the more or less anonymous and untended saints' tombs or dedes, such as abound all over Turkey, the problem was still simpler. Such saints had only to be induced to reveal their true nature in dreams to Bektashi dervishes, and for the future their graves would be distinguished by Bektashi headdresses. Crowfoot's researches among the Anatolian Shia tribes (Kizilbash) of Cappadocia have revealed the process of 1 amalgamation in an intermediate stage. At Haidar-esSultan, a Shia village near Angora, the eponymous saint 2 Haidar, probably tribal in origin, is identified quite irrationally under Bektashi auspices with Khoja Ahmed of Yasi, who figures in Bektashi legend as the spiritual master of Haji Bektash, and also with Kara] a Ahmed, a saintly prince of Persia, who, though himself probably in origin a tribal saint, has been adopted into the Bektashi cycle. 3 The tekke of Haidar-es-Sultan has close relations with the Bektashi. Similar cases of absorption by the Bektashi could probably be found without difficulty elsewhere. probable case seems to be the great and rich convent A with two hundred dervishes found by Lucas at Yatagan 4 near Denizli 5 (vilayet of Aidin). Tsakyroglous' list of nomad Turkish tribes includes one named Tataganli, indigenous Amynos on the assumption that both were pupils of Chiron. In the case of Turkish tribal sanctuaries the propagation of such myths would be particularly easy the tribes dimly remembered their immigration, as squatters and raiders, from the East, while the fictitious cycle of Bektashi tradition represented Haji Bektash and his companions : as immigrant missionaries from the same quarter. J. R. Anthr. Inst. xxx (1900), pp. 305 ff. 1 2 3 4 5 On Haidar-es-Sultan see above, pp. 52-3, 403. See above, p. 404 and n. 6. So Arundell, Asia Minor, ii, 142. Foy agefait en 1714,1, 171 for the text see above, p. 508, : n. 2. Bektashi Usurpations in Asia Minor 567 1 which frequents the vilayet of Aidin. The saint buried at Yatagan was in all probability the eponym of the tribe (Yatagan-Dede ?) later adopted, like Haidar, by the Bektashi. The tekke was one of the Bektashi convents ruined in 1826 ; it is now insignificant, though the tomb of Yatagan Baba survives. Such absorption of tribal saints, whose cults are often in the hands of more or less illiterate people, is comparatively easy. The Bektashi, according to their enemies at least, orders. were quite as successful in ousting rival religious generally considered by Haji Bektash himself is the orthodox a saint of the Nakshbandi order, and since the suppression of the Bektashi in 1826 an orthodox mosque with a minaret has been built at the central tekke and a Nakshbandi sheikh quartered on the com2 munity for the performance of services in it. Similarly the Nakshbandi claimed that the Bektashi had unscrupulously usurped others of their saints' tombs, including those of Ramazan Baba at Brusa and of the saint buried in the tekke of Kasr-el-Aini at Cairo. 3 Such usurpations, if we may believe Assad Efendi, the historian of Sultan Mahmud's campaign against the Bekunder the pretext that the tashi, were numerous titles baba and abdal denoted exclusivelv Bektashi saints, the Bektashi appropriated the chapels and sepulchral monuments of all the saints so entitled belonging by right to the Nakshbandi, Kadri, and other : j orders. 4 1 see above, p. 477. 77e/H FiovpovKcw, 15 I have often found a mesjid or oratory in a Bektashi tekke ^ but never a mosque with proper establishment. Mesjids are built for the appear: * ance of orthodoxy and for the accommodation of orthodox visitors. [At Asim Baba's tekke in Argyrokastro, Albania, the Nakshbandi taj with its four segments is still worn over the usual Bektashi headdress see above, p. 541. M. M. H.]. 3 For this see saint, above, pp. 229-30, 516. 4 Assad The Albanian Efendi, Destr. desjanissaires (1833), PBektashi seem to lay claim to such saints as Shems Tabrizi, Nasr-ed-din : 3- 568 2. Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda BEKTASHISM AND CHRISTIANITY IN ASIA MINOR We have thus found evidence of Bektashi encroachments on tribal sanctuaries and on the holy places of other orders. More interesting is their procedure in the case of Christian churches and saints' tombs ; they have not only laid claim to Christian sanctuaries, but have also in return thrown open the doors of their own to Christians. 1 This is the more remarkable since Chris- Turkish lands are much less protected by public opinion than are orthodox Moslem sects like the Nakshtians in bandi. The numerous points of contact between Bektashism and Christianity have been set forth at length by Jacob. 2 The only historical evidence of overt propaganda among Christians is to be found in the accounts of the rebellion of Bedr-ed-din of Simav,3 in the early years of the which can hardly have been unconnected with the Bektashi-Hurufi sect, though this is nowhere explicitly stated. The rebellion was partly a fifteenth century, religious, partly a social movement the programme : in- cluded the Bektashi-Hurufi doctrines of religious fusion and community of goods. An enthusiastic welcome was extended to Christian proselytes and proclamation was made to the effect that any Turk who denied true A religion in the Christians was himself irreligious. special manifesto on these lines, carried by a dervish deputation to a Cretan monk resident in Chios, was successful in 4 winning him to the cause. The pro- Khoja of Akshehr, and Haji Bairam (founder of the Bairami order) of Angora (Degrand, Haute Albanie^ p. 230). 2 1 Cf. de Vogue, Hist. Orient., p. 198. Bektascbijje, pp. 29 ff. 3 B 112 Hist. Ducas, p. ; Hammer-Hellert, Emp. Ott. ii, 181 ff. 4 The text is of the rebels sent to the The leader Ducas. given by rco dew a! Aarpcuets', /cat aov Cretan, saying /cdyco owaovojTTjs" t/xc, : Kivq> Kayoj rrjv irpoaKvvirjaw <f)paj. With this compare the conduct of the Hurufi dervish met in Chios about the same time by George of Hungary, who ' intrabat ecclesiam christianorum, et Bektashi Propaganda 569 Christian tendencies of the rebels were evidently recognized by the Turks in the punishment eventually meted out to their leader, who was crucified. Liberal theory, however, can have little real hold on the imagination of the masses. For the illiterate, whether Moslem or Christian, doctrine is important their mainly as embodying a series of prohibitions vital and positive religion is bound up with the cult of the saints and demands concrete objects of worship, 1 especially graves and relics, and above all miracles, to sustain its faith. It is in the cult of the saints that the Bektashi propaganda amongst Christians has left most trace. The lines adopted are identical with, or parallel to, those followed, according to the theory propounded elsewhere,* by the Mevlevi order of dervishes at Konia in the Middle Ages for a similar purpose. On the one ' hand, Moslem sanctuaries are made ambiguous ', or accessible to Christians also, by the circulation of legends to the effect (i) that a saint worshipped by Moslems as : signabat se signo crucis, et aspergebat se aqua benedicta, et dicebat ' manifesto, uestra lex est ita bona sicut nostra est (De Moribus Turcorum, cap. xx). 1 The enormous potency religion is Burckhardt. of graves and buried saints in popular in out regard to the Holy Places of Islam by pointed Though the visit to the Prophet's tomb at Medina is optional and the pilgrimage to the Kaaba at Mecca obligatory, the tomb of the Prophet inspires the people of Medina with much more respect than the Kaaba does those at Mecca, visitors crowd with more zeal and eagerness to the former shrine than the latter, and more decorum is observed in its precincts. At Mecca itself men will swear lightly by the Kaaba, but not by the grave of Abu Taleb (Arabia, A Mecca merchant said to Niebuhr (Voyage i, 235 ; ii, 195, 197). en Arable^ i, 350) that a Mochha je me fierois peu a un homme, qui affirme quelque chose en prenant le nom de Dieu a temoin : mais je puis compter sur la foi de celui, qui jure par le nom de Schaedeli, dont la moschee, et le tombeau, sont devant ses yeux '. Clermont' Ganneau, Pal. Inconnue, pp. 55-6, found men frequently broke their oath by God, their life, their head or yours, the Temple, or the Sakhra, but almost never their oath by the local saint. * Above, pp. 371 3295.2 ff. P Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda a Moslem was secretly converted to Christianity, or (2) 570 Moslem saint's mausoleum is shared by a ChrisOn the other hand, Christian sanctuaries are made that the tian. Moslems by (3) the identification of the Christian saint with a Moslem. These three schemes accessible to * may be and ' ? * called for brevity conversion , intrusion ', ' for the latter process use is often identification : made on the Moslem sonage at side of a Konia Plato as a somewhat vague per- * ' lay-figure capable of assimilation to various Christian saints. In Turkey, particularly in parts where the average peasant intelligence and general culture are of a low order and the difference between Christian and Moslem is not acutely felt, it is usual for any sanctuary reputed 1 for its miracles to be frequented by both religions. The ' ' ' ' intrusion ', and identification conversion ', schemes are devised to accentuate this natural point of contact between the two religions and to put it on a logical footing. The idea of metempsychosis, which is often implied by identification ', though foreign to Orthodox Christian thought, is widely current in the Shia forms of Islam. 2 For Asia Minor the ' lay-figure saint of the Bektashi 3 Khidr is reverenced in is possibly the protean Khidr. a vague way by all Moslems, who often identify him with S. George. He has a special prominence among the Kizilbash of Asia Minor, 4 whose connexion with the Bektashi is obscure but well authenticated. The Kizilbash Kurds of the Dersim recognize the Armenian saint ' ' an important factor. The phenoin central Asia Minor, where all races speak Turkish, and in Albania, where all religions speak Albanian. * The Persian Shah Abbas held firmly that Ali, S. George, and S. of were identical Compostella (P. della Valle, Viaggi, ii, 257 f.). James 1 In this assimilation language is mena here mentioned occur markedly For Khidr see above, pp. 319-36. Trans. Viet. Inst. xxxix (1907), p. 156 ; cf. White, Jerphanion in Ztit. The Nosairi of the same is true xx, 493. yz. (R. Dussaud, 3 4 Nosairis, pp. 128-35). Religious Fusion Sergius as identical with Khidr x 571 and make pilgrimage Armenian churches of S. Sergius as to sanctuaries of Khidr. 2 Farther west, among Greek populations who holdS. Sergius of less importance than do the Armenians, the connexion generally admitted by Moslems between to Khidr and George and S. Elias has probably served tekke of Sheikh Elwan in Pontus Khidr seems certainly to have supplanted S. Theodore,3 who, as a cavalier and a dragon-slayer, approximates to S, George. Though we cannot as yet definitely ascribe to the Bektashi this transference from Christianity to Islam, the locality falls well within the range of their S. At the turn. its influence. The more ignorant the populations concerned, the farther such identifications can be pressed. The Kizilbash Kurds, who possess in all probability a strong admixture of Armenian blood, equate Ali to Christ, the Twelve Imams to the Twelve Apostles, and Hasan and Husain to SS. Peter and Paul. 4 The conversion of illiterate Christians, always aided by material attractions, becomes fatally easy under the influences of this accommodating form of Islam. Apparent examples of such religious fusion under Bektashi auspices are to be found in the following Anatolian cults. Haji Bektash Tekke^ near Kirshebr i. This, the central tekke of the Bektashi order, is frequented by Christians, who claim that the site was once occupied by a On entering the Christian monastery of S. Charalambos.5 mausoleum 1 z (turbe) where Haji Bektash Grenard, Journ. Asiat. Molyneux Seel, Geog. iii buried Christians (1904), p. 518. Journ. xliv (1914), p. 66. are said to confuse SS. Sergius ii, lies and George The Armenians (P. della Valle, Viaggi, 258). 3 Anderson, Stud. Pont, i, 9 ff. ; cf. iii, 207 ff. See further above, 4 Molyneux Seel, loc. at. pp. 47 ff. 5 Levides, Moval see KaTrTraSo/aW, above, pp. 83-4. rfjs 572 Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda make the sign of the cross they are said to identify the tomb : with that of S. Charalambos, who, however, has no connexion with Cappadocia. The identification has taken firm hold, but it seems proved that it is not of great antiquity by the account of the archbishop Cyril (1815), who equates Haji Bektash, not to S. Charalambos, but to S. Eustathius, probably on the 2 ground of some stag story. The central Bektashi tekke is thus a holy place, not only for the heretical Mussulman sect which possesses and administers it, but for orthodox Mussulmans, who hold Haji Bektash for a Nakshbandi saint and venerate him accordingly, and for Christians, who claim that site and tomb were originally Christian. This state of things is almost exactly paralleled at the central 1 * ' which contains the devil-worshippers Adi. Sheikh Orthodox Mussulof their alleged founder, grave mans abhor the religion of the Yezidi, but venerate the historical Sheikh Adi, whom they regard as an orthodox saint of the shrine of the Yezidi sixth century of their era ; the local (Nestorian) Christians hold that the site of the Yezidi sanctuary was originally occupied by monastery of S. Addai (? or Addaeus of Edessene and legend) subsequently usurped by one Adi, a renegade monk, who is credited with evolving the religion actually practised by a Christian the modern ii. Yezidi.3 Haidar-es-Sultan Tekke near Angora 4 ^ Haidar, the Moslem saint buried here, is identified undei Bektashi auspices with Khoja Ahmed (Karaja Ahmed ?), a dis5 ciple of Haji Bektash, who is said to have settled here with his wife, a Christian woman, named Mene, from Caesarea. Local Moslem tradition holds that the tekke occupies the site of a 6 The connexion with the Bektashi is monastery. the village is Kizilbash or Shia, and obvious from the legend as such under their religious authority. 7 Christian : 1 3 See above, p. 84, 11.7. B. Heard, in J. R. Antbr. W. 2 Inst. xli, 202 f. See above, p. 85. : cf. Hume Griffith, Behind the Veil in Persia, p. 291. 4 See above, pp. 52, 403. A local error, see above, p. 404. Inst. xxx (1900), pp. 305-20. 7 this point see further White in Trans. Viet. Inst. xl (1908), For the Kizilbash see above, pp. 139 ff. p. 235. 5 6 Crowfoot in J. R. Antbr. On Sidi Ghazi and Shamaspur 573 Tekke of Sidi Battal, near Eskishebr iii. * This dervish convent, which has been in the hands of the Bektashi at least since the sixteenth century, 2 claims to possess the tomb of the Arab hero Sidi Battal Ghazi ; beside him reposes his wife, princess. who was, according to tradition, a Christian 3 iv. Shamaspur Tekke, Alaja (Paphlagonia) Local Moslems say of Greek monastery. 4 The this (Bektashi) tekke that it saint buried there is Husain was an old Ghazi, the father of Sidi Battal.5 The name of the tekke, however, seems to connect it also with Sbamas, who figures in Turkish legend as the governor of a castle near Kirshehr, slain in single combat by 6 this is a popular rendering and localization of an Sidi Battal incident in the Romance of Sidi Battal, in which Scbamas, brother of the governor of Amorium, is slain by the hero. 7 In this same romance the hero converts to Islam a monk named Scbumas.* It is tempting to suppose that from these materials c a Christian figure, somewhat analogous to the monk or * ' 9 bishop buried in the tekke of the Mevlevi at Konia, has been manufactured and intruded on the Shamaspur tekke. : ' 1 * For this tekke see below, pp. 705-10. Here also there must for chronological reasons have been a usurpa- by the Bektashi if the traditional account of the discovery of Sidi A legend is told at Battal's remains by a Seljuk princess is allowed. tion visit of Haji Bektash to the place, and to confirm it, hands and teeth are shown on the walls of the buildings (Mordtmann, <2>tAoA. ZvXXoyos, /JapaprTj^a rov 6' rofiov, p. xv). Other Bektashi legends connecting the convent with Haji Bektash or his the tekke of a marks of his by Jacob (Beitrdge, p. 13) from Evliya. See below, p. 706. 4 H. J. Ross, Letters from the East, Hamilton, Asia Minor, i, 402 f. in Asia Minor, p. 36. The tekke is also p. 243 ; Wilson, Murray's mentioned as a place of miraculous healing by Prof. White, Trans. early followers are given 3 : Viet. Inst. xxxix, 159. 5 For the latter see below, p. 709. 6 7 s 9 Ainsworth, Travels, i, 157. Ethe, Fahrten des Sajjid Battkdl, \, 27 cf. below, Ibid., p. 21 ; Shamas is the Arabic for deacon. See above, p. 86. : p. 711. 574 Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda v. Tekke of Nusr-ed-din, Zile (Pontus) This tekke is venerated by Christians, apparently as containing tomb of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste. It was formerly called Kirklar Tekke (' Convent of the Forty ') and is thought 1 by Gregoire to have had a Christian past under that title. The isolated position of the tekke in a strongly Shia district almost warrants the assumption that it is connected with the Bektashi. the Nerses, Rumkale This ancient Armenian church was occupied by Mohammedans in the latter part of the seventeenth century ' afin de donner a entendre par la qu'ils reverent les Saints, & que celuy auquel cette Eglise est dediee, estoit de leur party, & Musulman comme eux ? 2 Rumkale is on the Upper Euphrates, not far from the country of the Kizilbash Kurds, who have, as already said, a religious connexion with the Bektashi. vi. S. . Chapel at Adalia vii. Savary de Breves found at Adalia a cave-chapel still retaining of Christian frescoes, in which was shown the tomb of a Christian hermit. The latter, according to the Turks, had on his death-bed confessed himself a Mussulman, and on this account received from Mussulmans the honour due to one of their own saints. 3 The Bektashi order has at the present day an establishment at Adalia. traces c viii. Tomb of S. PolycarpJ Smyrna The 4 It history of this cult is discussed at length elsewhere. has been, as far back as it can be traced, Moslem in form, and S. Polycarp was formerly appears first in Moslem hands. claimed as a saint of their own by the dervishes in charge of the tomb, who are shown by the Bektashi headdress on an adjoining grave to have been at some time members of this order. A sup5 posed mitre of the saint was shown to pilgrims. 1 B.C.H., 1909, pp. 25 2 M. Febvre, Theatre de la Turquie^Sz), p. 46 if. ; cf. above, pp. 49-50. : see also above, p. 53. in full above, p. 74, n. 2). For Voyages (Paris, 1628), p. 23 (quoted a similar legendary conversion, but to Christianity, of an ambiguous saint, cf. above, p* 376. 3 4 5 Above, pp. 406 if, (reprinted from B.S.A. xx, 80 ff.). Cf. no. xii below (Eski Baba). Benderegli and Mamasun ' ix. A Tomb 575 of S. Theodore? near Benderegli (Herakleia Pontica) (mausoleum) on a hill above Arapli, a few miles west of Benderegli, is visited yearly by Christians as containing the tomb of S. Theodore Stratelates. 1 The turbe seems to be a humble wooden erection and contains two outwardly Turkish tombs,* attributed by the Greeks to S. Theodore and his disciple Varro,3 and by the Turks to a warrior saint named Ghazi Shahid Mustafa and his son. These are tended by a Turkish woman, who receives offerings from pil4 grims of both religions in the shape of money and candles. The connexion of this ambiguous cult with the Bektashi cannot be pressed, but there is a village bearing the name Beteshler ' the Bektashis ') in (interpreted by von Diest as Bektashler, 5 the vicinity. turbe Mamasun Tekke x. (Ziaret Kilise) near Nevsbehr This sanctuary was discovered, apparently in the last century, 6 by a series of miraculous accidents, in a barn belonging to an ? ' 1 * P. Makris, '//pa/cActa rov IJovrov, pp. 115 ff. See above, pp. 88-9. Makris describes them as 8vo v\wa jajSoma azrep 6?ye (freperpa, ' adding Trpos TO /xepos T^S* /cc^aA^y ^epovcri KtSdpeis [turbans] /cat /zeya /co/i/JoAdytov [rosary].' c ' 3 Varro (Ovdppwv) does not figure in the orthodox legend of S. Theodore Makris speaks of an ancient inscription formerly kept at : the site 4 in ; it possibly contained the name. un santon dit " Gaghni " Pontus was reported by Pere Girard to Cumont, but without A similar mixed cult of S. Theodore and details (Stud. Pont, Von ii, ' * 143, note 3). zum Pontus, i, 81. Betesh or Petesb seems to be the original form of Bektasb. In George of Hungary's De Moribus Turcoru?n (cap. xv see p. 496), written in the middle of the fifteenth 5 Diest, Perg. : century, the saint beregrinationis). called Hatschi Pettescb is etymology from geubek 1 The itone 6 (* Bektash seems to depend on a false navel ') and tash (' stone ') as Leake betrays : Bektashli are so called upon (translated adiutorius The fdrm his navel from a Cappadocian sheikh who wore a ' (N. Greece^ iv, 284). not mentioned in the Archbishop Cyril's 77e/Ky/>a<^} (1815) :>r indicated in his map (1812) which generally marks even purely Moslem tekkes of importance. For a full account of this sanctuary see It is above, pp. 43-5 : for the relevant texts see pp. 759-61. Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektasbi Propaganda inhabitant of the (purely Turkish) village of Mamasun. The 576 rock-cut Christian church discovered was attributed to S. Mamas, probably on account of the name of the village, and has been adapted for the ambiguous modern cult. At the east end Holy Table, at which itinerant Christian priests are allowed and a picture of S. Mamas, while in the south wall is a niche (mihrab) giving the orientation of Mecca to Turkish pilgrims. There is no partition between Christian and Moslem is a to officiate, worshippers, but the latter, while at their prayers, are allowed to turn the picture from them. The sanctuary is administered by dervishes. An analysis of these ten cases of ambiguous sanctuaries in Asia Minor gives the following results : 1 . cases Connexion with the Bektashi ii, (i, iii, The iv, viii). established in five remainder of the sancis tuaries are situated within the area of Bektashi activities and are not known to be in other hands. Christian saints are claimed as Moslem by the conversion or analogous motifs in four, possibly five, 2. ' ? cases (v 3. tian ( ?), vi, vii, viii, x). Apparently Moslem c by identification ? saints are in two claimed cases (i, ix). as Chris- Moslem c sanctuaries have a Christian side developed by in' trusion in two, possibly three, cases (ii, iii (?), iv). BEKTASHISM AND CHRISTIANITY IN EUROPE 3. The ' ' of Bektashi propaganda amongst lay-figure the Christians of Rumeli is Sari Saltik, 1 whose elaborate 2 legend has been discussed elsewhere. Sari 3 ally, as I believe, a tribal saint, is Saltik, originidentified in a general Khidr [Khizr] also has an importance, at present ill-defined, for Albanian Bektashism (Durham, Burden of the Balkans, p. 208). 2 B.S.d. xix, 203 if. cf. above, pp. 429 ff. 3 This idea, forward put tentatively in B.S.A. xix, gains weight from the following considerations : (l) Colour-adjectives (' black/ 1 : ' * * blue Sari (' yellow ') are often prefixed to tribal to the distinctive colouring or marking of the names, possibly alluding white,* red,' ') like Bektashi Propaganda in Europe 577 and seems to have occupied a way with S. Nicolas, certain number of churches dedicated to that saint in eastern Turkey in Europe. These can all be brought into relation with the earliest cycle of the Sari Saltik myth, which concerns itself with his apocryphal adventures in Europe, and ends with his death and the miraculous transformation of his body into seven bodies, four of which were buried in Turkish territory (Thrace, Bulgaria, Rumania, Crimea ?) and three in Christian Europe 1 In a variant version, (Bohemia, Danzig, Sweden). from a manuscript discovered by Degrand at Tirana, forty bodies of Sari Saltik are found after his death ; one of these is singled out by a miracle as the genuine corpse and buried in a circle composed of the other thirtynine. 2 This variant suggests that a pretext was needed for the usurpation of some cult of 'the Forty'. 3 In the western section, which appears to have been touched by A town in the Crimea named (2) a tribal holy man ?) is mentioned herds of sections of a divided tribe. Baba Saltuk after a ' diviner 9 (i. e. (tr. Sanguinetti, ii, 416, 445), and Baba Dagh, the of the Sari Saltik of Bektashi tradition, was colonized starting-point Tatars, probably from the Crimea. (3) Saltaklu appears as a villageby name near Eski Baba in Thrace, and Saltik in Phrygia near Sandikli. (4) It is obvious that Saltik, like Betesh (above, p. 575, note 5), means nothing to the ordinary Turk, by the frequent attempts to produce by Ibn Batuta an etymology for it. Sari Saltik ' c variously rendered is ' The Blond ' the Yellow Corpse (Ae^avov), Apostle (Ippen, Skutari, p. 72) which was the explanation offered me by the Abbot of S. Naum (see ' * below, no. xx) ; Yellow Pate (Bargrave, in Bodleian Cod. Rawlinson > ' Yellow Jacket ' was the translation offered me by C. 799, f. 50 vso.) ; ; a bey of Okhrida ; a still more complicated derivation, from salmak dismiss '), is given from a native source by Degrand (Haute Albanie, (' p. 240). This version is set down by the seventeenth-century traveller Evliya Efendi on the authority of the dervishes of Kilgra (Travels, see above, p. 429). ii, 70-72 2 the MS. is said by Jacob to be Degrand, Haute Albanie, p. 242 the Vilayetnameb of Hajim Sultan (Beitrage, p. 2, n. 4). See further * : : above, p. 437. 3 On this point see above, p. 437, and n. 5. Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda Bektashi propaganda a good deal later than the eastern and now contains in Albania the chief stronghold of the sect, Sari Saltik is identified with the Christian saints Naum and Spyridon. The corresponding cycle of the Sari Saltik myth now current in Albania makes that 578 country the exclusive scene of the saint's activity. He appears at Kruya, where he slays a dragon, and in the sequel, to escape persecution, crosses miraculously to 1 To the date and bearing of this Corfu, where he dies. 2 part of the legend we have already referred. The following ambiguous sanctuaries may be cited from the European area : xi. Tekke of Sari Saltik, Kilgra (Bulgaria) This Bektashi sanctuary (now abandoned), on the promontory of Kilgra (Kaliakra) in Bulgaria, was held by its former dervish occupants to have been the scene of Sari Saltik's fight with the * dragon, and one of the seven places where he was buried. Local Christians now hold that it contains the tomb of S. Nicolas, with whom it may have been associated in Byzantine times for the Turks the saint worshipped there is now known ; 4 Haji Baba. as xii. Tekke at Eski Bab a (Thrace) The Bektashi in charge of this sanctuary in the seventeenth century identified the saint buried in it with their own Sari and the Christian S. Nicolas. 5 The tekke is said to be former Christian church and is to this day frequented by Christians. 6 A mitre and other relics, alleged to have belonged Saltik a 1 Degrand, Haute Albanie, 2 Above, p. 436. See above, p. 430. * 4 aussersten Jirecek, in Arch. Epigr. Mitth. x (1886), pp. 188 f. Ende gibt es neben dem Leuchtthurm vier kleinere, kiinstlich ausgeglattete und mit gemeisselten Sitzen versehene Hohlenraume, die wie Wohnzimmer untereinander verbunden sind. Eine mit einer niederen Umfassung zugemaucrte Ecke darin gilt den Christen als Grab des " heil. Nikola, den Turken als das des Hadji Baba ".' See also above, p. 240. 3 : p. 51. 6 M. Am Above, pp. 54-6. To Christodoulos, /Tcptypcu^ Eapavra 'EKKXrjmtov, p. 47 /c rov T Sta rov ovo/za dim/carecrr^ rdfiov arj^pov 5 : Eski Baba and Bunar Hisar to S. Nicolas, as 579 were formerly shown here, but were not accepted 1 genuine by the Christians. xiii. Tekke of Binbiroglu Ahmed Baba, Bunar Hisar (Thrace) c Macintosh in 1836 found just east of Bunar Hisar a cemetery distinguished by a tower-shaped building with a dome roof, said to be a remnant of an ancient Greek churchy dedicated to St. Nicholas, but now the burying-place of a wealthy Turkish proprietor V who describes the already deserted tekke of * ' (1837), speaks of the saint as a general Achmed who Boue, this day was regarded as the conqueror of the country. 3 Bektashi saints Rumeli are often represented as early ghazis. The full name of the saint, and that of the order to which the tekke belonged (Bektashi), are given by Jochmus, who visited the place in ' 1847.4 The ambiguous character of the sanctuary is betrayed, in the light of Albanian and other parallels/ by Macintosh's in * words. (Bafia) xaipovros viroXfjifjiv napa Tovpxois re Kl[JLVOV V TO) TTOLpOL TTj /COJ/ZTJ Ct? TtKV p,Taf}Xr)0VTl a) rov *AyLov NtKoXdov eV a) Kal KarcpKei. I was told 1907 that Christians still frequented the tekke ; see above, in p. 55, n. 6. 1 * Diese Waffen, sprechen die Gerlach, Tage-Buch, p. 5 Die Griechen aber sprechen, die Tiircken, habe St. Niclaus gefiihret Tiircken habeas nur liinein gehanget/ Cf. also Arsenij Cernojevic S. : : Roman Empire, Bury, E. (A.D. 1683) in description see above, pp. 430 ff. and For a more detailed p. 345. for relevant texts see below, 3 Military Tour, i, 73. voit \, n'y plus qu'un pays couvert de il a au milieu une broussailles, duquel y petite mosquee et vis-a-vis un batiment carre entoure d'une muraille. La mosquee n^est que le pp. 761-3. 3 Itineraries, 132: 'On monument qui recele les restes du general Achmed, le conquerant de ce pays, et ceux de quelques uns de ses parents. Une natte entoure le tombeau afin qu'on puisse y prier. Un cimetiere est autour de cet edifice, qui est un lieu de alors les devots.' and The pelerinage et le batiment carre sert a heberger tekke was probably one of those put down in now a cbiftlik or farm. xxiv y.R.G.S. (1854), P- 44 5 f r *h e inscription in * letters see above, p. 519, n. 4. Syrian 5 nos. xviii, xix, below. Especially 1826, 4 is * Ancient Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda 580 xiv. Though Tekke of Akyazili Baba, near Balchik (Rumania) it is nowhere hands of the Bektashi, The distinctly stated, this tekke was in the Varna resident informed me, in 1914. as a who appears to have been purely Moslem in origin, side as S. Athanasius, who, under present Christian a developed a in fair way to usurp all the honours of the seems conditions, saint, 1 2 place. xv. What seems, S. Eusebia, Selymbria (Thrace) in the light of modern 3 developments in Albania, to be a corresponding adoption of a Christian saint by the Bektashi is noted by Cantimir in Thrace, a former stronghold of the ' order. At Selymbria are preserved entire ', he says, ' the rethe Turks call her Cadid, and visit her mains of S. Euphemia out of curiosity.' 4 The allusion is to the body of S. (ocna) Xene (in religion Eusebia) of Mylasa, which is still preserved in the church of the Virgin at Selymbria. 5 Here, as in Albania, if our supposition is correct, the Bektashi have selected an ancient church containing the tangible relics of a popular saint, whom they have re-named for the purposes of their propaganda. : He was possibly tribal : a village named Akyazili formerly existed in Bulgaria (Jireek, in Arch. Epigr. Mitth. x (1886), p. 161), and there is a village Akyazi in Bithynia. 1 2 Kanitz, Bulgarie, pp. 474 ff. ; Jirecek, Bulgarien, p. 533 cf. Arch. Epigr. Mittb. x (1886), p. 182 ; J. Nikolaos, 'OSrjaao's, pp. 248-50. I was told by a local resident that during the last war the crescent on the turbe had been displaced in favour of a cross by the Bulgarian priest of the village. The development of this cult is : discussed in detail above, p. 90-2 pp. 763 ff. : original texts are given below, 3 Below, nos. xx, xxi. Emp. Oth. i, 121. Turks or Greeks will of course frequent miraculous shrine for cure irrespective of religion ; the renaming any 4 Hist. stamps this case as peculiar. Cadid by momie, but Von Hammer (Hist. Emp. Ott. iii, 14) can find no authority for this. 5 S. Xene in the figures Synaxaria of 24 Jan. Her relics at Selymbria are mentioned already in 1614 by Pietro della Valle (Fiaggi, i, 17) and in modern times are one of the attractions of a frequented Orthodox pilgrimage, cf. Prodikos, in QpaKiK^ *E7T-rqpis, i, 68 ; Anon., in BzvoA distaff and other belongings of the saint are , iii, 256, 322. translates I Ainos 581 Ainos (Thrace), Tekke of Yunuz* Baba xvi. A cruciform domed building, apparently of Christian origin, on the outskirts of Ainos is called by the Turks the tekke of Yunuz Baba and by the Christians the church of S. Euplous. 1 Thrace was notoriously a stronghold of Bektashism down to the fall of the Janissaries (1826) and Ainos was a garrisoned fortress. Baba is the usual saint's title and Yunuz (' Jonas ') a favourite name among the Bektashi, perhaps on account of the famous Bektashi saint Emrem Yunuz. z Euplous, a Sicilian saint, though his memory is venerated the Orthodox (i I Aug.) is a most unusual patron for a Greek by church. may possibly explain his presence at Ainos by the he is a derivative of Yunuz Baba. The (verbal) that assumption connexion of the name of S. Euplous with the sea is obvious, S. We and Yunuz (Jonas) is 3 equally easily so connected. In the western section of Turkey in Europe, which includes Albania, the great stronghold of Bektashism to-day, many ambiguous sanctuaries besides those here set down probably await discovery, since the Moslems of Albania represent to a very large extent Christian populations converted, some only nominally, at various dates. 4 They are generally considered lax Mohammedans, and share much of the superstition of their Christian compatriots. The Tosks are largely Shia. 5 also shown ; such relics are comparatively rare in Orthodoxy, exceed- common in popular Islam. ingly * 1 Lambakis, in AeXrlov Xpicrr. *Apx<uoX. Eraipeias , H, 28. 2 It may be more than a coincidence that a Pasha named Yunuz conquered the town of Ainos for Mohammed II, but did not die there (Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. iii, 28). Here is quite sufficient foundation for a dervish legend of a ghazi saint. 3 Cf. the case of Yunuz Baba at Constantinople, who is also called Deniz Abdal ', the fool (-saint) of the sea ', and is believed to have walked on the sea (Carnoy and Nicolaides, Folklore de Constantinople, * ' P- 135). For the conversion of Albania see above, p. 439. Ibrahim Manzour, Memoires, p. xvii. A false prophet, claiming to be an incarnation of Ali, appeared in Albania in 1607 (Ambassade de 4 5 J. de Gontaut-Biron, Paris, 1889, p. 138). 582 Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda For Albanian Christians the material inducements to become at least nominally Mussulmans have always been great* A more promising field for Bektashi propaganda could hardly be found. The following ambiguous sanctuaries may be cited from the western area, all demonstrably depending on the propaganda of the Bektashi. The historical background of their development will be discussed later. xvii. Tekke of Turbe All Sultan, Rini, near Felestino I (Thessaly) * * This, the last remaining Bektashi convent in old Greece, is f visited by Christians as a sanctuary of S. George, and a tra? dition is current that it occupies the site of a Christian monasThere is no trace of previous tery dedicated to that saint. Christian occupation.- Tekke of Sersem Ali, Kalkandelen xviii. The Bektashi saint supposed to be buried here is identified with S. Elias, apparently on no other grounds by the than and EliasJ> The similarity between the names the foundation will of be discussed below. history local Christians AH xix. Tekke of Karaja Ahmed, near Uskub This (Bektashi) tekke, near the present station of Alexandrovo (between Uskub and Kumanovo), has been described at some length by Evans, who notes that it was in Turkish times fre- quented by Christians on S. George's day. 4 The identification of Karaja Ahmed 5 with S. George has taken such hold on the Christian population that since the Balkan war and the Serbian conquest of the district the sanctuary has been formally claimed by the erection of a cross, though the dervish in 6 has not been evicted. charge for Christianity 1 South of the above, p. 531. station Aivali, between Velestino * F. W. H. and Pharsala 3 F. : see W. H. J.H.S. xxi, 202 ff. cf. Archaeologia, xlix, 1 10: cf. above, pp. 274-7. 9 ' Karaja Ahmed is a regular Bektashi intrusion figure of the same see above, p. 405. type as Sari Saltik 6 From a local Mohammedan informant (1914). 4 ; 5 : Naum S. xx. Monastery of and S. S. 583 Spyridon Naum Lake Okhrida on This monastery, containing the tomb of the saint, one of the seven apostles of the Slavs, is known to local Moslems generally l as Sari Saltik, with whom the Christian saint is identified ; the Bektashi of the adjoining (Koritza) district make pilgrimage to the tomb. Already in the twenties of the last century Walsh ' remarks that the Turks claim S. Naoum as a holy man of their and von Hahn in the 'sixties found a prayer-carpet religion the at tomb for the benefit of Moslem pilgrims 3 this kept carpet, not being a necessary, or even a usual, feature of a Moslem cult, was probably considered, or on its way to be considered, a personal relic of the saint. While I was at S. Naum V : (1914), the Greek abbot, to whom I tion on the relations of the Bektashi am indebted for informa- with the monastery, told from the abbot of one of the Bektashi tekkes at Koritza, who told him that Sari Saltik, on a visit to the monastery, had, with the Christian abbot, miraculously crossed the lake to Okhrida on a straw-mat (i/jdOa). Such miraculous journeys, generally made on prayer-rugs, are a reguThe introduction of Okhrida may lar motif of dervish stories. 4 indicate the beginning of an adoption by the Bektashi of the church and tomb of S. Clement in the latter town. me that he had received xxi. a visit S. Spyridon, Corfu said, is one of the Christian saints Spyridon, identified by the Bektashi with their own apostle Sari Saltik * this explains the introduction of Corfu, where S. Spyridon's as S. we have ; body is preserved in the cathedral, into the Kruya cycle of Sari According to one Bektashi tradition, Sari Saltik settled at the monastery, converted, and eventually succeeded to, the Christian abbot. This is a mild edition of the earlier episode at Danzig (above, p. 429). 1 3 Constantinople, ii, 376 ; cf.TL. Spencer, Travels, p. 108. 3 Drin und Wardar^ 4 The incident occurs in where the saint a version of the and the * first edition ' ii, 76. of the Sari Saltik legend, way to Europe, and in the sheikh at the tekke cross in this his companions Kruya-Corfu cycle told me by of Turbe Ali in this latter story the dervish's habit (pdaokbirka) was the vehicle. For the theme in Christian and other hagiologies see Saintyves, Saints Successors des Dieux^ p. 254, and above, pp. 285-7. ; 5 See above, p. 436, n. 4. Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda Saltik's adventures. Albanian Bektashi are said to make pil584 1 a grimage to the saint in Corfu. xxii. Athens, Tekke at Entrance to Acropolis A tekke immediately above the Odeum of Herodes is shewn in several early prints and existed down to the War of Inde- the dervish order to which it belonged is nowhere pendence stated, but it seems probable that tekkes in this and similar positions with regard to garrisoned fortresses served as chapels * ' or for the Janissaries during the connexion of the lodges latter body with the Bektashi. : * les habiPittakys in 1835 writes of the tekke in question : tants rapportent que la ou avant la revolution grecque etait une mosquee (re/ccs) existait auparavant une eglise consacree aux saints Anargyri '.3 A tekke containing two saints 5 graves, if it had a reputation for miracles of healing, might easily be identified by the Orthodox with a sanctuary of the doctorsaints, Cosmas and Damian, whether or not the site had originally been consecrated to them. An analysis of these twelve ambiguous sanctuaries in Europe gives the following results : 1. Connexion with the Bektashi is established in nine cases (xi, xii, xiii, xvii, xviii, xix, xx, xxi, xxii). 2. Bektashi sanctuaries are made accessible to Chris- tians ' by ' identification in six cases (xiii, xiv, xvi, xvii, xviii, xix). 3. Christian sanctuaries are made accessible to Bek- See above, pp. 435 if. I am told by an English Corfiote of the older generation, Mr. Weale, that in his childhood many Albanian Moslems visited the cathedral at S. Spyridon's two festivals, and paid their respects to the saint's remains they often brought with them offerings of candles and even of livestock. This has been abundantly confirmed by my own inquiries at Corfu. Lafont (Trois Mots en Albanie, p. 50) heard it said by some this may be a faint echo of the tales in that the body was a woman's which bodies of Christians and Moslems are interchanged in their 1 2 : : which see further above, pp. 446 ff UAncienne Aihenes^ p. 224. Stuart and Revett seem thought that a church had occupied the site. graves, for 3 . also to have "Theory of Bektasbi tashi xii, ' identification by xv (?), xx, 9 Propaganda 585 in four, possibly five, cases (xi, xxi). be noted that the mental attitude of Bektashi and Christians with regard to these ambiguous sanctuaries is somewhat different. The educated Bektashi, to whom the ideas of pantheism and metempsychosis are familiar, find it easy and natural to identify the for simpler souls, if Christian saints with their own indeed the efficacy of the miracles does not suffice them, ' fables like the disguise of Sari Saltik in the robes of x may be used to bridge the gap. ChrisSvity Nikola tians, having before them numerous examples of churches It will ; ' ? * usurped by the Moslem conqueror, accept rather the assumption that the Bektashi sanctuary occupies a site already consecrated by Christian tradition, though their act of worship is made in the actual tomb-chamber of the Moslem saint and conforms to the custom of the Moslem This leads in some cases to the sanctuary. belief that the buried saint himself was a Christian, and political changes may lead to the definite and official transference of the tekke to Christianity. 2 In the promulgation and acceptance of these fictitious identifications the material interests of the parties concerned have evidently played an important part. The occupiers of the ambiguous sanctuary, be they Christian or Bektashi, find their clientele, and consequently their revenues, increased, while the frequenters receive the less tangible but not less appreciated benefits of miraculous healing and intercession. The concessions of Bektashism to Christianity and of Christianity to Bektashism seem at first sight exactly balanced. Christian churches adopt fictitious Bektashi traditions and receive Bektashi pilgrims conversely, Bektashi tekkes adopt fictitious Christian legends and receive Christian pilgrims. But the apparent equality : 1 Above, 3295-2 a p. 429. Q Cf. nos. xiv, xix, above. Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda is only superficial. The ultimate aim of the Bektashi was not to amalgamate Christianity with Bektashism on equal terms, but to absorb Christianity in Bektashism. It may well be that the partial adoption by the Bektashi of such churches as S. Naum and S. Spyridon 586 really represent intermediate stages in the process of transition from exclusive Christian ownership to com- plete Bektashi occupation. In Albania we can understand that the process was arrested by the revival of the Orthodox Church in the eighteenth century. In Thrace we seem to see in Eski Baba, where a Christian church has become completely Bektashi, an example of successful transference at a more favourable date. In Anatolia it is at least possible that the same methods were used earlier still, so early and with such complete success that no trace of the process remains but we have always to bear in mind the possibility that supposed Christian ' are to be accounted for by false legends, traditions circulated or countenanced from interested motives by the dervishes in charge, or on patriotic grounds by the : * local Christians. 4. POLITICAL BACKGROUND The propagation of such a religion as Bektashism is considerably aided if it can rely on the support or connivance of the civil power, especially as it is regarded by orthodox Moslems as heretical. In the case of the western (Albanian) group of ambiguous sanctuaries under Bektashi influence clear traces can be detected of a political combination, such as we have suggested in explanation of the analogous religious phenomena at medieval Konia. The spread of Bektashism in Albania is generally thought to be due to the support given to the propagandists by AH Pasha of Yannina (d. 1822) I : 1 This I have found generally Brailsford, Macedonia, pp. 233, 244. admitted by south Albanian Bektashi, some of whom also connect Ali Pasha and the Bektashi 587 this idea will be found to be well grounded, and there are hints that Ali's relations with the Bektashi were paralleled by those of other Albanian and Rumeliote It is still strongly held in Tepelen, the potentates. birthplace of Ali, that his connexion with dervishes was an important factor of his success. 1 One tradition says his father was a dervish. 2 All himself believed devoutly in dervishes, and not without reason. It is said that, while still a poor and insignificant boy, he was pointed out by a wandering holy man, to whom he and his mother had, despite their poverty, offered shelter and 3 This same hospitality, as one that had a great future. man him a which he wore even gave holy lucky ring, 4 at the end of his life. His superstitious belief in proenhanced was his contact with the Greek monk by phecy and evangelist Cosmas (afterwards canonized), who fore' 3 told to him, already in 1778, that he should prevail over the pasha of Berat, become vizir of Epirus, fight with the Sultan, and go to Constantinople ' with a red beard * 5 all of which eventually came to pass. ' It was apparently in his later life that Ali got ' naturally it was not the strict observance of Sunni puritans that attracted him, but rather the licence and superstition of the less reputable members of the dervish orders, and their potential political Omer Vrioni of Berat and Mahmud Bey of Avlona, both contemporaries religion ; of Ali, with the movement. 1 Durham, Burden of the Balkans, p. 239. For the family of Ali see Lamprides, 'AXfj Ilaaods, pp. 15 ff., who says his grandfather was an Anatolian dervish of Kutahia. 3 Durham, loc. cit. A similar tale is told by Aravantinos, 'AXfj Tlaard, 2 p. 422. Ibrahim Manzour, Memoires, p. 271 (the author was renegade who spent some years (1816-19) at All's court) story was told to Miss Durham at Tepelen. 4 : a French a similar 5 Zotos, A^LKOV TOJV 'AyltDV^ s.v. Kocrfj,d$, p. 621 ; cf* Sathas, JVeocAA. 0tAoAoyi'a, p. 491. It should be noted that a very similar prophecy is attributed by the Bektashi to three of their own saints, Sheikh Mimi, Sheikh Ali, and Nasibi. Q 2 588 Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda * In his younger years \ writes Hobhouse in was not a very strict Mahometan ; but he importance. * 1809, AH has lately become religious, and entertains several DerI was told definitely by a Bektashi vishes at his court sheikh that Ali was admitted to their order by the V celebrated sheikh alive in 1807.* Mimi This is Hobhouse refers. Towards the end of of Bokhara, who was certainly probably the change to which his life the Pasha was much addicted to the society of dervishes, and Yannina became notorious as the haunt of the most disreputable of them. 3 Ibrahim Manzur enumerates no fewer than seven prominent sheikhs of his own time who received 4 special favours from Ali, being provided with endowed One of them Ali used tekkes or other establishment. as his regularly diplomatic agent ; another toured in Albania, collecting contributions for the order, and, doubtless, information for his master also. The sheikh of a tekke at Skutari (Constantinople) visited the court of Yannina regularly once a year. 5 The local (Epirote) Bektashi with whom I have conversed on the subject did not recognize the names of the sheikhs enumerated by Ibrahim Manzur as belonging to their sect the one possible exception was Sheikh Hasan, who is probably identical with the Bektashi saint Hasan Baba Sheret, informants were agreed buried outside Yannina. 6 : My 1 - Albania^ i, 124. See below, p. 590. Aravantinos (*A\rj /7aaa, p. 417) says that Ali boasted that he was a Bektashi, but cf. below, p. 589, n. I. The headstone of the tomb of Ali at Yannina was formerly marked by the twelve-sided headdress Allom and Walsh's (taj) of the order, Constantinople. The as is shown in a drawing in headstone has been removed within living memory. Leake N. Greece, iv, 285 * There is no place in Greece where in consequence of this encouragement these wandering or mendicant Musulman monks are so numerous as at loannina.' Ibrahim Manzur 4 Memoires, 5 Ibid., p. 291 p. 21 1. says the same of his own time. 6 Of the others I was able to trace Sheikh Brusalu, whose tomb only is still to be seen in Preveza he is regarded as an orthodox saint. 3 : . : AH Pasha and the Bektashi 589 tekke in Yannina that their order had never possessed a or south of it, on account of the fanatical orthodoxy of local Moslems. Ali himself did not openly admit his connexion with the heretical sect. 1 It is, of course, possible that some of the apparently orthodox dervishes in his pay were either secret adherents of the Bektashi or (to use no harsher word) latitudinarian in their beliefs. All's 2 connexion with the Bektashi was mainly, per- 3 haps, a matter of policy, but his personal religion, such as it was, shows the mixture of atheism tempered by superstition, and tolerance towards other sects, especially Christians, which is characteristic of the lower ' At the time that Christianity forms of Bektashism. was out of favour in France/ says Leake, c he was in the habit of ridiculing religion and the immortality of the soul with his French prisoners and he lately remarked to me, speaking of Mahomet, /cat eycu ef/xac TTpo^ijrr)^ crra ; and I too am a prophet at loannina. 4 But with all this he had a deep-rooted belief in charms, magic,and prophecy. As regards his tolerant attitude towards Christians he may have been influenced by the prophecy 9 'Iwavviva Ibrahim Manzour, Memoires, p. xix, but cf. Aravantinos, above, one of Ali's sons, Mukhtar Pasha, openly avowed himself Shia Selim, another son by a slave wife, is said to have become a dervish sheikh (North, Essay on Ancient and Modern Greeks, p. 191). * The distinctions between the Bektashi and other orders are not I heard of cases of the have two recent conversion of sheikhs of rigid. 1 p. 588, n. 2 : ; other orders to Bektashism. ' Although no practical encourager of finds the he religious doctrines of the Bektashi liberty equality, ' from every body and gives only him/ takes to suited Aly exactly to the dervishes, whom he undoubtedly finds politically useful/ cf. 3 Leake, N. Greece, iv, 285 : and . . . Pouqueville (Hist. Regener. Grece, i, 59) gives a still more * Musulman avec les Turcs, il caressait les as follows account cynical ibid, i, 407. : plus fanatiques pantheiste avec les bektadgis, il professait le materialisme quand il etait dans leur compagnie ; et chretien lorsq'il s'enivrait . avec 4 . . buvait a la sante de la bonne Vierge N. Greece, iv, 285. les Grecs, il 9 : cf. also i, 273. 590 Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda of Cosmas, whose memory he perpetuated by the erection of a monastery to enshrine his remains. 1 His Greek wife was allowed an Orthodox chapel in his palace at 2 Yannina, and many Christian churches were built by his permission, 3 a concession exceptional, if not illegal, in his time : on the other hand, he is said never to have 4 In his courts Christians were rather mosque. favoured than otherwise. 5 Here, as in his alliance with the Bektashi, which was of the nature of a compact in the interest of both parties, we must not lose sight of the to conciliate the Christians was to political motive bid for the support of an important minority which built a : might otherwise give trouble. So much for All's connexion with the Bektashi and the activities of the latter in Yannina itself. Leake, who already recognized the Pasha's predilection for the Bektashi, noted in Thessaly, then one of his dependencies, tekkes at Trikkala and at Aidinli (near Agia) built at his 6 expense. Kruya, which was in the pashalik of Skuand is tari now the great stronghold of Bektashism in northern Albania, was for some years the residence of Sheikh Mimi, who had admitted Ali to the order. Mimi's missionary work at Kruya was conspicuously successful. He founded a tekke there in 1807, apparently beside an existing (or reputed) saint's grave, but eventually fell a victim to his intrigues against the civil 7 It is possibly in connexion with this incident governor. that the Pasha of Skutari banished from his capital all Bektashi dervishes as emissaries of Ali. 8 have thus direct evidence of All's connexion and We 1 Zotos, loc. cit. 2 Beauchamp, Fie d* Ali Pacha, p. 182. 3 Juchereau, Empire Ottoman, iii, 65. Miller, Ottoman Empire, p. 64, but the statement needs modification ; cf. Holland, Travels, i, 412 Leake, N. Greece, i, 152. 4 ; 5 7 Beauchamp, loc. cit. Degrand, Haute Albanie, 8 Ippen, Skutari, p. 36. 6 p. 209: cf. 245. Above, Sec above, p. 534. p. 550. Ali Pasha and the Bektashi 591 collaboration with the Bektashi in Thessaly, which formed part of his satrapy, and in the province of Skutari outside It thus seems probable that the for much of the it. same combination was responsible recent conversion of the southern (Tosk) Albanians in the districts north of Yannina (Argyrokastro, Premet, Konitza, Leskovik, Kolonia, Koritza), which are at the 1 Patsch, speaking of the present day strongly Bektashi. district of Berat, remarks significantly that all Tosk and Lap Albanians who first converted under AH Pasha, though they outwardly conform, are in fact but indifferent Mussulmans, caring little for mosques or prayers. 2 The claims of the Bektashi to the Christian saint Naum, buried near Koritza, may possibly be traced to the period and influences of All's supremacy. The 3 monastery of S. Naum was rebuilt in i8o6, and Leake, who visited it in 1809, remarks the special favour shown to it by AH. 4 Von Hahn was told in the sixties that the fame of the monastery was relatively recent, and that it was under the official protection of a local Moslem 5 the reverence shown (Bektashi ?) family by the Turks for S. Naum is mentioned about the time of Ali's death 6 by Walsh. As to the Sari Saltik-S. Spyridon equation, it occurs first in the Kruya cycle of the Sari Saltik legend, the whole of which is foreign to the earlier version given by Evliya the adventures of the saint at Kruya may well have been adapted from the original legend for local consumption by Ali's agent there, the missionary Sheikh Mimi. One of All's great political ambitions was to add the Ionian islands to his dominions, and especially : : S. 1 2 3 5 6 Mavra and Corfu, This is as being opposite respectively to admitted both by Christians and Bektashi. Berat> p. 53. H. Gelzer, in Ath. Mitth. xxvii, 440. Drin and Wardar^ Constantinople^ ii, p. 108. 376 (quoted above). 4 N. Greece, iv, 149. Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektashi Propaganda Preveza and Sayada and SS. Quaranta, the ports of his 1 S. Mavra he nearly succeeded in capital Yannina. * Corfu had been prophetically promised him taking a dervish named Sheikh Ali (d. 1817) in whom he by 5 92 : 3 The alleged tomb of Sari Saltik implicitly believed. would form in Corfu just such a religious bait to his followers as had been provided by the earlier version of the legend at certain points in Christian Europe. 4 The tekke at Kalkandelen 5 offers a similar example of It was built, according to inretrospective legend. formation collected on the spot, by a certain Riza Pasha at the instance of a Bektashi dervish named Muharrebe Baba, to whom was revealed at Constantinople (presumably by a vision) the site of the grave of a great Bektashi saint, Sersem Ali, at Kalkandelen. The tekke at Kalkandelen now contains amongst others the graves of Sersem Ali and of the two founders, Muharrebe Baba and Riza Sersem Ali is supposed to have died in the Pasha. middle of the sixteenth century, 6 and has, beyond this reputed grave, no connexion with Albania. Riza Pasha's tomb is dated A. H. 1238 ( = A. D. 1822-3). It thus seems fairly clear that the tomb of Sersem Ali is not authentic, and that the dervish's ' vision ' was part of the Bektashi propaganda in Albania. To judge by the date of Riza Pasha's death (the same as that of Ali) the tekke may well belong to the series dating from the period of Ali's power. Both at Kruya and at Kalkandelen fabricated evidence of earlier Bektashi occupation seems to have been made the pretext or justification for the founding of Bektashi 1 Beauchamp, Vie Ali Pacha, pp. 163, 194 Holland, Travels, &c. i> 45, 450, 2 Leake, N. Greece, iii, 13. In Leake's time the fort, still called Tekke, on the mainland opposite S. Mavra was actually a dervish : convent. 3 Ibrahim Manzour, Bektashi. 5 Above, no. op. cit., p. 234. Sheikh Ali 4 xviii. 6 is claimed by the Cf. above, p. 433. Jacob, Bektaschijje, p. 27. tekkes, in Hasan Pehlivan and Pasvanoglu 593 the former case by a known emissary of Ali Pasha, in the latter probably independently of his influence. Kalkandelen seems at this period to have been 1 subject with Uskub to hereditary pashas of old standing, of whom Riza was probably one. Other local pashas in Rumeli were manifestly in touch with the Bektashi movement at about the same date. Hasan Pehlivan Baba, pasha of Rustchuk, founded the tekke of Demir Baba, a saint supposed to have lived four hundred years ago This tekke seems certainly to have been Bektashi, as it suffered under Mahmud 11,3 V ' the notorious persecutor of the sect ; the pasha himself appears to have been loyal to the Sultan, though his c Baba ' seems to indicate that he held a high title of position in the Bektashi hierarchy. Another contemporary governor who may reasonably be suspected of Bektashi leanings is the notorious Pasvanoglu, whose successful rebellion (1799) against Selim III brought him the pashalik of Vidin. 4 He seems to have been a strong partisan of the Janissaries (who were backed by the Bektashi) and of the ancien regime J> and his fief of Kirja or Kirja Ali, whence his ferocious irregulars, the 4 were recruited, 6 has been in its time an imKirjali portant Bektashi centre as containing the tomb of the saint Said Ali. 7 5 Grisebach, Reise dnrcb Rumelien (1839), "> 2 3 ^* Jirecek, Eulgarien^ p. 411 ; cf. Kanitz, Bulgarie, p. 535, for a Pehlivan Baba is mentioned in description and legends of the tekke. 1 2 contemporary history (Jorga, Gescb. d. Osman. Reiches, v, 190, &c.) and in legend becomes inextricably involved in the fantastic adventures of the saint of the tekke see above, pp. 3 Kanitz, loc. cit. 296 f. 487 ; Jorga, op. cit. v, 119, &c. 5 For the of this period see below, combinations politico-religious 618 ff. pp. 6 Most contemporary travellers in Rumeli mention the devastations of the Kirjali ' bands in the district of Adrianople and elsewhere. 7 F. W. H. It would not be surprising to hear that the tomb of Said Ali was discovered by a dervish in Pasvanoglu's time. 4 On : Pasvanoglu see Ranke, Servia, p. ' 4 ' 594 Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektasbi Propaganda In the present connexion the relations of Pasvanoglu with the Greek patriot Rhigas of Pherae (1757-98) have a special interest. 1 Rhigas, inspired by the ideas of the French revolution, was one of the prime movers in a comprehensive conspiracy based on a combination of the liberal (or discontented) elements in the Turkish empire. This conspiracy, which was encouraged by Napoleon, aimed not only at the liberation of the Greeks as such, but at the general emancipation of the sultan's subjects, irrespective of creed or race, from the yoke of ' 9 a tyrant. Before this ambitious scheme was inaugurated, while Rhigas was in the service of the hospodar Mavroyenis, it so happened that he received orders to arrest and hand over to his master Pasvanoglu, the future tyrant of Vidin. Rhigas carried out the first part of his instructions but befriended his prisoner and released him After the secretly, providing him with a disguise. death of Mavroyenis (1790), Rhigas made use of this incident to persuade Pasvanoglu into his conspiracy. His arguments, as recorded by his friend Perrhaibos, show the widest toleration in matters of religion. He insists on the Brotherhood of all men, irrespective of creed ; it is impertinence for either Mussulman or Christian to insist on the superiority of his own creed, since no man is competent to decide such high matters and all men have one Creator and Father. 3 This is of course Bektashi doctrine and could make no appeal to an orthodox Mussulman. Rhigas seems further to have had secret relations with the Albanian beys, including AH Pasha, who, like The life of Rhigas seems to be the Bioypacfria and friend Perrhaibos. A summary of his life contemporary by is given ]VWAA. $iAoAoyia, pp. 529 ff see also the recent by Sathas, * of Lambros, ATTOKaXvtycis irepl rov p,aprvpiov rov pamphlet 1 chief source for the his : also his *AveK?>ora "Eyypa<f>a rrepi 'Ptfya. cf. 2 Quoted from Perrhaibos by Sathas, p. 531. Rhigas and the Bektashi 595 Pasvanoglu, made considerable, though unsuccessful, efforts to rescue him during his captivity (1798). When we hear that Rhigas carried on his intrigues in Rumeli 1 disguised as a dervish, we suspect some combination with the Bektashi group. Either (which is not impos- sible a ) Rhigas was himself the sect and affiliated to bound by a vow to help a brother Bektashi in trouble, which would explain his early intervention on Pasvano3 glu's behalf, or at least his conspiracy had some such with the Bektashi organization as seem recently to have existed between the latter and the Young Turkish party. secret relations Turning back to the Asiatic side of the Aegean, we find no clear evidence of similar combinations between dervish orders and local beys, though they may be suspected. In western Asia Minor, as in European Turkey, the concentration of power in the hands of a few leading families at the end of the eighteenth century has long been remarked. The chief of these families were the Karaosmanoglu, the Ellezoglu, and the Chapanoglu. The dominions of the Karaosmanoglu 4 included a large portion of the present Aidin (Smyrna) vilayet, their capital being at Magnesia, which is only second to Konia as a centre of the Mevlevi order of dervishes 5 the territory of the Ellezoglu marched with theirs on the south, occupying the present sanjak of Mentesh ; A. Kalevras, 'jBTncrroAat, p. 8 o 'P^ya? TTepiijXOev a>? VTTO TO SiSaovcaAou Trpocr^Tj/za arravra^ov rfjs TovpKLas TTJ? SlOL VCL /JLVCTTLKCOS fJLV eSiSaCTKE TOV$ Nrp/JiTTe'C8a$ cri /zero, rov NoTToXeovros Iva vTrocrrrjpi^r) avrovs ets* zTravdaracnv rov SovXrav ZeA^/r^ Kal avao^L^ avrovs piKpovs 1 . : . . . z Tjyc/xova? dve^apTTjToi;?. . . Cf. above, p. 594* The attempts of Ali, a known Bektashi, and Pasvanoglu to rescue Rhigas may be assigned to the same cause. On the other hand, both may have feared detrimental revelations at his examination. 3 4 For their rise, see below, pp. 597 Garnett, Women of Turkey stronghold down to 1826. 5 > ii, ff. 438. Magnesia was also a Bektashi Ambiguous Sanctuaries and Bektasbi Propaganda 596 down Budrum x (Halicarnassus) ; while the Chapanoglu, farther east, with their capital at Yuzgat, governed an extensive territory, inhabited largely by semi-nomad to Turkoman and including the central tekke of the The Bektashi, in the vilayets of Sivas and Angora. relations of these semi-independent feudatories were harmonious and their rule strict but enlightened, notably tribes, in the treatment of Christians, who throve conspicuously under The power three dynasties. 3 all of the three governing families was broken by the centralizing policy of Mahmud II, in spite of their proved loyalty, 3 to the great detriment of the country. It is tempting to suppose that at the back of this harmonious, tolerant, and (for Turkey) stable baronial government, developed simultaneously over large districts of Asia Minor, lay a secret religious organization 4 with liberal principles such as those of the Mevlevi, or such as Bektashism might have become under more intelligent and far-sighted rulers than AH Pasha of Yannina. 1 Spectateur Oriental, no. 297 (8 Dec. 1827) : Forbin, Travels, cf. pp. 20-1. 2 This in the case of the Karaosmanoglu (see across the Balcan, ii, 323). For the treatespecially Keppel, Journey ment of Christians by the Ellezoglu see Cockerell, 1ravels, p. 162 ; is a commonplace W. Turner, Tour in the Levant, iii, 10 ; Tschihatscheff's Reisen, ed. for the similar tendencies of Turkish beys of the Mylasa Kiepert, p. 23 ; see district, Koutoulis, in Sevo^dvrjs, iii, 452 : Turner, op. cit. iii, 67. For the condition of Christians under the Chapanoglu venirs, p. 386 : the best account of them is see Perrot, Souin Kinneir's^^n//?); through Asia Minor (pp. 85 ff.). 3 It is noteworthy that in 1808, when Mahmud II came to the throne the deposition of Mustafa IV (a creature of the Janissary-Bektashi by combination), he had the support of the Karaosmanoglu and the Chapanoglu (Times, Nov. ii, 15, 1808 ; cf. Juchereau, Hist. Emp. Ott. 247). 4 Such a combination certainly existed among the Turkomans of the Angora district in the fourteenth century (Karabashek, in Num. it. 1877, p. 213 ; cf. Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. i, 214). XLV THE 6 RISE OF THE KARAOSMANOGLU We Moslem little reck of blood ' But yet the line of Karasman Unchanged, unchangeable hath stood First of the bold Timariot bands That won and well can keep their lands.' BYRON, Bride of Abydos (1813), vii. i Karaosmanoglu dynasty, which during the eighteenth century and part of the nineteenth ruled the province of Sarukhan (Magnesia) in Asia Minor, stands almost alone in Turkish history as an example of a family which not only won and retained a wide local supremacy, but was conspicuous for family solidarity and wise administration throughout its tenure of power. Of the numerous pretenders to independence THE who 5 disputed the sultans sway during the centuries in question, few were able to make their claims hereditary, and none could justly boast, as could the Karaosmanoglu, that their administration had raised their dominions from poverty and disorder to a degree of prosperity unknown probably since the Roman empire. The history, real and mythical, of this great Turkish an interesting illustration of the growth affords family of folk-traditon and its relation to historical fact, since we have here the rare advantage of being able to comcontrast fact and fiction, and even to trace the and pare growth of the myth. Less than a hundred and fifty years from the rise of the family, which is not extinct at the present day, completely obscured ; supplanted by a purely legendary its real origin is actual history is set of incidents and associations by which the family gains in prestige no less than in antiquity. its 1 Reprinted from B.S.A. xix, 198 ff. The Rise 598 of the Karaosmanoglu 2 . Historically the foundations of the Karaosmanoglu fortunes were laid about the close of the seventeenth century by successful brigandage on a large scale. Heymann, a pastor of the Dutch community at Smyrna, visited Aidin probably in 1707 r and there found the original Karaosmanoglu established as governor of the ' is called Osman This Pacha ', he says, province. is the same who some and Ouglou years since made all Natolia tremble, as captain of a corps of Banditti, consisting of four thousand horsemen, with which he overrun the country, raising contributions from persons of fortune, and committing all manner of violences. The * y Grand however, at length, pardoned him, possibly more out of fear, than any other motive, and conferred on him this post which is very considerable.' 2 The same story with minor variations and a slightly Signior, ' more heroic setting is told by Choiseul-Gouffier. About Kara Osman, a private soldier in the sixty years ago service of a local agha, formed an army and a party, seized Pergamon, and eventually the whole province. Despite his success he was executed by the Sultan, but his wealth was so used by his sons as to assure the permanence of the dynasty, and his brother bought the ' 3 aghalik of Pergamon. The local variation in these surprise us. district made two need not stories Every brigand on a large scale in this it his aim to hold up the two great c ' 1 For the difficulty of dating exactly incidents mentioned in Heymann's travels owing to the fusion of two later travellers 5 accounts with own, see the note in Vivien de S. Martin's bibliography of Asia Minor, ii) and Jocher's Gelehrtenlexikon, Fortsetz. s. v. He appears from G. Cuper's Lettres to have been pastor at Smyrna by he was at Damascus in 1708 1706 (p. 362) and as late as 1717 (p. 398) his no. 91 (in Asie Mineure, : (p. 194). 2 is Egmont and Heymann, in full Travels (London, 1759), by Arundell, Asia Minor, ii, 220. quoted 3 Voyage Pittoresque, ii (1809), p. 37 : i> he travelled 132 : the passage in 1776. 5 99 Brigandage caravan-routes leading to Smyrna the valleys of the Hermus and the Maeander using as his base (and if necessary his refuge) the mountains between them. It is with the Hermus valley that the Karaosmanoglu were chiefly associated, Magnesia being their capital and Pergamon the second town of their district. The discrepancy as to the fate of the first Karaosmanolgu is possibly due to a confusion on the part of Choiseul-Gouffier, or his informant, between the rebellion of Karaosman1 oglu and that of Gedik Mohammed Pasha in I689The discrepancy in date is hardly more serious, since neither authority is at all precise.* In any case we can place the rise of the first Karaosmanoglu pretty certainly Edmund Chishull, travelling through 1697. in Magnesia' 1699, mentions prisoners sent into that town by Osmanogli as a matter of course, 3 implying that he had been established in the district (at Pergamon ?) 4 for some time. Contemporary newsletters from Turkey speak of a serious rebellion in Asia Minor about ' during 1696 and 1697, when the war on the European frontier made it impossible for the Porte to detach troops to Asia Minor. In the latter year the troubles were to some extent appeased by giving the leader of the rebels, who is never mentioned by name, a command at the front. 5 The war ended with the peace of 1 For this see Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. Hist, of the Turks, s.a. 1689, iii, ff. 333 ; xii, 274-6 Rycaut, Pococke, Descr. of the East, II, ; ii,90. 2 Egmont's book, which did not appear Gouffier's source. 1757, may be Choiseul3 Travels, p. 9. were notorious for brigandage and till 4 The inhabitants of Pergamon the town was fast declining when Rycaut visited the place (Greek and Armenian Churches, p. 65). To employ an old brigand as policeman is no strange thing even in modern Turkey. 5 Mercure the troubles in Asia Minor are Historique, 16972, p. 264 mentioned in various letters between June 1696 and July 1697. Cf. : also Rycaut's Hist, of the Turks, (rebellion quelled in 1695). iii, 548 f. ; Hammer-Hellert, xii, 397 The Rise 600 of the Karaosmanoglu Carlowitz in 1699, the year in which Chishull at * nesia speaks of Osmanogli '. Mag- 3 In 1671, probably before the name of Karaosmanoglu had been heard of, Thomas Smith, then chaplain at Constantinople, made the tour of the Seven Churches. In a bath-house at Pergamon he saw a large marble vase decorated with a frieze of horsemen in relief. 1 This vase was eventually (1837) acquired by the French 2 3 government and is now in the Louvre. A few years before its transference (1828) it was seen, still in the bath-house, by MacFarlane, who was told the following story by the owner of the bath : ' The family states, that our ancestor, to are indebted for this vase, found five others with it each contained a quantity of coins in gold and silver, amounting together to an immense sum. According to our laws, all hidden tradition in my whom we treasures thus : found in the earth, belong of right to the Sultan, ancestor, like an honest man and a good Osmanli, remitted into the hands of government an exact account of all that he had so discovered. Instructions came from and consequently my Stambool, that he was to deliver up of the vases, and keep the sixth for himself; and as in the donation of the sixth vase, no mention had been made of the coins, he took also those of the sixth and added them to the rest. The sultan, who intended he should keep the treasure with the vase, was so pleased at this, that he gave my ancestor a small estate, and the office, to be transmitted moreover to his successors, of collecting the government tithe on the grain growth in a neighbouring district. Now if I were to make away with this vase, it would be destroying 5 a bond by which I hold my little estate and privileges. 4 five 1 Septem Ecclesiarum Notitia, p. 15. The vase seems to have been discovered a year earlier by Rycaut (cf. Spon's Voyage, i, 261) ; for the date of Rycaut's journey see my footnote in B.S.d. xii, 210. 2 Texier, Asie Mineure, ii, 232. 3 Reinach, Repertoire de la Statuaire, i, 78 : Cat. Som. des Marbres, 2905. 4 C. MacFarlane, Constantinople in 1828,1, 311. Turner (Tour in 60 1 Pergamene Vases This tale is already suspiciously like folk-lore in some The Pergamon vase, for instance, which meain diameter, is hardly a likely receptacle -67 for buried treasure, though no treasure story is too extravagant to gain credence in the Levant. The just details. sures I m. prince and the virtuous subject are also, unhappily, commoner figures in myth than in real life. The final edition of the story, told, and half believed, by Texier on the authority of the owner of the bath, has advanced much farther on the same road. It not only supplies the name of the sultan concerned, but explains the origin of the greatness of the Karaosmanoglu by means of the treasure. The prince of Karassi, whose seat was at Pergamon/ runs * Texier's version, had been killed and dispossessed of Pergamon by Sultan Orkhan [132660], but at this period the Ottoman * Sultans could not easily annihilate the great feudatories of the growing empire. One of the descendants of Karassi, named Kara Osman, was living in retirement on a fief in the neighbourhood of Pergamon (where his family had still partisans) when he discovered three marble vases of colossal dimensions, filled, the story goes, with gold pieces. Murad I [1360-89] was then on the throne. Kara Osman sent the two who gave him largest vases to the Sultan, Pergamon. This is the origin of the Karaosmanoglou who down to recent times governed the pashaliks of Pergamon and Guzel-hisar. The two in return the fief of were without ornament they were deConstantinople where I Sophia is a Their little above i8o m. The them. seen have height third vase, being ornamented with human figures and animals which are forbidden to Islam, could not be put to a religious use. Kara Osman gave it to one of his most faithful servants vases of the Sultan posited in the mosque of . . : at S. . the Levant^ iii, 277) was told that seven vases full of money had been found the sultan took six and left the seventh to the owner of the bath as an heirloom. For the theme cf. Carnoy and Nicolaides, Folklore de Constantinople, p. 182, where three marble vases of treasure are said to have been found at Constantinople in the early nineteenth : the sultan took two, the finder the third mosque built by the finder. century 3295.2 ; R ; all are in the The Rise of 602 the Karaosmanoglu with the bath in which it was placed, and 5 dants a title of possession. it was for his descen- x This shows the syncretism of it connects, without folk- tradition at work prejudice to the owner of the bath, the remarkable local family with the remarkable vase at Pergamon and with the two final version illogical : remarkable, but quite dissimilar, vases at S. Sophia. In actual fact, however, the Pergamon vase is undoubtedly Hellenistic ; the S. Sophia vases have been declared Byzantine by Lethaby 2 and are said by Hafiz Husain 3 to have been given by Murad III (1574-95). The latter, like many Turkish sultans, resided at Magnesia before he came to the throne ; but the connexion between the Pergamon vase and the S. Sophia vases does not appear before Texier brought his tale to Constantinople. 4 As to the name of the 1 Asie Mineure, ii, 231. sultan, all sultans in Anatolian A similar story placing the discovery of the ' c * shortly after the fall of Constantinople (Turkish for a very c while ago ') was told of an ancestor of his own by a distinguished long vases Turk A ' to von Prokesch-Osten in 1826 (Denkwiirdigkeiten, iii, 327). variant as regards the vases (four found, one of which is at Pergamon, one in S. Sophia, one at Brusa) is given by C. B. Elliott (1838, Travels, 128). ii, Sophia, p. 84 : the vases should be compared with the jars called at Cairo for the purposes of ablution (Migeon, Art Musulman, and ii, 69) furnished, like those at S. Sophia, with taps in the lower part. This form, used in Byzantine times, as Lethaby's parallels show, for 3 zir 5. made ablutions and called KoAu/zjSiov (Neale, E. Church, i, 214), is quite from that of the Pergamon vase, which in its method of use different was probably analogous to the kraters on high stands seen on some of the funeral banquet type (e.g. the Thasian stele described in Jahrbuch, xxviii, pi. 26.) Rodenwaldt by ' ' stelae Jar din des Mosquees (eighteenth century), tr. Hammer-Heller t, Emp. Ott. xviii, i, where the word given is bassin. Paspates (Bv. MeAerat, p. 343), who had already the Texier tradition, translates 3 Hist. irldoi. The in 1595. 4 It is cit.) who vases at S. Sophia are first noticed, according to Lethaby, mentioned by Paspates repaired S. Sophia (loc. cit.} in 1847. and Fossati (ap. Lethaby, loc. Karasman tradition tend to be named Murad (except 603 in the radius of Konia, where they are Ala-ed-din) on account of the impression made by Murad IV's (1623-40) marches 1 through Asia Minor to his Persian wars. In the district of Sarukhan the name has a double chance, since the two royal mosques at Magnesia were built by Murad III 2 and bear his name. Murad the first (1360-89) is probably preferred by the hero of the story on account of his date, which is not far removed from that of the extinction of the house of Karasi (c. 1355). The likeness between the name of Kara Osman and that of the princely house of Karaman has resulted in the false form Karasman (from which to Karasi is an easy step), and has deceived Byron and other writers into crediting the Karaosmanoglu family with extreme antiquity. But the founder of the family, as we have seen, was plain Osmanoglu Texier and as still alive in 1699. When the final version of the story comes to us the Karaosmanoglu were no longer a reigning house, having been deprived of their power by the reforming sultan Mahmud II had the dynasty lasted a few years longer, the treasure-jars might have figured as the deposit of one of their ancestors in the time of the ' idolaters before Constantine or even in the still more remote period of the Genoese 3 : ' ? * . For him (probably) at Aleppo, cf. Cahun, Excursions sur les Bords rEupbrate p. 147. So, too, Ibrahim Pasha has become a mythohe is now logical hero since his occupation of Cilicia in the thirties held responsible for almost every building or work of any consequence along the road', in the neighbourhood of the Cilician Gates (Ramsay, in 1 tie y : ' S. Peter is the inevitable Geog. Journ. xxii (1903), p. 371, &c.). founder of churches (Gregorovius, Wanderjahre, v, 136). 3 Hammer-Hellert, Hist.Emp. Ott. ii, 315 ; Cuinet, Turquie cTAsie, iii, 537- The c ' c Jineviz (lit. Genoese ') in Turkish folk-legend, owing proto their bably apparent connexion with the jinn, arc what the generations before the Trojan war were to the Greeks. 3 R 2 XLVI' THE GIRDING OF THE SULTAN INTRODUCTORY O ceremonial of the Turkish court makes a stronger appeal to the imagination than the Girding of the Sultan at Eyyub, which takes the place of our coronaThe scene of the ceremony is for Moslems the tion. the Mosque of Eyyub, holiest spot in Constantinople set amongst ancient cypresses on the shore of the Golden Horn, marks the grave of an Arab warrior-saint, revealed, so legend says, while the army of Mohammed the Conqueror, not yet victorious, still camped about the beleaguered city. To these traditions are added others of a yet older past which link the history of the Ottomans with that of their forerunners, the Seljuks of Rum. From Konia, capital of Rum, comes the venerated Sheikh of the Mevlevi (' dancing ') dervishes the supreme head of his order, and hereditary successor of its founder who plays the chief part in the investiture of the Sultan; it is he who, before the tomb-chamber of the saint, girds about the new monarch the sword with which Osman, first of the royal line which bears his name, was invested by his liege-lord of Konia. Such are the memories the ceremony of the Girding is meant : to keep alive. The i. 'Traditional Origin of the Girding Ceremony the purpose of the present paper to investigate the latter part of the tradition the connexion of the ceremony of the Girding with the Seljuk sultans of Rum and especially the privilege of the Konia sheikhs. It 1 is This chapter appeared in an inferior form in B.S.A. xix, 208 ff. Traditional Origin The traditions popularly current in our given as follows by Sir Charles Eliot 605 own day are : * When Osman was beginning his conquests, and had taken Broussa and other towns from the Greeks, he sent a polite embassy to Sultan Alau-'d-Din, who was then the most considerable Turkish sovereign in Asia, to explain his proceedings and his desire to remain on good terms with the greatest chieftain of his race. Alau-'d-Din replied that he had no objection to the Osmanlis taking from the Greeks whatever they could get, and, as a proof of his goodwill, sent the celebrated Jelalu-'d-Din [Founder of the Mevlevi Order of dervishes] to give Osman a sword of honour, a ceremony slightly suggesting the investiture of a vassal. But this story presents difficulties. According to the ordinary chronology, Alau-'d-Din reigned from 1219 to 1236; Jelalu-'d-Din was born in 1202 and died in 1273; Osman reigned from 1288 to 1328.' * We need not lay too much stress on the anachronisms implied by the association of Jelal-ed-din with Osman, since later Superiors of the Mevlevi order have borne their founder's name the difficulty is moreover avoided in the Konia version of the story set down by Cuinet. According to this, Sultan Ala-ed-din the third of Konia during his lifetime chose as his successor the Ottoman At the chieftain Ertoghrul, who predeceased him. death of Ala-ed-din (1307) the then Sheikh of the Mevlevi wrote as his representative to Osman, the successor of Ertoghrul, to come and assume the government. Osman, being busy fighting, allowed the Sheikh to represent him at Konia till a more convenient season, and was eventually invested by the Sheikh in the traditional : 2 way. This picturesque story is unfortunately quite without It was evidently devised to represent historical basis. the acquisition of Karamania by the Ottomans as a peaceful and legitimate succession dating back to the earliest period of Ottoman power, whereas in fact the 1 Turkey in Europe, p. 183. * Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie, i, 828 f. 606 The Girding of the Sultan province in question was added to their dominions by conquest from the Karamanoglu, successors of the Seljuk dynasty, under Bayezid I in 1392.* At the same time the part taken by the Sheikh in the story is calculated to enhance the prestige of the Mevlevi order. Two historical facts have been used in the fabrication of the legend, (i) When Bayezid I, the actual conqueror of Karamania, had been officially recognized as sultan of Rum by the caliph, he is said to have granted the privilege of girding on his sword when he went to war to his son-in-law Sheikh Bokhara, surnamed Emir Sultan. 2 Emir Sultan is said to be one of the titles of the Sheikh of the Mevlevi. 3 (2) In 1435, when the vassal prince of Karamania revolted and Konia was taken by Murad II, the eventual agreement was signed on behalf of the prince, who had fled to Cilicia, by the then Sheikh of the Mevlevi, who bore the name of the founder of the Order, his ancestor, Jelal-ed-din. 4 But popular imagination carries the tradition still Sheikh of the Mevlevi, who in history represents the Karamanian prince of Konia, becomes in tradition first the legitimate successor by blood of the 5 Sir Charles Seljuk dynasty and finally the real caliph Eliot was once told that 'when the Chelebi [i.e. the Sheikh of the Konia Mevlevi] proceeds to Constantinople to gird on the sword, he does not go farther than Scutari himself because, if he were to set foot in he would, ipso facto, become Sultan Constantinople, 6 and Caliph.' The sultans of Konia had of course no The farther. ! . . . 1 Hammer-Hcllert, Hist. Emp. Ott. i, 308. Ibid, i, 321-3 Hammer already connects later Girding ceremony. 2 : 3 Ibid, i, 4 Ibid, ii, 5 with the this episode 40. Cuinet, 287 f. and note loc. cit. (491). Byzantios, KaivaravTwovTroXis, iii, 575, quoted below ; a garbled version in [Blunt] People of Turkey, ii, 267. 6 Turkey in Europe, pp. 183 f. ; cj. Slade, Travels in Turkey, p. 376, quoted below, p. ; 615 : cf. Melek Hanum, Trente Ans dans les Harems, Traditional Origin 607 pretensions to the Caliphate, but and this may be the exiguous foundation of the legend Ala-ed-din I in 1219 received the title of representative of the Caliph in Rum. The whole 1 of this cycle of legend is fictitious : it was evidently composed to increase the prestige of the Ottoman house in Asia Minor, where Ala-ed-din is still a popular hero of legend, and of the Mevlevi order in Constantinople. It is based first and foremost on the traditional right of the Mevlevi Sheikh to gird the new sultan with the so-called sword of Osman. Now this traditional right is entirely unknown to writers on Turkish history and institutions so recent and so thorough as d'Ohsson and von Hammer. Both these authorities state that the girding ceremony was performed by the Mufti assisted by the Chief of the Emirs or Descendants of the Prophet (Nakib-el-Ashraf] and the Esquire of the Sultan (Silihdar). Certain high officials, the two Kaziaskers, the Vizir, and the Agha of Janissaries, were admitted to the almost secret ceremony. 2 When and how did the Sheikh of the Mevlevi acquire his privilege ? 2. We must The History of the Girding Ceremony attempt to investigate the history as opposed to the legend of the Girding ceremony. The mosque of Eyyub, where it takes place, commemorates the discovery of the grave of the Arab ghazi Eyyub who fell before the walls of Constantinople in the siege of 670. His tomb was miraculously revealed to the sheikh first Ak-Shems-ed-din, according to some writers actually the best authorities, during the Turkish siege of 1453 : Stern (Die Moderne Tiirkei, p. 118) says that Abdul Hamid suspected the Chelebi as a possible rival and had him spied upon. p. 181. 1 Sarre, Reise in Kleinasien, p. 40. D'Ohsson, Tableau, ii, 258, 277, iii, 125 ; von Hammer, Staatsverfassung, i, 484 and 486 (official account of the accession of Suleiman II 2 in 1687). 608 The Girding of the Sultan 1 however, place the discovery after the siege. The mos>que, built by Mohammed the Conqueror, bears the date 1458.* According to the tradition current in d'Ohsson's time, Sultan Mohammed II instituted the ceremony of the Girding and was himself girded by Ak-Shems-ed-din, the discoverer of the tomb, who held no official position but was simply a greatly venerated mystic in the immediate entourage of the Conqueror. 3 The first contemporary mention I can find of Eyyub in connexion with the accession of a sultan is Gerlach's reference to it at the time of the accession of Murad III (1574), who is said to have visited the mosque more maiorum the Girding is not mentioned. 4 On general grounds it seems probable that the ceremony was a counterpart of the Girding of Bayezid I, i.e. that it commemorated the recognition of Mohammed IPs new position by the Caliph. For this there is a still earlier precedent in the girding of Melik Mensur, sultan ofEgypt, : on 1342 by the Caliph Ahmed IX.5 The extraordinary importance attached by Mohammedans generally to the capture of Constantinople, owing to the traditional dictum of the Prophet, is well known. 6 Girding as a symbolic rite of investiture seems to be of very ancient origin in the East. The^w, or traditional patrons, of Turkish trade-guilds are all said to have been appointed in this way by famous saints,? and till his accession in recently apprentices were girded as the outward See fully below, p. 715. Jardin des Mosquees in Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Etnp. Ott. xviii, 57. 3 4 D'Ohsson, Tableau, i, 305. Ap. Crusius, Turco-Graecia y p. 67. 5 D'Ohsson, Tableau, i, 305. Similarly, Toghrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk, is said to have been girded with two swords by the Caliph, when he received from the latter the title of Emir of Emirs in recognition of 1 3 his conquests (Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. i, 13). Cf. the Tatar khans of the Crimea, who also were girt with a sword at their investiture (Hammer-Hellert, op, cit. xii, 145). 6 Hammer-Hellert, op. cit. ii, 393 f. given in Museum Worsleyanum, ii, 50. : cf. the inscription in S. Sophia's 7 Evliya, Travels, I, ii, 94. The Ceremony 609 1 symbol of their admission to the degree of master. Girding plays a similar part in the admission of novices to dervish orders. 2 It seems at least certain that the Girding ceremony was by the seventeenth century a regular part of the sultans' investiture, and the official historians down to d'Ohsson and von Hammer, as we have seen, regularly assign its performance to the Mufti, with the assistance of the Nakib and the Silihdar* The ceremony was performed in the open air on a platform supported by marble pillars standing in the middle of the inner court between the mosque and the The mosque and its surroundings were of extraordinary sanctity and till recently inaccessible at any time to Franks '. Very few persons, even of the officials, are admitted to the Girding ceremony. As to the sword used in the ceremony, it is regularly 5 But among spoken of as the Sword of the Prophet. tomb of the saint. 4 ' the 1 official relics W. of the Prophet at Constantinople Turner, Tour in the Levant, iii, 217 ; 6 a Lane, Mod. Egyptians, 240. ii, Brides and young men are girt by their Evliya, op. cit. I, ii, 104. ar'ems d 'Orient, fathers according to Melek Hanum, Trente Ans dans les 2 H p. 271. For the Mufti the ordinary protagonist see Sandys (1610), d'Arvieux, Memoires, iv, 463 ; Wheler, Journey into Greece, p. 200 ; Veryard (1701), Choice Remarks, p. 346 ; Tournefort, Voyage, letter xi ; Pococke, Descr. of the East, 3 Travels, p. 29 II, ii, ; as Du Loir, Voyages, p. 64 ; 128. Sandys, loc. cit. ; Du Loir, loc. cit. The Girding at the present day takes place in the court opposite the main door of the mosque and in front of the tomb-chamber. 4 Von Hammer, Staatsverfassung, i, 484 ; Hammer-Hellert, Hist. la Mottraye, cited below, p. 6n, n. 2 ; Dallaway ; Emp. (1794-6), Constantinople, p. 118, Evliya (Travels, I, i, 120) says that Murad IV was girded in 1623 with two swords, those of the Prophet 5 Ott. xvi, 6 de i and of Sultan Selim, adding that no monarch was ever girt in this manner '. 6 These, which comprise the standard, mantle, teeth, beard, and the footprint footprint, are described by d'Ohsson, Tableau, i, 261 : The Girding 6io sword is of the Sultan never mentioned. We may venture a guess that the sword at Eyyub was originally attributed to another Mohammed, the Conqueror himself. 1 3. The Intrusion of the Mevlevi In spite of the unanimity of the historians there have been occasions when the Girding ceremony was not performed by the Mufti and his assistants the Nakib and the Silihdar. The first hint of the intrusion of the Mevlevi is the tradition recorded by Rycaut : * of the Mahommedan out of devotion to their [the Mevlevi's] Religion once placed their Superiour in his Royal Throne, because having been his Tutour, and he who girted on his Sword (which is the principal Ceremony of Coronation) he granted him and his Successours ample 5 * Authority and Rule over all others of the same Profession. Ottoman, first kings . . . The reigning sultan during the whole of Rycaut's residence in Turkey was Mohammed IV (1648-87). There arc indications that the Mevlevi were influential at the court of the preceding sultan, Ibrahim (1640-8), 3 who was deposed in favour of his the Mufti, the c ( Agha Mevlevi Dervish ' son by a plot, in which of the Janissaries, and the Vizir Mohammed) 4 were all implicated. At the investiture of Mohammed IV, a child of six, the Vizir marched in the procession to Eyyub in the habit of the Mevlevi order. 5 Many highly placed officials were at this period affiliated to the Mevlevi. It is at least possible that some political combination turning was deposited at Eyyub by Sultan Mahmud I (Jardin des Mosquees in Hammer-Hellert, op. cit. xviii, 57), the rest are kept in the old Seraglio. 1 For a similar confusion between the two Mohammeds see above, p. 186. Ottoman Empire, p. 67 copied ( ?) by Le Bruyn, Voyage, i, 390. Nous vismes passer les Deruis avec Monconys, Voyages, i, 390 leur Supefieur monte sur vn cheual blanc, qui alloient danser deuant 2 : * 3 le : Grand Seigneur 4 5 qui les enuoyait querir souuent Vizir 1648-9 (Evliya, I, Hammer-Hellert, Hist. ii, 152). Ott. x, 187. Emp. le soir/ 6n Intrigues of the Janissaries * ' on Dervish Mohammed's support secured to the order in 1648 the privilege of the Girding of the sultan. Half a century later, and again after an abnormal accession, appears a third competitor for the privilege of Girding. In 1703 Ahmed III came to the throne owing to a rebellion of the Janissaries, directed chiefly against the Mufti and resulting in his deposition in favour of a creature of the Janissaries. According to the official account the new sultan was girded by the 1 Silihdar, the Nakib, and the Agha of the Janissaries. Here the exceptional circumstances of Ahmed's succession go far to explain the latter officer's presence at the ceremony. But de la Mottraye's version, derived, as he tells us, from a renegade present by special favour at the ceremony, shows that it was the Agha of Janissaries who played the chief part. 2 When we remember that the Janissaries were at this date already closely, and even officially, connected with the Bektashi order of der3 vishes, we suspect an attempt on the part of this order Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. xiii, 135. Ahmed's predecessor, Mustafa II (1695), was girded according to Cantimir (ii, 242) by the Sheikh of the Jami (Mosque) ', probably a mistake for the Sheikh1 ' ul-Islam or Mufti. 2 Travels, i, 246, cf. p. 247 'They keep in it [the mosque of Eyyub] an old Sabre, which (they say) was Mabomefs the Ceremony of the Coronation consists particularly in girding this Sabre about the Emperor and the Turks say, instead of crowning, girding the Sabre of the Prophet 'tis the Office and Privilege of the Adgi Becktasse, who ought to be (according to some Turks) always a Descendant " of that Tup for Job [read Eyyub or Job "], who by some Glorious Action deserv'd the Sirname of the Father of the Janizaries.' The French text (Voyages, La Haye, 1727, i, 334) adds some details Les Ce Sabre de Turcs, au lieu de couronner, disent, ceindre le Sabre. Mahomet est une vieille sorte d'armes Arabes. UAdgi Bectasse, qui en fait Poffice, est, dit-on, un descendant tfEiub ou Job, qui selon les Annales ou la Tradition des Turcs, etoit un grand Capitaine & un zele MusulmanS Adgi Bectasse is of course Haji Bektash, on whom see ff. The passage on the following page of de la Mot tray e above, pp. 488 shows that the Mufti was on this occasion also present. 3 See especially Rycaut, Ottoman Empire, p. 65. : . . . ; : : c : ' ' 612 to seize The Girding of the Sultan the privilege and prestige of girding the sultans, 1 and possibly to take possession of the mosque of Eyyub. The political significance of this step is obvious. It was a cynical indication that the elevation of sultans was in the power of the Janissary-Bektashi combination, which had been to some extent kept in check during the previous half-century by the strong vizirs of the Kuprulu family. In the decadent eighteenth century what evidence to the conclusion that a compromise was arrived at with regard to the Girding by the parties concerned ; the chief part in the ceremony was given to the Nakibf probably as being a politically insignificant figure. But we have still hints of competition for the honour between the Mevlevi and Bektashi. Carsten Niebuhr, in the reign of Mustafa III, says he was informed by a Mevlevi dervish at Constantinople that, while a member of the latter order had the privilege of girding the sultan, the sword itself was attached by a member of the Bektashi.3 The story then told by the Mevlevi was that their founder had actually reigned at Konia as successor to Ala-ed-din, whose daughter he had 4 married, but had been dispossessed by Osman. we have points I was told by a Bektashi dervish of Constantinople that his sect claimed for their founder, Haji Bektash, the original privilege of girding the sultan and regarded the Mevlevi as usurpers of their right. The mystical importance attaching to the girdle in Bektashi doctrine (Jacob, Beitrdge, pp. 50 f.) could easily be used in support of their claim. * This is stated of the accessions of Mahmud I in 1730 (Hammer1 Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. xiv, 235), Osman III in 1754 (Hammer-Hellert, iii, 125), and Mustafa III in 1757 both zndNakib are here mentioned). Mufti (Hammer-Hellert, xvi, 5-6 It is the Nakib alone who seems to be the recognized protagonist at op. cit. xv, 272 ; d'Ohsson, Tableau, : the end of the century (Juchereau, Revol. de Constantinople, Emp. Ott. ii, i, 252 ; 238). 3 Reisebesckreibung, iii, 116: the symbolism would appear to be that the Mevlevi consecrated the ruler and the Janissaries conferred on him the command of the Ottoman army. 4 Ibid., p. 115 : this was told Niebuhr at Konia. Intrusion of the Mevlevi 613 The century closes with the reign of Selim III to notable for the sultan's vigorous at(1788 1807), tempts at reform, especially army reform, which excited the jealous hostility of the Janissaries. In 1807 this found vent and Mustafa IV was placed on the throne by a Janissary rising. The revolution was en1 gineered on their own confession by the Bektashi sect. Mustafa was deposed in the following year by a counterrevolution, which brought to the throne Mahmud II, hostility reformer like his cousin Selim. It is about this date that we begin again to hear from unofficial sources of the Girding as the exclusive and old-established privilege of the Mevlevi Sheikhs. Already in the reign of Selim III we find current at Constantinople a form of the modern legend. The sword is girded, according to Comidas, by the deputy of the Chief of the Mevlevi dervishes, called Mollah Hunkiar, who resides in Konia and as a descendant of Ala-ed-din has the privilege of investing the Ottoman sultans. When the Deputy of the Mollah Hunkiar is not in Constantinople, his office is performed by the NakibS 2 The last sentence interprets favourably to the Mevlevi the intrusion of the Nakib at recent accessions, and perhaps implies that the sultan then reigning (Selim III) was not girded by the Sheikh of the Mevlevi 3 though the Order had asserted its claims, a * 1 Assad Efendi, Destr. des Janissaries, p. 305. this is evidently the source of Comidas, Deer, di Costant. p. 43 iii KaivaravTWovTroXis, (1869), p. 575, who elsewhere Byzantios, was the (i, 602) says ceremony performed by the Mufti. 3 In an similar way we find a Mevlevi legend associating exactly their Order with the Janissaries just before the latter began their official connexion with the Bektashi (1591, d'Ohsson, Tableau, iii, 325 f. j L'institutione della beretta Uschiuff (la qual' e ben nota fra i Capi de Janizzari) e stata inventata da Suleiman Bassa Guerriero Conquistatore 5 de Bullair, e fu portata per segno di grand amore e divotione, che 5 portavano a San Gelladino Greco [Jelal-ed-din Rumi, the founder of the Mevlevi]. This is the version given by Saad-ed-din (tr. Bratutti, 2 : : * The Girding 614 of the Sultan The Girding of Mahmud II in 1808 was accompanied which innovation an caused by great comment at the time. The Vizir, the same Bairakdar who had put the new on marched in the procession with a guard of three hundred well-armed Albanians^ 1 though the custom was that no arms should be borne. As to the ceremony itself many sources point to its sultan his throne, having been performed by the Sheikh of the Mevlevi instead of by the Mufti the anomaly mentioned above may have been a precautionary measure in view of a : possible riot. contemporary authorities state or imply that Mahmud II was girded by the Mevlevi Sheikh. Andreossi, who as ambassador at Constantinople from 1812 Many 40 cf. W. Seaman, Orcban, p. 27, cf. p. 77) of a legend connecting Suleiman Pasha, son of Orkhan, with the Mevlevi, given also with slight variations by d'Ohsson (Tableau, ii, 313) and von Hammer For the likeness between the uskiuffas worn (Hist. Emp. Ott. i, 210). the and the felt cap of the Mevlevi see d'Ohsson (loc. cit.) by Janissaries and C. White (Constantinople, iii, 354). The Bektashi, on the other hand, connected the peculiar headdress of the Janissaries with the : i, own founder, Haji Bektash (Jacob, I of this &c.) legend find the earliest mention in LeunBeitrage, clavius (Annales, p. 313 P. s.a. 1328) just before the Bektashi were officially quartered in the barracks of the Janissaries. Similarly, the blessing of the p. 3, new troops by their ; Mevlevi legend that Ertoghrul visited Jelal-ed-din at Konia and his son Osman to the saint's prayers (Browne (1802) in Walpole's Travels, p. 121 ; a variant version substituting Suleiman Pasha for Osman in d'Ohsson, Tableau, ii, 312) corresponds to the Bektashi legend that Orkhan brought his new levies to be blessed by Haji Bektash. The detail of this legend, which connects the flap on the headdress of the Janissaries with the sleeve of the saint who blessed them, is again paralleled by a Mevlevi tradition referring the same recommended peculiarity in the headdress of court officials to the blessing of Orkhan by their founder (von Hammer, Staatsverfassung ii, 409). All these legends alike seem aetiological inventions designed to increase the prestige of the orders concerned and sometimes to pave their way to a new 1 claim. Jouannin, Mahmud I in Turquie, p. 379. Armed janissaries had escorted the same way at his accession in 1730, which also was due to a Janissary rising (Perry, View of the Levant, p. 80). Intrusion of the Mevlevi 615 till 1814 had every opportunity of knowing the truth, without referring to the Girding of Mahmud II in particular, represents the Mevlevi Sheikh as the regular Von Hammer, knowing protagonist in the ceremony. the passage in Andreossi, categorically denies his state2 ment, evidently on the authority of d'Ohsson and But Andreossi is confirmed by Frankearlier writers. 3 land (1827-8) on the authority of his landlord, who was in service for fourteen years in the Seraglio, by 1 Marmont 4 (1834), 6 by Texier (i834), 5 by Pardoe, and by Slade (1827-8), who is so circumstantial as to be worth quoting in full. The passage runs as follows : The investiture (with the Sword of Othman) is given by the Scheick of the Mevlevi Dervishes, called Mollah Hunkiar, ' who by right of his family, descended from the Abbasides which, being collaterally claims spiritual preeminence over the Othmans, no one of whom would be considered reigning de jure in the eyes of the nation unless girded by the Mollah Hunkiar. The present Mollah succeeded to the office in 1803, when two years old, by the death of his father, the old Scheick, and, when seven years old, was resides at Cogni, enjoying the office as . brought to Constantinople to invest the present Sultan, mud . . Mah- 7 II.' 1 Constantinople (1828), * Constantinople, i, 199 : 2, p. in quoted Le cinquieme ou le full by Frankland, sixieme jour de son se rend dans la mosquee d'Eioub avenement au trone, le Sultan c'est la que le Cbe'ikh des Mevlevi) ou son delegue, lui ceint le sabre d'Osman.' Pertusier makes the Mufti the protagonist, naming as his assistants the Nakib and the Sheikh of the Konia Mevlevi (Promenades . dans Constantinople (1815), a Hist. . . . . ; 215). Juchereau similarly seems to state that is really only inferring it, as from precedent (Emp. Ott. ii, 238, ef. RevoL de Con- Emp. Mahmud was Hammer did, ii, . Ott. xvi, 5. girded by the Nakib, but i, 252). 'it is customary with the Sultans, upon Constantinople, i, 147 the ceremony of their inauguration to receive the sword of the Caliphs stantinople, 3 : hand of the Sheik Dervish.' Asie Mineure^ ii, 144. at the 4 5 6 7 Turkish Empire, p. 1 1 8. City of the Sultans, i, 52. Slade, Travels in Turkey (2nd ed.), pp. 376 f. The Girding 616 of the Sultan It is evident that by 1828 the girding by the Sheikh of the Mevlevi was regarded as an institution and that the explanatory legend was being developed. Abdul Mejid, the son and successor of Mahmud, at his accession in 1839, was a g a * n girded by the Sheikh of the Mevlevi. 1 The Mufti was induced with great diffihe pleaded that culty to be present at the ceremony the wearing of the fez by the sultan on this occasion was : repugnant to From his religious scruples.* time onwards the Girding of the sultan seems to have been the acknowledged right of the Mevthis levi Sheikh. 3 * 5 in accorSword of the Prophet dance with the new legend, has become the Sword of the Caliphs 4 or more generally the Sword of Meanwhile the , ' ' ' Lesur, Annuaire Ristorique, 1839, App. P- *82 ; the actual at Eyyub seems as usual to have been kept very private. Wilkinson (Modern Egypt, i, 285) refers to the privilege of the Mevlevi 1 ceremony * Juchereau, Emp. Ott. iv, 228. Bektashi have a special tradition regarding the Girding which seems worth putting on record. They claim not only to have been the first holders of the privilege (cj. above, p. 612, n. i) but to have possessed in this reign. 3 The the destruction of the Janissaries by Sultan Mahmud II, when it devolved upon the Mevlevi Sheikh, the latter being a Crypto-Bektashi. We have seen that the Girding was in the hands of the Bektashi in It is quite possible that they resumed it at the accession of 1703. Mustafa IV, which was entirely due to their intrigues. it till 4 Frankland, Constantinople^ i, 147, quoted above, p. 615, n. 3. A sword purporting to be the sword of Osman's investiture, kept in the Imperial treasury, is known to Hammer (Hist. Emp. Ott. i, 105), as is a sword of the Were these identical ? caliph Osman (ibid, ii, 20). a sword of the in the Omar Further, ', kept Seraglio, is mentioned caliph * by Ta vernier (ReL of the Seraglio, 1677, p. 75) ; Mohammed IV, before undertaking the Cretan War (1645), was twice girt by the Mufti ' with the sword of Omar * in anticipation of victory (Evliya, ii, 76) ; and I was told the sword Omar. now imams of the Eyyub mosque that ceremony was that of the caliph sword of the caliphs which the later in 1913 by one of the used in the Girding ' ' possibly the same has preferred to associate first with the caliph tradition (Mevlevi) Osman and next, by an easy transition, with the Ottoman sultan of It is Intrusion of the Mevlevi Osman The 617 the story now current of the investiture of Osman by the complimentary present of a sword from his suzerain Ala-ed-din comes from Brusa this version does not acknowledge the part 2 played in the ceremony by the Mevlevi Sheikh. The privilege of the Sheikh of the Mevlevi has, how'.* earliest reference to : ever, lapsed and Aziz, a strongly been resumed even since 1839. Abdul orthodox 3 sultan, was girded on 4 July, 1 86 1, by the Nakib, acting as the representative of the Mevlevi Sheikh,* an arrangement evidently devised to save the face both of the Ulema and of the Mevlevi. Murad V, who came to the throne after the deposition of Abdul Aziz in the troubled year 1876, was cer5 All tainly never invested in the traditional manner. preparations were made for the ceremony and procession by the end of May, but the investiture was put off the same name. Abdul Aziz, The Times of July 15, 1861, describing the girding 01 The Sultan is girt with the sword of Othman, or one ' says : of the other leading champions of the Crescent, for it appears that a choice of sabre is allowed him.' 1 So in Comtesse Agenor de Gasparin's Constantinople, p. 194, in the modern versions cited above, and in Marmont's Turkish Empire (pp. 59, 1 18) ; also in Baedeker's Konstantinopel (1914), p. 219. The first mention of the ' sword of Osman ' in this connexion seems to be in Veryard, Choice Remarks (1701), p. 346. If the Mevlevi Sheikh, as we have suggested, girded Mohammed IV in 1648, the variation is intelligible. * 3 Sestini, Letter e Odeporiche, i, no. In this connexion it is interesting to a royal note that Abdul Aziz built The in Konia, as did the bigoted Sunni Selim I. of the latter stands immediately in front of the tekke of the mosque mosque Both foundations were evidently intended as a Sunni counterpoise to the suspected influence of these dervishes, to whose Mevlevi. enormous local influence others testify. * Times, July rrpovofjiiov Niebuhr (Reisebeschreibung, : and : *lKovlov tepav e\;oucra /carayouyrp, ouAejLtds" vi/jrfXov paOfJiov, Sta- 6 avrnrpoacoTTOS NaKovTT *Ecrp(f> t fj,Vi cv ra> refJiVi Tov *Eyiov7T. 3*95-* 118) Fvajarov on TO jBuavriV, 20 May (O.S.) rov TrcptjSaAAetv rov veov SovXrdvov rrjv aTraOrjv rov 'Oa15 /xav fccfCTTjrcu ot/coyevcia rt? e tf$ iii, s 5 Times, 13 Sept. The Girding of the Sultan on the pretext that the Khedive wished to be present. A few days later the sultan underwent an operation. He was deposed on 6 August in favour of Abdul Hamid on the ground of insanity. Abdul Hamid was girded on 7 September, apparently 2 by the Mevlevi Sheikh ; the same was certainly the case at the Girding of Mohammed V, 3 who was universally admitted to be a member of the Mevlevi order. The details of the ceremony on this occasion attracted some attention on account of the political circumstances which led to the change of rulers. Ramsay *s narrative shows that there was no doubt in Constantinople before even a boatthe ceremony as to who would officiate 4 man was well informed on the point. Nevertheless a Greek writer in 1907,5 and Ramsay himself in 1909, looked on the participation of the Mevlevi Sheikh as the revival of an ancient custom which had fallen into 618 1 : abeyance. 4. So Political Combination under Mahmud II we have arrived at the conclusions (i) that the privilege of the Mevlevi Sheikh is not an ancient institution but a comparatively recent innovation, and (2) that there is a good deal of evidence to show that it far, / NeoAoyos*, June I, June 23, June 26 (O.S.). Cutts, Christians under the Crescent, p. 334; Times > 13 Sept.; The procession is fully described but not the JVcoAdyos*, 27 Aug. 1 2 The Times account c there lives at Konieh an old an the of descendant ancient sovereign race who Imam, waive their rights to the throne in favour of the house of Osman.' The JVeoAoyos- gives the following note Tre/ot^ceWurai TO ^0? o ceremony. says : Sheriff or : rov 1 vrro laXafjiicrfjiov dp^jyos *lKOviov(MoX\aXovvKiap) viTOT\7J$ Eliot 3 5 rjycjjLCJv. This is rov StaSo^ou TOJV crcAraou/aSajv rov 6 yevdpx^ T0)v 'OafJiaviSiov vrrypgev the later popular legend mentioned by cSv and Cuinet. Ramsay, Revolution in Turkey, p. 202. Antonopoulos, MiKpa, 'Aala, p. 217 so a (1891), p. 112. : 4 also I. Ibid. p. 154. Valavanis, MiKpa- Repression of the Janissaries 619 became regular only after the accession of Mahmud II in 1808. What was the cause of the innovation ? Mahmud II, continuing the policy of Selim III, was pre-eminently a reforming sultan. He aimed particularly at the remodelling of the army, which involved the abolition of the Janissaries. The latter were already hateful to him as responsible for the deposition of Selim, to whom he was attached, and for the death of his own vizir, Bairakdar, who had brought him to the throne. The Janissaries were backed by the great dervish organi- zation of the Bektashi. mate them with who his Mahmud new army, tried to amalgaoffering a pension to first refused. 1 These conciliatory tactics proved In 1814-16 small bodies of Janissaries were being secretly .made away with. 2 By the drastic action of 1826 the sultan rid himself of the Janissaries and crippled the Bektashi organization. 3 Any reformer had, further, to reckon with the party of the Mufti and Ulema, which on religious grounds has always been solid for reaction. 4 The Ulema party stood particularly for the political and legal superiority of Mussulmans to Christians, which in the latter part of his reign Mahmud made some attempt to abolish. 5 The Mevlevi more than any Mohammedan religious body in Turkey have stood for tolerance and enlightenment 6 Mahmud those unsuccessful. : 1 T*Wf,Nov. 2 W. 3 * 15, 1808. Turner, Tour in the Levant, iii, 390 if., cf. p. 385. See particularly Assad Efendi, Destr. desjanissaires, pp. 298 if. For the obstructive policy of the Ulema under Mahmud II see ii, 300 f. ; cf. also H. Southgate, Travels (1840), ii, 173, and Holland, quoted below. Keppel (Journey ' ' across the Balcan, i, 96 if.) considers the unholy alliance between the Ulema and Janissaries as of much older standing. 5 Ubicini (Turquie, i, 447) says that Mahmud was not outwardly for reform till 1826, but we have seen that his hatred of the Janissaries particularly Walsh, Constantinople, can be traced much earlier than its overt manifestation. His action on behalf of the Christians begins after 1830 (Ubicini, ii, in), resulting in the edict of Gulhane published some months after his death. 6 As to their relations with Eliot, Turkey in Europe, pp. 185 f. S2 The Girding 620 enlisted them of the Sultan By some he was as his allies. said himself to have been a lay member of their Order, 1 which is not 2 3 Certainly his minister Halid Efendi was impossible. it was he who rebuilt the in close touch with them convent of the Mevlevi in Galata, 4 where his own head was for a time buried. 5 Further, Halid was an unscrupulous enemy of the Janissary-Bektashi combina: heard on good authority that during the Armenian massacres of 1895-6 the Christians of Konia owed their immunity largely to the influence of the Mevlevi ; this is confirmed by a Greek author (Antonopoulos, MiKpa 'Acria, p. 214). The same local Christians, Sir Charles Eliot was said at the time of the Adana massacres (Ramsay, Revolution in Turkey, pp. 202, 207, confirmed to me by Dr. Post of Konia). On the early relations of the Mevlevi with local Christians see above, p. 370 ff. e Order has had an official position with regard to Since 1634 them, since the revenues derived from the ray ah population of Konia were conferred on them by Murad IV (d'Ohsson, Tableau, ii, 309). ^ 1 Pardoe, City of the Sultans, P- 34 6 i, 55, ii, 62 ; J. P. Brown, Dervishes, - * Abdul Hamid is variously said to have belonged to the Bektashi (Eliot, Turkey in Europe, p. 182) and the Rifai (White, in Trans. Viet. Inst. xi (1908), p. ^35, Ramsay, Impressions of Turkey, p. 149) Orders. The latter seems to be the correct version. The Rifai claim that Abdul Hamid was converted by a dream in which, seeing himself attacked by a snake, he called for help on the founder of the Order. The snake vanished and the Sultan at once sent for a Rifai sheikh and was admitted To this circumstance may be attributed his selection of the Rifai Ebul Huda as an adviser (Jacob, Beitrdge, p. 47, n. 2). I am told by a former consul at Mosul that the Young Turks at the beginning of their regime made an attempt to destroy the tomb of Ahmed Rifai near that place. The Bektashi, on the other hand, I am told on good authority, voted solid for the Young Turks, though Abdul Hamid did to the Order. not persecute them. 3 Halid Efendi, the nishanji of Mahmud, was at the height of his 1820 in (Ubicini, op. cit. ii, 102) and lost his head over the illpower success of the Greek War, which he had advised for purposes of his own. The story of his fall is told in Walsh's Journey, pp. 70 ff. ; he was overtaken by the Sultan's courier while on his way to seek refuge with the Mevlevi at Konia. 4 ii, R. Walsh, Journey, p. 70 ; Burgess, Greece and the Levant, 223. 5 Pardoe, op. cit. i, 53 ; Frankland, Constantinople, i, 133. Advancement of the Mevlevi 621 tion, and advocated the war with All Pasha,* whose power seems to have been bound up with the Bektashi 1 of Albania. 3 Sultan Abdul Mejid, a reformer like his father, also favoured the Mevlevi. 4 Of the head of the Mevlevi at Galata in his reign Rolland says il est en effet Fune des bonnes tetes de Pempire Ami de Mahmoud, le chef actuel des Tourneurs fut au nombre de ces instruments ignores mais efficaces, qui travaillerent le plus puissamment au triomphe de la Reforme. Personne autant que lui n'aida le defunt empereur a dejouer ^opposition de PUlema, a percer par la voie des inter5 The pretations theologiques les obstacles du Koran.' refers the same who to passage probably repreperson sented the Mevlevi on the religious council which condemned the Bektashi in i826. 6 We may thus claim to have made out a case for the political combination of the sultan with the Mevlevi order against (i) the Janissaries and their allies the Bektashi dervishes, and (2) the party of the Ulema. The Mevlevi order carried off a trophy from each of these antagonists. Whereas hitherto the Superior of the Bektashi had held the official rank of colonel in the * : . . . 1 Walsh, Constantinople, ii, 92, Journey, p. 72 MacFarlane, Constantinople in 1828, ii, 131 ff. 2 Walsh, Journey, p. 70. 3 AH boasted that he was a Bektashi and for political ends favoured and made use of the Order see above, pp. 377-8. 4 also MacFarlane, Turkey and its Destiny, ii, 229 ft*. Cf. i, 200 ; : ; W. F. Lynch, Expedition 5 tion to the Jordan, p. 89. La Turquie Contemporaine came from Prince Ghika. C. Rolland, (1854), P- 22 3 : t ^e informa- 6 Assad Efendi, Destr. des Janissaires, p. 315. The Galata tekke of the Mevlevi takes precedence of all their foundations in the capital and is supposed to be a foundation of Mohammed II. It was built in 1491-2 and rebuilt in 1795-6 by Selim III (Mordtmann in EncycL oj For a striking account of this tekke Islam, sv, Constantinople 9 p. 875). and the power of its head see Osman Bey, Les Imans et les Derviches, p. 100. The Girding 622 of the Sultan 1 ninety-ninth oda of Janissaries, the Superior of the Mevlevi received from Mahmud II the grade of marshal 2 (musbir) in the newly organized army. Similarly, the privilege of the Mufti at the Girding of the sultan was transferred to the Superior of the Mevlevi. The secret history of the Girding of Mahmud II will probably never be known ; in all probability the then Mufti, from fear or interest, refused to officiate at the ceremony and the highest dignitary of the Mevlevi order consequence. The story of the reluctance of the Mufti to be present, while his successful rival girded Abdul Mejid, seems to show that the situation was still strained in 1839. But t ^ie P r i v i~ lege of the Mevlevi has continued to our own day to perpetuate no misty connexion with the Seljuk house of Rum, but the victory gained by Mahmud II with their help over the reactionary ecclesiastical party, just as the military grade of their Superior may be held to commemorate the part taken by their order against the military party of reaction represented by the Janissaries was called in to take his place in and Bektashi. 1 2 D'Ohsson, Tableau^ ii, 312. Cuinet, Turquie d Asie, i, 829 ; Jacob, Beitrage, p. 9. XLVII COLUMNS OF ORDEAL * self-respecting Cairene dragoman omits to point out to his clients among the curiosities of the NO mosque of Amr at Fostat two columns near the south door, which are endowed, according to popular superstition, with the miraculous power of discriminating between true Moslems and Unbelievers. 2 Placed at such a short distance apart (some ten inches) that the passage between them can with difficulty be negotiated by a man of average build, the columns none the less allow a true Moslem, however stout, to pass between them, while an Unbeliever, however slim, finds passage impossible. In other words, the space is supernaturally widened if necessary to accommodate the former and contracted to exclude the latter class. The columns actually used for this purpose at Cairo do not seem long to have been associated with the superstition. Visitors to the mosque in the sixties do not mention it, though they refer to the companion marvel of the column miraculously transported from Mecca. 3 The superstition itself, however, is of great antiquity and relatively well documented. The purpose of the rite, a spiritual test, distinguishes it sharply from ' ' the many similar passing through rituals universally ' ' current and generally considered lucky acts practised with a view to the healing of disease, &c. 4 Its symbolism, as we shall see, suggests a Christian origin. A study of This chapter is reprinted from B.S.A. xxiv, 68 ff. Murray, Egypt (1900), pp. 380-1 Sladen, Orient. Cairo, p. 183, and Queer Things about Egypt, p. 198 ; Goldziher, Culte des Saints Musulmans, in Rev. Hist. Relig. ii (1880), p. 345. 3 See, e.g. Petermann, Reisen im Orient, ii, 384. 4 See above, pp. 1 2 ; . . . Columns of Ordeal 624 developments or ramifications into various parts both of the Christian and Mohammedan worlds may therefore be attempted with more than usual accuracy and is thus of considerable interest and value for the study of kindred phenomena. its A more appropriate place of origin for a superstition so distinctly theological in character and shared by the two great religions of the eastern Mediterranean could not be found than Jerusalem ; and we shall not go far astray if we accept hypothetically as such. Certainly it is from Jerusalem that the earliest record comes to us of the ordeal of passage, and at Jerusalem that the it continued to be practised, though on varying holy In 723 S. Willibald, on sites, almost to our own day. pilgrimage to the Holy City, visited on his round the church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives. Here, he says, stood two columns within the church, against the north wall and the south wall, in memory of the two men who said, " Men of Galilee, why stand ye " x And the man who can creep gazing up into heaven ? between the wall and the columns will have remission of his sins.' 2 It does not seem possible, with the knowledge at our disposal, to refine on WillibakPs account as to the posiThe point of the ordeal was tion of the columns. certainly, as at Cairo, that the aperture, here between the columns and the wall, was narrow, and we may perhaps assume from this the fairly usual Byzantine rite ' 1 Acts, i, II. Ed. Wright, p. 19. ilia ecclesia est The original text runs sine ibi duae et tecto et stant columnae intus in ; desuper patula Ecclesia contra parietem Aquilonis, et contra parietem meridionalis Illae sunt ibi in memoriam et in signum duorum virorum plagae. qui Viri Galilaei, quid statis adspicientes in coelum ? Et ille dixerunt homo, qui ibi potest inter parietem et columnas repere, liber est a ' peccatis suis (Willibaldus, Vita sen Hodoeporicon, p. 376, in Mabillon, Ada SS. Ord. Bened., Saec. Ill, pt. ii, pp. 365 if. ; also in Camisii * 3 : : Thesaurus, ed. Basnage, ii, 1 1 1-12, quoted by Tobler, Siloabq.,pp. 94-5). In the Ascension Church column facing an 625 arrangement of a adjoining wall. The symbolism of the Men of Galilee anti-pilaster in the * 5 seems certainly no more than an ingenuity that of the seems to depend on the texts of S. Matthew, which use the image of a narrow passage to illustrate the 1 At the same time we may bear difficulty of salvation. in mind the special significance in the church of the Ascension, marking the spot where Christ entered into heaven, of two texts frequently displayed in Greek ' churches. These are (i) this is none other than the House of God, this is the gate of heaven ?2 and (2) this 3 is the gate of the Lord : the righteous shall enter into it And it is not impossible that these were written over, : rite itself ' ? . or in close proximity to, the through which it two narrow openings was customary in Willibald's time for 4 pilgrims to pass as a test of grace. As to the exact meaning of Willibald's liber est a peccatis suis, it is perhaps impossible to dogmatize, but some light may be thrown on the subject by the parallel of Mount Sinai. Here the ascent of the holy mountain was restricted to pilgrims who had been duly confessed, and a certificate of confession was required of them at the beginning of the ascent, which was marked by a gateway. The restriction was justified by the text, Who shall go up to the holy hill of the Lord and who shall stand in His holy place ? He that hath clean hands ' 1 Matt, vii, 13-14 (' Enter ye in at the strait gate way which leadeth unto is a for camel It easier to go through the eye of (' rich man to enter into the kingdom of God '). Luke xviii, 25. gate and narrow 3 is the . life : . '), strait a needle Cf. is the and xix, 24 than for a Mark x, 25 ; Gen. xxviii, 17. Ps. cxviii, 20 : Burckhardt notes the presence of this text over a door in the village of Shmerrin (Syria, p. 105). 4 Similarly, on the way from Mecca to Arafat there are two pillars 3 el Alameyn, about 80-100 paces apart on their way to, and still more from, them between pass of whitewashed stones, called pilgrims must Arafat (Burckhardt, Arabia, i, ; 113). Columns of Ordeal 626 I Felix Fabri informs us * that Jews, pure heart/ who according to medieval ideas were vicariously guilty of Christ's blood and therefore could not have ritually clean hands, were supernaturally prevented from pass3 It may have been the custom to confess ing the gate. pilgrims before admitting them to the sanctuary of the 4 holy hill of Olivet. What appears to be a variant of the same rite in the church of the Ascension, due probably to structural alterations involving the removal or modification of the original passages,* is described by Felix Fabri as practised in his time by oriental Christians. This rite consisted in embracing a certain column of the church. If the pilgrim could span it so as to make his fingers 6 touch, it was welcomed as a happy omen, but of what and a My authority is E. H. Palmer, Desert of the Exodus, R. Clayton's Journey to Mt. Sinai by the Prefetto of p. 105, quoting Egypt (1722). According to G. Ebers (Durch Gosen, pp. 313 f.) a second paper was also given to them at the convent to be given up at 1 Ps. xxiv, 3-4. 2 the second gate. Evagat. ii, 455. 3 Similar cases of supernatural intervention for religious reasons are given by Petachia, Tour du Monde, in Nouv. Jour. As. viii (1831), pp. 296-300 (tomb of Ezechiel surrounded by a wall without a gate and on the Feast of Taberwith only a hole through which Jews crawl nacles, however, it enlarges so that a man on a camel may pass through), and by Mandeville, ed. Wright, p. 199 (Mohammed's entry into a small low hermit's chapel in the desert of Arabia caused the low entrance to become so great, and so large, and so high, as though it had been of a great minster, or the gate of a palace '). 4 Near the tombs of Hillel and Shammai at Meron there was a stone basin found full of water by pious persons, but empty by the impious, : ' though the basin had no outlet (Petachia, loc. cit. y p. 392, quoted by Carmoly, Itineraires, p. 311). The pious could pass under the suspended coffin of Daniel at Susa, but not the impious (Petachia, oc. cit.j p. built 6 366). In the interval between the two accounts the church had been re- 5 * by the Crusaders and destroyed by Saladin (Tobler, Siloabq., p. 97). Putant autem illi superstitiosi orientales, quod ille, qui id facere potest, boni ' magis fortunatus, et quod (Fabri, Evagat^ ii, 134). sit sit signum cujusdam magni In the know Fabri does not state. Crypt of S. Pelagia 627 or contemptuously declines to We shall see, however, that the ritual has a place ' Columns of Ordeal '. In the crypt containing the tomb of S. Pelagia, 1 which is in the immediate vicinity of the church of the Ascension, the rite described by Willibald seems to have survived in a slightly modified form. It is described by two Greek pilgrims of (approximately) 1185 and 1250,* and again by Felix Fabri 3 in 1489. All the accounts in the story of the are substantially in accord. It was customary for penitents to squeeze through the narrow passage be- tween the tomb and the wall of the crypt, their ability to do this being considered as proof that they were in a state of grace if their previous confession had been Here again the defective, they were unable to pass. : reminiscence of Sinai is strong. It is curious to note that Saint Pelagia is known to Mohammedans as the 4 daughter of Hasan el Masri, and that the tomb of Hasan el Basri has a similar peculiarity to hers.* The seventeenth century sees a reappearance of the same superstition, again in a slightly modified form, in Christian building, the church of the Holy another yet 1 Her cell and tomb are traceable back to 600 A.D. (Antoninus of Piacenza) according to Tobler, Siloabq., p. 126. 3 Anon. Allatii, p. 87, de locis Hierosol. (in L. Allatius, Zi^i/ii/cra vol. i), c. 1185 (Tobler, Siloahq., p. 130, puts the Anon. c. 1400), and Perdiccas (in L. Allatius, 27u/i^t/cra, i, 72) c. 1250. i, 398 cf. Grethenius in Khitrovo, I tin. Russes > p. 180. Rabahet Bent Hassan el Masri' (Tobler, Siloahq., p. 126). Pelagia's tomb was sometimes confounded with that of S. Mary of Egypt (el Masri), her history being similar to the Magdalene's (Tobler, It became difficult of access for Christians about Siloahq., p. 133). to Tobler, Siloabq., p. 131, when a mosque was built 1500, according over it. Mejir-ed-din (p. 132) at this date says it was much visited by pilgrims, but he does not mention the grave. 3 4 Evagat. : < Niebuhr, Voyage en Arable, ii, 181 (Old Basra). His kubbe fell twice, whereupon he appeared and said he wished nokubbe but a tower, his tomb to be against the wall to prevent circumambulation. See his for s connexion with Letter S. y p. 189, Hasluck, Pelagia. 5 628 It Sepulchre. Columns of Ordeal seems indeed as if Moslem encroach- ments were continually driving it to new surroundings. Near the chapel of Christ's Prison, Doubdan, 1 in 1652, notices two small columns between which and the wall pilgrims squeezed their way, confident that a successful passage was an index, not of remission of sins, but of legitimacy. The same superstition is described by Nau in 1674,* who, however, makes the passage between the two columns themselves. To the complete change in the object of the ritual we shall return in the discussion of the Moslem variants. Side by side with it was cur3 rent, as we see from Le Bruyn's account, the idea of proving that the penitent was in a state of grace. Of the chapel of S. Longinus in the Sepulchre church Kelly says : 4 * Beneath one of the altars lies a stone having a hole through it, and placed in a short trough, so that it seems impossible for anything but a spectre to pass through the hole. Nevertheless the achievement was a customary penance among the Greeks, and called by them " Purgatory " until a lady, enceinte, in labouring to drag herself through it, came to some mischief and ever since that accident, the Turks have in mercy guarded ; ; the stone by an iron grating.' This concludes the record of the columns of ordeal in Christian sanctuaries at Jerusalem, unless we include as such the unsatisfactory mention of a similar rite, of which the purpose is not stated, practised in the church of Mount Zion in Crusading times : Ante Chorum quaedam murum posita est, marmoris columna juxta quam simplices homines circummigrare pretiosi solent. 5 1 3 Terrc Sainte 1651-2, p. 75. Voyage (1683), ii, 258 2 M. Nau, Terre Sainte, pp. 193 Summer Ramble in from d'Estourmel, Tobler by (Golgatba [1851], p. 337), in whose Kelly, Syria, p. 367, quoting Vere Monro, similar story is cited Syria [1835], pp. 216-17. 4 f. ff. A Journal, ii, 93 [1832], time the tradition seems to have been forgotten. 5 Theodericus, De Locis Sanctis (c. 1172), ed. Tobler, p. 56. Christian Ordeals Summarized 629 Summing up, we may distinguish two modifications of the oldest form of the rite (passing between column and wall) and a complete bifurcation of its purpose (a) At S. Pelagians, passage is not between column and wall but between tomb and wall. () In the Holy Sepulchre church, passage is between column and wall or between two columns. (c) In the later ritual of the Ascension church, passage of any sort is abandoned in favour of embracing the single column used for the rite. The original symbolism is lost, but it must be noted that the object of the later rite is not stated. The first record of the practice by Moslems of the column ordeal is no earlier than the middle of the seventeenth century. The place is Jerusalem and the building the Dome of the Rock. It is of course unsafe to infer that the practice is not earlier, particularly as the whole Haram area, and especially the interior of the Dome of the Rock, was rigorously forbidden to non-Moslems down to our own time. But the silence of both Crusaders and Moslem writers on the subject, and the warning of one of the latter (Mejir-ed~Din) I against the superstitious practice of the Christians on the Mount of Olives makes it likely that the column ordeal in the Dome of the Rock is not much more ancient than our first records. It will be further noted that the Dome of the Rock, whence Mohammed took his miraculous flight to heaven, makes the rite appropriate in the same sense as it is appropriate for Chrisand that the tians in the church of the Ascension traditional identification of the Rock as Bethel, 2 the scene of Jacob's vision, 3 makes it a second time a symbolical entry to heaven. Further, that the text Matthew : : Siloabq., p. 124. Cf. the long and the of Frater building given by Philippus de explicit description 210 ff. see Z.D.P.F. which for i, Aversa, 1 A.D. 1495, * Lubomirski, Jerusalem, p. 272. quoted by Tobler, 3 Gen. xxviii, 17. Columns of Ordeal xix, 24, is familiar to Moslems from its adaptation in the 1 Koran, which says that unbelievers shall not enter into paradise, until a camel pass through the eye of a needle \ Finally, we must point out, as at least an extraordinary series of coincidences, that the crypt of the Dome of the Rock passed for the place where Christ forgave the adulterous woman, and was thence known in Frankish times as confessio? exactly as the cave below the church of the Ascension, in which the ex-harlot Pelagia passed her days of penitence, was known as 630 ' The two accounts of the column ordeal as practised* in the middle seventeenth century by Moslems in the Dome of the Rock, refer to an identical pair of columns, distinct from those of the structure itself, and placed Brother Eugene Roger near the western entrance. that it was (1653) says commonly said of them that any one who could pass easily between them was predestined for the Moslem paradise, and that if a Christian made the attempt he would inevitably be crushed by them. 3 D'Arvieux (1660), our second authority, says that they were used as an oracle of legitimacy and that bastards were unable to make the passage, at least not without 4 The practice of the ordeal on the great difficulty. Rock is the not cited by any subsequent writer. Dome of The association of the two ideas, (i) fitness for heaven and (2) legitimacy, has already met us at the Holy Sepulchre and will meet us again later. What is the point of contact between the two ideas ? A possible answer may be found in the fact that in Moslem, and to a certain extent also in Jewish, theology 1 2 38 (Sale's ed., p. 108). Tobler, Topogr. von Jerusalem, vii, i, 544 : cf. Theodericus, De Locis Sanctis, pp. 43, 123. Chateaubriand, Itiner. ii, 376. Memoires, ii, 210 f., retailing information gathered from monks employed in repairing the windows of the mosque. 3 4 In the Mosque El Aksa 631 of the relation the soul to the Creator is habitually a wife to her husband. As the chief that of figured by virtue of a man is faithfulness to God, so that of a woman is faithfulness to her husband infidelity is in either case the cardinal sin. 1 On the fidelity of the wife depends the legitimacy of her offspring, and both would be satisfactorily tested if a pregnant woman passed The successfully between the miraculous columns. of women several indeed times is pregnant passage mentioned, though it is obvious that the rite was shared by others (possibly at first babies) with the object of of : proving their own 2 legitimacy. The ordeal of the columns is found a second time under Moslem auspices in Jerusalem at the mosque El Aksa in the Haram. Here it is mentioned by numerous authors of the seventies, 3 and Conder tells us that it was forbidden in 1 88 1, when the space between the columns was blocked by an iron bar to prevent the passage. The purpose of the rite seems to have been exclusively to test the suppliant's fitness for heaven. For the same collocation of ideas note that in judging the markings of Arab horses a star on the shank is held to presage that the animal's owner will be of doubtful orthodoxy as a Mussulman, and that his wife will be unfaithful (Kelly, Syria, p. 446). 2 Predestination includes a wide range of ideas among which are (l) virtue, (2) freedom from mortal sin, (3) state of grace, (4) belief (for Moslems), the central idea being fitness for heaven. It is not the same ideajbr Moslems as legitimacy, although Islam allows special privileges to founders' kin ', the legitimacy of whose descent from the Prophet might reasonably be supposed to be tested by any given test of grace. Jews and Mohammedans both accept proselytes, it will be remembered. 3 Conder, Jerusalem, p. 232 Lady Burton, Inner Life of Syria, d' Orient (1874) Souvenirs A. Pierotti, Legendes Bost, P- 379 9 J1 ' ; Racontees, pp. 33 f. (he says they are verd- antique in colour and taper) De : Lubomirski, Jerusalem (1878), p. 277. Vogue, Syrie, pp. 202 f., the an of gives ceremony. Tobler, in his Topogr. amusing description von Jerusalem (1853), does not mention the superstition it will be remembered that access to the Haram was still in his time almost : impossible. Columns of Ordeal 632 Outside Jerusalem the rite has been copied (apparently) at Urfa (Edessa) in the Jacobite crypt of S. Ephraem under the Armenian monastery of S. Sergius, though no definite purpose is attributed to it by our 1 single authority, hewn column who c says, Before the grave is a rock- near the wall, between which and the wall everyone tries to pass '. What seems a certain case of plagiarism from the rite Hassa Keui in Cappadocia, the alleged place of burial of S. Makrina, sister of S. Gregory. Pilgrims to the tomb ordinarily circumambulate it, but if they have made a vow to the saint which they have failed to fulfil, they are arrested by a supernatural force at a place where a corner of the sarcophagus approaches to within a few inches of the of church S. Pelagians is found at wall. 2 Another derivative from the original rite of the Ascension church, very possibly dating from the Cru3 sades, is at Nivelles in Belgium, where, in the church of dans une chapelle un pilier monoS. Gertrude, m lithe de i 3O de hauteur et de 24c.de diametre environ, sans utilite speciale dans la batisse, est appuye sur une base reliee au mur et distancee du sol par deux marches. ' . 1 * . . H. Petermann, Reisen im Orient, ii, 354. Carnoy and Nicolaides, Trad, de VAsie Mineure, p. 206. For analogies see above, p. 627. 3 Similarly, the legend of S. Hubert spread from Rome to many relics had been carried there, see above, p. 464. Belgium because Secular of the are found in two of saints stories of the counterparts dispersion 206 related 2nd Gould series, pp. ff., legends (Curious Myths, by Baring 314 ff.). The first is the legend of Melusine, the fairy ancestress of the Lusignans of Poitou, the second tells how an ancestor of the Belgian Godefroi de Bouillon met Beatrice, a mysterious woman, near a fountain, and eventually married her. That is, two Persian-coloured tales of fairy ancestors were told in Poitou and Belgium of noble houses which became conspicuously famous in the Crusades. Troubadours were the main agents in the circulation of such stories, but another important factor was the settlement of Crusaders in their newly conquered lands in the East ; see Hasluck, Letters, pp. 117-18. In Mosques at Damietta and Kairuan 633 Le peuple pretend que toute personne qui n'est pas en etat de grace ne peut passer entre le mur et le pilier : 5 environ de 30 centimetres. x Pespacement On the Moslem side the three examples from northern Africa which follow are quite clearly derivatives from the Jerusalem prototypes, all having in common both the form of the rite, passage between columns, and its main object, proof of orthodox religious sentiments. To the Columns of Ordeal in the mosque of Amr at Fostat (Old Cairo) we have already referred. Though the main purpose of the ordeal here is as above stated, est Douglas Sladen, in his Queer Things about Egypt* hints that they are also used as a test of women's chastity. We have already remarked that the practice does not seem here to be ancient, probably deriving directly from the Aksa mosque at Jerusalem. Similar Columns of Ordeal are mentioned as existing in the mosque of Amr at Damietta. The space between them may be ' ? traversed only by the virtuous , presumably, here as elsewhere, persons in a state of grace or believers. 3 At the mosque of Sidi Okba in the holy city of Kairuan in Tunisia are likewise a pair of such columns 4 they are of red porphyry and are used as a test of Moslem orthoLike those of El doxy or as a cure for rheumatism Aksa, they taper towards the top, so that with a little chicanery a tall man stands a better chance of passing than a shorter patient of like build. Vaujany speaks of the Columns of Ordeal as a not infrequent feature in Egyptian mosques. Considering the importance of the mosques of Amr and Sidi Okba, it : ! 1 Sebillot, Folk-Lore de France, Wallonia, iii, 15. the French area. by * S. iv, 157, quoting O. Colson in Sebillot's very thorough work gives no parallel in S. Gertrude's is a Benedictine abbey church founded Gertrude in 645. P. 198 : cf. his Orient. Cairo, p. 183. Vaujany, Alexandric, p. 205. For another column of predestination, this time at Bethlehem, see Tobler, Bethlehem, p.. 90. 3 4 Poire, Tunisie Fran$aise, Paris, 1892, pp. 187-8. 3*95'* T Columns of Ordeal 634 would not be surprising to find them widely distributed in North Africa. Two cases of an ordeal involving passage between natural rocks as a test of spiritual acceptability may be here cited, (i) At Haji Bektash, the chief seat of the (Shia) Bektashi sect, pilgrims make the passage of a natural rock tunnel with a view to proving their sinThe aperture is narrow, and it is cerity of purpose. customary for the pilgrim to remove his arms before making the attempt with arms, passage is reputed im: possible, though, according to my informants, a certain Albanian bey, who refused to conform to the rule, passed successfully ; he was rewarded for his presumption by an early death. 1 (2) Of a closely similar rite in Morocco I am informed by a friend long resident in Fez, whose words I quote. * An eyewitness here, credible, informs me that there is at a mountain sanctuary called Mulai Abdslam bel Meshish, a wellknown place in the mountains south of Tetuan, just outside the shrine, a sort of cave, with a narrow entrance between two " rocks. Only one who is murda " can pass in. If not " murda ", " the rocks would crush you. Murda " is a technical word " " meaning acceptable with special reference to God and your parents. The local tradition in this place thing of bastardy The : it is morals of which seems to know no- it is the touchstone.' 3 two instances may be or both alike merely fortuitous, may depend on a prototype unknown to us, possibly in the Shia holy places. Their ultimate relation with the Jerusalem must close resemblance of these be regarded as * not proven ' group pending further evidence or indication. Two instances of embracing a column for oracular purposes, as in the second phase of the Ascension church ritual, 1 2 may or may not be connected with our From AH Kemal Bey Klissura, and From Mr. J. M. Dawkins. series. his brother, Fadil Bey. For Oracles The embracing ritual in itself is 635 early and obviously from the enthusiastic salutation of the venerated object by pilgrims. It is mentioned in connexion with the column of Flagellation on Mount Zion by Antoderives ninus of Piacenza. 1 The first of these instances is at Kufa, one of the great holy places of Shia Islam, where there is a piece of a column, reputed brought thither by Ali himself. This is used as an oracle of legitimacy, bastards being unable to make their fingers meet round it.* The second is at Alexandrovo in Serbian Macedonia, where the tekke of the Bektashi dervishes contains a miraculous square pillar, which, supposedly brought there by a Bosnian saint, is embraced by pilgrims. If they can make the fingers of their two hands meet round the 3 pillar, their prayer is granted. The connexion of the two Shia rites seems obvious, the generalization of the purpose of the ordeal in the derivative at Alexandrovo being characteristic. It would be dangerous without further evidence to connect them with the second ritual of the Ascension church, though it will be remarked that the purpose of the latter has not come 1 down to us. Ed. Toblcr, xxii, p. 24 ; Kelly, Syria p. 366. Niebuhr, Voyage en Arable ii, 216. sec further above, Evans in J.H.S. xxi, 203 , 2 ', 3 : T2 p. 277. XLVIII THE STYLITE HERMIT OF THE OLYMPIEUM early drawings of the Olympieum A,Lfrom aCarrey's at Athens, downwards, show on part of the rubble building of peculiar form, which has been removed only in comparatively recent years. 2 So many writers allude to this building as the dwelling of a Stylite hermit that the statement has passed unquestioned into Gregorovius' standard work on Athens in the Middle Ages. 3 A closer examination of our sources, however, makes it abundantly clear that the Stylite hermit of the Olympieum is a product of the imagination alone and had no historical existence. We will examine first the testimony of our authors as to the hermit, and secondly the nature of his supposed cell. The first allusion to the hermit is no earlier than 1739. Pococke, after his description of the rubble building on the architrave (to which we shall return), consome imagine that the palace of tinues sceptically Adrian was built on those high pillars, but this wall e. the and [i. supposed cell] appears to be modern to that some hermit lived in that they pretend say, airy * 4 Chandler's testimony is similar building.' you are told it has been the habitation of a hermit, doubtless of 1 architrave * : . . . : 1 3 e Omont, Athene* au XFII Apparently in the Siecle, pi. xxii. seventies : cf. Transfeldts in Ath. Mitth. \ (1870), p. 112, n. i. Gregorovius, Stadt Atben, pp. 301 f., who mentions this beginning of this century. 3 4 Descr. of the East, II, ii, remains of Hadrian's palace i, 68 : cf. as a fact 166. (e.g. Julliard, Voyages Incoherent*, details so late as the and with Before this date most took Randolph, Morea, p. 22). it for Grozuth of the Legend 637 have V a Stylites Dodwell, in 1 805, says 'it is supposed to been the aerial residence of a Stylites hermit Hob' house, in 1809, that Greeks and Turks declare it to have been the habitation of a Saint'. 3 Turner, in 1814, 'was ' told quite a different legend, viz. that c on a piece of V the architrave between two of them [i. e. the columns] a Greek, in the time of a terrible plague that infested Athens, built a small chamber of brick, to which he ascended with cords, drawing them up after him '.* The discrepancy need not trouble us, since none of these traditions have more truth in them than the frankly supernatural story told by an old Albanian woman to Dodwell, that the so-called Stylite's Cell was full of Arab who made his abode from column to column. 5 As the century goes on the Stylite story becomes accepted and grows more detailed and explicit, but the only author whose account can be construed as the record of an eyewitness is Frankland, who is ambiguous a Fakir, or Dervish, had contrived to ensconce himself upon the remains of the Epistylia in one angle of the colonnade/ 6 Lacour, in 1832, has the story with more detail de nos jours, unErmite a vecu pendant dix-huit treasure and guarded by an there and by night jumped : 6 c : ans sur 1'architrave des cinquieme et sixieme colonnes la face orientale ; c'est au moyen d'une echelle de de corde, qu'on lui envoyait les provisions de la semaine 7 il Baird was told y resta six annees sans en descendre.' ; by an Athenian friend a hermit who in the fifties a similar story of 8 ' lived many years ago '. 1 Travels in Greece, 2 his companion, Pomardi, gives the Tour through Greece, i, 389 with more detail, qualifying his statements with the phrase al ii, 87. : talc * dire de' naturali 3 Albania, 5 Op. 7 8 i, ' (Viaggio nella Grecia, i, * 322. 6 390. Excursions en Grece, p. 185. cit., i, Modern Greece, 1856, p. 52 : cf. 150). Tour in the Levant, Constantinople, i, i, 379. 302. Byzantios, who, in a footnote to The Hermit of the Olympieum As we have said, no author, with the possible exception of Frankland, claims to have seen the hermit. Lady Craven, in 1786, says vaguely that he was long since 1 2 3 dead, as do Laurent and Trant ; Michaud that he 4 died a few years ago, d'Estourmel that he lived in the in last century 5 Lacour dates him, as we have seen, 638 Stylite ' ; own times \ To sum up, the our tale is first told in the first half of the eighteenth century. Pococke, Chandler, Dodwell, and Hobhouse do not believe it. Subsequent writers at short intervals accept the tradition, but date the hermit at various periods, all before their own visits to Athens, with the solitary exception of Frankland (1827). The latter's visit falls between those of Laurent (1818) and Trant (1830), both of whom knew of the hermit as long It seems quite evident that Frankland's since dead. notice, ambiguous at best, cannot be accepted as an eyewitness's account. When we turn to examine the supposed Stylite's cell itself, it is obvious that it was ill-adapted for a human c a wall built dwelling-place. Pococke describes it as with three passages in it, one over another, and openings in it one over another, and openings at the side windows and doors 6 It is so represented in the drawings, of which the most exact are Stuart and ? like . Revett's. 7 What purpose could such perched on columns sixty feet high, a perforated wall, have served ? The system of water-conduits generally employed in Turkey substitutes for the continuous arcaded aqueducts of Roman times a series of detached towers (su mentions the OIKICFKOS (ii (1862), p. 94), eV a) ecTTuAojSarei JepjSienjs' TIS> KaOa Aeyoucw, CTU TovpKOKparlas. his KajvoravTivoviToXis, 1 2 . to Constantinople (1786), p. 259. Classical Tour, p. 96. Journey 3 Journey through Greece (1830), 4 Corresp. d'Orient (1833-5), 5 7(wrw*/(i844),i,97. 6 Loc. cit. i * p. 265. *6i (1830). Ant. of Athens, III, ii, pi. i ; III, iii, pi. i. . . A terazi or c 639 Suggested Explanation water balances '), placed at suitable intervals, which serve the double purpose of checking an overrapid flow of the water (and so easing the strain on the pipes), and facilitating the inspection and repair of the channels. ' Upon the side nearest to the channel of supply they are furnished with earthen pipes, through which the fluid, ascending by its own impulse, mounts to the summit. Here the ascending pipes terminate, and discharge their contents into a small moossink (water gauge or cistern) lined with k harass an and lukium. 1 Upon the opposite side are one or more orifices, from two to three inches lower than the supplying tubes. After circulating, and being exposed to the pressure and renovating action of the atmosphere, the water departs through these orifices, and descends through pipes communicating with underground channels, which convey it to the next Souteraxy 5 or distribute it to lateral tanks. * . . . The height of such water-towers is of course conditioned ultimately by that of the fountain-head serving the aqueduct some are as high as ninety feet. 3 The cistern on top is generally open to the air. It seems possible that in the rubble building on the architrave of the Olympieum we have the remains of a triple series of cisterns or clearing-chambers from a Turkish aqueduct, the already existing columns of the Olympieum being utilized to avoid the expense of building a water-tower. The ventilation of the lower two cisterns was secured by openings in the side-walls. : An aqueduct was brought into Turkish Athens in 4 1506-7 as the following note from the Chronicle of Athens testifies ' ' : *Ev Ti &' Avyovarov K&' apxurev TO Kowriro r/ rfjs 'AOijvas fipvais rov ^E^e^a^pov /cat dveKcuvtaOr) W. rj * Kinds of cement (F. 2 C. White, Constantinople, ii, 28. Forchheimer and Strzygowski, Byz. Wasserbehalter, p. 24. Ed. Lambros in 'AOyvatov, vi (1877), p. 441. 3 4 H.). 640 The Stylite Hermit of the Olympieum TTJ$ %a)pa$ Sta avvSpofifjs rov OKtvrep aov^Traarf rov *AXifJL7raaa /cat Sta e6Sov rov Koo/iou eaefiv] TO vtpov 'ArrpiXiov KTJ' r)[jLpa. As to levels, if we assume ferred to entered the city square (JTAareta that the water supply re- from above the C^tAt/c^ 'Eraipeias) rfjs ' Kolonnaki ' by the ancient aqueduct which still serves Athens, we find that the 2 drop from Kolonnaki (134*1 m.) to the Olympieum site (80-8 m.) is great, and water flowing thence could 1 ' ' ascend the extra sixty feet afforded by the columns of the Olympieum serving as a water-tower. The purpose of bringing a conduit so far away from the town was obviously the supply of water to the citadel, in the outer works of which the Odeum (97-70 m. abov.e sea-level) was then incorporated. easily 1 Ziller in Ath. Mitth. 2 These figures are v8pavXiKr)V ii, 120. from Cordelias' Al 'AOfjvai e^ra^o/ie^at erroifjiv, p. 1 8. VTTO XLIX WESTERN TRAVELLERS THROUGH EASTERN EYES A JOURNEY a ' says a Tradition of the Prophet, is of Hell.' The western love of travel ', Fragment enigma to the eastern both expensive and troublesome peasant. Travelling sensible people only consent to expense and trouble as a means to an end, material or spiritual. The merchant who travels for ultimate gain, is understood so is the for travel's sake is a perpetual is : : who Jerusalem or Mecca for the good of confesses to travelling without a definite aim, or in search of knowledge, is either a madman or a very clever person masquerading as a madman. Consequently, elaborate explanations are sometimes brought forward to account for the curiosity * of the Franks concerning eastern countries. One such explanation is to the effect that westerns who die in the East are re-incarnated as young children x and are thus enabled to begin their lives over again. Gener' Franks ally, however, a more material view is taken, The Franks are known to have curious knowledge. are devils, they know everything,' was the (wholly admiring) comment of a Turkish peasant, when I produced a map showing the lake beside which his village was pilgrim his soul. visits A man who ' ' ' built. stories Further, hazy recollections and oft-repeated of Franks who appeared from nowhere and distributed quinine and colour to the belief that to ailing villagers give Franks are doctors, 2 and, pills all Turner, Tour in the Levant, iii, 512. certain British Consul at Samsun in Asia Minor was constantly worried for remedies for fever by the natives. In despair, and hoping to end the nuisance, he gave them impressions of the consular seal on 1 3 A Western Travellers through Eastern Eyes disease being the work ofjinns, medicine and magic in the East go together. 642 Thus, people who are doctors and use maps, who even know the name of a village before they have seen An archaeologist it, are magicians or little short of it. is perhaps beyond all others marked out as a dabbler in he has the occult. His interest in the crops is feeble nothing to sell his religion (if Franks have any, which is more than doubtful) is some sort of Christianity, so his objective in a Mohammedan country can hardly be On the other hand, he will part with a pilgrimage. be shown such things as ruins and into good money : : scriptions. Everybody knows that ruins are likely places for buried treasure and that inscriptions are directions for locating it. Everybody, again, knows that treasures are guarded by spirits and that ordinary people cannot ' read ancient inscriptions, which are written in Prankish ence ' characters, probably cryptic at that. The inferobvious. The affected interest of the archaeo- is I merely masks a treasure hunter specially qualified by knowledge of the occult. Marvel- logist in things ancient and implicitly believed, exemplifying the Frank's proverbial knowledge of his subject. Near Pergamon, so I was told by an otherwise shrewd Mytilenean, there was a village shop-keeper who owned an antica in the shape of a marble owl, which he kept in his shop. One evening a mysterious Frank arrived in the village, sat down at the shop, and made lous stories are current ' ' himself very agreeable, spending money right royally as much as three and sixpence, some said. In consideration of his custom, the shop-keeper allowed him at his own request to spend the night, not in the best room, The patients drank the talisman soaked in water and so effective that the clamour for it became general (Van paper. Travels in Asia Minor , 285.) 1 Miss Durham found herself suspected of this ed. Garnett, i, 114. p. 56) : r/". Doughty, Arabia, found it Lennep, i, (High Albania, Treasure-Hunters 643 in was but When offered and the which refused, shop. his host came to wake him in the morning, the Frank had gone, the marble owl had been unscrewed, and its two halves, which were hollow, lay on the counter, and by them a gold coin. This told its own tale. The Frank had evidently got wind of the existence of the marble owl beforehand by the aid of his books, and had made his descent on the village with the express intention of securing the treasure concealed in it. If he left, out of gratitude to his host as was supposed, one gold piece on the counter, how many more must not the owl have . yielded . . ? The books of the Franks are credited with containing all sorts of occult information on inscriptions and treasures. This idea is confirmed by the fact that an archaeologist often does know of an inscription before he has seen it, but of course from quite prosaic archaeological publications. Given the inscription, the treasure The methods used by the Franks for is easily found. carrying it off are various. They may remove the inscribed stone bodily and extract the treasure at their leisure. Some think the procedure is to bewitch the so that the coins of which it is composed turn treasure 1 into flies, and then to conjure the flies to betake themselves into the country of the Franks, where they can be re-transformed into coins. This method, though elaborate, has the advantage of avoiding the expense of carriage. The boundary line between the adventures even of particular Franks and pure fairy story is slight indeed. The following story, told to Hamilton in 1836 by guides from Everek near Caesarea, shows the machinery of the folk-story unfettered by any consideration of probabilities. ' 1 A traveller Turner, those once came from Frangistan, in search of op. cit., iii, who would rob In North tomb of the 513. the (Berbrugger, Tombeau de Africa insects Christian fly woman la Chretienne, pp. 36-8). a rare out to attack near Algiers 644 Western "Travellers through Eastern Eyes plant which grew only on the summit of Argaeus, having ten leaves round its stalk and a flower in the centre. The plant was guarded by a watchful serpent, which only slept one hour out of the four-and- twenty. The traveller in vain tried to persuade some of the natives to accompany him, and point out the way ; none of them would venture, and at length he made the ascent alone. Failing, however, in his attempt to surprise the dragon, he was himself destroyed. He was afterwards discovered, transformed into a book, which was taken to Caesarea, and thence found its way back to Frangistan. 5 J This astounding rigmarole affords a fine example of the atmosphere of magic and mystery which surrounds the wandering Frank and it is some consolation to the western traveller, who often enough feels himself but a commonplace person in the East, to realize that he also may become in the mouths of the people the hero of such a fantastic, if ill-starred, Odyssey. As a matter of fact, the hero of the Everek tale was real enough. Near the village is a modest gravestone 2 with the inscription Nathan Gridley, American Missionary from the United States, born in Farmington, Connecticut, 31 years and 35 days old, died 1827, ' then the same in Greek and Armenian. Sept: 28 Deceased was a medical missionary who lived here several years, serving alike all the inhabitants of Caesarea and making himself respected even by the fanatical Turks. Having paid a visit to Everek, he made up his mind to be the first of moderns to ascend the mountain : c ; on foot, as was his regular practice, trusting to his immense physical strength. He was at first accompanied by four Greeks, but he tired them out in the four hours. Despite their warnings, he continued the ascent alone, till he sank, worn out, to the ground. It was only next morning that he was able to crawl painfully back with bleeding feet to Everek. He was put on a horse and taken to his own house at Erdenlik, first 1 Hamilton, Asia Minor, ii, 275. 2 Tschihatscheff, Reisen, p. 38. Seekers of the Gold Plant 645 where he died in three days from the effects of his exhaustion. Les Grecs restaient convaincus qu'il etait mort etouffe par le manque d'air. 1 The plant was evidently the magic flower lampedona (AoftTreSdi/a), which is only to be distinguished at night by its luminosity and has the property of turning all it touches into gold. It grows habitually on the tops of mountains and Franks know of it and make gold with it.* For a brief bibliography of Texier, Asie Mineure (1834), ii, 62. Gridley see Memoirs of American Missionaries formerly connected with the Society of Enquiry respecting Missions in the Andover Theological Seminary, pp. 127-34. I have to thank Mr. L. D. Caskey for an 1 extract from A this publication, as also for a reference to Leonard Sermon delivered at the Ordination of the Rev. Elmathan Gridley, Boston (Crocker and Brews ter), 1825. 2 A Cretan monk inquired about it from Sieber (Kreta, i, 544) in the early part of last century. The existence of this flower is a widely spread superstition common to Greece and other countries of the Nearer East (Polites, /TapaSocrct?, nos. 318 , and note on no. 318, Worcester, For its existence in gives a full bibliography on the subject). Palestine see Hanauer, Folk-Lore of the Holy Land, p. 289 (also called * tortoise herb ') ; for it in Egypt see Amelineau, Conies de V&gypte which c * morceau de bois qui change les creatures 149 (the made the Queen of Sheba's goat-foot human) ; for it on a mountain of the Soudan see G. J. H., Blackwood^s Magazine, March, 1918, p. 406 ; in Arabia see Dorys, La Femme Turque, p. 173 (herb of youth and beauty on mountain near Mecca, but long ago) ; in Persia see Mrs. Bishop, Journeys in Persia y i, 321 (the authoress was thought to have come in search of it) ; in Crete see, besides the references quoted by Polites (supra), Dandini, Voyage du Mont Liban, pp. 17-18 (where it grows on Mt. Ida and turns the teeth of the animals that browse on it yellow) ; Chretienne, i, on Mt. Tomor, see Berati in UAlbanie, April 1918. It is some way related to a plant which is of the highest value to alchemy. Lane heard of it in Egypt as growing on a mountain (Thousand and One in Albania, in Nights, pp. 341-2, where, however, the connexion is fraudulent). Carsten Niebuhr (Voyage en Arabie, en Suisse, ii, 307, cf. 393) heard it grew on a mountain of the Yemen, where it yellowed the teeth of Mejir-ed-din (died 927 A. H.) mentions plants goats which fed on it. on the Sakhra rock at Jerusalem which turn silver to gold and gold to silver (ed. v. Hammer in Mines de POrient, ii, 94). Farther east, in heard a Villotte of whose root turns Persia, (Voyages, p. 483) plant quicksilver into silver. DIEUDONNE DE GOZON AND THE DRAGON OF RHODES ' i. THE STORY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT Rhodian knight Dieudonne de Gozon and the slaying of the great dragon of Malpasso is, largely owing to Schiller's adoption of the theme in a ballad, 2 one of the best-known legends of its type. 3 It is one of several instances in which an historical THE story of the personage figures as the hero of this quite mythical adventure. 4 Dieudonne de Gozon, a member of the Provencal langue, was the third Grand Master of the Knights of Rhodes, ruling from 1346 to 1353. He is represented as a simple knight at the time of his great adventure. As might be expected, no contemporary, or nearly contemporary, authority mentions the dragon 5 But so early as Mandeville and fight of de Gozon. S. John at Schiltberger we find anonymous Rhodian knights figuring as the heroes of current folk-tales of the chivalric 6 type. An earlier version of this chapter appeared in B.S.A. 1 xx, 70 ff. Der Kampf mit dem Drachen (1799). 3 For dragon-legends in folk-literature see Hartland's Perseus, Cosquin's Conies de Lorraine, i, 60 ff. and Frazer's note on Pausanias, a ix > 2<5 > 7 ' Other historical personages credited with dragon-fights are Sire Chin (d. 1127) anc* ne of the Counts of Mansfeld (HartThe Russian saint Alexander Nevski is repreland, Perseus, iii, 46). sented as a horseman and dragon-slayer, but was really an historical 4 Gilles de Grand Duke of the 5 ii, On thirteenth century (Bouillet, Dictionnaire, s. ^.). Raybaud, Hist, des Grands Prieurs de 5. Gilles, this point see 300. Rhodian knight has advenenchanted of the tures with daughter Ypocras in Kos; in Schiltberger 6 So in Mandeville (ed. Wright, p. 139) a Early Accounts 647 The earliest form of the de Gozon story known to us is the version set down by a noble pilgrim who visited Rhodes on his way to the Holy Land in 1521.* He was there told that between the city of Rhodes and the castle of Phileremo was a church of Our Lady called Malapasson, so named because years ago the spot had been rendered impassable to travellers by a monstrous dragon which did great damage to the countryside. A French knight asked the Grand Master's leave to attack it, but the latter forbade him on the ground that the enterprise was too dangerous. Not content with this refusal, the knight went back to France and trained his horse and two dogs to face the dragon by setting them at a monster made by covering a calf with dummy 2 Having trained the animals, he returned to Rhodes and attacked and killed the dragon with their help, cutting off a piece of its tongue as evidence, but telling no one of his exploit. Some days after the encounter a Greek found the dragon's carcase and claimed to have killed it himself. The false claim was refuted by the knight, who produced his trophy as 3 evidence, but, so far from receiving honours or reward, a dragon's skin. Hakluyt Society, p. 42) a Rhodian knight attempts the enchanted 9 Castle of the Sparrow-Hawk ; and later in Rhodes itself a Rhodian (ed. c knight takes the castle of Phileremo by one of the regular strategies of folk-lore (Rohricht and Meisner, Deutsche Pilgerrcisen^ p. 371 ; Torr, Rhodes, p. 91). All these are well-known folk stories to which local colour has been given by the characterization of the heroes. 1 Pfalzgraf Ottheinreich, in Rohricht and Meisner's Deutsche The learned editors recognize in this the Pilgerreisen, pp. 392-4. record of the de Gozon legend. This rather unconvincing stratagem, much elaborated in the canonized version, may have been suggested by the local legend of Phileremo alluded to above, in which the castle is taken by a similar trick, the hero and his companions disguising themselves in ox-skins earliest * (Deutsche Pilgerreiscn, p. 371 ; Torr, Rhodes^ p. 91). 3 The episode of the false claim, discarded in the later canonized version of the story, is a feature common to many folk-tales of this type (see above, p. 430, and note i). 648 Dieudonne de Gozon and the Dragon of Rhodes was imprisoned by the Grand Master on the score of He eventually became Grand Master disobedience. himself, either the third or fourth. From this last it is clear that the legend of 1521 was already associated with de Gozon, not with an anonymous knightly hero. If we consider the number of earlier voyages, all teeming with marvels retailed to pilgrims by the way, which have come down to us, it seems improbable that the story of Dieudonne de Gozon and the dragon was current in Rhodes much before 1521, a hundred and seventy years after its hero's death, when we first hear of it. On the other hand, we find in Kos, like Rhodes a possession of the Knights, a simple legend of a dragonslaying with an anonymous hero current as early as 1 I42O, and in the preceding century a tradition of the bewitched daughter of Hippocrates appearing in dragon form in the same island. 2 Any country at all in touch with the East was likely to develop these folk-themes with a local setting. In the de Gozon legend it is the choice of the hero and the details of his stratagem which are of special interst. To Bosio, the historian of the Order of S. John, who wrote some seventy years later, /. e. after the departure of the Knights from Rhodes, is due the general currency ' non diu est quod serpens Buondelmonti, Liber Insularum, 45 maximus devorans apparuit armenta, et territi omnes fugam arripiebant. Tune strenuus vir pro salute populi duellum inceptat, dum inter bestias mere vellet. Quod cum hoc serpens percepisset, equum morsibus illico in terram prostratum occidit ; iuvenis autem, acriter pugnans, tandem viperam interfecit.' Folk-legends of fights with dragons in Greek lands, sometimes dated more or less exactly, are given by Biliotti and Cottret, Rhodes, p. 154 (Rhodes, no years ago '), and 1 : ' Polites, /JapaSoCTet?, nos. 375 (Mykonos,) 381 (Skopelos) 383 (1509, Ionian Ansted, Islands, p. 342), 387 (1891, Rapsani). Cephalonia, With these it is interesting to compare the crocodile story from Egypt told by Lucas (Voyage au Levant (1705), i, 83 if.). 2 for the obscure connexion Mandeville, ed. Wright, p. 138 between this dragon and the devastating monster mentioned above see note in Warner's edition. cf. : Bosio's Version 649 of the legend. His account is very detailed, though seems to be given with some reserve. 1 it The dragon lived in a cave, from which a spring flowed, at the roots of S. Stephen's hill, some two miles from the city, at a place called Malpasso. Every one was forbidden to fight with it. De Gozon, however, resolved to defy the prohibition. He retired to the castle of Gozon in Gascony, where his elder brother ruled, and made a dummy dragon of canvas stuffed with tow, resembling the real dragon in every particular, and so deyised that it could be moved mechanically, making hideous noises as it did so. Having trained his horse and dogs to attack the dummy monster, he returned to Rhodes and set out to Malpasso by a roundabout route, sending his dogs with the servants to wait for him at the church of S. Stephen. Thence he made his attack on the dragon's cave and after a terrific combat, slew it by a stroke in the under part of its body. In its last agonies it fell on him and he was with difficulty rescued from under it by his servants. The incident of the Greek and the false claim is omitted in Bosio's version. De Gozon for his disobedience was deprived of his habit by the Grand Master (de Villeneuve), who, however, afterwards relented and reinstated him. In course of time the dragon-slayer became Grand Master. At his death he was buried in the conventual church of S. John, his tomb being signalized by a representation of his heroic achievement and the words DRACONIS EXTINCTOR. Later historians of the Order, Boissat, 2 Marulli, 3 4 Vertot, and Paoli,* draw largely, if not exclusively, on 1 G. Bosio, 2 Histoire de 3 Istoria della S. Religione di S. Giovanni, pt. ii, pp. 45 ff. VOrdre de Sainctjean (1612), pp. 120 ff. Vite di Gran Maestri della S. Religione di S. Giovanni (1636), pp. 300 ff. * Histoire des Chevaliers de 5 Codict Diplomatic 3*95-* S.Jean (1726), ii, 22. del Ordine Gerosolimitano (1733-7), U ii> 464 : 650 Dieudonne de Gozon and The the Dragon of Rhodes de Breves gives a slightly the gallant deed of de Gozon making not the cause of his degradation, but an attempt to this account. traveller different version, 1 rehabilitate himself. The characteristic points of the dragon-legend related of de Gozon are : (i) the difficulty of obtaining permission to fight the dragon, and (2) the training of the dogs with a dummy dragon. These are, so far as I know, peculiar to the de Gozon legend and that of Sire Gilles de Chin, of which the details in question have been shown to be of seventeenth-century origin and therefore probably derived from the de Gozon legend. 2 2. TANGIBLE EVIDENCE Down to quite recent times writers of otherwise unimpeached sanity have laboured to prove that de Gozon's certain exploit was, at least in essentials, historical. amount of tangible corroborative evidence has been brought forward to this end, but none of it bears examination. A Paoli is Phorbas, the as 1 first to associate the legend of de Gozon with that of own times C. Torr (Rhodes, p. 94). does in our this is curiously paralleled by a western Voyages (1628), p. 18 in which of the hero is a condemned criminal or a dragon-legend type deserter a : (cf. Salverte, Sciences Occultes, 3 ed., p. 477). C. Liegeois, Gilles de Chin (1903), p. 124. Supernatural dogs are introduced in some folk-stories of the dragon-fight (cf. Hartland, Perseus y i, 29 f.) as assistants of the hero, but their setting and importance are wholly different. There is in Zotos Molottos' AZJ-LKQV rwv *Aylwv a curious account of S. George and the Dragon, which is copied almost exactly from the Dieudonne de Gozon story, the scene of the fight being at Adalia. Zotos Molottos says the MS. of the legend is in a Leipzig library: it cannot be of any antiquity as it mentions vmpTrvpa Xpucra, a coin used in the East in the later Middle Ages, but not Dieudonn^'s exploit is very rarely attributed to S. George, earlier. so that its attribution to him in the Adalia legend is perhaps due to the proximity of that town to Rhodes, especially as de Gozon's memory was perpetuated there by the preservation till c. 1830 of the dragon's In the Adalia story S. George has an attendant Lupus, who head. in other martyrologies. figures Corroborative Evidence 651 which cave in the lived was shown in (1) dragon 1 Rhodes. Such evidence is fairly easy to find. may here note the possible contribution to the legend afforded by the existence in the early part of the fifteenth century of a rich Rhodian, apparently not a knight, named (or nicknamed) // Dracone, who had a villa and garden at some distance from the city.* In Greek lands old The We proprietors' names are very apt to cling to their estates, after // Dracone would a place originally named afford plausible evidence to later generations for the location of a dragon-fight. and Palerne, in the early years of the seventeenth century, seems to be the first traveller who claims to have seen ' the cave of the dragon ; he adds that the story [of de 5 Gozon's exploit] was engraved in the rock. 3 In this detail he is confirmed a hundred years later by Egmont and Heymann, 4 who give the text of the inscription as follows FR. : DEODATUS DE GAZONE immensae [sic] hie Rhodi molis, orbibus terribilem, miseros anguem incolas devorantem, strenue peremit, deinceps Magister creatus est A.C. 1349. Subsequent writers do not mention this inscription. (2) For the alleged representation of the combat and the words DRACONIS EXTINCTOR on the tomb of de Gozon at Rhodes our only authority is Bosio,5 who in all probability was never in the island, since in his time the seat 1 Michaud and Poujoulat, Insel Rhodus, i, 86; Biliotti Rhodes of the Knights, p. 185. * Corresp. d* Orient, iv, 20 and Cottret, Rhodes, p. ; A. Berg, Die 152: Belabre, Viaggio (1413) of Nicolb d'Este (Coll. di Opere delta R. Commission? * * II Dracone was in all probape* Testi di Lingua, i, 115 : cf. p. 142. bility identical with Dragonetto Clavelli, a Rhodian gentleman who acted as procuratore for the Grand Master in 1392 and held lands from the Order (Bosio, ii, 102 (1392), 114 (1402)). < 3 Travels (1759), i, 277. Peregrinations (1606), p. 347. 5 Op. cit. ii, 55. U 2 652 Dieudonne de Gozon and the Dragon of Rhodes of the Order had been removed to Malta. Vertot, who was in the same case, gives the epitaph in French, CY GIST LE VAINQUEUR DU DRAGON, adding that this was the 1 A fragment of a supposed tomb of only inscription. de Gozon was discovered by Rottiers, at a church of 2 But the inscription, so Stephen outside the city. far from mentioning the dragon, does not contain the name of de Gozon and the date is a year out. A genuine sarcophagus of de Gozon was removed from Rhodes to France in 1877, and is now in the Cluny Museum. 3 It is very plain and bears the mutilated S. legend : Cy gist FT. Dieudonne d\e Gozon maisfre del* Ospital. Pan MCCCLIII a viij jors de . . Dese\mbre have discovered in a private claimed to Rottiers (3) house in the Street of the Knights at Rhodes a fresco representing the combat with the dragon. To judge from the drawing made by his artist the fresco, like most of the buildings in the street, is much later than the date of de Gozon. 4 An earlier fresco illustrated 5 by the same author was seen by him in a vault of the ruined church of Notre Dame de Philerme, built, to judge by the arms on the corbels, by the Grand Master d'Aubusson, the hero of the first siege of Rhodes (1480). A knight, not de [qui trespassa] . . . Gozon (as is shown by his arms), kneels before S. Michael, who spears a monster- Adjoining the group is a rock of water gushing out, surmounted by a and two doves. 6 Rottiers rightly abstains from serpent with 1 2 3 a spring Op. cit. ii, 54 the same epitaph is given by Paoli, loc. cit. Monumens de Rhodes (1828), p. 340 and pi. lii. Catalogue du Musee des Thermes (1883), p. 40, no. 422 : sarcophagus (Feb. 23). is illustrated UIllustration, in 1878 The drawing of de Gozon's tomb in (Ixxi), no. : the 1826 de Villeneuve- Bargemont's Monumens des Grands-Maitres (i, pi. xxvi) is of course quite 4 Monumens de fanciful. Rhodes, pp. 239 f., pi. xxvii. 5 O/>, cit., p. 372, pi. Ixii. 6 The whole seems to form a pendant to another fresco in the same Corroborative Evidence 653 It associating this fresco with the de Gozon legend. have as connevertheless been considered locally may firmatory evidence, * have further to reckon with a reputed dragon(4) * stone preserved in Bosio's time by the de Gozon family as a relic of their famous ancestor. This is described as a crystal of the size and shape of an olive and of varied colour it was supposed to have come from the forehead of the Rhodian dragon. The idea of such stones, derived from Pliny and Solinus, was widespread in the Middle Ages * and persisted late. 2 The de Gozon stone, like most of its class, was an antidote (on the We : homeopathic principle) against poison. Water in which it was placed bubbled violently while absorbing the virtue of the stone, and was afterwards given to patients to drink. A Rhodian knight of the de Gozon family affirmed that he had himself seen the remedy administered and a serpent i| palms long vomited up by the 3 In the wars of religion the stone was stolen patient. and given to Henry IV. 4 representing an attack by a saint on a dragon in a cave surmounted an owl. by 1 A fourteenth-century Lapidaire, bearing the name of de Mandeville ' tells us (p. 113) that the pierre de serpent or Dreconcides est engendree de plusieurs serpents qui joignent leurs tetes ensemble et soufflent ; elle est noire et porte a son chef une partie de blancheur pale au milieu de laquelle est une image de serpent ; elle vaut contre venin, et garde celui qui la porte de morsure de serpent et de betes venimeuses, en telle maniere, qu'on peut les prendre en sa main toute nue, sans se The dragon-stone must be taken from the brain of the blesser.' monster while it still lived (Conrad von Megenberg, Buch der Natur, p. 444, 29). Palmer found the snake-stone legend current at Mount series ' ' For the legend in the West sec du n. 2. Maury, Croy: Moyen Age, p. 230, * The question of the authenticity of dragon-stones or escarboucles Sinai (Desert of the Exodus, p. 99). 4 is seriously discussed 3 Bosio, op. cit. ii, by J. ' B. Panthot, Traite des dragons. 55. Kergorlay, Chypre et Rhodes, p. 275 (quoting de Naberat, Hist, des Chevaliers de S. Jean, Paris, 1629, p. 70). 4 654 Dieudonne de Gozon and the Dragon of Rhodes (5) A head supposed to be that of the dragon slain by de Gozon was seen by the seventeenth-century traveller Thevenot hung up in one of the gateways of Rhodes. 1 There is no mention of this head in Bosio or any earlier writer than Thevenot. Subsequent writers speak of such a head (or heads) in a similar position it seems to have disappeared in i839. 2 This supposed evidence for de Gozon's combat has long been recognized as an instance of the familiar use of giants' (i. e. crocodiles) and dragons' (crocodiles' or whales') heads as charms against the evil eye. 3 The selection of city gateways for the suspension of such charms is again familiar. Gates, like all entrances, are considered critical points, city gates especially so from the strategic point of view. 4 It will be noted that, like ; ' * ' ' 117: cf. Veryard, Choice Remarks (1701), p. 331 Nouv. Dumont, Voyage, p. 230. * Biliotti and Cottret, Rhodes, pp. 150 ff. Cf. Rottiers, p. 235 Michaud and Poujoulat, Corresp. d'Orient, iv, 20 ; Berg, Rhodus, i, 90. In 1696 Villotte saw one of the dragon's ribs in a gate at Rhodes 1 Travels, p. : ; (Voyages, p. 344). A well-known instance ^ 3 Evil Eye, p. 214). is that of the crocodile of Seville (Elworthy, Others are cited from Marseilles, Lyons, Cimiez, and Ragusa by Salverte (Sciences Occultes, p. 482), from Verona by Berg (op. cit., p. 90), and from Siena by Baedeker (Central It., p. 23). Cf. above, p. 231. 4 1 1 1 For the protection of gates by talismans see Quiclet, Voyages, p. ' at gate of Belgrade) Hobhouse, Albania, ii, 948 (* Giant's bones ; (Whale's bones at Seraglio gate, Constantinople) ; Evliya, Travels, ii, 230 (Whale's bones and old arms at gate of Angora) ; Texier, Asie Mineure, pi. xcvii (stone balls at gate of Konia) ; Evliya, op. cit. ii, 201 (Mace and bow at gate of Kemakh) ; Belon, Observations de plu' sieurs Singularitez, III, ch. xlii (* Sword of Roland at gate of Brusa L. Stephani, Reise des nordlichen cf. Thevenot, Foyages, i, 282) ; boot 16 at gate of Chalkis Griecbenlandes, p. (Giant's cf. Hugonnet, La Grece Nouv., p. 279) ; Biliotti and Cottret, Rhodes, p. 151 (bones of Digenes (really whale's) at S. Catherine's gate, Rhodes : cf. Chaviaras : : Gerlach, Tage-Such, p. 337 ; Covel, Diaries, charms on gates of Constantinople). The gate of (various pp. 217 the Knights' Castle at Budrum was protected by the charm-text Nisi Dominus, &c. (see above, p. 203). AH Pasha protected the main gate in Aaoypa<f>ia, f. i, 278) ; Dragon Processions 655 the other all tangible evidence of de Gozon's exploit, the dragon's head at Rhodes is first mentioned long death of the hero. here incidentally remark that the Turkish dragon-legend current in our own time at Rhodes, the hero of which is a dervish who kills the dragon by induc1 ing it to devour forty asses loaded with quicklime, ojyes nothing to that of de Gozon in detail, and probably ? arose simply from the dragon's head suspended in the after the We may ' city gate. 3. DRAGON PROCESSIONS We come now to discuss the outstanding peculiarity of the de Gozon legend, the incident of the dummy dragon. Bosio's elaborate description ' in full. The dragon ', he stuffed with tow, of the * says, same size, is worth quoting was made of canvas form, and figure and ' of his island-citadel at Yannina by building in the head of an c Arab still to be seen there, carved in stone and painted black, and the gate of the fort at Preveza, taken by the Greeks in the Balkan war, has been For the analogous similarly protected by a number of painted crosses. see saints' tombs Frazer's of iii, 468. Pausanias, gates by protection There are excellent Turkish examples at Nicaea, and at Candia in the * New Gate '. The existence of such saints is doubtless often inferred from that of their supposed bones, arms, or other relics originally suspended as talismans. See further above, pp. 229 if. and Cottret, Rhodes, p. 153, from whom Torr, Rhodes, we may compare that of the eponymous hero p. 94 ; of Cracow, who gave the local dragon food mixed with sulphur, pitch, and wax till it eventually died (Miinster's Cosmographie, ed. Belleforest, i, 1781), and the History of Bel and the Dragon (vv. 23 ff.) in the Apocrypha. A somewhat similar stratagem occurs in the Shahnameh of Firdawsi, where Isfendiar begins operations on a dragon by inducing it to swallow a cart loaded with daggers and other weapons ; a probable see Maury, Croy. du Moyen Age, variant of this tale occurs at Herat n. 5 (quoting J. Abbott, Journey from Herat to Khiva, 1843, p. 231, 1 Biliotti for the stratagem : it swallow pitch (Millin, Sebillot iii, 528). (Folk-Lore de France, i, 469) records a tale in which a dragon swallows powder dressed up in a calf's skin by a knight. i, 239). Midi de Daniel killed a serpent by making la France, 656 Dieudonne de Gozon and the Dragon of Rhodes of the same colours as the beast itself. It was of the size of an ordinary horse. It had the head of a serpent, with ears the size and shape of a mule's, covered with a very hard and scaly skin, with a great and frightful mouth armed with very sharp teeth. Its eyes, deeply sunk in the head, glittered like fire and glared with horrible ferocity. It had four legs something like a crocodile's, with paws armed with very hard and sharp talons. From its back rose two wings, not so very large, which were the colour of a dolphin above and scarlet with some spots of yellow below. The body and legs were of the same colour as the wings, the belly red and yellow like the under side of the wings. It had a tail something It ran with a speed greater than that like a lizard's. of the swiftest horse, flapping its wings and making All these minute details come a tremendous noise.' from a man Bosio or another who had seen such a mechanical dragon as he describes. All over France, and apparently also in the Netherlands and Spain, 1 are found traces of medieval festivals 2 generally in connexion with Rogation processions, in which dragons were an important feature. A figure of a dragon, originally symbolizing the Spirit of Evil, was carried or led in procession for three days and then sometimes killed or rendered innocuous in a sort of c ' In these cases the dragon is apt rough religious play. to resume his old folk-lore connexion with water and is often regarded as a haunter of springs, or a river beast, 3 W. G. ' ' Clarke (Gazpacho, p. 95) saw the processional tarasca at Toledo, where there is a body of S. Martha as at Tarascon (see below), according to Collin de Plancy, Diet, des Reliques, s. v. Marthe. For 1 ' * tarasques in Spanish Christmas and Fete-Dieu processions see also p. 160, n. 3. Maury, Magie, 2 For their significance see Hasluck, Letters, p. 57. 3 For the widespread vogue of these festivals see Salverte, Sciences ; Occultes, pp. 475 and, for legends of dragon-slaying saints in western Europe, Douhet, Diet, des Legendes, s. v. Tarasque, and Cahier, ff. Caracteristiques des Saints, s.v. Dragon. Dragon Processions or even identified with notable floods of the river. 657 local 1 In certain instances the dragon came to be popularly regarded as representing an actual monster subdued by the local saint. At Tarascon, where the procession of the tarasque ', or dragon supposed to have given its name to the town, still survives, the mechanical monster formerly used for the procession was of immense size and was manipulated by a dozen men from inside, one of whom opened and shut its jaws ; it was baited by persons dressed as knights, and on the third day was made to give three jumps to signify its submission to S. Martha, who here figures as the heroine of the local ' 2 Similar dragon-processions or legends a mechanical ; many towns of Provence ' ' 3 dragon was used at Aix. property dragon of this 4 is sort surely at the back of Bosio's elaborate description. dragon-legend. existed in A 1 For the world-wide connexion of dragons with springs and water see Frazer's Pausanias, v, 44. The modern tarasque is shown in B.S.A. xx (1913-14), pi. ix. Maury says (Croy. du MoyenAge, p. 232, n. I, quoting Bouche, Hist, du ' ' 3 ' ' 326) that the tarasque is first mentioned in the twelfth Sincerus, travelling soon after 1600, saw at S. Martha's, century. ' monstri effigies chartacea hominem deglutiens ' and Tarascon, quotes the epigram Provence, ' i, Suspice multipedem squamosum deinde draconem Auritum cernas dentigerumq: caput Martha . . . Perdomuit, loro continuitq: brevi.' See Sincerus, I tin. Gall., p. 128. 3 See especially}. B. F. Porte, in Mem. Acad. Aix> iv (1840), pp. 261- 308. ' ' description of the Tarascon given by tarasque ' A. Dumas (Midi de la France, 1834, c ^- 34) C'est un animal d'un aspect tout a fait rebarbatif, et dont Pintention visible est de rappeler 4 Compare the : II a environ 1'antique dragon qu'il represente. vingt pieds de long, une grosse tete ronde, une gueule immense, qui s'ouvre et se ferme a volonte ; des yeux remplis de poudre appretee en artifice, un cou qui rentre et s'allonge, un corps gigantesque, destine a renfermer les personnes qui le font mouvoir enfin, une queue longue et roide comme ; 658 Dieudonne de Gozon and the Dragon of Rhodes DE GOZON AND THE FRENCH 4. SIDE OF THE LEGEND De Gozon, as we have said, was of the langue of Provence. The ancestral castle of the family * in the valley of the Tarn (near Costes, Department of Aveyron) A cave in the neighbourhood, still bears their name. a spring issues, is shown 2 as the scene of the training of the dogs. It may be that the legend of de Gozon's exploit grew up in his native called les Dragonnieres, whence land and was carried thence to Rhodes. This would ' explain not only the dummy dragon, by the analogy of the French processional dragons, but the otherwise unnecessary French interlude in the story, which depends ostensibly on the Grand Master's strict prohibition of dragon-hunting an unusual, if not unique, feature of the story. We may possibly detect an etymological basis in the ' une Pechine d'une maniere assez triomphante pour jambes a ceux qu'elle atteint. Le second jour de la fete de la Pentecote, a six heures du matin, trente chevaliers de la Tarasque, vetus de tuniques et de manteaux, et institu^s par le roi Rene, viennent chercher Panimal sous son hangar ; douze portefaix lui entrent dans le ventre. Une jeune fille vetue en sainte Marthe lui attache un ruban bleu autour du cou ; et le monstre se met en marche aux grands applaudissements de la multitude. Si quelque curieux passe trop pres de sa tete, la Tarasque allonge le cou et le happe par le fond de sa culotte, qui lui reste ordinairement dans la solive, vissee a casser bras et quelque imprudent s'aventure derriere elle, la Tarasque d'un coup de queue, elle le renverse. Enfin, si elle se prend sent trop pressee de tous c6ts, la Tarasque allume ses artifices, ses yeux jettent des flammes elle bondit, fait un tour sur elle-meme, et tout ce qui se trouve a sa portee, dans une circonference de soixantegueule. Si sa belle, et ; Dumas quinze pieds, est impitoyablement brule ou culbute.* adds that in 1793 the Arlesians were at war with the Tarasconnais, ' beat them, and burned their Tarasque, which was un monstre de la plus grande magnificence, d'un mecanisme aussi complique qu' ingenieux '. The present Tarasque is an imitation of the other. 1 2 Dumas (loc. De Gissac cit.) in places it Congres d'Estourmel, Journal, i, 169. on the Little Rhone, in Camargue. Arch, xxx (1863-4), pp. 65-70 ; cf. De Gozon in France 659 name of Gozon, which might conveniently be connected with the Italian gozzo (crop, maw) x as expressive of the characteristic of many dragons,* or with gos, gous, gots (and gozzone), Provengal for dog, which would explain the introduction of the dogs. But such philological offer more for speculations scope ingenuity than proof, and the point cannot be pressed. The introduction of the dogs is perhaps sufficiently accounted for by the stories retailed to pilgrims in the fifteenth century concerning the trained dogs kept by the Knights of Rhodes at the Castle of S. Peter (Budrum). 3 The dragon-slaying of Sire Gilles de Chin, to which we have before alluded, was based on a legendary exploit of the historical hero in the Holy Land during the Crusades. This exploit the killing of a lion which possibly derived ultimately from the lion which so often recumbent sepulchral figures, gra4 dually developed, aided by an allegorical picture, till it serves as footstool to modern provincial French (Lorraine) as gosse (' stomach with the verb gosser (' to fatten for market '). ') z The processional dragon of Poitiers was named Grand' Gueule ' Salverte, Sciences Occultes, p. 477), (La Mauviniere, Poitiers, p. 75 ' that of Rheims le Bailla (Salverte, p. 475). Similarly, the name of Rabelais' giant Gargantua (originally a folk-lore figure), as also that of 1 It occurs in of fatted beasts ' : * ' ' his father correspond exactly in sense to Gozzone (cf. Romanus subdued the dragon of Rouen, which Grangousier testa, testone, &c.). was known as S. Gargouille : for it see Collin de Plancy, Diet, des Reliques, Maury, Cray, du Moyen Age, p. 232 Sincerus, Itin. Gall., in the department of Aveyron, which flows through p. 214. a narrow gorge, is called Gouzon. Gozon may have personified its river as a dragon, as Grenoble does the river Drac (Salverte, op. cit., p. 463). 3 So Torr (Rhodes, p. 93, and Class. Rev. i, 79) who suggests that these are to the Greek lions' heads built into the castle, probably due legends The dogs are mentioned fairly regularly as talismans, by the Knights. i, 38, iii, 45 ; ; A stream by fifteenth-century pilgrims, e.g. William-Wey (1462, Itineraries, p. 94), 9 Joos van Ghistele (1483, T Foyage, p. 334) and later located at Rhodes Fabri (Evagat. iii, 261-2) says the dogs (Feryard, op. cit., p. 331). could distinguish Christians from Moslems by their smell. 4 P- On the influence of allegorical pictures on legend see above, 49> n 2 - - Dieudonne de Gozon and the Dragon of Rhodes 660 eventually became a dragon-legend located in the native country (near Mons) of the hero. In a similar way de Gozon's exploit may have developed at home aided by the family's possession of the dragon-stone, the obvious suitability of the country for dragon-warfare, and, it may be, also by a local dragon-procession regarded as commemorative of an actual dragon-fight, till it was finally located at Rhodes, owing to (i) the connexion of the de Gozon family with the Rhodian Order of S. John, and (2) the suitably romantic background obtained by the change of scene. It is even possible that one beginning of the legend was the introduction of the festival of Rogations into Rhodes, maybe by de Gozon As is well known, Rogations had been inhimself. stituted in France at Vienne by S. Mamert (d. A. D. 474) and from France spread all over western Europe. 1 A passage in the *Aai<u rfj$ Kvrrpov shows that the fes- Frankish Cyprus, 2 so that its introduction into Rhodes is by no means impossible ; it tival spread also to will also monti be remembered in refers to a dragon slain For French instances of the 1 Age, p. 219, n. 3, pp. 228 Christian Rome, p. 165, who connexion that Buondelin the neighbouring Kos. 3 this festival see for Roman Maury, Croy. du Moyen and see Lanciani, Pagan ; states that the Great Litany at Rome if. was celebrated as early as Leo III (A. D. 795-816). 3 Ed. Sathas, Mccr. B<,/3\. vi, 125, the words used are rds ry/xe/oa? rfjs 77a/>a/cA7y(76os', TOVTZCFTW ovra zvy&Xovv rov ApaKov M. Dawkins. : I owe the reference to Professor R. 3 Quoted above, p. 648, n. I. Polites gives (/JapaSoacts-, no. 383) an interesting dragon story from Cephalonia from a forged document bearing the date 1509. The hero went to the proveditore, borrowed a suit of armour, and, thus protected, entered the dragon's mouth when the latter opened it to eat the hero the hero then cut In his notes on no. the dragon's throat with a razor from inside. in Cephalonia ; several as current of Polites variants the tale 383 gives the details about the huge size of the dragon, the burning of its body outside the church of S. Nicolas, the official doxology, as well as the actions of the dragon, are reminiscent of a Rogation procession, so that, like the de Gozon story at Rhodes, the tale may have originated ; 66 1 Rogations Whether the story arose from a Rogation procession or not, the case for the French, as opposed to the Rhodian, origin of the legend is considerably strengthened by the date at which the story appears in Rhodes. ' ' Bosio's information as to the dragon-stone in the de Gozon family comes, as he tells us, from a Rhodian knight connected with the family, Giovanni Antonio Foxano. The wonderful story illustrating the peculiar in such a procession. Another possible survival of Rogations may be the fight of S. George with a dragon. First, while Rogations, as Mamert, was a movable feast because fixed for the three days before Ascension, whose date depends on Easter, the Great instituted by S. Rome was fixed for the 23rd April, the date of S. George's of the ancient Robigalia. Secondly, the fight conforms to the Rogation type, including, as it does, a cave and lake of the dragon and a church of the saint. Thirdly, the story is located most authoritatively at Beyrut, Ludolf von Suchem, who returned from his travels in A. D. I 1341, being the first to mention Beyrut as the scene of combat. know of no mention of the dragon story earlier than the Golden Legend, Litany at festival as so that the dates fit the Crusading period, cf. above, p. 32 1, n.i. Fourthly, in Rogation ceremonies the dragon is generally first exorcised by the bishop and then led away by his stole (cf. Maury, Croy. du Moyen Age, Similarly, S. George overcomes the dragon to the virgin princess to lead into town before he kills therefore inclined to think the Beyrut legend of S. George p. 234, n. 2). it and gives it. I am may be a and of a survival even reminiscent Crusading Rogation vaguely procession supposing memories of such a Prankish institution to have survived, the popular mind would naturally, in the course of time, attribute them to the most prominent local figure, i.e. S. George. Except on the assumption that the tale is such a survival it is hard to explain why Beyrut, and not Lydda, should have been chosen as the ; this is especially noteworthy as it is known that the ; tradition of Perseus, a possible ancestor of S. George's, lingered until ' c the fourth century A. D. at Joppa, so near to Lydda. The filling up battle-field of the dragon found in the Sbahnameb, the Rhodian dervish-legend, That is, in Poland, &c. (see above, p. 655, n. i) seems to be oriental. in the oriental type the dragon is overcome and killed by stratagem, S. George story and at Rogations the dragon is overcome the by power of virginity (the princess in the one case, bishops or saints in the other). On the other hand, in the Sari Saltik legend a ' combat ' between the hero and the dragon is the chief feature (sec but in the above, p. 60), but I think this is a derivative from a Christian original. Dieudonne de Gozon and the Dragon of Rhodes ' ' efficacy of the dragon-stone came to Foxano directly from his kinsman Pierre Melac de Gozon, Grand Prior of S. Gilles in Provence, who professed to have been an eyewitness of the incident described. This Pierre Melac de Gozon entered the Order of S. John in 1516, and in 1 If 1522 took part in the last defence of Rhodes. Dieudonne de Gozon himself did not originate the story in Rhodes, as suggested above, was his kinsman Pierre responsible for the importation thither of the mythical story current there in 1521 of his ancestor's exploit, or at least for the association of his name with a dragon-legend already current in the island ? If so, he may also, during his residence in Rhodes, have re-edified his ancestor's tomb and still further commemorated the 662 by the painting seen by Rottiers, and by the inscription at the Cave of the Dragon. latter's exploit 1 Raybaud, Hist, des Grands Prieurs de Grand Prior in 1558. S. Gilles, ii, 112 ; he became LI SHEIKH EL BEDAWI OF TANTA great saint of Tanta in the Delta is Said Ahmed JL el Bedawi, who was born in A. H. 596 (A. D. 1200) at Fez 2 and died in A. H. 675 at Tanta. 3 He has a great reputation for liberating persons in the power of the infidel. Thus, a Turkish pasha long captive in Spain and chained by heavy chains to two great stones, had in vain invoked several saints to deliver him. At last he remembered Said Ahmed and called on Immediately the saint stretched his hand out of his tomb 4 and in that same instant the Pasha found himself back in Egypt, chains, stones, and all. As the miracle occurred on the festival of the saint, 5 it was witnessed by a multitude of people, but, if further proof be required, it may be sought in the pasha's stones and 6 chains, which are still shown near his tomb. In Thevenot's time the saint was supposed to deliver on every year three slaves from Malta at his festival the morning of the festival three Moors used to be him. ; [This article has been put together from scattered notes in my husband's note-books and his letters. M. M. H.] 3 Vaujany, Alexandrie, pp. 174 ft. Goldziher (in Rev. Hist. Relig. ii, 303) gives Tunis as an alternative birthplace. 3 Vaujany, loc. cit. The tomb was reputed to be on a church and 1 See also Thevenot, Voyages, ii, site (Vaujany, Caire, p. 329). Another well-known tomb of the sheikh was at Tripoli of Syria (Kelly, Syria, p. 106), where the pool adjoining the tomb contained See also d'Arvieux, sacred fish, for which see above, pp. 245 ff. temple 802. Memoires, For ii, 390. barbarous miracle of life in the grave see above, pp. 252-5. In July according to Thevenot, loc. cit. ; at the summer solstice according to Goldziher, loc. cit., who adds that El Bedawi had the gift of being so terrifying as to kill, and that the festival was a great pilgrimage for barren women (pp. 304-5). 6 Niebuhr, Voyage en Arable, i, 255, 4 5 this Sheikh El Bedawi of Tanta shown who declared that they had come during the night, by the saint's miraculous intervention, from that 1 Till recent years his prestige was kept up by island. the occasional discovery on the dome of his mosque of a man in chains with long hair and nails, who professed to have been liberated miraculously by the saint. 2 These men were largely drawn from certain velis^ who fancied that they had sinned against the kutbj> that is, the most saintly of all the velis, and believed that they must do penance until their sin was remitted. They loaded themselves with chains, 4 looked on themselves as captives in the power of the infidels, and retired entirely from the world. The remission of their sin being revealed to them by some omen, such as a cry or an ominous cloud, they returned to Tanta and announced their deliverance from captivity, attributing it to the intervention of the saint and appearing on the dome of 664 his tomb. 5 Thevenot, loc. cit. The same author (p. 803) relates an amusing story of how the saint brought to reason a truculent pasha. 1 2 Vaujany, Alexandrie, pp. 174 ft. According to Lane (Mod. Egyptians, \, 290 ff.) the existence of veils is proved by a verse of the Koran they are the favourites of God '. The kutb is often seen, but not recognized he has various stations ', one being Tanta. He can transport himself from Mecca to Cairo and vice versa in an instant. 4 Lane (op. cit. i, 296) records the case of a veli who placed an iron collar on his neck and chained himself to the wall of his room. George 3 * : ; * of Hungary (ap. Hottinger, Hist. Orient., p. 496) says certain dervishes loaded themselves with chains to indicate the fierceness of the ecstatic frenzy which seized them at times. Cf. also Acts xx, 22, for the same idea (' bound in the spirit '). 5 Vaujany, Alexandrie, p. 175, n. For their retiring from the world Lane, Mod. Egyptians, i, 293. Lady Duff Gordon (Letters from Egypt, pp. 45 and 304) gives an account of an ascete called Sheikh Selim, who sat motionless for twenty years, without washing, praying, or celebrating Ramazan, God's prisoner ', until a certain holy camel he had lost should be found. Dr. Liddon saw his tomb, where the ascete's cats and dogs shared with his relatives in the offerings of the faithful Dr. Liddon's dababiyeh was wind-bound until the party cf. ' : Liberation of Captives by Saints 665 With no more of the story than the above it is difficult to explain why the saint is supposed to liberate captives from infidel lands. passage in Goldziher's article on Moslem saints provides the key. It appears that at the time of the Crusades Said Ahmed liberated a Moslem captive from a Christian dungeon, where he was kept in a box, the jailer sitting on the box perpetually. Box 1 and all flew with the liberated prisoner. Already in Gregory of Tours there are numerous stories of the liberation of captives by saints. Thus, a S. Victor of Milan was famous for this miracle curious case is that of the political prisoner who prayed on the vigil of the saint and got away next day unhindered on his horse. 2 priest fled to S. Martin's to escape the king's wrath and was there kept in chains, A : A which fell off, however, every time he invoked S. Martin. 3 P'our prisoners broke prison and escaped to S. Martin's church, where their chains and stocks were broken at Lyons in one night apand freed prisoners from These miracles seem all to be mainly de- their prayer. 4 S. Nicetius of peared in seven different cities their 5 jails. pendent on the right of sanctuary. If a prisoner successfully broke jail and got, for example, on to S. Martin's ground, 6 he could not be touched and was proved innocent by the ipso facto saint. In these early accounts there is no hint of levitation, Later on, however, this becomes a it will be noted. great feature, and eventually becomes characteristic of A Breton gentleman imS. Leonard of Limoges. 7 handsomely tipped the saint's relatives, when the desired miracle at once took place (King, Dr. Liddori*s Tour, p. 75). 1 Goldziher, in Rev. Hist. Relig. ii, 303 f. 2 Greg. Turon., De Glor. Martyr, i, 45. 3 Idem, De Mir. S. Mart, i, 23. 4 Idem De Mir. S. Mart, ii, 35. 9 5 6 7 Idem, Fit. Pair. VIII, ch. x. Idem, De Mir. S. Mart, iii, 41, 47 Nov. 6 temp. Clovis. 3295.2 : x ; iv, 16, 26, 39, 41 Sheikh El Bedawi of Tanta 666 prisoned and in chains at Nantes appealed to S. Leonard, x who, in the presence of all the prisoners, appeared and led him out of prison, bidding him take his chain to 2 A bourgeois of Noblac was imS. Leonard's tomb. prisoned by a seigneur and not only chained but put in a dark, underground dungeon, the entry of which was covered by a great box on which soldiers kept guard night and day. But in the night S. Leonard knocked the soldiers over and transported the prisoner to the door of the church, where he was found in the morning. 3 The seigneur of Baqueville in Normandy was taken by the Turks in Hungary. After fifteen years' captivity he invoked S. Leonard and was transported to his own castle, where no one knew him, as he was covered with rags and his hair and beard had grown long. He was just in time to prevent his wife's second marriage. 4 A peasant of Poitou was chained by robbers to a tree and appealed to S. Leonard and S. Martial. A voice him to shake off his chains, which he did, carrying one to S. Leonard's and the other to S. Martial's tomb. 5 Boemond, prince of Antioch, was liberated by S. Leonard and in 1005 brought to the saint's tomb told the silver tokens of his bondage. 6 1 Here the Christian differs from the Moslem miracle of El Bedawi, for the latter saint does not manifestly appear. * This saint Collin, Hist. Sacr. des Saints, p. 557. with the strange custom of ' ' binding is also connected churches for which see above, p. 264, n. 2. 3 4 Ibid., p. 556. Ibid., pp. 558-9. 5 Ibid., p. 557. Leonard seems to owe his prominence as the Van Gennep (Religions, Mceurs, et prisoner's friend to his name. Ce saint \ he says, oriLegendes, pp. 7-8) is explicit on the point. 6 Ibid.; p. 561. S. ' ' ginaire de France, a ete transporte en Allemagne par les Cisterciens. le nommait Lienard (nom qui subsiste en Allemagne Anciennement on sous les formes Lienhart, Lehnhart, &c.) et on lui attribuait le pouvoir lier et de delier. L 'analogic entre le nom du saint et sa fonction de speciale est evidente, au point que celle-ci a bien des chances de celui-la. de Actuellement encore, saint Lienard ou Leonard prevenir comme en France en est, Allemagne, le protecteur des animaux Liberation Combined with Levitation The same 667 by Paulus Merula (1558 to 1607) of two citizens of Orleans condemned to death by the Turks and placed the day before execution in strong chests. In the night they commended themselves to the relics of Holy Cross at Orleans and were transported per aerem in their chests and found next 1 morning in the church of Holy Cross at Orleans. Again, the black statue of Notre Dame de Liesse was made, with angelic help, by three knights whom the Sultan of Egypt held in captivity. By its aid they converted the sultan's daughter and were miraculously taken home together with the image the church is dated 1134.* In a small and interesting point in these developments of the liberation-of-prisoners theme there is, I think, a connexion with the East on the lines of the Tanta miracle. In Gregory of Tours' time, it will be remembered, any saint 3 might perform the It is noticeable, however, that at this date miracle. there is no indication of the added miracle which is found at Tanta, viz. that the liberated man is released and carried off by the saint. In the cases, tale of liberation is told ; domestiques, des femmes en mal d'enfant, des prisonniers, etc. Et son surnom allemand, est Entbinder, le delieur. Ainsi, Ic jeu de mots fran<;ais a ete traduit par les Allemands, pour qui le mot de Licnard ne signifiait ricn.' Cosmographia, ap. Sincerus, I tin. Gall. y p. 29. In these stories of Collin de Plancy, Diet, des Reliques, ii, 266 ff. two and three knights we may discern the influence of eikonography 1 2 perhaps. Soldiers guarding the shown armour that empty tomb, for instance, are often contemporary with the sculpture subject certainly provides a box and knights. in is ' : ' illustrative of the struggle between the Olympian ' Pelasgian strata of religion in the West, the story in Greg. 3 As De Mir. such a and the Turon., A interesting. prisoner was liberated from his chains while being led in front of S. Peter's church and bound When he passed, however, in front again more tightly by his escort. S. Mart. IV, xxxv, is of S. Martin's, these strengthened bonds him altogether. X2 fell off and they had to release Sheikh El Bedawi of Tanta however, which date from the crusading period, this occurs. Levitation being a very oriental idea, this detail may be thought some corroboration of the x at general influence on the West of the Crusades this time. The pre-crusading period may have based these 2 tales of liberation on S. Peter's the miracle is so far restricted to the undoing of chains and doors. S. Peter's chains are not only a relic of S. Peter, the binder and looser, but they have already been instrumental in his Liberation may be material or spiritual, 3 liberation. the two conceptions fusing 4 through the idea of possession being slavery to Satan. Various illnesses are also 5 thought the result of sin and are typified by binding Gregory of Tours actually uses the words caecitatis 6 catena constrictus. Further, a penance appointed for serious sins was to go in chains several years. 7 Thus, 668 : : 1 For 2 The taken to this see Hasluck, Letters, pp. 117-8. chains in S. Peter's prison at Jerusalem did miracles and were Rome (Tobler, Topogr. von Jerusalem, i, 411); Lucius (Anfdnge were given to Rome by the Empress Peter ad Vincula was built by Sixtus III, who died in des Heiligenk., p. 192) says they Eudoxia 440 3 S. ; A. D. (Lucius, loc. cit.). For instance, as preted ' Libera Maria S. dell' Inferno at nos a poenis infernis Rome was at first inter- but was later regarded as S. S. Silvester's destruction of a ', Maria Liberatrice and connected with dragon in a neighbouring cave (Tuker and Malleson, Christian and Ecclesiastical Rome, p. 280 Hare, Walks in Rome, i, 164). Thus, Sincerus saw a captive liberated at Ascension at Rouen ; i * Sequanus Lingonici abbas territorii vivens ' (Greg. Turon., saepe homines a vinculo diabolici nexus absolvit (I tin. De 5 * Gall., p. 214). Glor. Conf. Ixxxviii). woman to whom S. Julian appeared in sleep multitude catenarum ab ejus membris solo decidere Cf. the paralytic visum est ei quasi (Greg. Turon., De Pass. 6 De Mir. S. Mart, : ' S. Jitl. II, ix). iv, 20. 7 Cf. Lane, Mod. Egyptians, i, 88, who says the prayer during the ablutions preliminary to the prayer proper runs God, free my ' : neck from the the fetters.' fire ; and keep me from O the chains, and the collars, and Chains a 669 fratricide was loaded with chains and sent on a seven revelation to years' penitential pilgrimage. Coming by the tomb of S. John in Tornodorensi pago, he incubated church and prayed and was loosed from all his chains. Absolution (again solvo) being given, the chains were probably deposited in the church as an ex-voto. 3 Again, madmen were chained for the protection of society and presumably unchained when they were in the 1 considered well. Several holy places in the East to this 3 day keep chains to tie up madmen undergoing treatment, just as churches frequently used for incubation keep bedding. Under the influence of successful miracles these chains tend to become regarded as the immediate instrument of cure 4 and, probably owing to the influence of S. Peter's prototype, are associated with saints, 1 Greg. Turon., De Glor. Conf. Ixxxvii Jan. vol. ii, : see especially Ada SS., 866. The church of S. Leonard contains a number of manacles, of chains, &c., grateful prisoners delivered by the saint (Collin, Hist. In view of the Tanta procedure there Sacr. des Saints, p. 555). be less in the S. Leonard miracles than is sometimes offraus pia may 3 supposed. 3 Thevenot, Voyages, iii, 156, says that at Telghiuran, between Urfa and Mardin, there is a small chapel with chains, which are put round the madman's neck. The chains loose themselves from the patients who are destined to recover, but have to be untied from hopeless cases. Similarly, in the church of S. George at Beyrut there is a huge iron ring attached to a chain, which Arabs and Christians alike don when ill or mad it effects an immediate cure (Thevenot, Voyages, ii, 639). Other cases are cited by Burton, Cf. d'Arvieux, Mcmoires, ii, 191. : Inner Life of Syria, p. 389 ; Guerin, Palestine, p. 312 Kelly, Syria, Petermann, Reisen im Orient, p. 319; Vaujany, Caire, p. 103; ; pp. 293 f, World,\x, 4 Allom and Walsh, ; 1 Constantinople, ii, 32 Hence the beating of lunatics with these chains (Burton, Inner both references Life of Syria, p. 389; Guerin, Descr. dela Pales., p. 312 are to a chapel of S. George just outside Jerusalem) at the iii, White, in Mosl. ; 8 1. : ; cf. the beating Maronite chapel of S. Anthony mentioned by Pococke, Voyages, 312. Sheikh El Bedawi of Tanta 670 particularly with S. George I There may be this prominence in the East. something in the Ada to account for of S. George, or it may be only that, like S. Michael, he 2 is associated with dragon-killing and so casting out devils. 3 1 Cf. Burton and Guerin, lore. citt. y and Tobler, Topogr. von ff. Jerusalem, i, 501 2 Cf. Hasluck, Letters, p. 85. 3 Cf. S. Maria dell' Inferno, mentioned above, p. 668, n. 3. LII TERRA LEMNIA ' ancient medical practice several sorts of natural earths, found at various places in the Levant and described in detail by Pliny and other writers, had recognized curative properties, being employed for the most part as astringents and desiccatives in the treatment of wounds and internal hemorrhages. Pliny's list includes the earths of Chios, Kimolos, Eretria, Lemnos, Melos, Samos, and Sinope. The use of many of these persisted into quite modern times/ but none was so generally esteemed either by ancients or moderns as the IN Reprinted, with additions, from B.S.A. xvi, 220 ff. The earth of Chios is mentioned in modern times by Jerome Justinian, a Chiote Genoese (Descrip. de Ohio, p. 68) as found near En un autre terrouer du dit Pirgy se trouvoit autre fois la Pyrgi terre dite Chia laquelle a le mesme vertu que celle qu'on nomme 1 2 ' : Lemnia. Le Grand Turc s'en sert maintenant en son seau [sic~\ .' Thevet (Cosmog. de Levant^ p. 56) considered it as valuable medicinally as the Lemnian, which opinion was confirmed by Covel a hundred years later. The latter adds that the Chian earth was dug like the Lemnian at a special season (May, whence it was called Tr/jAo/AcuoTi/co), but was not used medicinally but only for washing (MS. Add. 22914, f. It has now become almost unknown, owing to the low price 57 v). it is traditionally said to have been a government Kimolian earth is said by Dale the under Genoese. monopoly in England. In Samos, to been found have (Pbarmacologia, 1693, p. 47) Pococke (Descr. of the East, II, ii, p. 29) notices a white earth which was eaten by children in his day. Melian earth is mentioned by Sir Thomas of olive-oil soaps, but ' ' Sherley in his account of the island (my article in B.S.A. xiii, 347 cf. Pococke, loc. cit.). Sinopic earth (see Robinson in A. J. Phil, xxvii, bole mentioned by Dale and his 141, 4) is probably the Armenian : ' contemporaries as coming from Turkey ', and by others (Poullet, &c.) as a frequent ingredient in sophisticated Lemnian earth. It is presumably the Terra Saracenica used by the Arabs against plague, and the Kil Ermeni which was foisted on me as Lemnian in the Egyptian bazaar at Constantinople. Terra Lemnia 672 Lemnian, which was set apart in the first place by its alleged miraculous power against poisons (especially the bites of venomous reptiles) and later against plague, and in the second by the religious accompaniments and the various artificial restrictions of its production. Of the Lemnian earth Pliny, who happens to be our was highly reputed among the ancients, but we have no means of ascertaining how far earliest authority, says it 1 back the use of it extends. It is interesting to note that the hill Moschylos on which it was found was associated in legend with the fall of Hephaestus, and that one version of the Philoktetes myth attributes the cure of the hero's wound, caused ultimately, it will be remembered, 2 by the poison of the Lernean hydra, to this medicine. With Dioskorides we begin to be better informed he tells us the earth was found in a tunnel-like aperture in Lemnos, prepared with an admixture of goat's blood, : and thereafter made up into tablets and stamped with the figure of a goat, whence came its popular name goat's seal '. It had a singular virtue against poisons if drunk with wine, and acted as an emetic when poison had already been swallowed. It was also sovereign 3 against the bites of venomous reptiles and for dysentery. ' It will be seen that the chief use of it is here considered as antidotal. from Galen 4 that we first hear of the ceremonies in connexion with the digging of the earth, and his information rests on his own investigations in Lemnos On itself, whither he went especially for this purpose. a certain day, he says, the priestess (of Artemis apparently from the sequel) came out of the city (Hephaestias), sprinkled a certain quantity of barley on the place where the earth was dug, and performed other cereIt 1 3 is N.H. xxxv, 6. Le * Philostratos, Heroikos, 306. Strange, Palestine p. 431, for the antidotal earth of v, 113 cf. Dair Mughan. 4 De Simpl. Medic. Fac. : ', ix, 206. In Early Times 673 which she took a cartload of the earth and returned to the city. Here the earth was cleansed and sealed with the figure of Artemis. 1 These usages were said in the island to be very ancient. The earth was locally used for ulcers (for which it was employed with success by Galen himself), for wounds, as an for internal use it was emetic, and for poisonous bites drunk in wine for external, applied with vinegar. There were three grades, of each of which the first might be monial observances, after ; ; handled only by the priestess ; the rest, like so many of the other earths cited by Pliny, being used industrially. After Galen there is a complete silence among our authorities as to what happened at Lemnos. 2 The earth continues to be cited after the ancients and the use of 3 or Terra sigillata persisted reputed Lemnian Seal through the Middle Ages. Bartholomaeus Anglicus (i3th c.) says of it : 4 is A serten veyne of the erthe is called Terra Sigillata, and And Dioscorides calleth it Terra singularly colde and drie. saracenica and argentea, and somedeale whyte, well smellynge and clere. The cheyf vertue therof byndetli and And powder therof tempred with the whyte of stauncheth. an egge stauncheth bledyng at the nose. And helpeth ayenst swellinge of the fete and ayenste the gowte, if it be layed in a playstre therto, as it is is sayde in Lapidario.' 4 It will be noted, however, that there is no evidence of first-hand knowledge in the above account, still less mention of Lemnos. In fact the earliest first-hand mention of the Lemnian earth in a modern writer The it was goat's-blood story of Dioskorides was ridiculed seal the he from an inference saw. probably * The last of the ancients to mention the earth seems to be P. 1 ; Aegineta, 3 the vii (s.v. Ge, terra). Lempnia frigdos in a medieval glossary quoted by Tozer, Islands of Aegean, p. 260, where frigdos stands for cr^payc'So?. Bartholomaeus Anglicus (see following quotation) seems to liave misunderstood this gloss in saying that the earth is singulerly colde and drie.' c 4 Lib. XV, ccxxix, cap. Ixxxxviii (ed. London, 1535). Terra Lemnia 674 known visited me is Voyage of Joos van Ghistele, who Lemnos in 1485. He gives the following account to of the earth in the : * It is found that Terra Sigillata is the best in the world. It is used in certain medicines and is produced in Lemnos in a pool which dries up every summer and is full of water in winter. When pool begins to dry up, a thick scum, variegated in forms on its surface. This is skimmed off and laid on colour, this clean planks as required, according to the method in use locally. dry, it is made up into round pellets or flat cakes, sealed, When together with several other things, with the seal of the Lord of the aforesaid island [Lemnos], and despatched to various countries/ x The next modern author to mention the earth is 2 Agricola, who, writing in 1530, says that he had seen tablets of Lemnian earth brought from Constantinople; they were of a yellowish colour and stamped with Turkish letters. The Turks held it to be the only remedy for plague, using it as the Arabs used Armenian bole. At Venice it was ill known but sold dear. Men Joos van Ghistele, 'T Foyage, Ghent, 1572, pp. 348 f. vinter Terra sigilata de beste die terwerelt is, die men useert in eenighe medecinen, ende ghenereert daer in eene poel die alle somertide wt 4 1 : droocht en in de winter is hi vol waters. Als deser poel begint in te drooge so comter op eenen coe van moren van veel diueersche coleure, de welcke me bgadert boue af en leitte op schoon plancken te drooge en die gedroocht na de heesch so sijt wete te doen dier in wercke af of wert meer andere ende met makeder ronde balote zijn platte, substancie gheseghelt met de teecke vande heere die tvoorseide eylant te bewaren heeft ende so gevoert in diuersche landen. [Professor W. E. Collinson informs me that the form coe appears to stand for the Dutch and Flemish caem (Mod. Dutch kaam), a scum on the surface it is cognate with the English of beer or wine caused by a fungus For beesch see Vervijs and Verdam's Middeldialect coom, kanes. For the translation as a whole I am nederlandsch Woordenbock. indebted to Professor R. Priebsch. M. M. H.] 2 In 1579 Breuning was given some Agricola, Bermannus, pp. 115 f. Terra sigillata and saw the real and the sophisticated given to two dogges whereof one dyed miserably (Orient. Reyss, p. 40). : : * ' In Medieval Times 675 About the middle of the century we have circumstantial accounts of the digging of the earth written by two scientific men,Belon and Albacario,who, like Galen, went themselves to Lemnos to investigate it. The first of these began his researches systematically by gathering information at Constantinople as to the various seals which guaranteed the quality of the earth, and these seals are engraved in his book for the benefit of the medical world. Belongs account of the ceremonial digging (at which, however, he was not present) is full and interesting as reproducing almost exactly, mutatis mutandis, the ancient ritual. The digging still took place only once a year, viz. at the festival of the Transfiguration and was preceded by a religious service at the church of the Saviour (which would naturally keep this day as its dedication festival), not far from the hill on which the earth was dug. The Turkish governor (Subashi) of the island and the Turkish and Greek notables took part in the ceremony. A proclamation (6 August), was made x and a sheep was sacrificed as kurban, which was afterwards eaten by the Turks present, as the Greeks fasted at this time of year. 2 The digging began at or before sunrise and continued for six hours, after which the hole was closed and left till the next year. It was a penal offence to dig it The out of season. earth dug was cleansed and stamped with a seal bearing in Arabic letters the words tin i makhtum (sealed earth). Soranzo adds that it was baked. 3 Certain officers were allowed with the text of the proclamation Le grand Dieu hault et tout puissant declare aujourd'huy Peffect et virtu de ceste terre a ses tres-fideles serviteurs \ is preserved by Thevet (Cosmog. Univ. ii, 805), a bad authority, but his account seems derived from a good source dialogue with the Greek, Frangi beyond Belon. The characteristic ' thes nagorasis apo tin gimou ? (<Pp<iyK, Q$ va dyopacn?? GLTTO TJJI> 1 This * detail, ' 2 Till the 15 Aug. (Assumption). yj\v p>ov), &c., rings true. ' 3 Formansi delle tre different! sorti di terra, tre diverse sorti di girelle, . . (in Alberi, . dando agli uni ed agli altri una cotturaper maggior durata Relazioni degli Ambasciatori Veneti, III, ii, 220). ' Terra Lemnia 676 it, and the bystanders a small quantity but the bulk of the earth, including the whole of each, 1 the first quality, was placed after sealing in a packet (also sealed) and sent to Constantinople by special mes2 A certain amount, senger for the use of the sultan. presumably of inferior quality, was sold on the spot by the Subashi to merchants. 3 Our second authority, Stefano Albacario, was a Spanish physician 4 commissioned to go to Lemnos to investigate the earth by the Austrian ambassador Busbecq, who sent his account to Mattioli. 5 Albacario's account in the main corroborates Belongs. Interesting new details illustrating the religious aspect of the digging are (l) that the earth was supposed to have virtue only on the day chosen for the official digging, (2) that a special washer had the handling of the earth up to the time of its exportation, and (3) that this washer appropriated a small bag of the earth, which, however, was not sealed. Both Belon and Busbecq probably owed their in- to take a share of 1 Palerne. The Grand Signior habitually drank out of a cup made of the earth (Palerne) and it was grated over all his meals as a precaution Galland (Journal, ii, no) says the against poison (Crusius, p. 508). 3 Grand Signior habitually ate from a dish baked of a certain green earth from India which was an antidote against poison. 3 The merchants are spoken of as Jews by Thevet (Cosmog. Univ. and A hundred years later von were at this date. ii, 805), very likely Rheinfelden speaks of Greeks paying 18,000 dollars to the sultan for the monopoly of it. From Belongs account (pp. 43 ff.) it appears that the Subashi paid a fixed sum and made what he could from the sale of the it was evidently regarded, like mines all over the earth empire and certain other natural products, e. g. the mastic of Chios, as a perquisite of the sultan, who farmed it as he thought fit. 4 Probably a Spanish Jew with a Christian name ; the surname sounds like Arabic ; Franco, Hist, des Isr. de VEmp. Ott. y p. 284, cites as a Jewish Spanish name Albuhaire derived from the Spanish : mountains Alpujarras. 5 Alattioli, Comment, to go to in Dioseor. v, 73. Lemnos while Busbecq was prevented. still He must therefore have gone Albacario made one attempt at Constantinople, after 1562. but was In Covel's Time 677 and knowledge of the earth less to its repute in European pharmacy at their date than to the custom terest in then current at the court of Constantinople of offering tablets of the earth as official presents to foreign ambassadors and other persons of quality. Thus we find recorded presents of terre sigillee to French ambassadors at various dates from 1546 onwards ; x Busbecq, the patron of Albacario, was an ambassador and had, more2 over, seen the earth successfully used against plague. Slightly later von Ungnad, an Austrian ambassador, was 3 given 40 tablets of Lemnian earth and a cup made of it by Zygomalas, who also sent some to Crusius. A long series of western travellers, as the bibliography below shows, subsequently interested themselves in the famous earth, none adding greatly to our knowledge but in it who appears more superstitious belief than his forerunners. Whereas Albacario distinctly Covel, to record a says that the religious service was not supposed to influence the power of the earth, Covel reports that ' several papas, as well as others, would have persuaded me that at the time of our Saviour's transfiguration, this place was sanctified to have His sacred earth, and that never to be found soft and unctuous, but always and at that time perfect rock unlesse only that day 4 when the priest hath said his liturgy \ Covel further 5 gives minute particulars of the washing of the earth; this was done at the fountain of the neighbouring it is . 1 dc Charriere, Negociations dans Vigne ; <f. Belon, ch. xxii. le Levant, . i, . 618 ; ii, 776; iii, 548 ; la Busbecq, Life and Letters, i, 164. 4 Ed. Bent, p. 283. Gerlach, Tage-Bucb, p. 403 (1577). 5 See also the rather obscure account of Soranzo, which lays great stress on a water-channel diverted on the day of the digging, the earth being found apparently in the natural receptacle into which the water si devia 1'acqua dal canale, acci6 non scorra piu normally flowed nella fossa, dalla quale alzatosi il coperchio, se ne leva con molta diligenza tutta 1'acqua rimasa con vasi ed in fine con spugne, poi se nc cava quel fango e molticcio (so B.M. Reg. 14 A, xiii,/. 10) che ha z 3 ' : Terra Lemnia 678 which, merely to increase the miracle apparently, was supposed to have an underof the digging. At ground connexion with the place ' an infallible cure of all this period it was accounted ' agues, taken at the beginning of the fit with water and employed also for fluxes, to hasten childbirth, and as an antidote ; no vessel made of it would hold poison but immediately splintered into a thousand fragments. The latter superstition has survived till our own day and is recorded also by several writers before and after Covel. 1 As to the history of the Lemnian earth in the medieval period it has been generally assumed that the export village ('Ay La 'YWarq), de Launay even goes so far as to say that the constant bickering for the possession of the island was due to the value of the earth as an article of commerce ; 2 as a matter of fact the strategic value of the island is a quite sufficient explanation, and there is no evidence to show that the knowledge of the earth in was continuous : medieval Europe was more than theoretical. This is borne out by Agricola's statement that it was known to few and sold dear in the Venice of his day (which, be it remarked, had had constant relations with Constantinople for several centuries) and by the ignorance of The vet, who at the time of his voyage (1549) thought the earth came from Athos. 3 Its excessive rarity about this time is attested by the same author, 4 who says he sold four tablets of it in Malta for fifty-five ducats. The complete silence of the early isolarii, including Buondelfatto Pacqua, .' di terra . 1 2 il quale si mette a parte per la prima e piu perfetta sorte . Crusius, Soranzo, Benetti, Pococke, Tozer. is evidently suggested by the anecdote of the taking of This quoted by Tozer from von Hammer. Cosmog. de Levant, p. 36. But in his Cosmog. Lcmnos in 1657, 3 himself as having visited the island. 4 Cosmog. Univ. ii, 805. Unit', Cf. below, p. 685, he represents n. 5. Fall and Rise in its Popularity 679 monti's, and of such authors as the local Critobulus of Imbros and the traveller Cyriac of Ancona is a valuable 1 The only shred of evidence for negative argument. the appreciation of the earth before the Turkish period is Belongs remark (repeated after him by several others who are probably drawing on his account) z that the custom of digging the earth on one day only dated from the Venetians the Venetians occupied the island 1464-1477 ; how, if they organized the digging, as is alleged, for commercial purposes, was the Lemnian earth almost unknown again fifty years later ? It is besides ' Venetians ', like the probable ' that the time of the modern time of the Genoese ' all over Turkey, was : only a vague expression for remote date. In reality the revival in popularity of the famous drug is most likely due to the appearance of the Spanish Jews in the Levant. It is well known that the Jews, expelled in 1492 from Catholic Spain, flocked in the next fifty years to the dominions of the sultan, where they found a religious toleration unknown in Europe. During the second half of the sixteenth century the expelled Jews held a recognized position at Constantinople in the diplomatic and still more in the medical world. Several of the sultans about this date had Jewish physicians, 3 who were recommended not only by their scientific For instance, Amato Lusitano (Franco, op. cit., p. 75) escaped from Pesaro after 1555 to Salonica, where he died, but there is no trace of his knowing Terra Lcmnia in his Curationum Medicinalium Centuriae Scptem, of which the seventh is dedicated to a Salonica friend. 3 Du Loir, Coronelli Covcl was told the same thing in 1677, only 1 ; Venetian occupation. the body-physicians of the last Suleiman Selim II, Selim II I, e.g. two were Andalusian Jews (M. A. Levy, Don Joseph Nasi, p. 6). For the position of the Turkish Jews at this time in commerce and finance, see Belon (III, xiii), where also stress is laid on their proficiency in medicine and knowledge of ancient medical writers, derived from Spanish twenty years after another 3 translations. : They had Constantinople. already at this period a printing-press at Terra Lemnia 68o attainments, derived from Moorish Spain, but by their loyalty to their adopted sovereign. It is possible that one of these, knowing Galen from the Arabic translations, was instrumental in bringing the Lemnian earth to the notice of his imperial master. It is, on the other hand, by no means necessary to consider that the use of the earth was at any time extinct in Lemnos ; we should probably conceive of it as a local remedy consecrated by religion in medieval as in ancient and in modern times till quite recent years. 1 Immediately after the revival of the Lemnian earth, and for a century or more after, a number of earths found elsewhere in Europe, begin to compete with it. These were probably either actually similar in composition or credited with similar properties. The date of when it can be ascertained, is subsequent to the rediscovery of the Lemnian earth and possibly dependent on it. They are known generically as sealed their discovery, ' a local epithet being added, but most have no religious associations. The device of the seal is generally a coat of arms and the form of the tablet follows the earths ', Lemnian. Of these the German and Austrian varieties are fully discussed in Zedler's Universal Lexikon^ s.v. Siegelerde, * and and many varieties of seals are figured by Wurm 1 A parallel case learned is of a medicinal earth which has never attracted the * blewish sort of clay like fullers' earth, to be found in the ' seen by Covel (Diaries, p. 247) at Marash near Adrianople, which was moistened by a miracle on the day of the Assumption and bathed in by Greeks, Turks, and Jews for any sort of infirmity '. Covel thought it might be of value for cutaneous diseases, but scouted the miracle. The former British Consul at Adrianople (Lieut. -Colonel Rhys Samson, ' to whom I may here express my obligations) tells me this mud is still used for rheumatism and the same day observed. A service is naturally celebrated in the church of the Virgin, but is now said to have no connexion with the mud-bath. It will be remembered that the same is said by Albacario of the service in Lemnos. 2 Museum IVurmianum (1722). Maltese Earth Valentin!. 68 1 Cups were made of the Bohemian 1 2 and Strigonian earths, implying presumably their use as antidotes on the Lemnian analogy ; it is further significant that one variety, found near Breslau, was used like the Lemnian for plague in i633. 4 In France the earth of Blois seems to have been first exploited about the time of Belongs book. It is mentioned by Thevet 5 and In Italy were exploited the earths called Palerne. 6 Sessana, Toccarese, Florentina 7 (stamped with the 3 Medici arms), and Oreana. 8 The Toccaresc variety was used as an antidote, 9 and as cups were made of terra Sinuessa the same may be inferred of it. A Calabrian earth is said by Pococke to have entirely superseded the Lemnian 10 in European practice. Maltese earth(Pauladadum) is so interesting a parallel as to deserve a longer (or derivative) of the Lemnian notice. It was found in small quantities in the cave of Paul near Citta Vecchia and appears not to have been vogue before the Lemnian ; our first notices of it are subsequent to the coming of the Knights, and the church on the spot was built only in 1606. XI The earth was used for small-pox and fevers, and particularly for the bites of reptiles, this magical use being associated directly with the incident of S. Paul and the viper, after which S. in all 1 reptiles in Numerous Malta became harmless. Museum Museorum (1704-14), ii, pi. 2 i. Wurm, Inc. cit., p. 15. (Strigonium~Gran Hungary) was discovered as early as 1568 (Zedler), when Gran was Turkish. A specimen of this earth, the variety de Monte Acnto, is preserved in the museum of 3 Strigonian earth in the Pharmaceutical Society (cf. F. Imperato, 1st. Nat. (1590), v, xxxvi). 4 Zedler, Univ. Lexikon. 5 Cosmog. de Levant: Miinster (ed. Belleforest i, 313) says it was discovered de nostre terns. 6 See also Zedler, loc. cit., and Sincerus, Peregrinations, p. 361. p. 60. 7 9 11 Valentini, Imperato, Brydone 3295.2 lor. cit. ii, pi. loc. cit. 8 i. xxxv. (1590), v, (1770), Tour, i, 325 ; I0 Wurm, loc. cit., pp. Wurm, loc. cit., p. Sonnini, Voyage, Y i, 69. 7 ff. 347. 682 Terra Lemnia varieties of seals are shown in the plates of Wurm and Valentini, including (i) the bust of S. Paul holding and serpent (rev. a Maltese cross), (2) S. John (rev. of the Grand arms Master), (3) a hermit worshipping the cross (rev. a three-masted ship) and various saints. Images and vases were also made of the earth, the vases being thought, like the Lemnian, to crumble away when 1 We have thus an almost poison was poured into them. 2 complete parallel for the Lemnian earth. Outside Europe the earth of Bethlehem seems worth mentioning in this connexion. It is found in a cave still shown as the refuge of the Holy Family and a place where the Virgin nursed the infant Christ. The cave is known already to Mandeville (1322) 3 a Russian pil4 that pilgrims took a grim Grethenios (c. 1400) says ' milky powder from the place for remedy and benediction generally. Later it became specialized as a milkcharm, and was so used even by Mohammedans. 5 The staff ; ? earth, chalky, white, and very friable, is now into tablets about an inch square, roughly which made up is stamped with the bust of the Virgin on one side and a monogram on the other side. Yet a second sort, much harder and more like clay, is sold outside the this is made up in round tablets Sepulchre church with a very rough device (on one side only) showing the ; Holy Family 1 They were in the stable, the beasts being quaintly also used for fever, Compagn. de Jesus, 1864, P- I2 92 For the Maltese earth see Imperato, Nat. (1590), 1st. v, cf. Carayon's Rel. Ined. de la F. Thevet, Cosmog. Univ. \, 27 Helden Insel Malta 37 Breithaupt, ; ; E. Francisci, Lustgarten (1668), pi. xli John Ray, Wurm (p. 347) Zedler, loc. cit. ; Brydone (1770). figures a cup of it with legend DIVINO HOC PAVLI ANTIDOTO ATRA VENENA FVGABIS and reptiles moulded in relief. (1632), p. 69 Travels, 3 5 i, ; 262 ; ; Ed. Wright, p. 163. Thevet, Cosmog. de Lev. pp. 220, 274 ; pp. 247, 425. Khitrovo, I tin. Russes, p. 182. p. 37 ; cf. also Feyerabend, Reyssbuch, Villamont, Voyages, ii, 426 ; Lithgow, Rare Adventures, A specimen is figured by Valentini, loc. cit. ii, pi. i. 4 Decay its 683 Popularity heads. This would by projecting represented appear * ' to be an orthodox variety. 1 The vogue of these rival earths naturally restricted the trade in the Lemnian. In the middle of the of eighteenth century the traveller Pococke says it was no longer carried to Europe but used only in the Levant (and even here it was menaced by the export of the Maltese variety), while the pharmacist Pomet 2 says that the number of seals then current was confusing, making him think * that everyone makes 'em to his fancy ; he curiously dissociates the sealed earth from the Lemnian, which ' was said to be the same as the sealed earth but in its natural state without any impression upon it \ 3 Such a state of uncertainty among the profession could not fail to be fatal to what was essentially a faith-cure. The West at length reached the stage of pure scepti? Choiseul-Gouffier, Hunt, and Sibthorp no longer have any belief in the virtue of the Lemnian earth, and analysis has justified their conclusions, at least so far as concerns modern samples. 4 This scepticism has, with the spread of western influence, reached Lemnos itself. Conze in the sixties was able still to purchase sealed tablets of the earth at an apothecary's, and in 1876 Pantelides writes of it as still in repute among the Turks cism. Tablets of these earths were early used as charms, cf. Lucius, Anjdnge des Heiligenk., p. 194 (quoting especially Augustinian, Civ. At Sens Millin records a box of earths from the Holy Dei, xx, 8, 7). 1 Land (Midi de la France, i, 97). A 2 contemporary Compleat History of Drugs (1712), p. 415. specimen of Lemnian earth (which can hardly be genuine) in the museum of the Pharmaceutical Society is shown in B.S.A. xvi, p. 230 : mentioned by Zedler and figured by Wurm, p. 10. 3 Probably the preparation made from the baobab tree and called Terra Lemnia Sigillata, EncycL Brit., 3 ed., s.v. Adansonia. 4 Daubeny, Volcanos^ pp. 236-7 De Launay, Chez les Grecs, pp. 122 ff. Tozer doubts whether the original vein is not exhausted. On this variety is ; the chemical side of edible earths in general an article (inaccessible to me) has lately been published in Schweiz. Wochenschr.f. Chymie y 1909, pp. 417-25^ Y 2 "Terra 684 Lemnia Tozer found the superstition exnearly abandoned, and the site in a of Constantinople. piring, the festival way to be lost. I myself in 1909 could not obtain the earth in the capital of the island, and at the pottery below the site bought only bowls of ill-levigated clay 1 bearing the traditional inscription tin i makbtum. The monopoly of the pottery and seal, formerly hereditary in a Turkish family, has lost even this link with the past, and the once priceless antidotal bowls have come down to the very moderate figure of a halfpenny fair each. not without interest to consider in connexion with the Lemnian terra sigittata and its analogies a category of sealed earths owing their virtue In conclusion, it is provenance and associations. Earth from the tombs of holy men is regularly conceived of in the solely to their 2 partaking of the virtue of the sainted dead, and consequently as possessing healing and other miraculous 3 Those who knew Salonica in Turkish times powers. will remember how the khoja of the Great Mosque distributed to pilgrims (at a price) minute quantities of * the dust from the Tomb of S. Demetrius for use as medicine or amulets. At the tomb of Sheikh Adi, the patron of the Yezidi, near Mosul, balls of earth from the grave are similarly sold to pilgrims. 4 The next stage in development is to seal the grave-earth as a guarantee East as ' 1 The seal itself is Tozer. 2 Also in the West, modern according cf. Greg. Turon. to the DC Mirac. tradition given S. Mart. I, by xxxvii, xxxviii. See further above, pp. 262 f. Layard, Discoveries in Nineveh, i, 284. This earth, like that of Kerbela, is of considerable ritual importance (see Heard, in^. R. Anthr. Inst. xli, 210, 212). Similarly, the holy oil made at Echmiadzin is mixed with earth, made into balls, and hung up in a house for luck (Mrs. Bishop, Journeys in Persia, i, 277). At the church of S. James in Jerusalem de Breves saw tablets of earth brought by pious Armenians 3 4 . 122). Religious Associations 685 Modern Egyptians, defrom the Prophet's grave at Medina, which are used as charms by Moslems. Similar sealed earth is brought by pilgrims from Kerbela and Nejef. 2 Like these grave-earths the sealed earths of Bethlehem and Malta seem to depend for their vogue entirely on their religious associations. In the case of of its authenticity. Lane, in his scribes sealed tablets of earth 1 the Lemnian earth, side by side with the scientific or pseudo-scientific appreciation of its qualities, we discern at all ages a similar strain of religious association, 3 which reinforces its more positive virtues. The Turks told an ' legend that a disciple of Christ, being miraculously transported to Lemnos, wept so sorely at the separation from his Master that of his tears was formed the wondrous earth \ 4 As to the Greeks, CovePs report of their associating it with our Saviour's transfiguration, has been given already. 5 In Galen's time some lost legend connected the earth with Artemis, as in earlier artless days its existence was obviously considered as marking the place where Hephaestus fell. Traces of a further cycle of secular folk-lore now lost, ' Ch. xi (p. 323). Oblong flat cakes, of a kind of greyish earth, each about an inch in length, and stamped with Arabic characters, u In Dust of our land [mixed] with the saliva of the name of God 1 ! some of us 'V * P. della Valle, Viaggi, iii, 461 Sopra la tomba [of Abbas], trouai certe come medaglie, fatte di terra cotta, che sogliono 2 : . . . nelle portar da Kierbela, e dalla sepoltura del lor famoso Hussein hanno il nomc di vso di terra Dio, per d'improntare quali medaglie con qualche parola diuota.' CJ. Cuinet, Turquie cFAsie, iii, 202, and Niebuhr, Voyage en Arabic, ii, 223. For the earth of Nejef see Cuinet, : op. cit. 3 iii, 209. C/. Greg. Turon., De Glor. Mart. I, vii. Blochet, in Rev. Or. Lat. 1909, p. 175. 4 The tears became earth on 7 August. 5 Above, p. 677. To this idea the proximity of Lemnos to the peak of Athos, which is dedicated to the Transfiguration, has evidently Westerns seem to have connected Athos with the contributed. exceeding high mountain of the Temptation (Struys, Voyages p. 70). 4 ' ^ Terra Lemnia 686 connecting the Lemnian earth with Philoktetes, may possibly be discerned. According to one account, Philok1 tetes was cured on Lemnos by the priests of Hephaestus, the remedy being presumably the earth of classical fame. 2 But in the usual form of the legend the stench of the hero's wound made him so unbearable to men that he was marooned ', naturally enough on an uninhabited island. The figure of Philoktetes thus approximates to the leprous prince of a folk-lore cycle current in both East and West. In this cycle the hero, banished from men, is eventually healed by a natural remedy, the use of which is suggested to him by observing its power of curing diseased animals. 3 The remedy is in several versions a hot spring, and the animal a pig. Examples are the well-known legend of Prince Bladud at Bath, and those of Helena, daughter of Yanko-ibnMadyan at Yalova in Bithynia, 4 and of an anonymous c * ' * ? would tentatively suggest that the goat, hitherto unexplained, which in Dioskorides' time formed the device of the Lemnian 5 Byzantine princess at Brusa. 1 * Eustath. ad Horn. 330 ; I Hephaestion, in Photius, 489 R. Philostratos, Heroikos, 306. For remedies indicated by animals Myths, 2nd series, pp. 129 ff. 3 4 see Baring Gould, Curious ' ' is a legendary Yanko-ibn-Madyan of mentioned emperor Constantinople frequently by Evliya, his name a of Yanko being apparently compound (John Hunyadi) and his Travels^ Evliya, ii, 33. ' * son Matthias ! f 5 Kandis, ///7pocra,p. 185. Cf. also the similar story of Rhodanthe (a Greek novel by Theodoros Prodromos, of the twelfth and Dosicles century, ed. Hercher, Erotici Script, Dosicles, when hunting, sees a ii) where Rhodanthe wounded bear roll dies, but himself into a certain herb and recover, so gathers the herb and revives Rhodanthe. Cf. also a modern story attributing the discovery of the hot springs of Tiflis to a hunting party which saw a wounded stag plunge into them and revive (Gulftenkian, Transcaucasie, p. 102). A partridge found a spring for thirsty Arabs (Palmer, Desert of the Exodus, p. 130). A gazelle led to the cure of the sultan Sanjar's son, for which see above, p. 462, n. 5. Bibliography 687 seal, was in the case of Philoktetes the indirect instrument of the cure.* ^ 1 BIBLIOGRAPHY 3 G. Bermannus, p. 115. fAlbacario, S. quoted by Mattioli, Comment, and Piacenza, q.v. Cf. Forster's Busbecq, Agricola, in Dioscor., v, 73 (1583), i, pp. 164, 256, 416. Observations de plusieurs Singularitez, pp. 43 ff. Benetti, A. Osservazioni, ii, 50. Botero, quoted by Piacenza (p. 433), seems to depend on Soranzo. fBelon, P. Breuning, H. J. Orientaliscbe Reyss (1579), P- 4Brusoni, G. Historia dell ultima Guerra, p. 306. Carlier, J. Voyaige (1579). MS. Bibl. Nat. Fonds Fran^ais, 6092, 9 f. 128.4 fChoiseul-Gouffier. Voyage Pittoresque, ii, 133. j"Conze, A. Reise auf den Inseln des Thrakischen Meeres, p. 121. Coronelli, V. M. Isolario, p. 274 (chiefly from Belon). fCovel, J. 1677, Diaries, ed. Th. Bent, pp. 283 ff. Crusius, M. Turco-Graecia, p. 508. Delia Valle, P. Viaggi, iii, 461. Voyages an Levant [1641], pp. 295-6. C. Lemnos, in Ath. Mitth., xxxi, 72 ff. fFredrich, A. Galland, Journal 1672-3, ii, no. S. Gerlach, Tage-Bucb [1577], pp. 61, 193, 229, 403. fGhistele, Joos van. *T Voyage (1485), pp. 348-9. fDu Loir. [1801], in Walpole^s Travels^ p. 56. de. Chez les Grecs de Turquie, pp. 122 ff. L. f Launay, Notes sur Lemnos, in Rev. Arch, xxvii (1895), 318 ff. P. fHunt, Ann. des Mines, xiii, 1898, 198. Lithgow, W. Rare Adventures [1609-10], cf. fPalerne, J. Pantelides, p. 88. Peregrinations, pp. 361-2. G. 'laropia rfj$ Ar\^vov, pp. 48, 49. See above, p. 672. goat so figures in a modern Greek variant of the theme of the In classical times Leprous Prince (Polites, /TapaSoaa?, no. 83). the of have to were power goats recognizing the (medicinal) supposed 1 3 A see Virgil, Aen. xii. 412-15; Pliny, H. N. xxv. 8. 97; also Tozer, Islands of the Aegean, p. 47. The ; cf. a difficult animal to connect with Artemis. dittany of Crete : Hist. Plant. 98 goat is who Lemnos 3 Authors 4 See Blochet, in Rev. Or. Lat. visited are xii marked with a dagger (t). (1909), pp. 175 f. Terra Lemnia 688 Piacenza, F. UEgeo Redivivo, pp. 428 ff. fPococke, R. Description of the East, II, ii, 23. Poullet. Nouvelles Relations du Levant, i, 183. Randolph, B. Archipelago, fRheinfelden, Sestini, I. von. p. 43. New e Jerosolomytanische D. Voyages en Grece Pilgerfahrt, p. 39. et en Turquie, p. 352. fSibthorp, J. [1794], in Walpole's Memoirs, p. 281. Soranzo, J. [1582], in Alberi, Relazioni degli Ambasciatori, III. ii, p. 220. Thevet, A. Cosmograpbie de Levant, p. 36. Cosmographie Universelle, ii, 805. fTozer, H. F. Islands of the Aegean, pp. 257 ff. Veryard, E. Choice Remarks (1701), p. 351. Vigne, de la. MS. letter [1558] quoted by de Launay. 1423, f. 71. Bibl. Nat. MS LIII OBSERVATIONS ON INCUBATION < accidental reasons incubation in the ancient temples of Asklepios has become so familiar to us that we are inclined to think it typical and to consider FOR all phenomena which resemble those of the Asklepios temples as derived from them. In the wider sense, however, incubation means sleeping in a holy place with the intention of receiving some desired communication 2 from the numen supposed to inhabit the holy place. 1 [My husband quantity of scattered notes together with a left a on incubation, it being his intention to write a long article on the subject. As some of his ideas have been anticipated by the admirable article of Mr. Louis H. Gray in Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion, which appeared too late for my husband to consult it, I have done no more than edit his draft and insert as footnotes his brief draft of his ideas M. M. illustrative references. H.]. connexion with healing. Thus S. Romuald was turned to the religious life by a vision of S. Apollinare when sleeping in his church at Ravenna (P. Guerin, Vie des Saints, s.v.}. Incubation at Daniel's tomb was supposed to bring remission of 3 By no means always in present grievances and insurance against those to come (Walpole, S. 423, quoted also by Carmoly, Itineraires, p. 495). Francis Caracciolo (died 1608), on feeling his end approach, obtained permission to pass a night in the Holy House of Loretto (P. Guerin, "Travels, op. cit., p. s. '.). In the same way Catholic pilgrims formerly incubated in the Sepulchre church for benediction (Lithgow, R are Adventures, this is still important p. 335 ; Casola's Pilgrimage, ed. Newett, p. 261) ' c : to Russian pilgrims (S. Graham, With the Russian Pilgrims to Jerusalem, the incubation at S.Patrick's Purgatory, f.). Analogous was which was supposed to relieve from future purgatory (Baring Gould, Incubation at a certain tomb Curious Myths, 1st Series, no. xi). relieved a fratricide from his penitential chains (Greg. Turon., De Clor. Conf. Ixxxvii). A woman's insistent prayers obtained at pp. 131 length a relic of S. John the Baptist (Greg. Turon., De Glor. Martyrum, Observations on Incubation 690 Incubation in this sense is natural and logical when the hypothesis prevails that (l) the numen is localized and has special power at his holy place and that (2) the * darkness and quiet of night together with the dream2 are peculiarly suitable conditions for communication with the numen. The revelation is in the first 3 place an oracle and comes by way of instruction. For this reason the procedure at the shrines of the oracular 4 Amphiaraos and Trophonios in ancient Greece is very similar to that familiar to us at the healing shrine of state Lucius I, xiv). cites a case where incubation brought victory (Anfdnge des Heiligenk., p. 243) and another where it was the means of recovering stolen property (ibid., p. 274, n. 3) ; it may be remarked that, while the author regards Cosmas and Damian as successors of Asklepios he dJes not find incubation practised by them. S. Theodore recovered after incubation some property stolen from a Jerusalem goldsmith (ibid.). r This hypothesis is common to most peoples at a certain stage in their religious development and may be perpetuated late in their civilization ; it is as characteristic of the Jewish, and therefore of the Mohammedan and Christian, religion as it was of classical antiquity. The most interesting modern Jewish incubation shrine is at Jobar near Damascus, where Elisha is the healing saint and the place of incubation is a vault under a synagogue built in an otherwise exclusively Mohammedan village. Accounts of the ritual are given by Burton, Inner Life Mrs. Mackintosh, Damascus, p. 98 ; Petermann, of Syria, p. 101 Reisen im Orient, i, 64 J. L. Porter, Giant Cities, p. 340 ; Stanley, ; ; Thevenot, Voyages, 693 ; d'Arvieux, Memoires, Carmoly, Itineraires, p. 487. According to Carmoly (op. cit., p. 136) it is mentioned by Samuel bar Simson, a pilgrim of A. D. 970, so that its antiquity is vouched for It is also to be noticed that the shrine is not a grave, satisfactorily. but rather a place frequented, like the stations of Khidr, by the spirit of Elisha. a In incubation cases dreams are rather the exception than the rule cure by no means depends on them. 3 The case of S. Romuald (above, p. 689, n. 2) approaches the oracular idea, as do those of the recovery of stolen property mentioned 412 Sinai, p. 461 ii, ; Pococke, Voyages, ; iii, 387 ii, ; : by Lucius, op. cit., p. 274, n. 3. Jerome's time incubation for divination was practised to Asklepios (see the authors quoted by Beugnot, Hist. Destr. du Paga4 In nisme, S. \, 369). Specialised for Healing 2 1 691 that As, however, it is mostly for health Epidauros. men implore the gods, incubation becomes specialized for healing, the method of communication being either by instruction or by direct action of the god. 3 Any numen^ even the very substantial peris of a Brusa bath, according to Lady Blunt, 5 may be a healing numen^ his credit and his sphere of action being determined by 6 results Instances of departmentalization in modern Greece are the Panagia, who is a general practitioner, 7 . So for that matter is the story told of S. Swithin at Winchester, which see Hutton, English Saints, p. 289. 2 Including relief from sterility cf. d'Arvieux, Memoires^ ii, 340 (obscure Moslem saint on the Cape of Beyrut) and IV] r*. Hume Griffith, Behind the Veil in Persia, p. 282 (Sheikh Mati near 1 for : Mosul). Sometimes both are combined by Collin (Hist. Sacree de Limoges, 3 6 de aegrotis, qui somnium recipiant aut n, 2). 4 S. as in the case of S. Pardoux cited p. 435). capiunt in locis somno moneantur ' Cf. the words of Zoega martyrum, quo salutem (quoted by Lucius, op. cit., p. 406, Benedict cured the saintly emperor Henry II (P. Guerin, Vie s. v. S. Henri II). S. Andrew in Pontus (White, in Mosl. des Saints, World, ix, 181) and at Patras (Lucius, op. cit., p. 300, after Greg. Turon., De Glor. Martyr. I, xxxi), the Forty Martyrs in various places Lucius, p. 300, and Palmer, Desert of the Exodus, p. 118), ((/ * S. Anthony in Syria (Kelly, Syria, p. 103, and Petermann, Reisen im see Antoninus Orient, \, 319), S. Elias at the baths of Gadara (lepers and Daniel ed. Tobler, vii, 9), martyr, (Walpole, Travels, p. 423) are all mentioned as granting healing after incubation. An obscure saint be as his brother thus the almost unknown as more famous may potent De Glor. Conf. of fever Paris Turon. Marcellus cured (Greg. bishop madness santon cures another (Burckhardt, Syria, Ixxxix), Syrian p. 48, quoted by Kelly, Syria, p. 247), while Sidi Yakub of Tlemcen is good for demoniacal possession (Montet, Culte des Saints Musulmans, S. Makrina at Hassa Keui in Cappadocia also cures (Carnoy p. 31). and Nicolaides, Trad, de VAsie Mineure, pp. 206 ff.). $ Sec above, p. 109. 6 S. Israel, a tenth-century saint of Limoges, was buried in the common cemetery, but became known as a saint because of the miracles which occurred after incubation at his grave (Collin, Hist. Sacree, p. 38). 7 This is usual throughout the Greek area. : : Observations on Incubation 692 and saints Michael 1 George, who specialize In general, the cures are not and 2 in cures of madness. 3 confined to human beings, animals also benefiting by incubation at certain shrines, 4 and, where the population is of mixed religion, all sects tend to frequent a shrine that has acquired fame by its healing miracles. 5 It happened in ancient Greece that Asklepios achieved fame as a healer, but throughout the later history of his cult it did not differ from other cults which practised incubation except in its elaborate development, which in the end bridged the gap between supernatural (mi- and scientific healing. Gradually it became no longer necessary that patients should sleep in the temple itself: cures were effected no less in the surrounding raculous) For S. Michael see M. Tinayre, Notes (Tune Voyageuse, pp. 148 ff. Thrace) Amelineau, Contes de rtigypte Chretienne, i, 73, 80 (in Egypt) Cousin, Hist, de V&glise, tr. Mr. C., Ill, ii, 3, p. 83 (at Constanticf. Maury, Magie, pp. 241 ff.). nople, from Sozomenos 2 For S. George consult Mrs. Bishop, Journeys in Persia, i, 276 (Armenian church at New Julfa) Burton, Inner Life of Syria, p. 389 (near Jerusalem, mentioned also by V. Guerin, Descr. de la Palest., 1 (in ; ; ; ; and Tobler, Topogr. v. "Jerusalem, ii, 501 ff.) Vaujany, Caire, a cit. i, Tobler, op. p. 293 (at Cairo) 371 (in Coptic monastery). 3 Cf. the promise of Michael given in Bonnet, De Mirac. a Mich. p. 312, ; ; quoted in Hasluck, Letters, p. 85, n. 5. Cf. especially Carnoy and Nicolaides, Trad, de VAsie Mineure, pp. 335 ff. (Haji Bekir), and also p. 203 (S. John the Baptist) and p. 204 patr. 9 p. 18, 4 (S. Makrina). A Jewish woman of Lulc Burgas took her son to incubate in a Turkish turbe at Kirk Kupekli in Thrace (F. W. H.) a leprous Jew of Cyprus incubated in a church of S. Michael (Amelineau, Contes de rtigypte Chretienne, i, 81) ; Bulgar Uniate parents took their sick child to incubate in an Orthodox church of the Archangels in Thrace Christians and Moslems (Tinayre, Notes d'une Voyageuse, pp. 148 ff.). the Damascus of tomb the Porter (Thevenot, George frequent and Christians incubate at a chapel of Voyages, iii, 49) ; Turks, Jews, S. Elias near Ephesus (Svoronos in MiKpaa. '///xcpoA. 1916, pp. 38491) ; the Cave of the Invention at Jerusalem is full of the hairs of sick Moslems and Christians who have used it superstitiously (Fabri, Evagat. 5 ; i, 297 ; further details in Tobler, Golgatha, p. 303). Combined with Medical Treatment 693 At the same time the intermediaries of the tended more and more to become skilled physicians god handling a far wider range of disease than the cases buildings. susceptible to suggestion, which are those generally catered for with success by purely miraculous means. It is curious to compare in our own times the estab- lishment of modern hospitals and treatment at certain holy places formerly noted for their supernatural cures. Examples are the hospital at Balukli near Constantinople, the madhouse in the monastery of S. George in the Prinkipo Islands, 1 and the madhouse at Gheel 2 in Belgium. In the last case the supernatural treatment, consisting in passing nine times under the saint's sarcophagus nine days in succession, is on the wane and now optional, though the scientific treatment is well or- ganized and There much reputed. moreover, a social side 3 to incubation, for a pilgrimage to an incubation shrine is at once a comis, plimentary visit to the numen and a picnic excursion not in the first place for bodily health. 4 The season of S. George's festival has probably much to do with his popularity in Greece as compared with the essentially identical saints Theodore, Sergius, Bacchus, and Demetrius. 5 In the East all the stages of incubation may still be found. The simplest experience is that of Clermont6 Ganneau, who, travelling rough for economy without tents in his early days, frequently slept in makams. 7 In Allom and Walsh, Constantinople, ii, 32. Maury, Croy. du Moyen Age, p. 359. 3 For this social side of religion see Hasluck, Letters, p. 102. 4 Burton (Inner Life of Syria, p. 101) and Mrs. Mackintosh Lady are (Damascus, p. 98) explicit on this point with reference to Jobar. 1 - 5 [The opening of the Prologue illustrates this 6 7 argument. M. M. to Chaucer's Canterbury Tales well H.]. Clermont-Ganneau, Pal. Inconnue, p. 55. A niakam is defined by Tyrwhitt Drake (P.E.F., O.S. p. 179) as an actual tomb or chapel erected in fulfilment of for 1872, a vow, in Observations on Incubation 694 I attached to them, foreigners and virtue of the tabu 2 In natives alike are there safe from danger of attack. modern Greece, where incubation is characteristic of outlying rather than of parish churches, many pilgrimage churches, being thus in the country, had no other accommodation than the church to offer to pilgrims. 3 This may therefore have been the original practice at modern Greek incubation shrines, Greeks having no pre4 judice against passing a night in such quarters. Results on credulous minds easily warrant the idea, fervently believed by present-day Russian pilgrims to Jerusalem, 5 that it is beneficial to spend a night in a holy place. In general the vigil of the saint is considered the best time for healing 6 that is, the time of the numerics manifestation is specialized 7 just as his habitation is localized. Its obedience to a dream, or prompted by ostentatious piety. it is all of with sacrosanct. One result this contains, enceinte, sanctity is that makams are frequently used as safe deposits for property (Conder, $ ee further above, p. 237. 9 1 )to supposed respect the tabu at Daniel's tomb at Susa, where travellers and brigands alike shelter, with their horses, from wild beasts (Loftus, Travels in Chaldaea, p. 322). 3 A Greek from Chios informed me that they celebrate only evening services at the church of S. George near the town of Chios, but they incubate (on the vigil of the festival) at the more remote church of l in P.E.F., O.S. for 1877, P2 Even wild animals are Myrsinidi. Contrast the feelings of the Roman Catholic priest La Roque in a church of the Lebanon by a Maronite cure (Voyage when lodged de Syrie, p. 165). 5 131 Stephen Graham, With the Russian Pilgrims f. ; to Jerusalem, pp. above, pp. 268, 689, n. 2. * Georgeakis and Pineau, Folk-Lore de Lesbos, p. 344, says la veille de la fete d'un saint les malades vont coucher dans sa chapelle '. For the importance of the morning service compare Polites, /lapaSocrets*, 6 *$ TO rravr^yupi rov aylov cf%av 199 (*O cir)$ NLKTJTOLS Kel TToXXol a7rof3pa8v$ fia^vrfj xpiariavoi, yta va XeirovpyrjOovv the same author's no. TO rrpajt) cf. 637, and in general Carnoy and Trad, de VAsie Nicolaides, Mineure, pp. 206 ff., 335 f. 7 Sick animals are best brought to the shrine of Haji Bekir in Cappadocia on the evenings of Thursday, Friday, and Saturday no. . . . : (Carnoy and Nicolaidcs, op. cit., p. 335). Importance of Sleep 695 This suggests that sleeping may not have been originally regarded as the essential, a consideration borne out by the fact that visions are the exception, not the rule. In other words, most cures are not essentially dependent on visions. In classical antiquity, however, sleeping was probably essential for healing ; the insistence of Aristophanes on sleeping at Asklepieia will be remembered, also the dream oracles of Amphiaraos and Trophonios. LIV THE CALIPH MAMUN AND THE MAGIC FISH I ^ ^HE circumstances attending the death of the JL Caliph Mamun (A.D. 833) are thus related by Masudi, who wrote about a century after the event. On his return from a victorious raid against the Greeks the caliph encamped in the beautiful valley of Bedidun. 2 Like all Orientals, he was susceptible to the charm of clear, running water, and at his orders a rustic pavilion was constructed over the spring called Kochairah, from which the river Bedidun flowed. In this the caliph sat. A silver coin was thrown into the spring, and so clear was the water that the legend of the coin beneath its surface could be read. Mamun then noticed in the 4 a a fish cubit spring long and shining like an ingot of silver,' which he desired should be caught for him. This was done, but the fish, when brought to the caliph, escaped by a sudden movement into the spring, sprinkling the caliph's breast, neck, and shoulders with cold water as it did so. It was again caught, and the caliph gave orders that it should be cooked. As he did so, he was seized by a shivering fit, and, when the fish was cooked, he was in a high fever and unable to eat it. This was the beginning of the illness which caused his death. Before this took place he had the guides and prisoners called and asked them the significance of the name of the spring Kochairah. He was told that it meant 6 out feet stretch \ which he took for an omen of his thy death. He then asked the Arab name of the country he I 1 - Reprinted from J. IL S. xlii, 99 ff. Podandus, the modern Bozanti, two days from Tarsus on the post-road to Eregli. Explanations 697 * the was '. Rakkah As had been it fore; reply told him that he should die at a place thus named, he knew that his hour was come. And he died then and was carried to Tarsus and buried c on the left-hand side of the Friday mosque As to the local nomenclature in this story two observations may be made, (i) To Masudi and the Arabs the name Kocha'irab meant nothing but the historian says that some held that it was Bedidun, and not Kochalrah, ' that meant stretch out thy feet '. We have thus clearly a local Greek derivation of Podandus from TTOW ('foot') was in V : c and TiVoj( stretch'). 2 (2) In Rakkah we have probably to do with a corrupt form of the name of the neighbouring Byzantine fortress Herakleia, called by the Arabs Irakla the resemblance between Rakka and Irakla is close enough for the purpose of the story. 3 The story itself is pretty evidently based on a folk4 But legend turning on the theme of inevitable fate. what is the point of the elaborate fish episode ? It is clear that the fish was a magic fish, otherwise it could not have caused the caliph's death as it did. The only hypothesis which really explains the story is that both ; spring and fish were sacred, that the caliph sinned by wishing to catch the fish, and persisted in his sin even after his first warning. 1 Les Prairies c/'Or, ed. and This hypothesis tr. is Barbier de Meynard, backed by vii, pp. 1-2 and 96-101. 2 If the TOV pun seems far-fetched, what about *IKOVLOV Sta TO rjKevat, For punning on i, 72) ? /7e/>ae'a (Preger, Script. Orig. Constant, names p. 113 P, cf. Theoph. Cont. Const. Porph., V, xxv, Bury,J.H.S. 1909, p. 125), where Omar inquires the local names from Greek captives and derives bad omens from the names. The idea is probably Greek, as in both cases the Moslem comes off badly and the puns are Greek. ^ An Armenian authority of 1108 (cited by Tomaschek in Sitzb. Wien. Akad., Phil.-Hist. CL cxxiv, 1891, viii, 66) speaks of a fortress local A. D. 838 (cf. Krakka near Kybistra or Herakleia (Kybistra 4 The lesson seems never to be learnt. Eregli). The Caliph 698 Mamun and the Magic Fish The Greek name of the spring is given which Aidareka, evidently contains the name of a saint, to whom the spring was held sacred by Christians. (2) A coin was thrown into it, evidently in accordance with the world-wide custom at sacred springs and wells. two points, (i) as 1 may be held to prove that the caliph that the spring was sacred. One can hardly doubt that the tale came originally from Masudi had plenty of a hostile (Christian) source. opportunity for access to non-Moslem writers and is said not infrequently to have made use of them. The memory of Mamun seems to have survived at Tarsus, at least among the learned, till the middle of the seventeenth century, when the incidents recorded of his death were located not at Podandus (Bozanti), but quite near Tarsus itself. 2 Of his tomb nothing is recorded after the thirteenth century, when it was still a Moslem pilgrimage, though Cilicia was in Christian hands and the mosque had become a church of SS. Peter and Sophia. This curious fact rests on the au- This incident knew from the first thority of Yakut (1225) and Willebrand of Oldenburg 4 The latter speaks of the tomb as that of the (i2ii). ? sister of Mohammed , which looks as if the identity 3 ' of its occupant was already becoming vague among the The church of SS. Peter and Sophia is folk. 5 thought by Langlois to have occupied the site of the common present this is 1 2 3 4 5 Ulu Jami, far For a purely Mohammedan building, but from proved. world-wide practice see above, Haji Khalfa, tr. Norberg, ii, 360. this Le Strange, E. Caliphate, p. 133. Ed. Leo Allatius, JW/x/it/cra, i, 137. See below, p. 702. Cilicie, p. 317. p. 302, n. 5. LV THE THREE UNJUST DEEDS ACCORDING to the Koran story, when Moses was 1 travelling with the (unnamed) Servant of God, the latter committed three apparently blatant acts of JLJL wantonly sinking injustice, a ship, killing a youth, and repairing a wall for a family which had received the travellers inhospitably. Subsequently an explanation was forthcoming the ship was thus saved from ima king, the youth was an unbeliever and pressment by a better son was given to his parents in his stead, while the wall concealed a treasure which belonged to orphans, : but would have been secured by the inhospitable had the wall been allowed to fall into ruins. man A 2 clearly similar tale exists in the Talmud, where Rabbi Jochanan was granted a vision of Elijah, with whom he went on Being hospitably entertained by a poor man whose only support was a cow, A rich man Elijah in the morning killed the cow. received them badly, yet Elijah at his own expense A rich synagogue repaired his house wall for him. in return Elijah wished that they received them badly might all become presidents at once. A poor community received them well, but Elijah wished them only one president. The explanation was that the cow was the redemption for the poor man's wife, who had been a journey. ; fated to die that day, repairing the wall had prevented the rich man from finding a hidden treasure when he dug a foundation for the wall, while one president spells harmony, many discord. It seems hardly possible that there is no connexion 1 * Koran, pp. 222 ff. (ch. xviii). Folano, Selections from the Talmud, pp. 313 Sale's 2 2 ff. The Three Unjust Deeds between the two tales and, the Jewish being in the Talmud and therefore probably not later than the second century of our era, we may therefore with some confidence believe the Talmudic tale to be the source 700 of the Koranic. It seems to be a Jewish apophthegm ' written round the theme of Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right ? * Jews were fond of such apophthegms the Biblical story of Job's misfortunes is an obvious instance. Another, concerning David, is found in the Talmud.^ David once saw a mosquito attacking a spider and an idiot killing both, whereupon he exclaimed at the uselessness of mosquitoes, spiders, and But later, when he idiots in the scheme of creation. cut off Saul's cloak in the cave, he stumbled over Abner, who would have discovered him had a mosquito not diverted Abncr's attention by stinging him. Still later, when he himself was hiding in a cave from his enemies, they would have found him if a spider had not spun its web over the entrance of the cave and thus given the impression that the cave was empty. Finally, when he fled to Gath, his only resource was to feign himself mad. Whereby the existence of mosquitoes, spiders, and idiots ? ; was justified. 3 As the story of the Three Unjust Deeds occurs in the Koran and the nameless Servant of God is usually identified with Khidr, 4 it is not surprising to find versions of the tale told in Moslem lands to-day with Khidr as the hero. Hanauer relates 5 an interesting variant current among Palestine Moslems. When Moses and Khidr were making a journey together, Khidr stole 1 Gen. xviii, 25. 2 Polano, Selections from the Talmud, pp. 310 ff. Carmoly, I tineraires, p. 297, gives approximately the same story, dated at latest in the twelfth century and with a wasp instead of a mosquito. 3 There is probably a more symmetrical prototype somewhere (possibly in the Panchatantra) ;ire i required. See above, p. 331. : 5 the idiot is out of place, three insects Folk-Lore of the Holy Land, pp. 58 ff. Christian Versions 701 washhand basin from a hospitable man, presented it to an inhospitable man, and killed the young nephew of The reasons were that the hospitable a kind hostess. man was too confiding, the inhospitable man was to be made hospitable by finding hospitality profitable, and the boy, had he lived, would have murdered his good aunt. Very interesting are two versions current among a Christians in the Turkish area. The first was collected I by Professor Dawkins at Imera, a village near Kromni There three travellers in the district of Trebizond, met a pallikar, who joined them. Ill received by an inhospitable village, the pallikar rebuilt a ruinous wall in the village. A second village proved inhospitable, and again the pallikar repaired a crumbling building, this time a house. Being well received in a third village, the pallikar in the night strangled the son of their host. The explanation given by the pallikar was that a treasure lay hidden under the falling wall and would have been discovered and thus caused many murders but for his repairing the wall had the house in the second village fallen, it would have destroyed the neighbouring house, where good people lived ; the boy would have grown up wicked, corrupting his father also, so that his death had saved both himself and his father from hell. Then, announcing himself to be the Christ, the pallikar vanished from their sight. The second Christian copy is told in Bulgaria. 2 Here ; a monk travels who is afterwards The armed man destroys the with an armed man, found to be S. Michael. house of a hospitable cowherd and kills the son of a hospitable rich man, in the former case to reveal to the cowherd a buried treasure and in the second to save the boy from killing his brother. The third motif is missing. 1 me z The story to publish is it so far unpublished, in advance. but Professor Dawkins kindly allows Shishmanova, Legendes Relig. ulg., pp. 168 ff. It is interesting to find S. Michael the hero in this case, he occurring in the Bible as the executant of the Divine will, especially in the direction of violence. LVI GRAVES OF THE ARABS IN ASIA MINOR AMONG the Mohammedan religious antiquities I of JLX Asia Minor the tomb-sanctuaries held to represent the resting-places of Arabs killed during the forays of the eighth and ninth centuries form a well-marked and extremely interesting group. Their authenticity is on general grounds more than doubtful. The campaigns of the Arabs led to no permanent occupation ; the lands they had conquered for the moment were restored to Christendom or fell to alien races. Only in the and in Christian where times of borderlands, peace Moslem might meet on equal terms, can we expect a true tradition regarding Arab graves or a continuous veneration of them to have persisted. Of these borderland Moslem cults supposed to date back to the Arab period we can point to two examples, the tomb of the sister of Mohammed at Tarsus and the tomb of ' 5 Umm Haram in 2 Cyprus. The former is mentioned by Willebrand of Oldenburg (1211) as still a place of Moslem pilgrimage under the Christian kings of Armenia. It was situated outside the church of S. (Beatus) Peter and S. Sophia in the middle of the town. 3 It seems at least possible that this tomb This chapter has already appeared in B.S.A. xix, 182 ff. A list of female Arab saints in Palestine is given by Conder, The Druses admit women to the ascetic P.E.F., Q.S. for 1877, P- 99inner brotherhood of Akal (Burckhardt, Syria, p. 203) the women appreciate the privilege, but for the prosaic reason that it saves them money in rich clothes. In general, female saints in Islam are con 1 1 2 : verted Christian princesses or arnazons. 3 Ed. Leo Allatius, 27J/Lt/xt/cTa, i, 137 ' In angulo quodam extra foris Ecclesiae sepulta est soror Mahomet ; cuius tumbam Saraceni in multo petunt timore et devotione.' For the site of the church in question in the opinion of Langlois see above, p. 698. Umm Haram was 703 really that of the caliph Prankish chronicler. Mamun, miscalled by the Mamun died in A,D. 833 at Po- dandus (Bozanti) and was buried at Tarsus, then an I have no important frontier town of the Arabs. 1 information as to the perpetuation or otherwise of this to our own day. For present purposes it is important mainly as showing the possibility of the survival of a Moslem cult in spite of Christian domina- cult down tion. 2 The tomb researches, 3 Umm Haram owing to Mr. Cobham's better documented. The Arab sources, of is, which he quotes at length, are sufficient to prove that Umm Haram was a historical person, that she died in the course of an Arab expedition to Cyprus, and that she was buried there in A. D. 649. Her tomb seems to have been known at least three centuries later, both to Arab and Christian, 4 but the exact position in the island There follows a significant lacuna in is not indicated. the history of the grave by the Turks in 1572. till after the conquest of Cyprus Haji Khalfa,^ half-way through the next century, is the first modern authority to mention, but without ' tomb of giving the name of the saint, the present 1 See above, p. 697. A modern parallel is the survival of the tomb and cult of the Turkish saint Gul Baba at Buda-Pest (above, p. 551). In our own time the grave of Murad I on Kossovo, now in Serbia, is protected a special clause in the Treaty of London. by ' 3 Haram ', in J. R. Asiat. Soc., 1897, pp. 81 if. The Story of A beautiful photograph of the tekke is reproduced by M. OhnefalschRichter, Gr. Sitten und Gebrduche auf Cypern. * Const. Porph., de Them, i, 40, and Al Baladuri (d. A. D. 893) cited 2 Umm ' by Cobham. 5 Tr. Armain, in Vivien de S. Martin, Asie Mineure, ii, 667 il [Memlahah] y a en cet endroit un tekieh ou couvent de derviches, dans lequel reposent les reliques d'une sainte dame qui vivait du temps du Prophete.' The earlier Turkish geographer Piri Reis (r. 1550, ap. Oberhummer, Cypern^ i, 427) does not mention the tomb in his de: 4 . . . scription of the island. Graves of the Arabs in Asia Minor Haram on the salt lake near Larnaka, which continues down to our own day to be a frequented Moslem pilgrimage with a well-endowed tekke. This tomb ? is is the more significant since the site of the indeed the salt lake at not out of the beaten track Larnaka has always been one of the sights visited by 704 Umm ' ' : travellers. The 1 associated with though now Haram, has been recognized by so-called Umm * tomb ' itself, Cobham as a prehistoric building similar to the chapel of Phaneromene 2 in the same district and the so-called tomb of S. Catherine at Famagusta. 3 All three ap' ' pear to have been underground prehistoric buildings, not necessarily tombs. In the case of the tomb of Haram, Mariti from a Christian source a tradition records (1760-7) that its discovery was relatively recent and that its Umm exploitation was due to a dervish. Among Mohammedans generally was current a tradition that the building, originally underground, was, at a date not indicated, laid bare by heavy rains. In this condition it was discovered by shepherds, to whom its nature was re- vealed by a vision of a lady in white raiment. 4 It thus seems clear that the gap in the history of the tomb cannot be filled, that its cult has not been continuous, and that its authenticity is improbable. The history of other discoveries of Arab tombs makes that of ' ' Umm more suspect. Of the reputed Arab tombs in Asia Minor the most 1 Haram's Kootwyck still (1619), who describes the salt lake at length, does not mention the tomb (Cobham, Excerpta Cypria, p. 191) the earliest of notice it of seems to be Le that foreign Bruyn (1683), Voyage^ who calls it the tomb of Mina, mother of the Prophet. ii, 495, : 2 Magda 3 4 Au d> Aphrodite, Zeit. 1881, p. 311 12 (S. Phaneromene) and pp. Pays Evlavios), both being Phenician monolithic tombs. Des'champs, (S. Ohnefalsch-Richter, in Arch. Max Ohnefalsch-Richter, inJ.T/.S. iv, 112. Travels in Cyprus (Cobham's translation), p. 184. : cf. 140 Sidi Battal Gbazi Tekke 705 that of Sidi Battal Ghazi, 1 which lies in important a mausoleum (turbe) attached to the convent (tekke} bearing the name of the hero, six hours south of Eskishehr and on the site of the ancient Nakoleia in Phrygia. The tekke was formerly a very important seat of the Bektashi dervishes ; its popular vogue was enhanced by the fact that it lay on the pilgrims' road from Constanti2 It is supposed by Ramsay and other nople to Mecca. authorities to occupy the site of an earlier Christian is holy place, but in my opinion on insufficient grounds. The assumption rests partly on inexact archaeological data and partly on the overworked idea that every holy place has always been such. The evidence in favour of the assumption is as follows (1) The site is undoubtedly that of the ancient : Nakoleia, 3 Byzantine monastery are said to be incorporated in the buildings of the convent. Radet Ruins of (2) a goes so far as to say that the basilica : 4 Ouvre, his mosque companion, is travellers' descriptions are vague. He 1 is is a Christian not so sure. 5 6 A Other recent visitor, the prototype of El Cid, of whose tale there is an early frag- ment in Arabic (Bouillet, Dictionnaire, s. v. Cid). The tekke has been visited by many European 2 travellers, see The especially Wtilzinger, Drei Bektaschikloster Phrygiens, xx, 103. earliest first-hand account by a western known to me is that of the anonymous author [1663] of the (B.M.) Add. MS. 7021 (f. 35). It was known at least by repute to Menavino (Cose Turcbescbe (1548), It is interesting to compare the effect of the railway on the p. 60). pilgrimage of S. Anne d'Auray in Brittany, where pilgrims now come all the year round, with a corresponding diminution in the number of visitors on the day itself (De Quetteville, Pardon of Guingamp, 3 Ramsay, mJ.II.S. iii, 119 cf. Hist. Geog., p. 144. Arch, des Miss, vi (1895), p. 446. ; * Un Mois en Pbrygie, p. 89. H. Barth, Reise, pp. 88-9 Sir C. Wilson, in Murray's Asia Minor, A. D. Mordtmann, as below, 144 Ramsay, Pauline Studies, p. 168 5 6 ; p. P 707, . ; ; n. I. Graves of the Arabs in Asia Minor 1 Brandenburg, seems to refute the idea implicitly. Turkish sources attribute the building of the mosque to Suleiman the Magnificent. 2 3 (3) Cuinet mentions candlesticks, and Sir Charles 4 Wilson a cup of Christian workmanship, in the turbe. 706 Radet these Perso-Byzantine 5 in any case the evidence of such movable furniture is negligible. (4) The legend of Sidi Battal's marriage with a Chris6 tian princess is read by Ramsay as evidence of previous Christian occupation. But it is characteristic of a hero calls : of a chivalric romance and the cycle of legend which grown up round the name of Sidi Battal places him in this category that a maiden on the enemy's side should fall in love with him. 7 The Byzantine borderer, Digenes Akritas, elopes with an emir's daughter, and as a Christian hero is compelled on that account to spend some pages in remorse 8 a Moslem can without re9 proach add the lady to his harem. Further, the marriage of a Mohammedan potentate with a Christian was by no means unknown in the days of Ala-ed-din, to which the discovery of the tomb of Sidi Battal is has ; referred. 10 The Mohammedan and consistent ; the yz. Zeit. xix, 106 Teil des Klosters.' official ' 1 : traditions of the tekke are clear version in der sog. " is given in Ethe's Kirche," d. h. dem alteren 2 Haji Khalfa, tr. Armain, in Vivien de S. Martin's Asie Mineure^ ( ii, 702 cf. Jardin des Mosquees ', in Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. 82 Ott., p. (706). : 3 6 4 Loc. cit. 5 Lor cit. y p. 447. Turquie d*Asie y i\, 213. Pauline Studies, p. 169, and elsewhere cf. below, p. 709. For such a case at Phileremo in Rhodes see above, p. 647, n. 2. : 7 8 Rambaud, t. Byz., p. 79. had at least two other Christian wives, a daughter of the Emperor and a daughter of his vizir Akrates (probably Akritas 9 Sidi Battal himself) 10 The ; cf. Ethe, Fabrten des Sajjid Batthal, i, 99, 100. father of Ala-ed-din, for instance, married a Christian (Sarre, Reise, pp. 39 f.). woman Sidi Battal Gbazi Tomb 707 Fabrten des Sajjid Battbal as follows The ' castle of the Messiah ' was given by Ala-ed-din, Sultan of Rum (1219-36) to his general Hazarasp. One of the latter's shepherds, named Kodlija, while feeding sheep on the hill opposite the fortress, saw there a miraculous light. * : He became enchanted, and his sheep gathered together to the spot. Hazarasp, being informed of the miracle, built a chapel on the site and it became a The spot was not connected with Sidi pilgrimage. Battal till he himself appeared in a dream to the mother of Ala-ed-din, who was a descendant of the Prophet, and bade her build him a monument at the castle of the Messiah, where he had met his death. The mother of Ala-ed-din went to the castle and made inquiries, and another vision was vouchsafed to her in confirmation of her dream the earth opened showing a door, through which she passed down a flight of seven steps to find the Arab warrior standing armed before her. The mother of Ala-ed-din built the mausoleum of the newly-disthe buildings of the site were subsecovered saint * quently added to by the Mihaloglu family and the Ottoman emperor Suleiman the Magnificent. 3 In the latter part of the fifteenth century George of Hungary, who for many years lived, apparently in this part of Asia Minor, as a prisoner of the Turks, testifies to the wide vogue of the cult of Sidi Battal in his day. He was held in great esteem and Sedichasi says that veneration all over Turkey and by Mohammedans in His tomb was on the frontier between the general. as if ; ; ' ' Ottomans and Karamania, and, though these frequently 1 i, 213 ff. which we to This relation does not form part of the romance proper, Other Turkish sources are quoted by A. shall return. D. Mordtmann (Gelehrte Anzeigen d. bayr. Akad. 1860, pp. 260-95, and 0tAoA. SvXXoyos, IlapdpTrjfJia rov 0' ropov, pp. xiv ff.). 2 A renegade family established in Bithynia under the early Ottoman sultans. 3 on Probably about 1534, the year of the emperor's visit to the tomb way to Bagdad (Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. v, 212). his Graves of the Arabs in Asia Minor quarrelled among themselves, none dared approach the tomb or do damage to the adjacent country, since those who had done so always found that the vengeance of the saint followed on their act. 1 Further, it was commonly 708 held that those who asked his aid, especially in war, were never disappointed. Great quantities of money, animals, and other gifts were yearly offered to the saint by the king, the princes, and the common folk. In the sixteenth century the name of Sidi Battal was the war2 cry of the Turkish armies. The convent has lost much of its prosperity since the fall of the Bektashi order under Sultan Mahmud II and the decline of the pilgrim road with the progress of steam navigation. The tombs of Sidi Battal and his Christian wife are still shown in the turbe, and that of the pious shepherd Kodlija just outside it. Close by the tekke of Sidi Battal stands the tomb of Malik Ghazi, 3 his companion in arms, who fell with him at Akroenos. 4 This tomb is probably to be regarded merely as a pendant to Sidi BattaPs. 5 Both, it will be noticed, are on the farther side of the river from Eskishekr and its 6 Byzantine representative 1 De Moribus Turcorum Wann sie Sedichassi dem 2 4 (c. ; this river some at may 1481), cap. xv (see above, p. 495). so riiffen vnd schreyen sic zu Krieg furnemmen, dem und dess Siegs Soil begraben auffden und Grentzen Otkomannomm Caramannorum liegen (Breuning, Heyligen der Victori . . . ' Orient. Reyss. (1579), ? IO ^)in the hands of the Bektashi (cf. The convent was by this time already R. Asiat. Soc. Browne, J. 1907, p. 568), who were intimately associated with the Janissaries. 3 Visited by Radet and Fougeres in 1886 (see map in Arch, des Miss. vi, 4 1895). * With Al Battal was killed Malikh, the son of Shu'aib ' (Kitab Al 'Uyun (eleventh 5 The century), ap. Brooks, inJ.H.S. xviii, 202). tekkes of Melik Ghazi (i) in the Kale Dagh near Sarimsaklik (R. Kiepert's map, section Kaisarieh) and (Evliya, Travels, ii, 18, 104 ; Cumont, to be connected with the Danishmend (2) at Niksar in Pontus Stud. Pont, ii, 261) are probably of that name (1106-13), prince but the legend current at Niksar suggests contamination with the Arab 6 Karaja Hisar, according to Radet (loc. cit., p. 515). cycle. Sidi Battal Gbazi History 709 time have formed the frontier between Moslem and Christian. The tomb story of the miraculous discovery of Sidi Battal's of course strongly tinged with myth, but there is no reason to doubt that the revelation and establishment of the cult of the saint dates back to Seljuk times. The hero himself was the historical Abd Allah Abu-'l Husain el Antaki/el BattaP (' the Valiant ') being a title of honour he is known from contemporary sources, Arab and Byzantine, to have taken part in the Arab raids of the eighth century and to have fallen in is ; battle at Akroenos (Afiun Kara Hisar), many miles south of the tekke which bears his name, in A. D. 740. Even the topographical difficulty could be got over, impossible to bridge the gap in the history of the tomb between the battle of Akroenos and the reign of if it is Ala-ed-din, unless we suppose (what is highly improbable) that an inscription was found with the remains. Sidi Battal is comparatively well known from history ; his apocryphal adventures, like those of his Byzantine counterpart Digenes Akritas, are numerous and in the canonized version of the romance fill a considerable book. 1 Certain incidents of the romance are widely current such are the hero's adventures at Maslama's siege of Constantinople (A. D. 717), where he penetrated alone as far as S. Sophia and rode into the building on 2 horseback, his dealings with a Christian nun whom he afterwards married, and his romantic death, caused by a stone thrown as a warning by a Christian princess in love with him, who eventually killed herself from remorse. 3 ; For the adventures of Sidi Battal see the authorities cited by Mordtthe canonized version of the romance, (loc. cit.} and especially a Turkish composition of the fourteenth or fifteenth century based on an Arabic original, translated by Ethe (Fabrten des Sajjid Batthal). * The historical Sidi Battal appears from the Arab sources (Brooks, J.H.S. xix, 26) to have been present at this siege. 1 mann 3 It is this princess who is buried beside the hero. Graves of the Arabs in Asia Minor The wide vogue of this popular legend is shown by its connexion with many localities in Asia Minor. Sidi BattaPs rock is shown at Mal-tepe near Constantinople, 710 1 his castles at docia), 3 Erdek 2 and in the Karaja Dagh (Cappa- mosque reputed of a his foundation exists at Caesarea, a second tomb at Kirshehr, 5 and a third on the Ali Dagh near Caesarea, 6 while a dome commemo4 Opposite Constanticonnected with Kadi Keui (by the verbal identification of Kadi and Ghazi}* and one version of the legend of the Maiden's Tower makes Sidi Battal the cause of its construction the Greek governor destined it of course in vain to shelter his daughter and his treasure from the redoubtable Arab leader. 9 The Kirk Kiz Dagh (Mountain of the Forty Firgins) near the tekke of Sidi Battal, is probably associated with the episode of the Convent of the Forty Princesses in the romance. 10 On Argaeus Sidi Battal was imprisoned in a well, whence he made his escape by the assistance of rates his birth-place at Malatia. 7 nople he is : , a great snake. 11 similar cycle A of popular tradition groups itself round the name of Husain Ghazi. The centre seems to be Alaja in Paphlagonia, called by Haji Khalfa n Hus1 2 3 4 Oberhummer in Meyer's Konstantinopel, p. 332. Hamilton, Asia Minor, ii, 99. Ramsay and Bell, Thousand and One Churches, p. 435. Le Strange, E. Caliphate, Haji Khalfa, tr. Armain, p. 676 cf. ; H6. Le Strange, P- > op. "/., p. 152, n. 2 ; cf. Cuinet, Turquie d^Asie, i, 332. 6 Skenc, Anadol, p. 146. 7 Haji Khalfa, p. 660. So Digencs has at least three tombs, near Trebizond, in Crete, and in Karpathos, and other memorials in Cyprus and Crete (Polites, /7a/>a8oaets , nos. 73,74, 118-22, 131), while the > conqueror of Crete from the Arabs, Sarandapechys, to such an extent that his name becomes a generic word for multiplies a giant. For other multiplications of tombs see above, pp. 298 ff. historical Christian 8 10 12 Evliya, I, ii, 9 78. Etho, op. i, 89 Tr. Armain, p. 678. rit. ff. Evliya, I, ii, 78. n Hamilton, Asia Minor, ii, 275. Husain Ghazi 711 ainabad, which remains the official name of the Alaja x Husain Ghazi, brother of the serasker of nahiyeh Malatia, says the local legend, had his head cut off in an attack on Angora and carried it to a mountain an hour and a half east of the town where he died. The spot was commemorated by a tekke which was a much. 2 frequented pilgrimage in the seventeenth century. Husain's death was avenged by his son Jafer, who took from the Christians a castle near Kirshehr and converted the governor Shamas after a single combat. 3 The name of the latter is commemorated in that of the Shamaspur tekke at Alaja, which contains another 4 Jafer is probably the hero reputed grave of Husain. buried at the tekke near Tulumbunar (on the Kasaba which bears his name. 5 Another Arab warrior certainly historical is Abd-el6 Wahab, whose tomb is venerated at Sivas. He is said by the Arab chroniclers to have been killed in the land line) ' ? of the Romans in A.D. 730-1. 7 Nearly all these persons are romance of Sidi Battal. Husain commemorated in the the father of Battal, 8 9 Jafer is Battal himself before he received his title, and 10 In the roAbd-el-Wahab is constantly mentioned. mance, however, the fighting centres round Amorium is Cuinet, i, 298. Murray's Asia Minor, p. 31 there is now a turbe only, administered by the Evliya, ii, 228 Bairami dervishes of Angora (Perrot and Guillaume, Explor. de la 1 ; 2 ; GalatiCy i, 283). Schumas i, 157 cf. Earth, Rcise, pp. 74, 78. romance (Ethe, loc. cit. i, 21) as a monk converted by Battal, Schamasp as the brother of the governor of Amorium killed by him (ibid, i, 27). Skawas is the Arabic for deacon. 3 Ainsworth, Travels, ; (sic) figures in the See above, p. 95. 6 F. W. H. (cf. above, p. 103). Cuinet, Turquie d'Asie, i, 666. 7 Kitab al in the death of J.H.S. xviii, 200 'Uyun, ap. Brooks, Al Tabari under next the Abd-el-Wahab is placed year by (d. 923, * 5 : ibid.\ 8 10 Ethe, Ethe, op. cit. i, i, 7. 37, &c. 9 Ibid, i, 57 ; cf. Evliya, I, i, 27. Graves of the Arabs in Asia Minor (Hergan Kale), which was historically a notable Byzantine fortress during the Arab wars, but, having been razed by the Arabs after the great siege of 838, disappeared at that date from history. Its site, like that of Akroenos, has only recently been identified, and by the reputed Arab tombs, as we have seen, westerns are nowhere near it. But the later Arab writers seem to have been misled by the similarity of the two names in Arabic into identifying Amorium with Angora, 1 which accounts for their placing the tomb of Husain Ghazi at the latter town, while the romance makes Amorium the scene of his death. 2 Other Arab memorials in Asia Minor, not apparently connected with the Battal cycle, are mentioned by Ibn Batuta at Daonas 3 (vilayet of Aidin) and at Sinope, 4 the former a memorial of the birth-place of Suhayb, a Companion of the Prophet, the latter a tomb of Bilal the Ethiopian. Another tomb of Bilal, presumably if not authentic at least earlier than that at Sinope, is shown 712 : Damascus. 5 at Arab memorials in Asia Minor and not connected with the Battal cycle, is the tomb of Amru'l Kais ', which is mentioned as shown at Angora by the early thirteenth-century geo6 He was an Arab chief, contemporary grapher, Yakut. with the Prophet, and author of some poems which are still highly esteemed. He is the hero of a romantic Earliest of all the also apparently ' points obviously fantastic. He is said to have gone to Constantinople to seek help from the the slayers of his father. According emperor against ' the king's daughter fell in love with him, to Yakut, story in many 1 Le 3 Tr. Sanguinetti, Sivas (Evliya, 4 5 * 2 Strange, E. Caliphate, p. 153. I, ii, ii, 277. Cf. Evliya, ii, Ethe, op. cit. i, II. His tomb was at 38. 113). Tr. Sanguinetti, ii, 349. Le Strange, Palestine, p. 272 Ap. Brooks, inJ.H.S. xxi, 76. ; Porter, Damascus, p. 17. Amru'l Kais 713 he that the this, promised armies should follow him when he reached Syria or he would order the armies in Syria to support him. And when he reached Ancyra he sent him some poisoned garments, and when he put them on, his flesh fell off, and he knew that he would die.' x The Life of Amru'l Kais gives some details concerning his death at Ancyra. While he was suffering from and when Caesar heard of the effects of the poisoned robe sent him by the emperor, he saw at the foot of a mountain named Assib or Gezib c the grave of a princess who had died in that ' and apostrophized it in verse ; city after he died and was buried beside this ' immediately woman and his tomb is still there. 2 One is inclined to suspect 9 that the journey of Amru'l Kais to the Byzantine court is a detail borrowed from or confused with the similar journey of his namesake (?) Amorkesos in 473, 3 in spite of the discrepancy in date. ' ' The details about Angora must come from some one who knew the place. The princess's tomb is evidently the column of Julian called to this day Kiz Minaret, parce qu'ils s'imaginent qu'elle soutenoit le Tombeau d'une fille'. 4 We shall probably not be far wrong if we * ', * assume that the supposed tomb of Amru'l Kais was the other remarkable ancient monument of Ancyra, i.e. the Augusteum. Later, this tradition seems to have been an undated inscription, found by Perrot and lost Guillaume over the arch of a small building inside the Augusteum and removed by their expedition, gives the name of Mohammed Ibn Bekr and a verse of the Yakut, i, 391 (kindly translated for me by Mr. Brooks). : 1 Vie d'AmrolkaiSj tr. Slane, p. 27 cf. Riickert, Amrilkais, p. 130. Malchus, frag, i, in F.H.G. iv, 121 Bury, Later Roman Empire, i, 231 f. * Tournefort, Voyage, letter xxi. The Turks have a similar idea about the column of Marcian at Constantinople (see above, p. 197, n. i). The princess at Angora seems now identified with Belkis, queen of Sheba (Earth, Reise, p. 79). See further, below, p. 749. - ; 3 ; * A a Graves of the Arabs in Asia Minor Mohammed Ibn Bekr was a partisan of Ali who revolted against the caliph Osman in Egypt ; * this connexion is perhaps due to the adjacent (Bairami) dervishes to whom the Augusteum belongs. It appears from the foregoing that the graves and memorials of the Arabs in Asia Minor, though they commemorate in many cases historical persons and the great historical fact of the Arab wars, and indicate also in a vague way the area over which these wars were fought, are almost certainly all fictitious. So far as we can see, the traditional sites have been discovered by ' and identified by an uncritical use of revelation written sources or merely by floating tradition. 3 They thus afford no independent topographical evidence for the Arab campaigns. It is further to be remarked that Ibn Batuta's notice of two Arab memorials already in the early fourteenth century shows that such memorials were sought for and identified in this way already in the Seljuk period. Earliest of all is the tomb of Amru'l Kais, and, if we may believe the traditional account, the tomb of Sidi Ghazi was discovered at the same period. The motive for the discovery of such tombs is consciously or subconsciously political. At the back of the mind of the conquering race lies the idea of substantiat4 The tomb of ing a prior claim to the conquered soil. Eyyub, the great Ghazi of the Arab siege of Constantinople, was said to have been revealed actually during the siege of 1453. 5 Mohammed II, having laid siege to 714 Koran. 1 ' ' ' 1 - 3 bee Perrot and Guillaumc, Explor. de la Galatie, i, 299. ; d. Chalifen, i, 173 ff. Gesch. Weil, The beginnings of a Battal myth were recognized in our own times xvii, 20 by Earth (Reise, pp. 52-3) between Yuzgat and Caesarea, where an historical person of the reign of Murad IV (1623-40), bearing the title of Battal, was already becoming confused with the legendary hero. 1 A real burial gives a similar claim. It was not without such an intention that the caliph Mamun was buried in the frontier town of see above, p. 703. Tarsus (Le Strange, E. Caliphate, pp. 132-3) : 5 Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. ii, 395 (who aptly compares the Eyyub 715 with his attendant saints, seventy Constantinople, was, seven whole days searching for the tomb. At last AkShems-ed-Din exclaimed, Good news, my Prince, of 9 Eyyub's tomb, and, thus saying, he began to pray and then fell asleep. Some interpreted this sleep as a veil cast by shame over his ignorance of the tomb but he his after some time raised head, his eyes became the sweat ran from his bloodshot, forehead, and he said to the Sultan, Eyyub's tomb is on the very spot where I spread the carpet for prayer'. Upon this, three of his attendants, together with the Sheikh and Sultan, began to dig up the ground, when at the depth of three yards they found a square stone of verd antique, on which was This is the tomb of Eba written in Cufic letters, Eyyub '. They lifted up the stone, and found below it the body of Eyyub wrapped up in a saffron-coloured shroud, with a brazen play-ball in his hand fresh and * ; ' ' They replaced the stone, formed a of the earth they had dug up, and laid the foundation of the mausoleum amidst the prayers of the whole army. A shepherd who fed his sheep near the site of the present mosque noticed that in the height of summer a round plot of grass there was always fresh and green. The sheep did not touch it and made obeisance to it. The shepherd reported this to the Ulema, who, after long prayers, decided that it was the grave of Eyyub and his companions. This was not generally accepted and the people asked as a sign that a foot should well preserved. little mound Lance by the Crusaders before Antioch) cf. is not mentioned, however, occurrence by any Evliya, contemporary authority for the siege (Mordtmann, Belagerung^ p. in) and probably took place shortly after. (So Cantimir, i, 106 d'Ohsson, Tableau ^ i, 305.) A modern version of the story is told by S. Adamson finding of the Sacred I, ii, 35. : The ; Magazine (June 1913, pp. 30 ff.), in which, as in the case of Haram and Sidi Battal, the first discovery of the the tombs of An illuminating sanctity of the site is attributed to shepherds. ' * example of such a discovery is given by Pouqueville, Hist. Regener. in Harper's C) ii, Umm 386. A a 2 Graves of the Arabs in Asia Minor show itself above the supposed grave. 1 Which, after prayer had been made, taking place, all were convinced that Eyyub was really buried there. 2 Similarly, at the siege of Bagdad under Suleiman (1534), where religious animosities might be used to spur on the soldiers, the tomb of the orthodox (Sunni) doctor Abu Hanifa was discovered under the walls of the heretic (Shia) town. 3 The discoverer in the case of the tomb of Eyyub (and probably in all such disif we bear in mind the coveries) was a pious sheikh extraordinary influence of dreams and their interpretation in the eastern world it is obvious that the good faith of a devout and pious mystic need not be called in question. But, as we have seen from the cases of Haram, Sidi Battal, and Eyyub, the fully-developed type of legend postulates two agents in such discoveries, the shepherd, 4 to whom the sanctity of the spot is revealed by an outward miracle, and the wise man, who Ji6 ' ' : Umm is guided by a dream to interpret The sequence learning. is it according to his psychologically true. To the simple and devout peasant any chance combination of circumstances may give a religious colour to a com- monplace discovery, and anything remotely resembling a tomb presupposes a buried saint. 5 learned to give the saint a 1 For 2 Precis PP3 * J 55 5 It remains for the a historical setting. barbarous miracle see above, pp. 252-5. of Carnoy and Nicolaides, Folklore de this Constantinople, f- Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. In the France, name and iii, West also the 122). Cf. above, p. 61, and Ott. v, 222. * discovers shepherd 4. ' (Sebillot, Folk-Lore de LVII THE MOSQUES OF THE ARABS CONSTANTINOPLE IN ' INTRODUCTORY mosques in Galata the Mosque of the Arabs (Arab Jami} and the Mosque of the Leaded Store (Kursbunlu Maghzenjamisi} lay claim to be the earliest buildings consecrated to Moslem worship in Constantinople. Both are supposed to date from the period of the Arab sieges, many centuries before the Ottoman conquest. Their traditional claim to this honourable pedigree is of some antiquity. Evliya Efendi, in the middle of the seventeenth century, already attributes an Arab origin to four buildings in Galata, of which two are the mosques in question and the others a lead-roofed TWO granary (Kurshunlu Magbzeri), still used as such in his 2 time, and the famous Galata Tower. 3 All these, and in addition the Rose Mosque (Guljami) in Stambul, 4 are supposed to have been built during the famous siege of Constantinople by the Arabs under Maslama. The Tower of Galata and the Rose Mosque being undoubtedly Christian buildings, the historical accuracy of Evliya's information may reasonably be called in question as to the other reputed Arab buildings of In the case of Arab Jami, the better Constantinople. known of the two Galata mosques, its Arab origin is, if 1 Reprinted from B.S.A. xxii, 157 ff. 2 3 Ibid. I, ii, 49. Travels, I, ii, 167. 4 Ibid. I, i, 24. Evliya states that the Rose Mosque, having become a church, was turned over to the Moslems as the price of Bayezid Ps retirement from Constantinople. Bayezid made a demand of this For the sort in 1391, but it was not complied with (Ducas, p. 498). real history of the mosque (S. Theodosia) see van Millingen's Churches in Constantinople, pp. 162 ff. See also above, p. 40. The Mosques 71 8 not asserted, at of the Arabs in Constantinople considered as a possibility by several serious writers, but sufficient information has come down to us to allow the elements of history and least tradition to be disentangled. I. The c ARAB JAMI AND Mosque of the Arabs ITS ? TRADITIONS stands on low ground not far from the shore of the Golden Horn between the inner and outer bridges. Its remarkable minaret, in church tower with a short wooden spire, was, was recently obscured by buildings, a familiar object to everyone crossing the outer bridge from Stambul to Galata. The history of the building can be 1 traced into the Genoese period, when, as Evliya admits, it was a Christian church. Under the Genoese it belonged to the Dominican Order and was dedicated to reality a till it S. Paul. 2 In plan it is a simple rectangle divided by three rows of columns into a wide nave and three aisles, of which two are on the north side. These are covered with a wooden roof. The line of the nave is continued by a short vaulted chancel flanked by lower compartments carrying on the line of the aisles. At the southeastern corner the plain, square tower alluded to a few lines above still serves as the minaret of the mosque. Beneath it, opening by runs a vaulted passage. a typically Gothic archway, 3 In the west wall of this doorway more Byzantine than Gothic a is built in general character, decorated in the spandrels with scutcheons bearing rampant lions. This doorway originally communicated with the eastern continuation of the south Further traces of the use of the building as a Latin church are afforded in the interior by remains of aisle. 1 3 Travels, I, ii, 51. Belin, Histoire de la Latinite de Constantinople, pp. 215 church of S. ecln/, p. 49). Paul is ff. The mentioned about 1400 by Clavijo (Hakluyt Soc. 3 See B. S. A. xxii, pi. v. Arab Jami 719 frescoed saints on the west wall, portions of a marble tessellated pavement in the nave, and a large number of flooring slabs with Latin inscriptions and Genoese coats1 of-arms, discovered in the course of recent repairs.* The structure as a whole is of brick and rubble, but has been much repaired the south-west corner is finished ; column as a clustered in brick. The orthodox Moslem version of the mosque's his- given by the eighteenth-century author of the 3 Jardin des Mosquees as follows Arab Jami was built by Maslama, an emir of the Ommeyad tory is : * House. hangs The rhymed history of the foundation of the mosque is said to have been founded in the in the interior. ... It sixty-sixth year of the Hejira (A. D. 685-6) under the caliph Abd- el-Malik by his captain Maslama at the siege (the poem says Maslama was recalled by the conquest) of Constantinople. is the II this Omar ; why mosque fell into ruins and was caliph only rebuilt by Sultan Mohammed III (1595-1603).' In confirmation of the legendary foundation of Arab Jami an ebony cup, supposed to be that of Maslama the water himself, was till recently kept in the mosque of the mosque well was drunk from this cup with beneficial results by expectant and nursing mothers. 4 : When we come first, to examine this tradition, we find, that the date given (A. D. 685-6) is not that of the siege of Constantinople by the Arabs under (which took place in A.D. 717-18), though Maslama comes it reasonably near the date of the first Arab siege (A.D. 672-7). There is no record of a mosque having been 1 Two, bearing dates 1323 (Belgrano, in Atti Soc. Lig. xiii, p. 322 (3)) and 1433 (Hasluck, in U.S.A. xi, 54), had been recorded earlier. 3 These had been hidden under the wooden floor, but were known to (De Launay, cited in Atti Soc. Lig. xiii, 273). In Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. xviii, 71. Evliya (Travels, I, i, 25 ; I, ii, 49, 51) says it was built by the caliph Omar Abdul- Aziz during the fifth siege, which he dates A. H. 92. exist in the sixties 3 4 D'Ohsson, Tableau, TroAis, ii, 46-7 : cf. i, 285 ; Scarlatos Byzantios, above, p. 266. Kojvaravnvov- Mosques of the Arabs in Constantinople 1 built by the invading Arabs during either siege. During that of Maslama the Arabs never entered the Golden Horn, so that it is impossible that a mosque should have been built in Galata, which was in all probability already a fortified suburb if a mosque had been built at all it would have been either outside the land walls or on the Asiatic side of the Bosporus, where the besieging 2 troops had their head-quarters. "The J2O ; It is true that a small mosque (mesjicT) existed at the tenth century, but this Constantinople was in the Praetorium, which was near the Forum of Constantine in the city proper. The building of this mosque is attributed by Constantine Porphyrogenitus to the reign of Michael III Balbus, who, he says, erected it as a favour to Maslama. 3 This is, of course, a conthe siege of Maslama (in the reign of Leo the fusion Isaurian) resulted in the complete discomfiture of the Arabs, and their leader was in no position to ask favours from the Emperor. The mosque in the Praetorium probably dated from the Saracen embassy of A. D. 860, which, owing to political circumstances, obtained favourable terms. 4 This mosque seems to have lasted down to the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204.5 ^ n the succeeding centuries there is no trace of its existence. It is particularly significant that the Mohammedan travellers El Harawi and Ibn Batuta, who visited Constantinople in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries respectively, mention no Mussulman house of prayer in the city. 6 as early as ; 1 2 For the Arab accounts see Brooks, inJ.H.S. xviii, xix. See the account of the siege and the disposition of the Arab forces in Bury's Later 3 4 5 Roman Empire, De Adm. Imp. xxi (p. Bury, Roman Empire, 101 ii, B). See the passages cited by Ibn Batuta, tr. ff. p. 279. 164?), cap. xv. 6 402 Lee, p. 83, n. Du Cange, Constant. Christ, ii (p. Anti-Christian Fanaticism of the "Turks 2. 721 SUPERSTITION AND POLITICS AT CONSTANTINOPLE, 1570-1610 The date of the discovery of Arab Jami, i. e. its transformation from a church, is probably little earlier than the end of the sixteenth century. This period was ' ' characterized by considerable anti-Christian feeling among the Turks, the origins of which must be sought partly in internal, partly in external conditions. All latent tendencies to superstition were stirred by the approaching millennium of the Hejira (1592-3) ; this afforded an easy text to the dervish prophets and saints, who have at all times exerted a considerable influence on the masses. Rauwolff, speaking of this period ( 1575), says 6 : some of them have told me) a peculiar Book, wherein is briefly Written, what shall happen to them every This beginneth in the same year, whether it be good or bad. with their Year, Prophet Mahomet, and continueth for 1000 Year, when this is at an End, they have nothing more of that Nature worth any thing. And being they go no further, some will deduce or conclude from thence, that their Reign will soon have an end, when those years are passed. 1 Wherefore they fear the Christians very much, and confess themselves, that they expect to suffer a great blow from the Christians. And this one may see or conclude from hence, for on their . . They have (as . Holidays in the Morning about 9 of the Clock they shut up the Gates of their Towns, great Champs, 2 and other Publick Habitations, as I found at Aleppo, so that many times I could not get either out or in until they opened them again, for they fear at that time to be Assassinated by the Christians? 3 1 p. The 66 2 (c. The idea is much older ; cf. Schiltberger's Travels, ed. Telfer, 1400). author probably wrote Chans, the ordinary Turkish for caravanserai. Shaw's Travels to Barbary, p. 246. In Ray's Voyages, \, 311 cf. fear of Christian attack during Friday prayers was not without reason there was an unsuccessful plot for the surprise and recapture 3 : The ; 722 The Mosques of the Arabs in Constantinople Prophecies of this sort had begun to circulate already That of the c Red first half of the century. 9 Apple is at least as early as 1545, probably a good deal 1 The well-known prophecy foretelling the earlier. downfall of the Turks, which was supposed to have been inscribed on the tomb of Constantine and to have been interpreted by the patriarch Gennadius, was current at 2 Constantinople in the seventies of the same century. In such circumstances omens are never wanting. Miraculous appearances of fiery crosses are reported in Con3 stantinople about the time of Lepanto, and in 1591 an outbreak of plague gave further confirmation to popular fears. 4 All these indications of nervousness among the Turks go far to explain the ascendancy of the dervishes and of superstition at the period in question. To necromancers, soothsayers, and astrologers the common people looked for counter-charms against the vaguely impending disaster, and the ruling classes, if they did not believe, found it politic to be conciliatory. The sultan himself (Murad III, 1574-95) was notoriously 5 It is not without significance that the superstitious. venerated mosque of Eyyub was rebuilt in the year 1000 in the of Rhodes at this hour in 1525 (Torr, Rhodes, p. 33 further below, cf. in the the tradition and same found thirties, George Borrow, p. 752). The same idea current at in Tangier (Bible practice Spain, p. 332). occurs also in a Greek folk-story from Trebizond (Polites, Uapa: Sdcrt9, no. 22). See below, p. 736. Gerlach, T age-Buck, p. 102. This is the prophecy of the Yellow Race ' for which see above, p. 471, n. 4. 3 These appearances are pictured and described by the Venetian cartographer Camotti. 1 c 1 Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. vii, 244. The extreme susceptibility of the Turks to interpret extraordinary events in the most 4 by their apprehensions when the Bosporus were so frightned that they look'd upon it as a they ' dismal Prodigy, and concluded that the ivorld would be at an end thatyenr gloomy sense froze in 1669 is illustrated ' : (T. Smith, in Ray's Voyages, ii, 46). 5 Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. vii, 282. Spanish Moors in Constantinople 723 of the Hejira, 1 or that the Bektashi dervishes owed their official connexion with the Janissaries to the same 2 period. External events also boded ill for the success of Mos- lem arms, and public feeling tended in an anti-ChrisThe tian, and particularly anti-Catholic, direction. of the combined fleet of Catholic the signal victory powers at Lepanto in 1571, following the repulse before Malta in 1566, raised the apprehensions of the Turks as much as the hopes of Christian Europe. For many years after these events the diplomacy of the Catholic powers was severely handicapped at the Porte. 3 Of all the Catholic powers Spain was the most detested, not only for the prominent part she had played at Lepanto, but also for her treatment of the Moors. treaty was A denied her in I578, 4 and a full century later Sir Dudley North writes The Spaniards neither have nor ever had an ambassador at the Porte which perhaps may be derived from their hatred to all Mahometans for the sake of the Moors.' 5 The hatred was certainly reciprocated and, at Constantinople especially, kept alive by ' : ; fugitive Spanish The 1 final Moors settled there. expulsion of the Jardin des Mosquees, in Moors from Spain did not Harnmer-Hcllert, Hist. Emp. Ott. xviii, P. 573 D'Ohsson, Tableau, iii, 325. This phase of affairs was made good use of by the rising Protestant powers, England and Holland. The first English treaty with the Porte was made in 1581, an embassy being established next year. The 3 Elizabeth certainly made Capitulations date from 1610. between Protestant of distinction out the England and capital 'idolatrous' Spain (see Pears, in Eng. Hist. Rev. 1893, pp. 439 ff.), and James followed her precedent. He is said to have styled himself * Verus fidei contra omnes idolatras falso Christi nomen to the Porte Dutch ' ' ' (Ambassade de J. de Gontaut-Biron, Hammer-Hellert, op. cit. vii, 51. p. 36). C. 5 Lives the Norths, ii, 134. 1617 della Valle records a persecuof tion of Jesuits at Constantinople on account of their alleged treasonable correspondence with Spain and the Pope (Voyages, ii, 252 ff). profitentes [!]... propugnator 4 724 The Mosques of the Arabs in Constantinople z take place till i6io, but there was a serious rebellion in 1570,* and shortly after this date we find Spanish Moors flocking to Constantinople. 3 In the middle of ' the next century Evliya says that the Inhabitants of the interior castle [of Galata, i. e. the central compart- ment of the Genoese walled town] have Mohammed in their hands by which they These are allowed to suffer no Infidel among them. inhabitants are for the greatest part Moors, who were driven out of Spain and settled at Galata,' 4 We may a khatti-sherif of Sultan II, . . . probably assume that the name of Mohammed II is a slip or perversion for that of Mohammed III (1595-1603), the rebuilder of the church-mosque of the Arabs. The ' exclusion of infidels from the central part of Galata may have been made to appear a political necessity at a time when the Turks were nervous of Christian plots. The Moorish refugees of Galata were, naturally ' enough, fanatical against the Christians, hardly less so against the Jews. It is precisely in the years between 1570 and 1610 that we hear of a series of aggressions 5 against Catholic churches, causing in 1 some cases their Knolles, Turkish History , p. 899, where the decree of expulsion 2 Hammer- Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. vii, 51. is given. In 1578 a Constantinople letter (Charriere, Negotiations dans le * dix ou douze iii, 787) mentions a complaint preferred by Mores de Granate, habitans icy The rush began later cf. ' Relax, di M. Zane in Alberi, III, iii, 390 (1594) di Spagna concorrono in mori che si nominano mondesari, come ogni giorno Constantinopoli, se uscissero solamente di Granata, ma in effetto tutta la Spagna n'e ' contaminata, e subito giunti levano il tolpante (i. e. avow themselves Moslems) ; cf. also the same Relazione, p. 440. Later still (1608-10) the French embassy espoused the cause of the Moors fleeing from Spain through Marseilles, though official efforts on their behalf were not always successful ; cf. Ambassade de J. de Gontaut-Biron, Table Analytique, p. 443, and Index, s. v. Grenadins '. 4 Travels, I, ii, 51 ; cf. ibid., p. 53, 'a great number of them are Arabs and Mogrebins '. 3 Levant, ' . . . : : ' s Especially against those of the in Notre J. Seville, Dame, 1914, p. 120. Dominican order according to Spanish Jews in Constantinople 725 transformation into mosques. In 1591 it was proposed to treat the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem in this way. 1 In the following year S. Anna at Galata was threatened, and probably about the same period 3 S. Anthony and S. Paul were Tourneactually taken. fort distinctly states that the latter was confiscated to serve as a mosque for Grenadine Moors. 4 This is the obvious interpretation of its present name. The Orthodox, perhaps suspected of a rapprochement with the Catholics, owing to the intrigues of the Jesuits, suffered hardly less. To Murad IIPs reign (1574-95) is dated the seizure of the church of Pammakaristos (Fethiyeh Jamisi)^ till then the Patriarch's cathedral, and of a church of S. John the Baptist. 6 The hostility shown by the Moors to the Constantinople Jews is less easy to account for. It probably dated from the days when both races were subject to 15 Spain. The Jews, expelled in 1492, had flocked, like the Moors a hundred years later, to Constantinople, and throughout the following century were influential in Turkey as physicians, diplomatists, and tax-farmers. Their importance ends suddenly with the close of the 2 1 Ibid. Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. vii, 287. 3 T. Smith in St. Paul and St. Anthony ii, Ray's Voyages, p. 40 were both taken away some years since from the Christians, and turned The former of which is now known by the name of into Moschs. Arab Giamesi, or the Mosch of the Arabians.' An earlier notice of ' : Du Loir (Voyages (1654), P- 66) ; is given by di Costant. (Descr. 1794, p. 59) seems certainly wrong in the seizure to the reign of Suleiman (1520-66), when the assigning But he attributes to whom it, were not yet fled out of Spain. Moors, the seizure of S. Paul Comidas may have been dispossessed earlier. S. Paul's is not mentioned among the Latin churches of Galata by Breuning, (1579, See Seville, in Notre Dame, 1914, p. 119. Orient. Reyss, p. 89). * La Mosquee des Arabes fut confisquee sur XII. Letter Voyage, les Dominicains, il y a environ 100 ans, pour servir aux Mohametans the Christians c Granadins.' 5 Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Mosqnces gives the date 1591. Ott. the Jardin des Constantiniade, p. 108. 232 vii, 6 : Arabs in Constantinople sixteenth century. One cause seems certainly the influx of the Moors, who despise and hate the Jews far more than do the Turks. The refugees at Constantinople, finding the Jews no longer their equals in servitude, but their The Mosques 726 of the 1 inferiors as non-Mussulmans in a Mussulman country, and their superiors in wealth and standing, satisfied their prejudices and avenged their Spanish wrongs on the hated race. This feeling seems to have risen to its height in 1612, when the Moors resident in Galata, supported by the Kadi, who was one of them, drove out the Jews and destroyed their synagogues. 2 But for French diplomatic action, the Catholic Church of S. Francis would have shared the fate of the synagogues. 3 The usurpation of the church now called the Mosque of the Arabs thus falls chronologically in the middle of a long period of anti-Catholic feeling, instigated by superstitious fears at home and Catholic successes abroad, and fomented by the Moorish refugees from Spain. The supposed pre-Turkish traditions of the mosque rest on no more than a fanciful interpretation of its name, which originally denoted the population for whose use was appropriated. it 3. Like the KURSHUNLU MAGHZEN Mosque of the Arabs, the JAMISI Mosque of the Leaded Store or Underground Mosque (Yer Altijami} claims to date from the Arab siege of Constantinople under Maslama, when it served as a mosque for the Faithful. According to popular legend the Arab leader at his departure, knowing that some Moslems had been buried in it, obtained leave from the Greeks to seal up But 1 their Salamanca lasted connexion far into the medicine and the University of next century (T. Smith, in Ray's Voyage^ with 59)* 3 Knolles, Turk. Hist., p. 917. and des Hayes, Voiage, p. 125. Ibid, Kurshunlu Magbzen Jamisi 727 the key-hole with lead (kursburi) to prevent the desecration of their graves. 1 This elaborate story is devised to explain the name of the mosque, really derived from its proximity to the lead-roofed granary mentioned above. The Underground Mosque is situated near the quays just outside the new bridge and immediately behind the Port Office. As its name implies, its floor-level lies somewhat lower than the level of the street, and the building, being low and badly lighted, has the appearance of a large cellar. The plan is a simple rectangle divided into a series of square compartments by quad2 rangular piers of masonry supporting a series of vaults. The building is, to judge by the position of the mibrab, fairly correctly orientated. The building seems to have been identified by the discovery in it of alleged Arab tombs, now attributed to saints named Amiri, Wahabi (left of entrance), and Sufian or Abu Sufian (right of entrance). The latter tomb is the most important of the group and occupies a separate compartment within a grille it is evidently associated with Sufian, one of the Arab warriors who took part in the first Arab siege (672-7) by Moawiya. 3 ; pilgrimage by Turkish and Armenian, occasionally by Greek, women. For a small fee the guardian lays on the tomb a new garment or handkerchief, which, having remained there forty days, is an infallible love-charm, if worn by the man it is desired Women desirous of children wear round to attract. their waists a handkerchief which has been consecrated It is frequented as a in a similar way. 4 1 ii, Meyer's Konstantinopel, p. 253 : cf. Grosvcnor, Constantinople, 698. 3 62 x According to thcjardtn des Mosquees i paces and has forty-two vaults. (p. 73) the mosque measures Brooks, mJ.H.S. xviii, 186; Bury, Later Roman Empire, Abu Sufian was the title of the caliph Moawiya. 3 4 For this procedure see above, p. 266. ii, 311. The Mosques Arabs in Constantinople The discovery of the tombs and mosque is attributed by von Hammer, on the authority of the Jardin des Mosquees^ to a pious Nakshbandi sheikh, who had had revealed to him the site of the Prophet's father's tomb at Medina in the middle of the eighteenth centhe funds for the building were contributed by tury the vizir, Mustafa Pasha, who was himself a member of the Nakshbandi Order. 1 But the mosque and its tombs are mentioned at least a century earlier by Evliya, 2 so that the eighteenth century could have been responsible only for a reconstruction, as indeed the Jardin des The original discovery cannot be Mosquees states. placed later than the death of Murad IV (1640), since Evliya tells us that the emperor intended finishing the 3 mosque, but could not accomplish it ', We may per728 ' of the ' ; ' ' ' haps attribute the first discovery of this so-called Arab mosque to the same period and combination of circumstances as were responsible for that of Arab J'ami. In this case there is nothing to indicate that the buildits numerous vaulted ing ever served as a church aisles may have suggested a mosque to Moors familiar with the early many-columned Arab type of mosque found at Cordova and elsewhere, or the whole may have been built in recent times after the discovery of the Arab tombs '. The tradition of the pre-Turkish mosque is, in any case, to be regarded as no more than a patriotic fable resting solely on the religious credulity of the masses, stimulated by the dreams and revelations of holy men. By similar methods numerous churches in the capital which were transformed into mosques by the Turks have acquired a spurious sanctity by the discovery in them of Arab saints' graves in some cases, like that of Sufian in Galata, these have been associated with ; ' * ' ; 1 Hammer-Hellert, Hist. Emp. Ott. xv, 261 : cf. Jardin des Mosquees (ibid, xviii, 73). 2 Travels, I, i, 24. 3 Hid. I, ii, 167. Tombs Discoveries of Saints' more or 729 Andrew of 1 In S. personages. Crete (Khoja Mustafa Pasha Jamisi), for example, are shown the graves of the daughters of Husain, who, says tradition, having been captured by the Greeks, killed themselves rather than marry unbelievers * many dedes or saints' graves independent of mosques have similar traditions. 3 A curious example is Baba Jafer, the saint of the galley-slaves' prison, who was identified with an ambassador of Harun-al-Rashid. 4 In a previous chapter 5 I have attempted to indicate the process by which such identifications are arrived at. The existence of a holy-place or the grave of a saint is inferred from accidental circumstances, such as the discovery of a sarcophagus or of human remains, especially an undecayed corpse, 6 the appearance of a miraculous 7 light, or the fall of a wall, with or without coincidences connecting these accidental circumstances with dreams or with the luck of individuals or communities. The name and history of the saint discovered depend on the lucubrations of learned mystics. The cult is perpetuated by the faith or credulity of the superstitious, often less historical ; ' assisted ' by interested persons. c 5 In the case of the Mosque of the Arabs the rational explanation of the name was easily forgotten, and the romantic substituted under these influences. The 'type and tradition of Arab saint once evolved and this early both in Asia Minor and at Constantihappened 8 the name Arab is sufficient to determine nople ' ' ' See the "Jar din des Mosquees (iSthc.) in Hammer-Hellert, op. cit. pp, 18 (185, Hasan Husain Mesjidi)^ 33 (333, Kabriyeb Jnmi)^ (349, Khoja Mustafa Jamisi). 2 See above, p. 17. 3 See especially Evliya, Travels, I, ii, 15. 1 xviii, 4 6 5 Ibid. I, i, 26. Pp. 250 ff. For a Moslem saint of this sort discovered in 1845 near Larnaka, see Ross, Reisen nacb Kos, &c., p. 198. 7 Prof. White, in Trans. Viet. Inst. xxxix, 155. 8 Cf. above, p. 714. 3*95-* B b The Mosques of the Arabs in Constantinople the period and setting of the saint or building involved. At Rhodes, for instance, the tower actually built by the Grand Master de Naillac about 1400, being called Arab's Tower (Arab Kulesi), is referred to the conquest of Rhodes by the Saracens under Moawiya. 730 1 THE 4. * ARAB ' IN FOLK-LORE AND HAGIOLOGY ' The ' current conception of an Arab saint includes two ideas, that of the Arab proper, a compatriot of the Prophet and champion of the Faith, and that of the 2 negro, which is implied by the popular connotation of ' ' the word Arab in Turkish. Fusion is rendered easy by the facts (i) that the negroes with whom the Turks are in habitual contact, coming from or through North Africa, are Arabic speakers, and (2) that certain races, notably the Sudanese, are characterized by magnificent there is no physique and reckless courage in war reason to doubt that the gigantic negro Hasan who distinguished himself at the siege of Constantinople was a historical and characteristic figure. 3 In historical it is not folk-lore, consequently, surprising to find the heroes of traditional Moslem exploits frequently repre* sented as Arabs '. ; and Cottret, Rhodes, p. 501. The name Arab Kulesi is at old as Beaufort (Piloting Directions for Mediterranean, 1831, The Moawiya tradition I p. 300), whose survey took place in i8ir. cannot find before Biliotti. 1 Biliotti least as 2 connexion to read Fabri, Evagat. ii, says reperimus idolum in forma pueri Aethiopis in caverna petrae stantem, cui Arabes interdum pro tempore oblationes It is interesting in 512, where he afferunt this c '. In the reputable field of brigandage the recent exploits of * Arabs ' are still locally remembered (cf. Georgeakis and Pineau, Folk-Lore de Lesbos, p. 323 E. Deschamps in Tour du * an historical negro brigand Monde, 1897, p. 185 (Cyprus, thirty or 3 less certain redoubtable ; forty years ago': cf. his Au Pays d* Aphrodite, p. 95)). Dutemple, En Turquie d'Asie, p. 51, says the Kara Mustafa at Brusa was so named from a real negro. Hammam 'Arabs' in Folk-Lore 731 said to have been taken Philippopolis, for example, is by the besieging Turks owing to the discovery and destruction of the subterranean aqueducts which sup* Arab plied it with water ; the discoverer was an Beside the apocryphal grave of Constantine Palaiologos at Vefa Meidan (Constantinople) is shown the equally ' 2 apocryphal tomb of his slayer; the slayer was an Arab'. Similarly, the Moslem champion slain by the Bulgarian hero, Bolen Doitsi, at Salonica was an Arab '.3 But ' by far the commonest role of the Arab ', not only in the folk-lore of Turkey, but in that of the Balkans, 4 is that ' of the terrifying spectre or jinn. The Arab 'jinn, reflecting the fidelity of his earthly counterpart, the negro slave, 5 generally figures as a guardian, especially of treasure, V ' 1 2 > Tsoukalas, //e/nypa^?) 0iAi7r770U7roAea>s > p. 27. Polites, IlapaSoaeis, ii, 677. Gougou/es in Aaoypa<f>ia, i, 690. The tomb of Kmir in the cemetery Turbet Birkct Mamilla is supposed to be that of a gigantic 3 negro who fought against the Christians (Manaucr, Folk- Lore of the Holy L<ind, p. 83). in Turkish For the Arab yolksmdrchen aits Stambul, preface, c ' * folk-stories, see p. xviii ; for the Kunos, Tilrkische Greek area, where he is generally called 'Apd-nys (Majpos in the Ionian Islands, Za/oa/oyvo9 in Crete), see Polites, ^Veo-eAA. MvBoXoyia, pp. 133, 145 ft., and also Carnoy FlapaSdoreis, nos. 419 ff., with the learned note on 419 The ' Arab * and Nicolaides, Folklore dc Constantinople, p. 149. appears early in Greek folk-lore as the famulus of a sorcerer ; see anec; dote of Photius in Bury's Later Roman Empire, p. 445. A man, wishful to terrify his neighbours, blacked his face so as to look like a negro they took him for a wcre-wolf (Do/.on, Contes Alban.^ p. 166 cf. the fear In of a negro ghost in van Lennep, Travels in Asia Minor, i, 191). the voyage of Sindbad an immense and terrifying negro is encountered (Lane, Thousand and One Nights, p. 277). In the West evil spirits and devils are commonly conceived of as negroes cf. Migne, Diet, des Apocryphes, ii, 78, 862, and de Voragine, Legende Doree, pp. 107, ; : : 601. Polites, flapaSoaeis, nos. 419-45 inclusive Pashley, Crete ii, St. Clair and Brophy, Residence in 39; Cockerell, Travels, p. 151 W. Turner, Tour in the Levant, iii, 512 Perrot, Bulgaria^ p. 55 Uile de Crete, pp. 103 ff. Cf. Lane, Thousand and One Nights, p. 339. 5 ; ', ; ; ; B b 2 The Mosques of the Arabs in Constantinople 732 but also of buildings * and wells. 2 In connexion with haunted buildings and treasure (which are very often combined, a haunted building being assumed to be haunted by the guardian of treasure concealed in of an Arab guardian is based on it) the conception ' ' (i) the regular use in the East fidential servants, 3 and (2) the of black slaves common as con- folk-lore prac- of immolating a victim at the commencement of a building in order that his spirit may establish the structure. 4 In the case of treasure the victim may be his immolation then secures the confidential servant both secrecy as to the whereabouts of the treasure and a ghostly guardian for its future protection. 5 In Greek tice : 1 Polites, op. ' a talisman ' cit., nos. 455-62 ; cf. Hobhouse, Albania, i, 529 In Egypt Palgrave, Ulysses, p. 59 (haunted bath). which prevented the silting up of a branch of the Nile (haunted houses) ; in the eighteenth century took the form of a negro with a broom (Lucas, Voyage fait en 1714, i, 339). The English are said to have stolen this broom (Niya Salima, Harems d'Egypte, p. 330). 3 Polites, op. cit., no. 433 (=Leo Allatius, De Graec. opin., p. 166), and references given in the note (p. 1 108) ; Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore, p. 276 ; (magrebins are Niebuhr, Voyage en Arabie (en Suisse, 1780), ii, 301 good at finding treasure) Palmer, Desert of the Exodus, ; pp. 142, 172; Thomson, Land and the Book, p. 135. 3 This is strongly brought out by the Turkish folk-stories (Kunos, loc. cit.}. The well-known Bridge of Arta story affords a good illustration no. 169, note, and nos. 48 1-3 incl.; also in JVeo-eAA (Polites, /TapaSocrets', MvQ. p. 139 ; Sainean, in Rev. Hist. Rel. xlv, 359 ff.). The story occurs * over the Balkan area and as far east as Kurdistan (M. Sykes, Dar-ulIn the version given by Dozon, Conies Alban., p. 256, Islam, p. 160). and localized at Dibra, the immured mother suckled her child, but as soon as the child grew up, water flowed instead of milk from her breast. This suggests that the suckling motif was originated by the sweating of lime from the mortar of new buildings. See further Hasluck, all Letters, pp. 124, 195. For the immolation of a human victim with this object (arot^taiva>) 424 with the note, and no. 483. The ghost be must guardian appeased with blood by the finders of the treasure no (ibid., 404). 5 see Polites, IJapaSoatis, no. * ' in Folk-Lore 733 ' Arab is occasionally a female apparition can as yet find no instance of this on the Turkish side. 2 The conception of Arab jinns who guard mysterious folk-lore the I ' Arabs z ; buildings, especially castles, or treasures, or both, is partly answerable for the recurring use of Arab in Tur- Arab Hisar (* Castle of the Arab '), the ancient Alabanda, Arab Kulesi (' Arab's Tower ) at Rhodes,^ Arab Euren (' Ruins of the Arab ), 4 and possibly Arabkir are examples. Above the last-named town is a mountain called indifferently Arab kish geographical nomenclature. 5 ? Baba and Kara Baba^ presumably after dede worshipped on its summit. a saint (baba) or In this case certainly are identified, so that Kara for Arab. It therefore follows Arab Baba and Kara Baba (black) is here a synonym that the numerous Turkish cults directed to Kara Baba 6 ' ? may be associated with Arab saints and place-names like Kara Euren (' Black Ruin ') and even Kara Hisar c 7 with ( Black Castle ') may be similarly associated 4 ' jinns. guardian-Arab c If these Arab 'jinns prove by experience to be placable they may easily attain to a cult. This is probably e. g. the guardian of the treasure at the Roman baths called after her ^Apdmcraa at Sparta (Wace, in B.S.A. xii, 407) and the ghost *ApaTrar^eAAa of the Kamares cave in Crete (Halliday, in Folk-Lore, xxiv, 1 359)- The porphyry head built into the castle of Rumeli Hisar is said to be that of an Arab woman petrified for mocking the workmen (Grosvenor, Constantinople, i, 168), but this is hardly a parallel. 3 3 Above, 4 With p. 730. this compare Dev Euren, familiar to folk- tale (not * * Ruin of the Ogre ', another figure Ruin of the Camel ', as Von Diest, Tilsit nacb 5 Ainsworth, Travels, \\, 5, 6. Angora, p. 52, n. 4). 6 the in the fortress commanding bridge at Chalkis, and at e.g. Athens (Dodwell, Tour, i, 305 cf. Kambouroglous, 'laropia, iii, 125). 7 Ramsay (Pauline Studies, p. 182) comments on the fact that ancient sites frequently bear names compounded with kara, none with siah, * though both words mean black ', from which he infers that the word : The difference between kara and siab is one of kara being vernacular Turkish, siah Persian. language, primarily implies awe or mystery. Arabs in Constantinople the history of the 5. Arab of Larnaka, 1 the Arab zade of the Seven Towers at Constantinople, 2 of Arab Oglu, a saint in Pontus,3 and the Sheikh Arab Sultan of Dineir 4 who, if our theory be correct, are in effect promoted from jinns or demons to dedes or saints. Similarly, a white marble statue at a fountain in Candia, which has acquired not only a Moslem cult but a cycle of legend, is, in spite of its material, conceived of as a petrified In the case of Artib Oglu, who is worshipped Arab on an ancient site near Kavak, we may surmise that the cult arose from the apprehensions of some superstitious treasure-seeker, the Arab saint being no more than 734 *fh e Mosques of the V c ' * the guardian of the treasure always supposed to exist on ancient sites. This affords a more easy explanation ' than the survival theory of the tendency remarked by 6 Ramsay of Moslem cults to exist in such places. Such figures as Arab Oglu might in favourable circumstances develop still further into saints boasting a name and ' even a place in history. ' ' For the Christians the development of the Arab figure from jinn to saint is less easy, since his very name brands him as a Moslem, ecclesiastical and artistic traditions connect him with the Devil, 7 and he is probably inextricably mixed with the bogey of childhood. ' ' In spite of these disabilities the development may take place. We have the precedent of the S. Barbaros of the monastery of Iveron on Athos, an Arab raider who struck the image of the Virgin of the Gate (Tlopramcraa), was converted by a miracle, and became a monk and 8 In some such way, probably, was eventually a saint. 9 converted the S. Arab of Larnaka, 9 who is now wor4 ' * 1 3 2 F. W. H. Mariti, Travels in Cyprus, tr. Cobham, p. 41. 4 in Records the 101. G. White, Past, vi, Weber, Dinair, passim. of p. 1 88, n. I. S Above, 7 On this point see Polites, * Pauline Studies, p. 182. /7a/>aSoori?, no. 419, note. 8 Above, p. 88, 9 Mariti, Travels in Cyprus, n. I. tr. Cobham, p. 41. c Arabs ' develop into Saints 735 name of S. shipped by 1 Of this Mariti writes in the Therapon. sanctuary ' To the north-west eighteenth century as follows of Larnaca, a few paces outside the town, there is a small mosque called by the Moslem " Arab " and by the " Greeks S. Arab " both sects hold it in great veneration, the one deeming it dedicated to one of their Dervishes, the other to some Saint. The Turks respect the mosque, or rather little chapel, which they say was built by the said Arab, and the Greeks devoutly visit the sepulcre, a subterranean grotto in which they hold that for many years lay the body of their supposed holy Christians under the decorous : ; 2 hermit.' ' ' This Turabi ' Arab is now worshipped by Moslems as and by Christians as S. Therapon '.3 Turabi S. ' ' fifteenth-century dervish who was noted for his liberal views as to religions outside Islam. 4 is the name of a and healer well known in Cyprus, but not specially connected with Larnaka. 5 The ambiguous saint possibly developed first from the nameless Arab ('Apdmjs) to Turabi, the genitive rov *Apdm) (sc. 6 TKK$, 77 o-TTTjAux) possibly aiding the transition. From Turabi, by way of the form Tharape, 6 to Therapon is easy. It seems at least fairly clear that we have * nere a case of an Arab cave-jinn who has managed to secure a footing in both religions. 7 Therapon c is a saint ' ? For a similar alleged conHackett, Church of Cyprus, p. 421. version of a Moslem saint to Christianity, see Schiltberger (ed. Telfer, 1 2 p. 40). 3 Hackett, Church of Cyprus, Cyprus (1913), p. Travels, ed. 421 ; Cobham, p. 41. Lukach and Jardine, Hdbk. of p. 47. Dichtkunst, i, 214 a Kadri convent named exists at Tekke Turabi Constantinople (Brown, Dervishes, p. 317). 5 For his legend see Delehaye, in Anal. Holland, xxvi, 247 ff. Von Hammer, Osman. 6 Mas 7 See also above, pp. 87 ; Latrie, Tresor de Chronologie, p. 911. f. LVIII THE PROPHECY OF THE RED APPLE I ' ' famous Turkish prophecy of the Red Apple comes to us first in 1545, when it was published by Georgewicz, a Hungarian, for many years prisoner 2 among the Turks, in (transliterated) Turkish with a Latin translation and a commentary. The following is an English rendering of the text THE : ' Our Emperor realm of the Genhe shall take the Red Apple and capture it if unto the seventh year the sword of the Unbeliever (Giaur) shall not come forth, he shall have lordship over them unto twelve he shall build houses, plant vineyards, hedge gardens years and after twelve years from the time about, beget children that he hath captured the Red Apple, the sword of the Infidel shall come forth and put the Turk to flight.' shall come, he shall take the tiles (Kiafir), : : ; Our anonymous prophet knew his craft and provided, the Delphian Apollo, for all contingencies. His first line of defence is, as has been already pointed out,3 the interpretation of the word year , which in such utterances allows of some latitude. Further, the central ' ? episode, the taking of the Red Apple (KizilElma), on which the rest of the prophecy depends, is obscure, and suggests many lines of thought. The general symbolism of the ' Red Apple ' is certainly world dominion. At Constantinople, long before ' ? the Turkish conquest, the apple or orb held by the statue of Justinian which stood on a column before like ' 1 2 Preprinted from B.S.A. xxii, 171 Prognoma sive fraesagium letter, 1545. collections of Lonicerus. 3 ff. Mebemetanorum^ dated, by the introis also published in the Turkish The prophecy ductory Das Ausland (Munich), further that ? c seven ' and ' It will be noted 1828, no. 93, p. 372. ' are mystic numbers. twelve 737 Identifications ' * luck of the S. Sophia was regarded as a talisman or ' * empire. This apple ', Mandeville tells us, betokens the lordship which Justinian had over all the world in the fourteenth century it had fallen down, which was c a token that the emperor hath lost a great part of his lands and lordships The conquest of Constantiand of nople Justinian's empire might thus be symBut the bolized by the taking of the Red Apple \ a a century interpretation of prophecy current nearly after the fall of Constantinople obviously could not rest on this alone, and the mysterious Red Apple was identified with several of the successive goals of Otto' : V c ' ' man arms, in particular Constantinople (probably retrospectively) and Rome, which the Turks aimed at or even threatened in the first half of the sixteenth century. Turkish opinion in Georgewicz's day held that ' ' ' the Red Apple symbolized some strong and wellfortified imperial city but as to its identity opinion Some was divided. Rome others V said Constantinople was meant, the latter interpretation in the end : became generally accepted, despite the fact that Rome was never taken by the Turks. Both these interpretations of the Red Apple arc indicated by the gloss (current already in Georgewicz's time) Vrum papai, which might be translated, according to fancy, the pope (i. e. patriarch) of the Greeks (Rum, 'Paj/imot) or the pope of the Romans of Rome. As we shall see, both interpretations were harmonized by seventeenth-century c ' ' ' 6 ' expositors. The 1 interpretation current Ed. Wright, p. 130 : cf. among the Turks of the Procopius, de Aedif., i, 2 ; cf. Schiltberger, and for Mandeville's sources, Boven- Travels, ed. Telfer, p. 80 and note, schen in Z.f. Erdk., 1888, p. 211. 4 Elma dicunt esseurbem aliquam fortissimametmunitissimam imperialem (Georgewicz's commentary), whence doubtless the anonymous writer in Ausland draws the erroneous inference that Red 2 Kizil 9 ' ' Apple was a synonym for any strong city. The Prophecy of the Red Apple 738 seventeenth century, which sought to identify the * Byzantine and the Roman Red Apple ', is given by Evliya Efendi. In S. Sophia's long ago was an image of the Virgin holding in her hand a carbuncle as big as a pigeon's egg, by the blaze of which the building was lighted every night. This carbuncle was removed on the birth-night of the Prophet to Kizil Elma (Rome), 9 ' which received its name Red Apple from thence. There is no attempt to explain the connexion of carbuncles with red apples '. A carbuncle is, of course, 1 ' a garnet (ML. Lapis from the likeness granatus, Fr. Grenat), so called of its colour to that of a pomegranate. Of 'red apple as a paraphrase either for c carbuncle' or pomegranate the ordinary Turkish word for the latter is the Persian nar I can find no distinct indica* tion but we shall detect later hints of the connexion. 3 Modern Turkish tradition identifies the * Red Apple of Rome with the gilded dome of S. Peter's, which is said to be visible from the sea. 4 5 : ' Evliya quite inconsistently continues, evidently draw- A Russian pilgrim (Khitrovo, Itin. Russes, travels, I, i, 57. in S. notices Sophia a statue of Leo the Wise which had this p. 91) For other stories of carbuncles that lighted buildings see property. 1 W. King, Natural History of Precious Stones, p. 239. a play on this in a Turkish couplet quoted by Gibb (Ottoman Poetry, iv, 25). ' 3 Red Apple ' for pomegranate has an exact verbal parallel in the Latin name (Malum Punicum) of the same fruit. The Arabic for C. 2 There may be ' pomegranate is rumman, which gives a distinct point if the Red Apple means Rome. Round Granada the wood of pomegranates is For the curiosity called soto de roma (Bradshaw's Spain, p. 48). of the subject I note here that there is a mountain called Kizil Elma Dagb (' Red Apple Mountain ') in the Troad the name is not derived from the colour of the mountain, possibly from its shape (as apparently its ancient name KorvXos, wine-cup ). Other Kizil Elma mountains are shown in R. Kiepert's map above Bartin in Paphlagonia and near Kestelek on the Rhyndacus. 4 Gibb, Ottoman Poetry, iv, 25, note. The globe on the dome is ' c ' : ' probably meant. ? 739 Identifications The Spanish ing upon an independent tradition were once or twice masters of Islambol [Constantinople], and thence that egg [i.e. the carbuncle] came into their hands/ l He thus implies that the Red ' Apple was, according to one version, in Spain. After what we have said elsewhere 2 as to the emigration of Spanish Moors to Constantinople about the end of the sixteenth century, it is hard to resist the suggestion that here again we have stumbled across the equation Red = = Apple' Carbuncle Pomegranate, the 'Red Apple in this case symbolizing the long-lost Moslem kingdom of Granada. Though the derivation of the name of Granada from its abundance of pomegranates is not universally accepted by philologists, it is so far the received popular etymology that the pomegranate figures in the arms of the city and the modern surname Nar, which occurs the among Spanish Jews of Turkey, is surely a translation of the name Granada, implying the same identi' : infidels ' ' 5 ; fication. The prophecy ' Red Apple * was thus applied to two, if not three, cities. A later edition of Georgewicz's Praesagium connects it, giving no reason, with a fourth, Buda-Pest so far as we can see, this is merely an arbitrary application of a prophecy to a city which was long the goal of Turkish arms and eventually (1526) Certain it is that in 1538, twelve years fell .to them. the after taking of Buda, portents were seen in the sky of the ; at Constantinople foretelling the imminent ruin of the Turks by the Christians. 3 Were these interpreted in the light of the prophecy of the Red Apple, backed by the recent Christian victories of Andrea Doria ? Another possible claimant is the city of Rhodes, taken in 1522, after an unsuccessful siege in 1480. Already in the early fifteenth century was current a derivation of the name of Rhodes, not from p68ov (rose), 1 3 Loc.cit. Avisi di Costantinopoli, Venice, 1538. 2 Above, p. 723. The Prophecy of the Red Apple 74 but from po?St (pomegranate), on the ground that the 1 We city was as full of men as a pomegranate of seeds. have already remarked on the obscure connexion which ' * seems to exist between the Red Apple and the pome' granate. If Rhodes were taken as the Red Apple of the prophecy, the destruction of the Turkish power by the Christians would be due to occur in 1534. It may be significant that superstitious Turks, arguing from omens, augured ill of the chances of a Turkish army ' which marched into Hungary 1 in that year. 2 Buondelmonti, Liber Insularum (1420), ed. de Sinner, * p. 72. Schepper, Missions Diplomatique*, p. 136. In this year the marble lion of the Bucoleon was said to have turned its head away from Europe and towards Asia. Such stories are rather the effect than the cause of superstitious fears. LIX THE MAIDEN'S CASTLE M INTRODUCTORY AIDEN'S J TOWER Maiden's Palace' l 5 'Maiden's , Castle among the are in Turkey commonest popular names for ruins whose history is long since forgotten. On the Greek side of the Aegean Castles ' ' of the Fair One 2 are no less numerous. The present chapter is an attempt to examine and classify the folk-' stories current regarding the various Maiden's Castles in the Greco-Turkish area, which will be found, as might be expected, to be variations of a comparatively small number of motifs, some of which have achieved ' a very wide vogue through their adoption by popular ' ' The broad strategic and romantic themes ; both of these have many variants, which, we shall find, will lead us to include in the general * ' category of Maiden's Castles certain ruins bearing literature. ' division is into ' names apparently irrelevant to our inquiry. The setting of the stories ranges from the fairy-story pure and simple, where the figures are nameless types and magic 1 Kiz Kulasi, Kiz Kalesi (or Kiz Hisar), Kiz Serai : a y ' palace in my experience generally has columns, cf. Choisy, Asie Mineure^ p. 134 ' ' Maiden's Castles are cited (temple of Aizani). Outside Turkey from Transcaucasia (Gulbenkian, Transcaucasie^ p. 210 cf. Koechlin : from the Crimea and from in Kerman Hume Persia (from Griffith, Behind the Veil in Persia^ and P. M. Sykes, Ten Thousand Miles in Persia, p. 190). The p. 32 name does not appear to be common in the Arab-speaking area but is recorded at Jaber in North Mesopotamia by Cahun (Excursions sur les ' * the Maiden's Mount mentioned Boris <Le FEuphrate, p. 188) cf. by Palmer, Desert of the Exodus^ p. 91, and by Stanley, Sinai, pp. 29 f. Schwartz, Tourists au Caucase, p. 161), ; : 3 397. Kdcrrpo rfjs The Fair Turkish ' 'Qpaids: folk-tales. One ' cf. e.g. Buchon, Grece Continental, pp. 373, of course the Beauty of the World of the ' is 5 The Maiden's Castle 742 machinery is freely employed, to the pseudo-historical, which the heroine at least is provided with a name and approximate date. in I. Legends 'Strategic'' The ' ' usual role of the Maiden in the strategic type of story is that of the Amazon defender. The conception of the woman-warrior is common to all nations I and backed by historical examples. In the folk-tales the Maiden's Castle ' is usually taken despite the valiant efforts of the heroine, who, to avoid capture, throws herself from the castle-walls and is killed. z Another motif v try dear to Greek folk-tale and song is that of the youthful janissary who, disguised as a woman with child, takes advantage of the humanity of the maiden * defender of the castle, who is often a princess, in order to secure an entrance, and is of course followed by his concealed comrades in arms. 3 A link between the romantic and strategic types is formed by the legends which represent the maiden inside the castle as in love with one of the attacking army the denouement turns on her treachery. A love ' * c ' ; Even 1 common : in Turkish folk-lore the figure of the girl-ghazi is not unsee an example in Wiss. Mitth. Bosnien, i, 479 (cited by Bordeaux, Bosnie Populaire, p. 174. One of the seven warrior saints (CTTTCI e/SXidSes) buried in the moat at Candia is reputed to have been a woman (F. W. H.). Cf. Lane, Mod. Egyptians, ii, 137, Bjelokosic) H 1 : cf. - a Polites, IlapaSoaeis, nos. 86, 87, gives texts of such stories from Thessaly (cf. Chirol, Twixt Greek and Turk, p. 118) and Alaja Kale in Pontus, with references to all parts of the Greek world. A Georgian At the ruined castle of version is cited by Palgrave (Ulysses, p. 76). Kilgra in Bulgaria is shown the place where forty maidens threw themselves headlong to avoid capture by their conquerors (Jirec'ek in Arch. Epigr. Mitth. x (1886), p. 189). Cf. the story in Miller, Latins of the Levant, p. 38. 3 Polites, op. cit., no. 88 (Kynouria) : Chaviaras in Aaoypcufria, ii, The theme has 572-4 (songs from Symi, Nisyros, Castellorizo). entered into the common stock of Greek minstrels. c Romantic ' Legends 743 a Christian and a Moslem, the lady being converted to her husband's religion, is a natural usually theme in the chivalric-romantic folk-literature of the Near East. 1 The lady either warns her lover of danger or suggests to him the stratagem which leads to the fall of the fortress. As an example of the first, the romantic ', type we may quote the tragic loves of Sidi Battal and the Christian princess. The scene is the Christian Castle of the Messiah ', besieged by the Arab armies with Sidi Battal at their head. Within the walls is a Christian princess enamoured of the Arab captain. Hearing of a plot against her beloved, she drops a stone from the wall to affair between * c The stone falls on him and kills the heroine destroys herself from remorse and is buried by his side. 2 Of the second, the eventually ' strategic ', type a good example is the Rhodian legend of the castle of Phileremo. In it a Rhodian knight besieging the place succeeds in obtaining an entrance by disguising himself in the skin of an animal, this not him warning. give him ; very brilliant stratagem being suggested by his Greek mistress within the walls. 3 What may be regarded as the converse of this stratagem, because it involves the disguise of animals as men, is familiar from the well-known ruse of Hannibal. The off a a retreat of castle by driving by besiegers suggest to their horns attached a of herd with night lights goats the beleaguered garrison, thrown off its guard, opens the gates and the besiegers, ambushed outside, easily ; Cf. especially the tale told at Mecca of the captive Moslem and the Christian princess see above, p. 73. On the Christian side the an of with Akritas emir's daughter (Rambaud, elopement Digenes 1 : Byz., p. 79) is a case in point. the site of the Castle Ethe, Vahrten des Sajjid Battbal, ii, 234 if. of the Messiah is presumably to be sought near the reputed tomb of the hero south of Eskishehr in Asia Minor, for which see above, t. * * : ' pp. 705-10. 3 Above, p. 647, n. 2 'Ike 744 Maiden's Castle This is related on the Greek side of the capture of Serfije [Servia] in Macedonia and Nicomedia by the Turks, 1 and on the Turkish side of the force an entrance. numerous ruins called ' Goat Castle 2 ' (Kechi Kalesi). One of these at least bears the alternative name of from which we may suspect the Maiden's Castle of a romantic motif. interweaving V ' ' c 2. ' Romantic The ? Legends 5 ' chief varieties of the romantic type of legend, in which the heroine is normally a princess, are (a) the immured princess, : () the bewitched maiden, and (<;) the princess and the rival lovers. (a) The immured princess motif, familiar from the stories of Danae, S. Barbara, and Rapunzel, is especially associated with isolated castles or towers. Typical are ' ' ' the so-called Tower of Leander (in Turkish Kiz ' ' Kulasi = Maiden's Tower ) at Constantinople, which is surrounded tower by water, and the similarly situated ' at Korykos in Cilicia. Of Leander's Tower two dis5 ' tinct stories are told, both with a pseudo-historical In the first the daughter of the Greek governor of Skutari is immured with her father's treasure in the tower in order to preserve both from the Arab hero, setting. story coming from a Mohammedan hardly necessary to add that the precaution Sidi Battal. 4 source, is it is The taken in vain. 1 The second Polites, /Ta/oaSocreis', nos. 17, 1 story is more typical. It 8. e.g. near Yuzgat (Hamilton, Asia Minor, i, 387), near Bicker on the Angora line (von Diest and Anton, Neue Forschungen, p. 27), and near Smyrna (Cochran, Pen and Pencil, p. 232). The two latter alone 2 The French call a castle outside Sidon the Chateau give the story. ' des Chevres (Goujon, Terre Sainte, p. 54). Niebuhr (Reisebescbrci* bung, 3 iii, The 142) tells the story of an unnamed Anatolian castle. ruin near Smyrna (Texier, Asie Mineure, ii, 278). 4 Evliya Efendi, Travels, I, ii, 78. Immured 745 the immured maiden as the daughter of a Princess represents Turkish sultan, of whom a dervish prophesied that she would die at fourteen. The tower was built to defeat the prophecy by affording the princess during the dangerous period a refuge whence chances of accidental death were so far as possible eliminated. Fate cannot, however, be thus cheated, and the doomed girl died from the bite of a scorpion brought her in a basket of fruit. A more elaborate version of the same story, told at great length by Castellan, makes the heroine a daughter of Selim II and interweaves a romantic motif and wins to a happy ending on Sleeping Beauty lines, the introduction of her lover causing the dead princess to revive. 1 At Korykos, z where the Greeks of the Sporades localize their folk-songs and legends of Beauty's Castle \ ' there are well-preserved remains of a medieval fortress on the shore and an isolated tower on an adjacent island. Of the mainland castle is told the story of the disguised 3 Both castles are also represented as elaborate janissary. precautions to save from her fate a king's daughter, whose early death by the bite of a snake was foretold to her father. The snake is eventually introduced in a basket of figs, sent to the princess, according to one 4 version, by her lover. Reid, Turkey and the Turks, p. 298 cf. Tollot, Voyage^ p. 320 ; Castellan, Lettres sur la Moree, pp. 190 ff. Melek Hanum (flrente Ans dans les Harems cFOrient, p. 2) tells the story, but the only point is the inevitability of fate. Regla (Turquie Officielle^ p. 296) has the 1 : J. story complete. An entirely different story of Leander's Tower, in a treasure motif is prominent, is given by Carnoy and Nicolaides, Folklore de Constantinople^ pp. 41 ff. which z For Korykos see Beaufort, Karamania^ pp. 240 211 ff. ; Cuinet, Turquie d?Asie> ii, 74. Chaviaras in Aaoypa(f>ia y ii, 572-4. ff. ; Langlois, Cilicie, pp. 3 Ibid. 557 f. Some similar legend appears to be told of the ruins of Pompeiopolis near Mersina these are said to be the work of a Jew a named Hakmun, who built castle near by for his daughter Hind Lares and Penates, p. 131). (Barker, 4 : 3295.2 c c The Maiden's Castle 746 * The bewitched ' motif is associated with frankly magical. At Kos the heroine is the daughter of Hippocrates, bewitched by Diana into the form of a frightful dragon. Any one who was brave enough to kiss her on the lips might turn her back into human form and win the reward of her hand and the lordship of the island. 1 (V) remote and lonely A somewhat princess castles and is similar story, evidently lacking in some related by Schiltberger of an enchanted particulars, is princess in a castle near Kerasund the narrator tells the story quite simply and evidently believed it. Indeed he was minded to explore the castle himself, had he not been dissuaded by equally credulous Greek priests, who told him that the Devil was in it. His words are ; : * There is on hawk. Within, a is mountain a castle, called that of the sparrowa beautiful virgin, and a sparrow-hawk on a Whoever goes there and does not sleep but watches for perch. three days and three nights, whatever he asks of the virgin, that is chaste, that she will grant to him. And when he finishes the watch, he goes into the castle and comes to a fine palace, where he sees a sparrow-hawk standing on a perch and when the sparrow-hawk sees the man, he screams, and the virgin comes " Thou hast out of her chamber, welcomes him and says : : me and watched for three days and three nights, and whatever thou now askest of me that is pure, that will I grant unto thee." And she does so. But if anybody asks for some- served thing that exhibits pride, impudence, or avarice, she curses him and his offspring, so that he can no longer attain an honourable 52 position. The * given. The asked only that he and his fate of three typical adventurers is good poor fellow ', family might live with honour and had his wish granted. The second, a prince of Armenia, asked for the hand of first, a Ed. Wright, p. 139: cf. Fabri, Evagat. iii, 267-8. See JeAr/ov 'larop. 'Eraipctas, i, 85 ff. * Schiltberger, ed. Telfer (for the Hakluyt Society), p. 41, 30 Mandeville. ed. Wright. D. 202. 1 also Polites in : cf. Princess with Rival Lovers 747 the lady ; and the third, a knight of Rhodes, for an inexhaustible purse ; these were cursed for the sins of pride and avarice respectively. The introduction of the hawk, though without much relevance for the story as here told, is of interest as explaining the name 6 Hawk Castle 5 (Doghan Hisar) borne by several ruined castles in 1 Turkey. The ' ' Princess with Rival Lovers motif demands a rather more elaborate setting. The theme is a competition between the lovers for the hand of the heroine. One of them undertakes as his task to build the castle (c) of which the story an aqueduct. The latter feature seems to be an adaptation from the somewhat different story of the loves of Ferhad and is told, the other generally 2 Shirin, originally Persian and located in Persia, afterwards treated by several Turkish poets 3 and given a picturesque Turkish setting in the neighbourhood of Amasia, where the aqueduct hewn in the rock byFerhad for the service of his mistress, faithful lover, are shown. 4 and even the grave of the The juxtaposition of castle and aqueduct in GrecoTurkish lands seems almost inevitably to attract the 5 A variant of some interest story of the Rival Lovers. was told me in 1915 of Nikopolis. Here the rivals were three brothers who each produced a masterpiece in e. g. near Panderma a species of goshawk. 1 is 2 (Hamilton, Asia Minor, ii, 95). The doghan At Kasr-i-Shirin (Browne, Li*. History of Persia, ii, 405 ; Gibb, i, 318). The Persian story in its literary form is 3 at least as early as the twelfth ceatury. Gibb, op. cit., i, 318 ff. Ottoman Poetry ', 4 Haji Khalfa, Djibannuma, tr. Armain, p. 682 ; Sestini, Viaggio a Bassora, p. 45 ; Skene, At.adol, p. 104 ; Hamilton, Asia Minor, i, 373. For a Greek parallel or derivative cf. the Cypriote story of Digenes and Regina (Polites, /Ja/oaSoaeis", no. 73). 5 It is told of a castle in Acarnania of (Polites, op. cit., no. 164) the Kdarpo rrjs '^pata* in Doris (ibid., no. 165) ; of Corinth (ibid., no. 162) of Attica (ibid., no. 163) of a castle in Naxos (ibid., no. 167) of Aspendus in Pamphylia (ibid., no. 149) and of Phyle in Attica (Collignon in Mem. Ac. Inscr. xxxix (1914), p. 423). ; ; ; ; ; c c 2 The Maiden's Castle competition for the hand of the princess at Preveza (i.e. Nikopolis), where there are several ruins suitable 748 The first built the the the church of the second of Nikopolis, aqueduct Panagia Paregoritissa at Arta, while the third in one day planted a vineyard and gathered its fruit. The three having been declared equal, they prayed that the princess might be smitten with leprosy so that none of them could have her. Which prayer being granted, the story comes to an unromantic end. for the legendary princess's palace. 3. Perversions Professor Polites' learned note on the various stories ' * of the Castle of the Fair One makes it clear that the original 'Qpaia has in some cases undergone considerable perversion. Notable are the confusions with Syria = Kdarpo rrj$ Sovpias) in the Stories (Kdarpo rfjs *Qpaia$ from the Sporades concerning the castle of Korykos, and with the Macedonian castle of Servia (Kdarpo Kdarpo rfjs 2pftta$) in the story there rfjs 'Qpaias localized. Still more widely spread is the perversion of 'Qpaia into *0f3paia (for 'Eppata = Jew), which is, * 1 partly at least, responsible for the numerous Jews' Castles ' ('OfipacoKaarpo, Turkish Chifut Kalesi) on both sides of the Aegean. have thus found that many of the commoner names given to ruined castles in the Greco-Turkish area (Kdarpo rfjs 'Qpalas = Kiz Ka^esi, 'OfipaioKaarpo Chifut Kalesi, Doghan Hisar, Kech! Kale) may be derived from the Maiden's Castle cycle of folk-legend or attached to it with a little ingenuity. The essential ' for the strategic type is inaccessibility, for the immured princess isolation, for the ' bewitched maiden remoteness. All these characteristics may be combined We c ' ' ' ' 1 The ' influence of the genuine Chifut Kalesi, a colony of Karaite must also be taken into consideration. Jews in the Crimea, Belkis by False Etymology 749 in the same castle, and the presence of an aqueduct or other remarkable building near it would render it ' ' rival lovers One building eligible for the motif. could therefore lay claim to more than one legend, as ' ' is conspicuously the case with Leander's Tower and Korykos. In conclusion, seems worth while to draw attention to a development on the Turkish side of the Maiden's Castle cycle, which brings it into connexion with an entirely new range of associations. In more than one instance the anonymous maiden (kiz) heroine of these castle legends is identified by the simple process of adding the syllable bel to the already existing kiz, and it ' ' so arriving at Belkis, the who figures in eastern legend as A ruin which Queen of Sheba and wife of Solomon. so large or so beautiful as to suggest supernatural builders is thus appropriately enough brought into con- is nexion with Solomon, the arch-magician. Such palaces of Belkis are found in the theatre of Aspendus, 1 the 2 temple on Cape Sunium, and that of Hadrian at Cyzicus. 3 The column of Julian at Angora figures as the Minaret of Belkis. 4 But at Aspendus Belkis in her turn is thrown into the melting-pot of popular etymology and emerges with an entirely new setting based on the equation of the first syllable of her name to the Turkish bal * (honey). Bal Kiz, the Honey Maiden', figures as the daughter of the Queen of the Bees she is courted by the King of the Serpents, who eventually carries her off by means of a cleverly contrived bridge. This bridge is evidently the remarkable siphon-aqueduct of Aspendus, ; 1 Texier, Asie Mineure, iii, 218. The same author remarks (ii, 169) that Belkis is associated also with Sagalassus. For her at Baalbek see * 3 Petermann, Reisen im Orient, p. 315. Piri Reis in Aih. Mittb. xxvii, 427. Texier, Asie Mineure, ii, 169 ; Hasluck, Cyzicus, p. 5, cf. p, 204 ; Piri Reis, loc. cit, H. Barth, Reisey p. 79 here again there is a fluctuation between Kiz, Minare (Tournefort, Voyage^ Letter xxi) and Belkis Minare '. * * ; ' * 750 which c The Maiden's Castle made use of also in the local version of the and the Princess Lovers Rival is V 1 The latter part of this development case of a notable castle in Cilicia called is possibly paralleled in the Shah Meran Kalesi, or, in Castle), which is supposed Turkish vernacular, Yilan Kalesi (Snake's to be the actual residence of the King of the Serpents (Haji Khalfa, Menasik-el-Haj, tr. Bianchi, in Djihannuma, tr. Armain, p. 662 Rec. de Voyages, ii, 102 ; Langlois, Cilicie, p. 469 Davis, Asiatic ; ; Turkey, pp. 73 ff. ; 43, 93 ; H. J. Ross, take into consideration the facts Cuinet, Turquie d'Orient, Letters from the East, p. 283). If we ii. was once part of the medieval kingdom of Armenia and that Semiramis (Shah Miram) is a prominent figure in Armenian () folk-lore (see Tozer, Turkish Arm., pp. 349 ff. ; Bore, Armenie, p. 75 ; (a) that Cilicia Scott-Stevenson, Ride through Asia Minor, p. 273), it seems probable that Shah Meran is a perversion of Shah Miram (Semiramis), just as Balkiz is of Belkis. LX A MODERN TRADITION OF JERUSALEM DOWN to our own of the last times, certainly as late as the century, the city of Jerusalem gates every week during the time of the Mohammedans' midday prayer on Fridays. 1 More than one tourist has been disagreeably surprised, on returning from a morning excursion outside the walls, to find himself obliged to wait at the closed gate till the ordinary traffic was resumed. This curious custom arose, not from any religious scruple on the part of the Turks, but on account of an alleged prophecy, which foretold that on this day of the week and at this hour a Christian army should one day surprise the city. The superstition appears to have been more or less general in the Turkish empire, and can be traced as far back as the latter half of the sixteenth century. western sixties solemnly closed its A traveller, Dr. Rauwolff, writing in 1575, says* that Turks believed their power was to be overthrown a thousand years after its inception. As their millennium fell a few years later (in 1592-3), they were in his time in great fear of the Christians, and on holidays shut the gates of their towns and public buildings early to prevent being surprised by the Christians. Later, the custom of closing the town gates during Friday prayer is recorded at Rhodes by several travel4 At 3 lers, and at Tangier by Borrow, the gypsy-scholar. 1 Cf. 356 ; Saulcy, Voyage en Terre von Tobler, Topogr. Jerusalem, i, 147 ; Thevenot, E. Robinson, Palestine, Sainte, p. 295 ; i, Voyages, ii. 653. 3 In Ray's Voyages, i, 31 1 quoted in full above, p. 721. 3 Christian Researches, p. 416 ; Turner, Tour in the Levant, Jowett, C. B. Elliott, Travels, ii, 175. iii, 17 ; 4 Bible in Spain, p. 332 cf. Drummond Hay, Marokko, pp. 4 f. At Alexandria the Turks shut the fondics of the Prankish merchants : : A 752 Modern Tradition of Jerusalem Jerusalem itself it cannot be traced earlier than the 1 early seventeenth century, and the silence of the very numerous earlier pilgrims makes it improbable that it obtained much Indeed, the starting-point of the idea is probably rather Rhodes than Jerusalem, since it is a matter of history that in 1525, only three years after the loss of Rhodes to Christendom, a plot was elaborated for its surprise and recapture. This depended on taking advantage of the slack watch kept by the garrison during the time of Friday prayers. 2 At Jerusalem, however, as often happens, this comparatively recent tradition of the weekly hour of danger was amalgamated with the originally independent idea that a victorious Christian army was fated one day to enter the city by the Golden Gate of the Temple area, 3 the traditional site, not only of Christ's triumphal entry, but also of that of the victorious Byzantine emperor Heraclius, bearing the True Cross recovered in his Persian campaign, 4 The Golden Gate has been walled up for many centuries. 5 Probably on some theory of recurrent before this. and during the Friday prayer (De Breves, Voyages, ({travels to Barbary, i, 402) says the practice was general at night Shaw p, 235). all over the Turkish area. 1 2 Tobler, Topogr. von Jerusalem, Torr, Rhodes, p. 33. \, 147, citing Troilo (1666- ?), p. 1 52. Thevenot, Voyages, ii, 653 Maundrell, ed. Wright, p. 173 ; 122 Terre Sainte, p. Goujon, (emperor of France to enter conquered Jerusalem here) ; Pierotti, Legend*s Racontees, p. 35 (a king of the 3 ; West to enter). Burton, Inner Life of Syria, p. 371. 5 De d'Arvieux, Memoires, ii, 214 TheveBreves, Voyages, p. 158 loc. cit. not, ; Tischendorf, Terre-Sainte, p. 189. Lady Burton (loc. it has been closed for 713 years ; the Citez de Hierusalem cit.) says cited (1187), by Tobler, Topogr. von Jerusalem, ii. 994, says the gate was already walled up. Williams (The Holy City, i, 152) records the tradition that it had been closed by Omar, For the evidence of its temporary opening on the festivals of Palm Sunday and Holy Cross, 4 I. ; see below, p. 753, n. 6. ; Historical Basis 753 have been fairly usual for a Mohamto block the gate by which he entered a conquered city, presumably to prevent the operation being repeated to his prejudice by a hostile force at cycles, it appears to medan conqueror subsequent period, when the constellations should 1 again be in favourable conjunction for entry. Historical instances of this occur at the conquest of Rhodes in z 1522 and of Bagdad in 1638.3 Elsewhere in the East blocked city gates are not uncommonly associated, 4 Greek rightly or wrongly, with this superstition. tradition, for example, holds that the Golden Gate of 5 Byzantine Constantinople was blocked for a like reason. It seems evident, from the passage in Rauwolff, that the gates of Turkish towns were closed on Fridays in apprehension, not of an isolated attack, but of a more general catastrophe to Moslem arms, coincident with the year 1000 of the Mohammedan era (A. D. 1592-3) a ; and probable that the idea, starting from Rhodes, developed in that sense. At Jerusalem the Golden Gate appears to have been walled up already in crusad6 ing times, though it was temporarily opened twice a year for the two festivals of Palm Sunday and Holy it is Cf. the case of the Persian ambassador in 1806 cited above, p. 203, 1 n. 5. * 3 4 Belabre, Rhodes of the Knights, p. 64. Niebuhr, Voyage en Arabic^ ii, 240. The Turks walled up a gate at Damascus for this reason there is a view of it in Porter, Damascus). (Thevenot, Voyages, iii, 49 certain gate at Cairo was unlucky for used it (Mills, Three Months, p. 53). : A 5 6 Mohammed Ali, who never Polites, 77apa8ocrei9, p. 669. Joannes Wirziburgensis (c. 1165 : cited by Tobler, Descr. Terr. * ' Sanct. ex saecc. viii, ix, xii, xv, p. 128) says it was lapidibus obstructa except when opened for Palm Sunday and Holy Cross. Similarly, ' Ludolf von Suchem (De Itinere (c. 1350), p. 76) says it was semper but describes the Palm Sunday procession. There were there in the sixteenth century according to Meggen (1542), Villinger (1565), Fiirer (1566), and Lussy (1583), all cited by clausa ', wooden doors Tobler, Topogr. von Jerusalem, i, 156. ^ 754 Modern Tradition of Jerusalem 2 commemorating the entries of Christ and Heraclius 3 respectively. But the Turks' apprehension of attack was sufficiently real to induce them to set a special watch inside the blocked gate during the fatal 1 Cross, hour. 4 be remembered that our own troops, who in a sense may be held to have fulfilled the belated prophecy, marched into Jerusalem by the commonplace Jaffa or Hebron gate used by every visitor driving from ' the station before the war. Thus the prophecy apthough perhaps it is fair pears to have been no more to add, no less successful than many others made in It will ' recent times. 1 Sept. 14. 2 The superstition that Christ shall re-enter Jerusalem by the Golden Gate during the Friday prayer is mentioned by Quaresimus (1616-26), Troilo (1666-?), and Chateaubriand (1806), according to Tobler, Topogr. von Jerusalem, i, 156. Petachia (tr. Carmoly, in viii, 1831, p. 404) says that the Jews of his time had a tradition that the Sechinah went into exile by this gate and should one in support of the tradition he quotes day return in triumph by it Nouv. Journ. As. : 7<ech. xiv, 4 and Is. lii, 8. Burton, Inner Life of Syria, p. 371 Tobler, Descr. Terr. Sanct. 128 (Joannes VVirziburgensis). 4 Pierotti, Legendes Racontees, p. 35 Tobler, Topogr. von Jerusalem, That the Arabic root fetb should mean both to enter and to i, 146. conquer may also have contributed towards the growth of the legend. 3 ex : saecc. viii, ix, xii, xv> p. : LXI ORIGINAL TEXTS L La * "The Parthenon as a Mosque l Guilletiere, Athenes Ancienne et Nouvelle, pp. 193 f. TL n'y a JL estoit pas quinze ans que le Temple de Minerve une des plus celebres Mosquees du Monde. Elle avoit este mise en reputation par les Derviches, qui sont des Religieux Turcs ; Et avant que le grand Vizir . . . irrite des Mahometane fraudes qu'ils faisoient dans la Religion les eust chassez de PEurope pour les renvoyer a Cogna, lieu de leur institution, on ne faisoit point d'estat d'un de ces Religieux s'il n'avoit este en pelerinage a la Mosquee d'Athenes. Ces sortes de Pelerins avoient defigure le dedans du Temple par une quantite de morceaux de taffetas, et de vieilles escharpes qu'ils avoient arborees de tous costez. II n'y avoit pas jusqu'a leurs Devots qui n'attachassent aux murailles quelque petite Banderolle mi partie de rouge, & de jaune, & quelquefois de jaune & de vert Enfin on y attachoit quelque curiosite qu'on avoit apportee des pays estrangers, & un Artisan Turc qui avoit fait quelque chef d'oeuvre de son art, le venoit estaler le long des murailles. Ce grand attirail d'offrandes en est presque . . . . . . banny.' II. Extracts on Lampedusa 2 Thevenot, Travels (1656), p. 271. It is an Island that produces nothing, and is only but because there is good Water inhabited by Coneys and a good Harbour, Ships put in there for upon it, (a) c : Fresh-water. In that Isle there 1 To illustrate p. is a little Chappel, wherein there To illustrate p. 46. - 14. is Original 756 an Image of the Blessed Virgin, which is much Reverenced both by Christians and Infidels, that put ashoar and every Vessel always leaves some present there it. Some Money, others Bisket, Oyl, Wine, Gunupon powder, Bullets, Swords, Musquets, and in short, all and when things that can be useful even to little cases any one stands in need of any of these things, he takes it, and leaves Money or somewhat else in place thereof. The Turks observe this practice as well as the Christians, and leave Presents there. As for the Money no body meddles with that, and the Galleys of Malta go thither once a year, and take the Money they find upon the Altar, which they carry to our Lady of Trapano in ; ; [Follows a story of a ship which could not leave the island, one of the ship's company having stolen from the Virgin] Many Miracles are wrought in that place, at the intercession of our Blessed Lady, which are not so much as doubted of, neither by Christians 5 nor Turks. Sicily. . (b) Sir . . Dudley North Norths, ii, 160 (1680), in R. North, Lives of the f. c they say is uninhabited, and hath one vaulted on one side building, or church only whereof, there is an altar for the Christians, and, on another place, for the devotions of the Turks and so all esteemed it is In this building, they say, by holy. are always found most things necessary for seafaring men clothes of all sorts, cordage, biscuit, &c., and a treasury of all sorts of money, though in no great Lampadoza on . . . it ; ; ; quantity. It is lawful for their occasions with all, what they that come here, to serve and need but they value somewhat else that may find ; must be sure to leave in be equally needful on other occasions, be it money or which if they perform not, it is said that they goods can never sail from the island, but will stand still in the sea, be the wind never so fresh. For this reason, it is ; Lampedusa 757 whenever any vessels or gallies of Corso, come here, who are full of lawless needy rogues, they, that command in chief, have care to send some principal man, to see that nothing be embezzled by any of their company, for fear of being punished by the winds, &c.' said that, Sieur (c) Dumont, Nouveau Voyage du Levant, 1694, p. 224. 4 y a dans cette He une petite Chapelle dediee a la Vierge, dans laquelle il y a un Autel, & tout aupres un cercueil, avec un turban au dessus, & on apelle cela le Tombeau de Mahomet. Les Turcs & les Chretiens ont une si grande devotion a cette Chapelle qu'il n'y II ; passe jamais ni des uns ni des autres, sans y faire quelque ofrande soit d'argent, soit de vivres ou autre chose ; nous y trouvames dessus deux grosses pastaiques fraiches, un sequin d'or, des aspres d'argent, & quelque petite monnoye de Malthe, que notre Capitaine augmenta d'une piece de trois sols & demi de France. Notre nocher me dit que tout ce qu'on metoit la, etoit pour pauvres Esclaves, qui se sauvoient souvent de Malthe ou d'Afrique par cet endroit, & devenoit si sacre & miraculeux ; que si quelqu'un qui ne seroit pas esclave, avoit pris quelque chose sur cet Autel, il ne pouroit jamais sortir de Tile. le secours des 5 (d) J. Otter, Voyage en Turquie(ij^) y ii, 371 ff. * L'Isle n'a point d'autre habitation qu'un Hermi1 tage, ou Pon voit une petite Chapelle dediee a la sainte & le Tombeau d'un Murabit nomme Beni Pun & Pautre tattles dans le roc. Mubarek, Vierge, The hermit is mentioned already by Ariosto. In Orlando Furioso, as the scene of a combat between he the island mentions XLIII, Christians and Saracens. Ibid. XLI, i ff., he relates how Roger, on his way from Biserta, is cast ashore on a desert island inhabited by a hermit who baptizes him. The island, however, is never named. In XLIII, clxxxvii ff., Ariosto indicates that the hermit and island 1 cl ff ., are near Sicily. Original Texts 758 ' Get Hermitage appartient aujourcThui a un Pretre Maltois, qui dessert la Chapelle. II a aussi soin de tenir la grotte du tombeau bien propre, & d'y faire bruler une lampe. Ce n'est meme qu'a cette condition qu'il y est souffert par les Turcs & par les Barbaresques, comme paroit par des Patentes accordees a 1'Hermite il Begs d'Alger & de Les vaisseaux qui y relachent en assez grand Tripoli nombre laissent tous quelque chose a PHermite, soit en argent, soit en provisions. Frere Antoine m'avoua meme qu'il arrivoit souvent que de bonnes ames Mahometanes, attirees par la devotion au tombeau de Beni Mubarek, laissoient des aumones pour Pentretien de sa lampe.' par un Capoudan Pacha, . . et par les . Pococke, Description of the East (1737), II, ii, 183. [Lampidosa] did belong to a Christian hermit, and a Marabut or Turkish hermit, and served as a place both (e) 4 agreement and Turks to take in provisions, with an that neither of them should suffer from for Christians those of the different religion. The Marabut dying not long ago, the Mahometan Corsairs seized on what was in the island, and carried the Christian away captive, of which great complaint was made by the French consul, who demanded the captive.' (/) ' Egmont and Heymann, Travels^ only inhabitant French Its Clement, who is a i, 63. priest, called father cave like a hermit, probably by way of penance, to atone for the disorders of his life while a pirate, which for many years was his occupation. Some part of his provisions he fetches from Malta in a boat, though scarce a ship touches here without making him some acknowledgment. He has also made himself a garden, and erected an altar, where he reads mass before a statue of the Virgin Mary, pretended to be miraculous. Close by this harbour is interred a Turkish lives in a Mamasun Saint, in great repute on passing by 759 the Mahometans, who, never fail to offer up their among this island, prayers.' III. (a) Pharasopoulos, Ma/zacro9 . . . Mamasun Extracts on l Td ZVAara, 1895, p. 74. evravda 8iarrjp Irai o raos rov dyiov Md^iavos ei> f$pdx<*> K0^ 7T^p^Xa)V T(* Aew/rava rov irpo. dyt'ou, <Lv re/xa^ta . . rwa rrrjpyvpa}p,va <^4povai *ApiLViKa. emends vrrdpxet, Kal apyvpd Ofa?], zv fj V d>\viov Kal ev KepK&iKov ovTovv. 'Yrrdpx^ S Kal ev apyvpovv TreptAat/xto^, 8&* oS Trept^SaAAoucjc rou? Aac/zous' avrcov, 06 *Ev rfj Kara Kaipovs Trpos KK\r)<jia ravrr) arevra) Kal laaw ^pxo^voi daOzvels. Xpioriavoi Kal 'O^co/zavot, ev irpajrocfravfj (sic) dp/xovta e/creAouat CLTTI- rd dprjaKevrcKa avra>v KaQrfKovra 6/cdrepot Kara rd vei>o/ucr/xeVa. EvpiaKovrai 8e V avrfj evvia G.IKOVG.S Trapiarwaat, rov ayiov Md^iavra^ rovs ay. Kwvoravrlvov Kal *E\4vriv Kal rr)V &OfJL7Jropa. ' At Mamasos is preserved the rock-hewn church of S. Mamas, which contains the relics of the saint. Some portions of these have been silvered over and have Armenian letters on them. There is also a silver reliquary which contains one arm and one shin bone, and a silver necklace which is put round the neck of the sick persons, who come from time to time for healing. In this church both Christian and Turk perform i.e. their religious duties, each after his say without the least friction. manner, strange to There are in Mamas, pictures (et/coves-) representing tine and Helen, and the Virgin.' S. (fc) Levides, At lv Movo\lQois Moval 130 *Ev rfl rfjs it nine SS. Constan- Karrrra8oKia^ 9 pp. f. Svo wpas ravrr)$ [sc. *AK Uapai] drrexovaTj Ka)/j,r) Mafiaarjv aa)^erai KK\r]aia ri/xoyxei/T] en-' ovo^ari rov dyiov Md/jiavros Kal rov dyiov Kaivaravrivov dpxaia els Movaarripiov ^petTTtco/xeVov, onep ol 1 To illustrate p. 44. Original "Texts avaKawlaaxjw eKnaav 760 ariavol OeXovres VOL Trepi rrjv c olKr)fjiard TWO. et? KarotKrjmv TCOV Sts* rov erous , Trj te' Avyovcrrov Koi Ka Matov e/c KapfidXrjs, M/o^eAa'tSa^ [Ak Serai] /cat Nearro1 Aeco? [Nevshehr] /o^o/xeVct>i/ TrpocrKVvrjrcov. 6 veaiKopos rov vaov rovrov &> rovpKos, Set/ewe t Se evros Kt/Jom'ou Aet't/rava rtva, artva evpeOrjaav avr69c /cat Aeyerat ore etcri roC aycou Md^avros^ OTL [lev Sev tv TOW ayiov MdfjiavTos SrjAotJrat, etc., etac Se ot)^i 1^09, aAAa Suo ^ /cat rptcSv dytcov Xetyava. ' In the village Mamasin, two hours from Ak Serai, is preserved an ancient rock-cut church dedicated to S. Mamas. This belonged to a monastery now ruined, which the Christians of the neighbourhood had the idea of restoring. They have erected near the church buildings for the reception of the pilgrims who come twice a year (15 August and 21 May) * from Karvala, Ak Serai, and Nevshehr. The custodian of this church is a Turk, who exhibits certain relics in a box. These were found on the spot and are said to be those of S. Mamas, but it is clear that they are not his, from what we have said in the chapter on Caesarea about the martyrdom of this saint. Further, they are not the remains of one, but of two or three, saints.' i.e., Carnoy and Nicolaides, Traditions populaires de (c) PAsie Mineure, pp. 192 f. Le couvent de Saint-Mamas etait, il y a longtemps, bien longtemps, une maison en ruine ou un Ottoman serrait de la paille. Or, un jour, le feu prit de lui-meme dans la masure et consuma toute la paille. Le Turc ne c comprit rien a ce prodige qui se renouvela plusieurs fois. De guerre lasse le proprietaire fit une etable de la maison ruinee, et y enferma ses bestiaux. Le lendele surlendemain, ce main, un de ses animaux mourut : fut un autre ; puis un troisieme, un quatrieme, jus- qu'au dernier. 1 Assumption and 2 Sept. S. Constantine. S. Mamas is celebrated on Eski Baba L'Ottoman, qui 761 un homme etait II fit pieux, souponna des fouilles dans le sol de la quelque mystere. masure et decouvrit d'abord une eglise grecque, puis les reliques de saint Mamas. Le proprietaire fit de Petable un lieu de pelerinage, moitie mosquee, moitie eglise. Mama^on-Teguessi convent de Mamas dans un petit village turc.' IV. Extracts on Eski Baba se trouve I Gerlach (1578), Tage-Buch, p. 511. Es vor dem Dorff daraussen eine alte Griechische Kirche hat, darinnen vor Zeiten St. Niclaus Bischojf gewesen. Die ist jetzunder gleich wie ein Spital der Tiirckischen Monch und Heiligen, welche nun darinnen wohnen. Vor derselben heraussen an der Mauren han(a} S. ' viel Schaffs-Felle, die sie iiber sich gen nehmen, wann In der Kirchen drinnen ist zur rechten Ort mit einem Gegitter von der andern Kirchen unterscheiden, da an der Wand einander nach herumb hangen ein Hauffen Rosenkrantz von schwartzem Holtz eine Stangen von einem Fahnen, wie sie Ein ubergiildtes Straussen die Arabische Bettler tragen 2 Ein Bischofs Hut, in der Ein grosser JBuzigan Ey recht Mitte gleich, und ein Rosen-Krantz dabey unter diesem ist es zugerichtet wie ein Bettlein, zu dessen Flissen 5. Leuchter stehen, und wieder eine Stange wie der Arabischen Bettler, in der Mitten dieser Leuchter brennet ein ewiges Liecht. Neben dem Bischoffs-Hut hanget an der Wand ein grosser eiserner sie aussgehen. Hand ein : : : : : Bogen, des Alibides holtzernes Schwerd, zween holtzerne Colben, eine Tartschen, 3 ein Danlein und Hirschhorn, endlich 4. Hirschfusse. Diese Waffen, sprechen die Turcken, habe St. Niclaus gefiihPfeil) ein iiberaus grosser 1 To illustrate p. 54 * ff. 3 3-95-2 Round shield. D d Bosdagban (Tk.) mace. Original *Iexts Die Griecben aber sprechen, die Tiircken habens ret nur hinein gehanget. Heraussen ist die Kirche mit schlechten Deppichen bedeckt, als ob stats etliche An der Wand stehen Arabiscbe Schneider da waren 762 : : Schriften' Robert Bargrave, Travels (1652), Bodleian Codex Rawlinson, C. 799, f. 50 vso. ' Sept. 14(1652). We came to a Toune calld Baba Sari Saltik (Father yellow Pate) which has its name from a Chappell therein, so calld by ye Turkes, but by ye Greeks, Aghios Nicolas, where a Xtian saint is sayd to be (b) When ye belongs this Story these Parts, they assayd divers conquerd times to burne this Chappell but were still miraculously preuented, wherefore they conclude that Saint to have been in part a Mussleman (of theyr Relligion) and so proclaime him to this day. It is now lookd to by a dervis-woman who keeps a Lamp allways burning in it buryed Turkes and ; to whom : first it is called a Tekie.' Covel, Diaries (1675), ed. Bent, p. 186. An old Turk took it (Bobbas-cui) from the Christians, and from him it is now so named, for bobba is the common name for Father and is given to every old man in common discourse. He lyes buryed in St. Nicholas' church, the one thing remaining of the Greekes memoriall or building here. It is made a place of prayer, and he is reckoned a great saint among the common people. When we went into it to see his tomb we met another old Turk, who had brought three candles, and presented them to an old woman that looks after it, and shews it to strangers. He said he had made a vow in distresse to do it. The old woman told us Yes, my sons, when ever you are in danger pray to this good (c) ' ', : holy man, and he will infallibly help you. Oh fye sister, quoth the old Turk, do not so vainly commit sin, ! Hafiz Khalil for he was a mortall man and a sinner as well as 763 we. I know it, quoth the old wife, that onely God doth all and he doth nothing but God for his sake will the and so ended that point of Turkish sooner hear us This Church is standing pretty intire. It divinity. is but little but very handsome, in the same forme almost with Sta. Sophia, with a great Cupola over the body of it but the outward wall is scaloped.' ; ; . . . ; V. Extracts on the Tekke of Hafiz Khalil, Balchik I Bulgarien (1891), p. 533. sechs und zwanzig Derwischen, die Kanitz hier fand, ist nur ein Einziger iibrig. Der Heilige 1872 dieses Klosters ist ein merkwiirdiger utraquistischer Mann den Tiirken gilt er als Akjazyly-Baba, den Christen als St. Athanas und wird von Christen und Mohammedanern besonders zur Entdeckung von ge(a) Jirecek, ' Von den ; stohlenem Vieh angerufen. Vor dem Krimkrieg soil er nur das Vieh der Musulmanner beschiitzt haben, aber seitdem fanden die schlauen Derwische Wege ihn auch den Christen genehm zu machen. Im Jahre 1883 wurden die Geschenke fiir jede der beiden Personen des Patrons besonders gesammelt und das christliche Geld zu einem Schulbau in Balcik verwendet. Jetzt hat die Kirche diesem Doppelcultus ein Ende gemacht, dem wir bald in einer zweiten, vielleicht aheren Gestalt begegnen werden. Das Tekke selbst ist ein thurmartiges Siebeneck aus schonen Quadern mit starkem das Grab des Heiligen ist ein nieEcho im Innern driger dachformiger Sarkophag mit einer griinen Decke, umgeben von Leuchtern und Lampen. Dabei licgen ' ' ; der Koran, die Schiissel, das Siegel (ein metallener durchlocherter Deckel) und die Pantoffel des AkjazylyBaba, in welchen Fieberkranke Rundgange um das Grab zu machen pflegen. Die Russen sollen 1828 den Schadel 1 To illustrate p. 91. D d 2 Original lexts des Heiligen entfuhrt haben. Auf dem Hofe zeigt man unter einem Aprikosenbaum einen Stein, bei welchem Akjazyly-Baba badete oder nach der christlichen Legende 764 Athanas getodtet wurde. Gegeniiber liegt die malerische Ruine eines siebeneckigen Imarets (Gasthauses), auf dessen Hof hohes Gras mit Disteln und Klatschrosen wuchert und dessen Kamin Nachteulen bewohnen.' St. y Nicolaos, *H 08r]a<j6$, pp. 248 ff. (Translation.) ' In the village of Tekke, situated four hours northeast of the city [Varna] on the Balchik road and now inhabited by Circassian refugees, is a church called (b) ]. Tekke, from which the village takes its name. This church was once Christian and dedicated to S. Athanait was sius undoubtedly in Christian hands originally. ; It is now occupied by Mohammedan dervishes. It stands alone on a steep hill opposite the village, which occupies the lower slopes of an adjacent valley. On the second of May, when the feast of S. Athanasius is celebrated by pious Christians, it has been frequented time out of mind by the population of the city [Varna] and the neighbouring villages, and every year there takes place an important panegyris, since the healing virtue of the church is celebrated and attracts crowds yearly to the spot. The church is always open and any one who wishes may go and light a candle there. In it is the tomb of the saint, half a metre high and built of marble ; on it are a Gospel and lamps, and near it is a hole in the paved floor. When any one is ill, or has damaged a limb, he is carried by his relatives to the tomb of the saint, near which is a pair of women's 1 Then the dervish asks the sick man whether slippers. he is not afraid to pass the night there if he says he is not, the dervish shuts the door, and the sick man stays : Hafa Khalil 765 the tomb or sleeps there, thrusting his maimed hand by or ailing foot into the hole mentioned above, and at dawn comes out cured. One such sufferer, whose thigh was injured, relates that he stayed there all night with his foot thrust into the hole the dervish retired to his house to sleep, the church was locked, and the patient remained alone in 6 ; downward by and thought he would be sucked down To increase his alarm, he heard in the altogether. silence of the night a noise as of a man, or rather a spirit, trailing the slippers we have mentioned regularly over the paved floor of the church. The wretched man shrank into himself with fear, and never raised his eyes to see what was happening, but only listened. The noise continued till it was nearly morning. At last, thinking he was going to be sucked down altogether into the earth and making up his mind to hold out to the end, whatever might happen, he fell asleep at the hole about dawn. In the morning the dervish opened the church there was no supernatural noise or disturbance. The All night he felt his foot dragged it. a violent force, ; came out entirely cured, and returned home telling what had happened. A woman of Varna, who did not believe what was reported of the healing power of the church, put her hand into the hole, pretending it was ailing, whereas in sufferer took his foot out of the hole, * She remained all night reality it was perfectly sound. in the church alone, shut in by the dervish, and had the same experience, that is to say, she was drawn down with irresistible force by the arm she had placed in the hole, and heard the noise of the spirit walking in the church with the slippers trailing over the floor. But in the morning, when she wanted to take her arm from the hole, they say she was totally unable to do so until a posse of villagers came and dragged it out by force. The woman herself was so frightened that she died a few days after.' Original Texts 766 VI. Extract * on the Bektashi Tekkes of Thessaly 2 TIPOMH&EYS, 1893, no. 55, pp. 442 f. (Translation) South-east of this village [Irinior Rini in the deme of Skotousa], in a hilly and romantic situation among tall and shady trees (planes, dwarf-oaks, and cornels), stands the tekke of the Bektashi, an establishment famous throughout all Thessaly. In it, according to Govern' ment thirty-nine dervishes, but at the visit (1888) I was told that there were, statistics, reside time of my exclusive of servitors, fifty- four, all illiterate and superstitious Albanians. An intelligent dervish informed me that the tekke was formerly a monastery of the western church, 3 and that the Turks took it over about 1630-40; there was a church of S. Demetrius, but the dervishes say it was dedicated to S. George, on account of the 4 For greater veneration they affect towards the latter. a time the tekke was occupied by Turkish dervishes 1 To illustrate p. 93. is a translation of an article from the Volo periodical to which called attention was my by M. Pericles Apostolides of Volo. The in was edited, and seems to have been written also, periodical question 3 This by an Athonite monk, Zosimas. 3 On this point Mr. Apostolides has kindly supplied me with the additional I was told at the tekke of Rinl information following this that an inscribed slab with Latin characters was preserved there be the tomb of some Franciscan a to abbot. According may cbryso* : : monastery of Makryniotissa the lands of this foundation extended to the district of Seraji Irini (Scpar^fj *Ipwv). It is therefore most probable that this site was occupied and the monastery built by Franciscans in the Prankish period.' The existence of a Franciscan monastery in seventeenth-century Thessaly seems to me highly improbable. Confusion has probably arisen from the inscription in boullon of the letters really or 4 supposedly Frankish '. ' * In There is a npofJL7)0vs: 9 1891 (p. 268), the same author writes local tradition that the dervishes preserve to the present day a picture of S. Demetrius and burn lamps before it. I questioned the dervishes on this subject, but was not allowed to see the picture.' : Rini 767 from the great tekke, called Kulakli Baba, at Konia. 1 But during the despotic reign of the famous Ali Pasha of 2 Tepelen (according to thePbonl touLaou), who justified his contempt for religion by pretending to be a follower of the liberal Bektashi, it was given to the Albanians at this time there were founded in Thessaly certain convents which were rather political rallying-points for ; the surrounding population than religious establishments. There were four such convents, all situated at strategic points, commanding the more frequented highways. These were the tekkes of Turbali Sultan near Rini, on the road from Volo to Pharsala and Karditsa ; of Balli Baba, near the village of Tatar, on the road between Lamia, Larissa, and Pharsala of Shahin Baba, near the village of Kupekli ; and Baba Tekke, in the celebrated Vale of Tempe, on the road from Larissa to Chaisi. These tekkes became the regular resorts of criminals, who plundered and spoiled the surrounding populations. So that, at the time of the destruction of the Janissaries by Sultan Mahmud, in 1826, an imperial order was issued for the destruction of the Bektashi, and the population, both Christian and Mohammedan, fell upon the tekkes and drove out their inmates. Two tekkes, those of the villages Tatar and Kupekli, were burnt ; that of Rini, either because its inmates put up a more determined resistance, or because it lay some distance from Pharsala, was spared. From 1833 onwards all sorts of rascals, sometimes even brigands, began once more to congregate in it on the pretence of doing penance, and this state of things continued till the last years of Turkish rule under the direction of a former servant of the Muslim Aga, a certain Bairam Aga, who continues to preside over the ; The ' ' can hardly be other than that of the Kula ( tower '). 2 of that the Volo name, but I have newspaper (1882-4) Apparently searched it in vain to find this reference. 1 great tekke at Konia Mevlevi dervishes, who wear a headdress called c Original Texts Under him the system of rapine and pillage tekke. reached its height : the whole countryside was subjected wily and farby the raids of his armed brigands. sighted man, he legitimized his oppressive acts after the Union x by forged documents, supplied him by the Turkish authorities, making the tekke his personal property. He had still two or three monks and a few servitors to back him. There is a local tradition that the tekke was built on the site of an ancient Byzantine monastery of S. George, but it is impossible to confirm this by investigation as long as the Albanians remain in possession. The tekke has defences like a small fortress 2 and entrance is forbidden. At the time of the Union there were fifty monks or dervishes in the tekke there are now only three and some paid servitors of Bairam Baba, all Albanians. The dervishes who formerly lived here were remarkable for the fact that they wore in their right ears a great iron 768 A : earring, stone 3 4 ; and hanging on their breasts an eight-sided the novices wore white caps, and all shaved their heads once a week. 1 2 i.e. of Thessaly with Greece, 1882. This is an absurd exaggeration the chief defences are two sheep: dogs. 3 This is the distinguishing mark of celibate dervishes of the Bektashi order. This is evidently the Tsslim Task Bektashi, which has, however, (' Stone of Resignation generally a ') twelve-pointed form. of the GLOSSARY have gained a victory over non- Abdal, fool-saint. Akbi Dede (or Dede Baba], ' ' apostolic successor of Haji Bektash. votive offering. , I, exhumation of bones. i.e. agba ('Mr.'). baji, pilgrim to bammam, ashik, lover. (aytacr/ia), haga, Mecca or other holy place. Anastasis (Gk.), Resurrection. ayasma believers). bath. begoumenos (Gk.), Greek abbot. holy well. baba, father, Mohammedan abbot. bey, squire, holder of a certain rank. ibadet khane, house of worship. ilija, natural tepid spring. imam, Mohammedan priest, leader Cbelebi, Head of the Mevlevi of Konia ; hereditary successor of Haji Bektash at Haji Bektash. in the ritual performance of prayer. imaret, soup-kitchen for the poor. in, cave. cheshme, fountain. cbiftlik, farm (///. the jami, mosque. * ' amount of land that can be ploughed with a cbift, or pair of oxen). jebar, tyrant, oppressor. jigber, liver. jinn, decollati (Lat.), executed criminals. dede, grandfather, dervish, holy Dede Baba = Akbi Dede, man. v. q. kind of Turkish governor obsolete, robber baron. derebcy, now dervish, kind of Mohammedan monk or religious mendicant. dev (Pers.), monster. eikon (Gk.), hideous demon. Orthodox Church religious law. kale, castle. kapu, gate. kara, black. karaja, roebuck. kaza, sub-division of a sanjak, q. v. khalife, successor of Mohammed, pic- ture. higher grade of Bektashi abbot. khan, galleried inn. kbane, house. emir (Arab.), chief, prince. enkolpion (Gk.), pocket eikon. vxoX6yLov, kabile, tribe, clan. kadi, district judge administering the kavass, gendarme, man-servant. duden, underground channel. efrit (Arab.), one of the genii. junta, Friday, day of congregation. dagb, mountain. khirka, long cloak, monk's habit. kboja, schoolmaster. Greek prayer-book. fatiba, opening chapter of the Koran. kbutba, public prayer for the sovereign. gbazi, champion of religion given to sultans or generals (title who Words which occur only once kilise (from Gk.), church. kirk, kirklar, forty. in the text and are there explained are not Except where indicated, the words cited are of Turkish origin or commonly borrowed by Turkish. Greek terms are not given in Greek script unless that is found in the text. The meanings given are drawn from the usual dictionaries of the various languages concerned. The glossary as a whole owes much of its value to Sir Harry Lamb, G.B.E., K.C.M.G. 1 cited here again. 770 Glossary young man, hero. Panagia (Gk.), Virgin Mary. kiz, girl. kizil, red. pallikar (Gk.), kubbe, domed edifice. kula, tower. panegyris (Gk.), festival. para, Turkish farthing. kurban, sacrifice lama (Gk.), round a means of ap- (lit. proach). kutb (Arab.), chief of pilaf, velis, q.v. settlement of church. liva, brigadier-general = : cooked pir, old monks common ministration peri, fairy. himself to the service of the faith. wills ! medreseb, college for study of law and divinity. tneidan, vacant space, square, Bektashi oratory. meidan mesjid, man, descendant of Mo- hammed. saranda (Gk.), forty. sari, yellow. serasker, w0A0w(Arab.), sanctuary (see p. 237). marabut (Arab.), one who devotes God saint of a guild, sanjak, sub-division of a vilayet, q.v. sanjak, q.v. maballa, quarter of a town or village, sub-division of a tribe. masbaallab, what man, patron superior of an order. said, holy in civil ad- rice. sheikh, commander-in- chief. Mohammedan community. Sbia, non-orthodox synaxaria mosque, Mohammedan. silibdar, esquire. skete (Gk.) =-? lavra, q.v. suji, ascetic rationalist. Sunni, orthodox fash, see p. 276. ecclesiastical dignitary, e.g. head of a religious Mohammedan. (Gk.), Greek acta sanc- torum. measure. mevlud, birthday, particularly of the ficrpov Aa/ijSavctv, to Prophet. mibrab, prayer-niche, indicating the direction of the Kaaba. mollah, judge (if following a name), student (if preceding a name). mudir, governor of a mudirlik, sub-division of a kaza, q.v. muezzin, crier who i.e. calls to prayer. mufti, expounder of the religious law. mubib, Bektashi adherent (lit. friend). tekke, Mohammedan monastery. templon (Gk.), screen between chancel and nave. tesbib, rosary. teslim tasb, stone of resignation. trisagion (Gk.), see p. 24, n. 4. mausoleum. veli, saint. q.v. Registrar of the Prophet's registered descendants. nameh (Pers.), book. Nakib-el-Asbraf, oda, tawwaf (Arab.), circumambulation of the Kaaba. vakuf, property in mortmain. muteveli, administrator of a vakuf, High Chancellor crown. task, stone. turbe, mujerred, celibate. mursbid, spiritual guide. mutebbil, married. nisbanji, taj (Pers.), Takbtaji, woodcutter. (obsolete). room. oda of Janissaries, company. oke, Turkish pound (2! lb.). vergbi, tribute, now applied only to direct taxes on property. vilayet, a chief province. yedi, yediler, seven. yildiz, star. yoghurt, curdled milk. Turuk, nomad. ziaret, visit of or friendship. ceremony, devotion, INDEX Small figures above the line refer to the notes. Double Moslem names are indexed under the first one. Christian and Moslem names prefixed by a title and denoting place-names are indexed under the title. Names prefixed by the titles of abdal, haji, said, saint, and sidi, are indexed under those titles; and those prefixed by the titles of baba, ghazi, imam, khoja, king, nebi, shah, sheikh, sultan are indexed separately and not under their titles. 1 Aaron, invoked, 26I , 560. Aatik Ali, mosque of, 327, 327*. Abaza Hasan, palace of, 136*. Abbas, Shah, founded New Julfa, 6 iQS ; grouped Shahsavand Kurds, J 35; n metempsychosis, 57o 2 Abbas Ali, Bektashi tekke of, 93 2 , 548, 8 2 548 ; dogs of, 8i ; sacred earth from tomb of, 685*; S. Elias as, 93 2 , 548, 2 548 Abbasides, Mollah Hunkiar and, 615. Abd Allah abu-'l Husain el Antaki, see . . Sidi Battal. Abd-el-Wahab, in Battal cycle, 711, 7 ii'. Abdals, Bektashi saints as, 567 ; Forty, 1 394; at Kuri Yalova, 107-8, loS ; 8 of Rum, 5o6 renegades as, 449'; Abdal Chetim Tess Baba, 185, 359-60. Abdal Deniz, see Deniz. Abdal Kadir, 252 1 . . Abdal Murad, Bektashi warrior-saint, 1 230, 306 , 509, 654*. Abdal Musa, Bektashi saint, 509; buried near Elmali, 506; Geyikli Baba and, 290; Kaigusuz Baba and, 514; Kilerji Baba and, 507; Yatagan Baba and, 340, 508. Abdal Yuruks, 128, 128, 129, 476. Abdi Bey Sultan, Bektashi saint, 508. Abdul Aziz (1861-76), girding of, 6i64 , 617; religious benefactions of, 296, 316, 617, 617*. Abdul Hamid (1876-1909), and Al- banian nationalism, 539, 552; der2 vishes and, 606', 62o ; girding of, 618. Abdul Mejid (1839-61), dervishes and, 2 i6o , 539, 621; girding of, 616, 622. saints, 544, Abdullah Baba, Bektashi 546. Abdullah el-Maghawri, Kaigusuz Sultan. Sheikh, set and Abdullah, Sheikh, Bektashi saints, 516. Abgarus, Christ's letter to, 37. Abiddin Baba, Bektashi saint, 545. Ablutions, Chian earth used for, 671*; Mohammedan, 668 7 32 1 384, 386, , 602% . Abraham, calf of, 31 3 s ; conversion of, (sacred) fish of, 245, 245*; of, foot-prints 187, 185, 187*; Ishmael sacrificed by, 232 ; Kizilbash prophet, 145; Nimrod tortured, 6 4 *94 > 3 r 7? 3i7 ; pre-Islamic Moslem, 445; 445; sheep but not goats protected, 4 3i7 2 2 Absorption, ritual of, 2io , 2i9 , 220; . . see also drink. Abu Bekr, Caliph, and Christians, 3i4-i5>37iAbu-1-Hajjaj of Luxor, Coptic offerings 1 to, 374 - Abu Abu Abu Hanifa's Abu Taleb, tomb 'discovered', 716. Ishak, 'ambiguous' cult of, 107. Sufian, title of Caliph Moawiya, 3 727 ; see also Sufian. Imam, oath by grave of, 569*; sun stayed by, 303*. Abu Zeitun, Sheikh, cult of, 177^. Abu Zenneh, tomb 6 of horse of, 269 Acarnania, rival lovers in, 747*. Accursed, akin to sacred, 242, 253, 3 3 253 , 456; fish, 244 . . Achilles, Acre, see tomb of, 103-4. Akka. Adala, Kenger at, 128. Adalia, 'ambiguous' cult at, 74, 574; arrested transference of church at, 23; Bektashi in, 506, 574; cross defaced at, 30'; cvypto-Mussulman a in, 74, 74 , 574; Kaigusuz Sultan from, 516; Kirk Jamisi near, 398, s 398 ; S. Athanasios neo-martyr of, 457 at, 1 ; S. George, Lupus, and dragon 650*; Shahkuli captured, 170; Index 77 2 Adalia (contd.) Tekke another name for province of, 135, 168; Tekke-oglu derebeysof, 136. Adam, invoked by Bektashi, 560; Kizilbash prophet, 145. Adana, Bektashi not at, 513; Kurdish tribes near, 482*; strongly Sunni, 513; Turkomans near, 138, 479, 481; Veli Khalife's revolt near, 174; Yuruks near, 137', 477, 478. Adonis, and Holy Sepulchre, 89*. Adrianople, Bektashi tekkes at or near, 1 422, 501, 518-22, 522 ; Christian Saints at, 51, 51", 394, 394% Forty 397; Cyril, archbishop, at, 379; Eski Baba 430; Hasan Baba's 357; Katmir's tail at, 313*; Khidr and S. George at, 328, l 519, 5i9 ; transplanted populations near, cenotaph at, at, 519, 519*; Xeropotamou monas- tery and, 394*. Aesculapius, see Asklepios. 5 Aetiological legends, 190*, 202, 203 , 1 282-5, 285*, 287% 411 , 4I3S 465 Afiun Kara Hisar (Akroenos), Divani Sultan buried at, 266; fish sacred at, 249, 249*; khidrlik at, 328; Kizilbash near, 141; Sheikhli Yuruks near, . Sidi 476; 339> Ghazi fell at, Ghazi and Malik 708; talisman horns at, 232'. African influences on Turkish folk-lore, 121, 346. Afshars, chiefs of Christian villages, 156, 156*; habitat of, 129, 156; racial affinities of, 128, 129, 156% 477% 479> 482; Sunni, 156, 130', 156; women unveiled, 130*, I37 Agarini (Agerini), Turks called, 33*. 3 Agate, of Haji Bektash, 287-8, 287 . Agia (Magnesia in Thessaly), Bektashi tekke near, 534. 3 Agora, situation of, 428 . s Agriculture, natural cults and, ioo , 7 . 106-7, in. Agrinion, see Vrachofi. Ahi Baba, see Ahiwiran Baba. Ahiwiran (Ahi) Baba (Akhi-evren), 55> Ahmed 55 4 - (1603-17), Sultan, fountain of, 228; mosque of, 182, 328. Ahmed III (1703-30), Sultan, girding of, 611. I Ahmed IX, 608. Caliph, Melik Mensur and, Ahmed, Arabian saint, 252*. 8 Ahmed, neo-martyr, 454 . Ahmed Baba, Bektashi saint, 544. Ahmed Baba Binbiroglu, Bektashi saint of Bunar, 519, 579, 579*. Fazil, Ghazi, sailors' saint, Ahmed 348% 350, 518. Ahmed Rifai, Haji 285*, 287 620 1 , Bektash and, 84, 289, 289*, 460*; tomb of, 2 . Ahmed, Ahmed, Said, see El Bedawi. 2 renegade, 451, 45i Ahmed of Yasi, Khoja, Asia Minor and, 403; Bektashi and, 403, 404, 405; dervishes sent to Rum by, 340, 404*; Evliya and, 405; Geyikli Baba and, 509; Haidar and, 52, 403, 566, 572; Haji Bektash 'and, 52-3, 52% 135, 2 3 403, 404, 4Q4 , 4Q5> 566; Karaja Ahmed and, 340, 403-5* 44% 45> 572; married Mene, 52-3, 53% 403, 8 43 > 57 2 J Sari Saltik and, 340, 429. Ahmedli, Yuruk tribe, 127, 340, 405*, 475Ahua, fabulous beast, 505*. Aiali, Si, Turkoman . tribe, 480. Aidareka, see Kochairah. Aidin, Karaosmanoglu at, 598; mooring-rings at, 285; strongly Sunni, 513; Yuruks near, 475~7Aidin vilayet, see Smyrna. Aidin Baba, Bektashi saint, 526. 2 Aidinli, Bektashi tekke at, 534, 534* , ~ 59Aikaterini, Bektashi tekke at, 531. Ain Shemes, Samson at, 278 1 Aine AH, Bektashi saint, 508. . Ainegueul, Bakmaja near, 269. 2 Ainos, 'ambiguous' cult at, 52o , 581, 2 2 Yunuz Pasha 58i ; conquered, 58 1 Aintab, Bektashi not at, 513; Sam . near, 245'; Turkomans near, 479, Airak, near Changri, 511. Aivali, Thessaly, ambiguous cult at, 93> 437, 531-2, 582. Aix en Provence, dragon-processions at, 657; see S. Mitre. Aizani, door-stelae at, 207-8; giants 3 built, r99 ; Maiden's Palace at, 1 3 treasure at, 194*, I99 . 74I ; ' ' Ajemoghlans, see Janissaries. Ak Baba, Mohammedan Forty at, 395, 395"- Ak Bashi (Sestos), Bektashi tekke at, 518; tumuli at, 283. Index Ak Elven, tekke of, 505. Ak Serai, artificially founded, 137, 4 l i37 Ak Shems-ed-din, Eyyub's tomb and, 607, 608, 715; Mohammed the Conqueror and, 608. Akal, ascetic brotherhood of Druses, 773 232*; S. Athanasius identified with, 8 90*, 91, 92, 523, 580, 58o ; shoes as relics of, 91; stolen cattle recovered 1 by, 91, 9 1 ; Suleiman II built turbeof, 90, 90*; transference to Christianity a of, 92, 580, 58o ; tribal saint perhaps, 580 1 . Alabanda (Arab Hisar), 733. 7 02 *- Akbar, and religious fusion, 377. Akbeyik Sultan, Bektashi or Bairami saint, 509. I?*- Akchi Baba, buried at Brusa, 107, 107*. Akdaghli, Yuruk tribe, 127, 127*, 476. Akh Murtaza Keshish, and Husain's head, 146. 5 Akhi, in Greek inscription, 383, 383 ; 3 meaning of, 505-6, 5o6 . Akhi Dede (Dede Baba), one Bektash 161, 503, Superior, Chelebi and, I64 1 506, 537*; . Akhi-evren, = Ala-ed-devlet, ancestor of derebeys of BoghazKeui, 173; prince of Zulkadr, (i) = Ahiwiran Baba, Bektashi saint, 505; (3) q.v.; (2) Haji Ouren, q.v. Akhi Mirim, Khalveti saint, 505 2 Akhisar on the Sakaria, Karaja Ahmed buried at, 404, 404*' 6 , 405, 405 1 . Akhisar (Thyatira), 'ambiguous cult . 1 (S. John) at, 82; arrested transference of church at, 22; dervish converted and martyred at, 421, 449', 6 453 > Shia Turkomans near, i3o ; weeping' column at, 22. 2 Akje Koyunlu, Turkoman tribe, i63 , l * Ala-ed-din I (1219-34), Caliph's representative, 607 ; Castle of the Messiah and, 707; Christians and, 370-1, l 10 374 > 377> 7o6 ; dervishes and, 338; descent of, 707; girding and, 605, 617; Imam Baghevi and, 292; Jelal-ed-din and, 167, 371, 612, 613; Mevlevi and, 167, 371, 612, 613; mosque of, 23*; Osman and, 605, 617; Persian culture of, 167, 363; popular hero, 603, 607; Sylata church and, 60, 374*; talisman inscription and, 203. Ala-ed-diu III (?I1) (c. 1300), Ertoghrul and, 605. Alaja (Husainabad), Shamaspur near, 94. 2 Alaja Kale, maiden's castle at, 742 Yuruk sub128, tribe, Koyunlu, Alaja . 476. Alashehr (Philadelphia), renegade mar3 2 tyred at, 453 , 456 ; Turks and church at, 69, 692 ; Yuruks near, 475, perhaps 476. 3 Alaska, Mount St. Elias in, 329 . Albacario, and Lemnian earth, 675, Akkerman, Durmish Dede from, 346. Ak-koyunlu (White Sheep), Yuruk 676, 676*' Albania(ns), Akhi Dede of Bektashi often an, 161; assonances relished 479- Akka (Acre), arrested transference of mosque at, 245 at, 2O 1 ; fish sacred 3 6 . sub-tribe, . 128; Persian dynasty, 168-9. Ak-kozali, Yuruk tribe, 476. Akraios, see Zeus. Akrates (? Digenes Akritas), 11*' 33 Bektashi > Sidi Battal and, 706*. Akritas, Digenes, see Digenes. Akroenos, see Afiun Kara Hisar. 2 3 . Akshehr, burials at, 505, 505 1 Akyazi, in Bithynia, 580 . 1 Akyazili, in Bulgaria, 58O b y> 553S 556S 5^iS S^ 1 ; baptism a charm among Mohammedan, 33, . Akyazili Baba, 'ambiguous* cult of, 2 '4 2 1 90-2, 90 , 92 , 523, 580, 58o , Hafiz incubaas Khalil, 90; 763-5; tion to, 91, 267; ostrich eggs of, in, 161, 165, 438-9, 438*, 500-1, 525, 536-51, 581-2: dervishes often are, 161, 438: introduced into Egypt by, 515, 516: Mahmud IPs persecution in, 538: religious terms of, 562-3: tckkes, 525, 536-51: type of saint, 501 ; 2 Blessing of Waters in, 386 ; circumcized Christians in, 33*; Christian prophylactics and Mohammedan, 33, 33", 36, 65; conversion to Islam of, 36, 7 1 2 , 155', 436, 439 Index 774 Albania(ns) (contd.) 6 a 1 439 , 44i , 474 , 5<> o 58i-* 586, 2 591; crypto-Christians among, 474 ; desecration of churches among, Christian inundations of, 284-5; Kadife's dispute with, 284; Khidr vizir of, 333 ; palace at Smyrna 3 of, 41 6 Alexandria, Daniel's mosque at, 64; martyrs in, 394', see Santi Quaranta ; Ghegs anti-Bektashi, 537, 540, 549> Forty Christian saints near, 397*; Frankish merchants and Friday 550, 551 ; gold plant in, 645 , Greeks the Balkan war in, 539-40, prayers at, 751*; Isis at, 350*; licking ritual at, 219*; obscure saint at, 282*; S. Athanasius of, 91, 92; S. George the Arian of, 335*; S. 3 7 ; dragon-legend in, see S. Donatus, S. George, Sari Saltik; false prophet 438% in, 58 1 5 Forty ; after 542, 545> 546, 547> 548; hare tabu 242, 242', 243'; Hayati in, 538-9, 1 538* ; Khidr in, 320% 335, 576 ; in, 199-200; mercenaries in Egypt, 515; nationalist movement among, 539, 552 ; politico- Maiden's stone in, propaganda in, 438, 439, 586, 588-9; S. Donatus and dragon 1 S. George in, 71', 320% in, 435 religious ; S Nicolas in, 335> 434-5' 435*5 a 7i ; Sari Saltik in, 434~7 57 8 in - ; Serbian Macedonia, 525; Serbs after Balkan war in, 551; serpent guards churches in, 27*; stones of penance survival of religious pracin, 201 ; H4 3 Tosks mainly Shia, tabu for Mohammedan, 29'; Turkish conquest and colonization of, 24, 439. tice in, 581; ; trees near churches Albistan, Rihanli near, near, Kalenderoglu 174; Turkomans 480; Seven Sleepers' cave near, 314, 318; in Zulkadr, 172. Al Albruk, 314, 3i4 8 Alchemy, gold plant for, 645, 645*. . Aleppo, 'ambiguous* cult at, 187*; arrested transference of church at, 24; Mehmed of Monastir from, 356; Murad IV 1 6O3 ; 1 Zenghi prince of, I68 near, at, , Nur-ed-din 370; Tedif trisagion at, 24, 24*; near, 340, 479, 480, 481 ; united prayer at, 63, 63*, 203*. Alessio, arrested transference of S. Nicolas at, 24; butcher saint of, 282*; 2 1 dragon of Kruya fell at, 48 , 434 , 471*; Turkomans meaning of the name of, 436* George claimed by, 436, 436'; Skanderbeg buried at, 24, 35*. Alevi, Kizilbash, 140, 142, 158; Kurds, 436 1 ; ; S. 1 works of, 366*; Enoch and, 333*; Fountain of Life and, 319; Gibraltar 68; Takhtaji, 142, 158. Alexander the Great, Bosporus cut by, 284; Carthaginian king and, 284; Dardanelles cut by, 284; engineering straits cut by, 284; . Isidore of Chios and, 389'; united prayer at, 64. Alexandria Troas, curative spring and saint at, ui 1 . Alexandrovo, Tekke Keui near, 274. Algeria, cross in Mohammedan tattooing in, 30* ; hare unlucky in, 242*; Joshua's tomb in, 308, 308*; unknown saints in, 282'. Catholic cathedral in, 76 5 Christian tomb near, 73 , 448', 643*. 1 Algiers, ; AH, Hazret, see Imam AH. AH AH the historian, 484. the Imam, AH Dagh and, 101-2, 283; Argaeus and, 102; among Bektashi, 93% 166*, 554, 560; in 2 8 Bosnia, 93 197'; 'cat' of, 241, 241 ; Christ and, i44~5> 335* 57 1 ; column at Kufa of, 635; false prophet in , Albania as, 438', 581*; in a furnace, 147; Haidar and, 52*; hare of, 241; head of, I463 ; head-carrying saint 3 in Bosnia, I97 ; among Kizilbash, i44-5> IS 1 * 335> 57i; Kufa mosque of, 277, 635; lion of God, 52'; Mohammed and, 145, i66l , 554, 560; Omar and, 241, 241*; Safavi and, 169; S. Elias and, 93, 93% 437, 5482, 582; S. George and S. 2 James and, 57o ; second coming of, 144; underground birth of, 225. AH, 592 Sheikh, 3 ; Bektashi AH Pasha claim, and, 548, 587**, 587*, 592. AH Baba, Bektashi saints, 542, 550. AH BabaGhazi, Bektashi saint, 529. AH Baba of Khorasan grave of, 507 : ; trees of, 550-1. AH Dagh, AH made, 101-2, 283; Haji Bairarn's well on, I02 3 ; S. Basil and 102 ; Sidi Battal's tomb on, 102', 710. AH Eftar, a Maksum Pak of Sivas, 512. AH Kushje, well of, 364*. Index All Neki, Bektashi Imam, 554. All Pasha, Armenian renegade, 23*, AH Pasha of Yannina, Argyrokastro and, 541; Bektashi and, 70, 377-8, s 439, 531-4, 536, 536 , 537, 586-92, ', 586', 588', 589'. 593, 594-5, 596, 8 621, 62 1 ; Bektashi tekkes built by, 6 1 2 born at , 59; 533, 533 , 534, 534 Tepelen, 542, 587; buried at Yans nina, 536, 536 , 588*; Christians and, Corfu and, 591-2; dervishes 589-90; influenced, 587-9, 588'; future fore' told to, 548, 587, 587*, 592; gateof, 654*; grandfather of, charm 2 587 ; Greek wife of, 590; independence sought by, 439; Mimi and, 5 548, 549-5, 5 8 7 , 588, 590; popular 1 hero, 53 7 ; renegade gunner of, 77, 4 45*, 587 ; Rhigas and, 594-5, 3 of, 587; road-posts of, ring 595 53 1 533, 536; sacrilege by, 71; S. Cosmas and, 587, 587*, 589-90; S. Naum monastery and, 591 Santa Mavra and, 591, 592, 592 2 Santi 5 scapegoat Quaranta and, 43 7 ; > ; ; ; gipsies for, 259"; Skutari intrigues " 9 Riza, Bektashi Ali Zumbullu, Imam, and talking 554. wolf, 293-4, 1 . Alicouli, probable site of, 534, 2 Alijun, S. Elias and, Q3 . 534 2 . Allah, Kizilbash views of, 144-5; as Tanri, 133*. Allah-Abeli, Yuruk tribe, 476. Alma, burning bush at, 359'. 1 Aloe, on graves, 226 Aloni, S. Gabriel neo-rnartyr of, 454'. 2 Altars, 26, 209-11, 209 Alti Kapu, cult of Hermes at, 209-10, . . 209 2 . Yuruk 3o 7 . in folk-stories, 742-4, 742 1 Mohammedan ' 8 , 702% saints, 1 . Ambassadors at Constantinople and Lemnian earth, 677. Ambiguous (claimed by more than one religion) cults, at baths, 38-9, 107, I07 2 , 108, Bektashi 468, 512, and 680*; propaganda, 564-96; of caves, 312, 312*; of churches, see Adalia, Angora, Antioch, Bethlehem, Beyrut, Corfu, Damascus, Kphesus, Horns, Jerusalem, Khaireddin, Konia, Lampedusa, Lydda, Nicosia, Rama, Rurnkale, S. Naum, Sebastc, Smyrna, Syki, Tepejik, Thrace, Vallahadhes ; of an eikmt, 66 ; for healing, see healing; of mosques, see Akhisar, Larnaka, Salonica; of mountains, 103, 348*, 548 (see also of rain-charms, 210- Kapu Dagh); IT; of saints, see Khidr-S. George, Khidr-S. Sergius, SS. Naum, Nicolas, Spyridon, Sari Saltik; of springs, I0 7 3575 f stones, 183, i83 5 185, 6 2 f 187, i87 , 206-7, 2I2 i85 , , synagogue, 690 ; of tekkes, see Ainos, Athens, Balchik, Benderegli, Bunar Hisar, Carthage, Domuz Dere, Eski Baba, Haidar-es-Sultan, Haji Bektash, Kaliakra, Kalkandelen, Konia, Mamasun, Nicosia, Osmanjik, Rini, Shamaspur, Sidi Ghazi, Tekke Keui, Turbali, Zile; theory of, 377, 569-71, 576, 580*, 585 (see also healing); of tombs, see Constantinople, Damascus, Drivasto, Konia, Lebanon, Lule Burgas, Palermo, Selymbria, Smyrna; of wells, 66, 529, 530; see also frequentation. Amile and Amis, 2i8 l . Michael . Altin Kupru, kurban at, 260, 26o3 Altin Tash, Besh Karish near, 510. Altji, 742 at, 1 1 sons f 589* of, 439, 59 Ali Postivan, Bektashi tekke at, 544. 294 Amazons, 748; as 45- AH 775 Amastris, cross defaced tribe, 475. Amasia, Asterios bishop of, 101 Bektashi tekke at, 512, 5i3 6 Ferhad and Shirin at, 747; Ilaji Bektash 3 Hulfet Ghazi and, 483, 489, 489 ; ; ; 'discovered* at, 6i 4 ; Kirklar Dagh near, 399; Mithridates' tomb at, 223; mooring rings near, 284'; S. Theodore Stratelates buried at, 88; strongly Sunni, 513*. Amiraschanis, (Comnenus), 2 373 , 383Amiri, Arab saint, 727. Amisus, sec Samsun. Amman, cave of Seven Sleepers near, 3H. Amorium, 314, 711-12. Arnorkesos, Amru'l Kais confused with, 713. Amphiaraos, incubation to, 268, 690-1, 695- Amphilotheos, see S. Amphilochius. Amr, mosque of, see Cairo, Damietta. Index 776 Kais: Amorkesos confused with, 713; buried at Angora, 712-14. Amulets (charms), Christian worn by Mohammedans, 24, 31, 34-5, 35% 63; cults originated by, 203*, 22930, 231; examples of, see ball, baptism, bones, boots, boss, cannoncircumcision, cornChrist, ball, Amru'l plait, crocodile, Em- earth, cross, manuel, horns, inscription, Katmir, Koran, milk, Noah, ostrich, plough, prophylactic, S. John's gospel, serpent column, Seven Sleepers, talismans, text, Virgin, writings. Amykos, tomb of giant, 304, Amynos, Asklepios and, 60, Anamasli, Yuruk tribe, 475. 305*, 308. near, near, 504; Khidr buried at, 325*; khidrlik at, 325, 32?'*, 328, 449'; madmen's well near, 52, 52 2 , 267*, 403* ; Maiden's (Julian's) Column at, 4 7i3> 749> 749 ; princess at, 713, 713*; S. Clement (S. John) at, 417*; S. Plato of, 368*; Seven Martyrs of, 2 3O9 ; Shahkuli's battle near, 170, 171; talisman inscription from, 203, see also gate-charm; toothache cure 131*; at, Turkomans round, 479, 48i> 59^ Kizilbash in, 4 ; 163, bones at, whales' ; in, 141, 142. Animals, charity done by dead to, 2io l , 226, 251-2, 25i 3 ; cure men at ' 2 . nomad worship, among Turks, 134, 337-8. Anchesmos, Mount, Zeus on, 329'. Ancient objects in modern cults, altar, 210-11; gems, 182; prehistoric 2 buildings, 62, 704, 7O4 ; ruins with 3 treasure, 194*, I99 , 207', 642, 734; 3 sarcophagus, 6i, 352, 354-5* 354 > 6 theory of, 12, 729; terracotta, 6i 4 "5 tomb near Knidos, 6i 61, 62; , 392, 401; see also column, inscrip; tion, relief. Ancyra, see Angora. Andahar (PAnzaghar), Bektashi tekke, 512, 5 12 *- El Andalus, Spain as, 448 Andronicus II, Emperor, tion, 381-2. Andros, sick walked over 1 . in inscrip- their graves, 269, 2694 5 ; dervishes 1 tame, 282, 287 ; incubate for cure, 67, 268-9, 692, 692*, 694'; Moslems and, 247; in Paradise, 313, 313*; remedies found by, 462*, 686, 686a *; S. Leonard patron with human of, voice, 666*; 85 85, 1 , talk 294, 269, 462-3, 462', 463 ; tombs of, 4 5 269 ; transformations of gods and men into, 241, 243*, 462 7 , 464, 464*. 1 ' Animism, among Kizilbash, 149", 151, among primitive Turks, 133-4; among Yuruks, 105, 132. 157; 2 Annunciation, birds at, 384 ; see also Tenos. Ano Loutza, stone cult at, 213. Ant of Solomon, 313*. Ante-dated legends, see pre-Christian, pre-Mohammedan. An tenor, l at, 8i . 2 Angaua, Rabbi Ephraim, 289 461". bells, &c., Angels, keep away, 188-9, , grave of, 306*. Anthropology of Asia Minor, 124-5, 157-8. 5 l . Anthropomorphism, of caves, 89 222-3; by Christians and Turks, , Ak Elven's tekke at, 505; ambiguous* cures in Armenian church at, 67, 67 3 Amorium identified with, 712; Amru'l Kais buried at, 712-14; Augusteum of, 27*, 713-14; Bairami dervishes at, 504, 1 5i3 7" * 7H; Bektashi not at, 513; Belkis at, 713*, 749, 749*; Bozuk Angora (Ancyra), ' ; near, 481; Bula Khatun's tomb 8 29, 67, 67*, Julian at, 1 at, stone 181-2; column of 4 713, 749, 749 ; gate- 325> 3 2 5 "S 449*; 'burning at, Haidar-es- Haimaneh Angora vilayet, Bektashi in, 500, 502-6 Ancestor i~89 654*; 231'. $65*. Ananias, see Jerusalem. Anaselitza, Bektashi in, 526-8. Anatolia, type of Bektashi saint 501, 5oi 2 charms at, 23 1 , Sultan near, 52; 481; Husain Ghazi the human saint 245-6, 246*; of 2 I92 ; in popular of canonization, 192*; rivers, 149', 2 659 ; of serpents, 246; of springs, 2 105-6; of stones, 89*, 179, I92 1 1 1-12; haunted of fish, place, ; among Yuruks, Antioch of 132. Pisidia, false * survival' near, 209, 209*. Antioch of Syria, ambiguous cult at, l 2 5 5 > 735 Crusaders at, 32 i , 714*; fish sacred at, 245'; Rihanli Turkomans ' ' Index Claude S. of, Anzaghar, see Andahar. Aoutshar, sub-tribes, of Jerid Turkomans, 481 of Rihanli, 480. 1 Apa, nomad Kizilbash near, I4I ; . Apollo, combats with, 59; on mountain 2 tops, 329*; sailors' god, 348 ; 'survivals' of cult of, 61-2, 107, 329 3 Apollonia Pontica, 178. Apollonius of Tyana, sec Belinas. Apoplexy, cured by shoes, 266. Apostles, tomb at Constantinople of, 9 40, 4o ; transference of temples to 1 Christianity by, 6 ; Twelve and Ilusciin 722, ' ' * 427-8, 4 27 Arab', Candia statue thought an, 188, T88 1 , 190, 734; Delikli Baba an, 4 2 89*, 223; devil as, 1892, 367 73O , 1 in folk734; female, 220, 733, 733 ; lore and hagiology, 730-5, 730*, 1 2 3 4 in geographical 73 l3 > 73 2l > 733 nomenclature, 730, 730*, 733; Moors 4 as, 73 1 ; negroes as, 730-5, 730*-*, 3 4 1 Tower at Rhodes, 730, 73O1 , 73 733; see also jinn, S. Barbaros. . ; . , " ; ' ; . Ardenitza, milk-charm at, 191. Areopolis, curative column at, 196. Argaeus, Mount, Ali and Mohammed made, 102; Ararat identified with, 369; dragon on, 644; gold plant from, 644, 645, 645*; Gridley's ascent of, 643-5, 645* ; mooring-rings 3 3 on, 284 ; Sidi Battal on, io2 , 710. Arab (Kara) Baba, mountain, 733. Arab Euren, meaning of, 733. Arab Hisar, see Alabanda. Arab Sultan, Sheikh, promoted jinn, 734734. in . Argonautic expedition, 304. Argyrokastro, Ali Pasha's influence at, 4 541; Bektashi at, 537, 537 , 5392, 2 to Islam conversion of, 541, 567 ; 591 Hasan Baba and Mustafa Baba 189-90, 189*. Arabissus, Seven Sleepers near, 318. Arabkir, Al Albruk and, 314, 314*; Arab Baba above, 733; Bektashi Arab-oglu, of, meaning of name, 3*95-* ; visited, 541; khalife at, Arian tribe, prophylactic . grave 231'; 734. Kahriyeh (and Zeinab), Ghazi, Jafer Baba, Jafer ibn . 4 '5 tekke at, 5i3 8 Mesjidi, Fatiina a . life Plato graves by, 4i3 Arafat, 625*. Aranitas, Bektashi baba at, 543. Arapli near Benderegli, 'ambiguous* tombs at, 88-9, 575. Arapli, Yuruk tribe, 475, 476. 3 Ararat, Lesser, io4 Mount, 369. 1 Arba, gigantic grave of, 306 Archaeologists, as ethnologists in Asia Minor, 124-5; as treasure-hunters, 642-3. Archangels, among Kizilbash, 145. Architecture, of Albanian tekkes, 538; of Byzantine columns, 624-5; of Cordova mosques, 728; of Konia wedresehs, 94; of Seljuk inrbes^ 13. 5 Archway, boss over, 203 - ; ; Umm 3 "4 2 6; Moorish, see Husain, Mohammed's sister, Sidi Ghazi, Haram, Suhayb, Wahabi); S. Louis venerated by, 1 442, 442 , 443, 4455 Socrates venerated by, 364^; stones thrown on Prcveza, Arabia, gold plant in, 64 5 1 grave in, 252 Arabian Nights, statues in, of, Husain Jamisi), 736-40, 73&f, 737 , 738 Apprentices girded, 608-9. 3 April 23rd, festivals of, 239*, 320, 66o Aqueduct, of (Turkish) Athens, 63940; nymphaea of, 428; of rival lovers, 2 4 5 747-8, 747 749~5; of Smyrna, Arab Zade, promoted ;mw, 2 mosque Hasan . ~ 3^4 > Kais, Bilal, Constantinople (Eyyub, ' ~ gos killed 'divine' for, 363; saints are early heroes, 278 (see Abd-el-Wahab, Abu Sufian (Sufian), Amiri, Amru'l Smyrna. a J7 Missis 145, 335, 571; see 2 3 Apostolides, Mr. P., 532, 766 of the Red, Apple, Prophecy by 2 1 Moors; at Palermo, i7 , 249 . Constantinople, 2 venerated ; Aphrodite, S. Catherine and, 240. also (historical), Aristotle ; Constantine Palaiolo5 by, 234 , 731; at Consee stantinople, Constantinople; Doitsi killed by, 731; graves in Asia Minor of, 235-6, 702-16; Hasan el Merabet a sailors' saint for, 343 2 kurban by, 259-61, 259 12 , 261* ; and, 25% 73. Twelve Imams, 777 Arabs 322*; S. George at, 321*; S. Simeon Stylites near, 480; possible E e 537\54ibaptism of, Index 778 Lampedusa Ariosto, in, 757*. 'ambiguous* cults Aristotle, of, if, 72, 364'- Ark, wood of the, 3 10, ro , 258; see also Noah. and tarasque, 657*. Armasha, 'ambiguous* cult at, 67. Armenia(ns), Afshars of Taurus are, 156; Blessing of Waters by, 385-7, 1 "1 3 386 , 388; bole (kil ermeni), 67i , Arlesians 674; at Caesarea, 399*; Cilicia in medieval kingdom of, 301, 7501 conversion to Islam of, 155, I55 6 , ; 158, 156*, I58 1 , 469, 469*; earth brought to S. James's, Jerusalem, by, 684* ; Forty Martyrs of Sebaste among, 393, 393*, 399*; hare tabu, 4 5 ; Husain's head and, 146; 243, 243 * Khidr among, 145, 335, 335', 570-1 ; Kizilbash and, 142, 148, 151, 155, 4 3 156, I56 , 157, 571; kurban, 8o , 2I8 1 , 259, 261, 261*; Kurds and, 140, 155, 155*, 571; Mevlevi and, 619*; Mohammedan shrines and, 50; patriarchs of, at Rurnkale, 53*; S. George among, 335 1 , 571'; S. 1 -1* Sergius among, i45>.335> 335 * S? 2 571 ; 1 750 ; Semiramis in folk-lore seventy virgin missionaries stones 399* ; carried by, of, to, 2oi l ; Tarsus belonged to the kings of, 301 ; of church wrongly transference by, 19*; transference of by, 76*; see also Angora, Armasha, Bezirieh, Burunguz, Cae- alleged mosque sarea, Damascus, Dar Robat, Ech- miadzin, New Julfa, Nicosia, kale, Urfa. Armenios, King, 247-8. Armourers, 224. Armudlu, hot baths of, saints of, 466-8, 466*' Rum- Thomas), Konia, Marsovan, Okhrida, Pergamon, Rhodes, Sofia, Yannina: motives of, 36-7, 60: results in7 closing the church, 21-4, 25* , 26, 5 22 , 24, 27, partial compromises, 22, secularization, see success, 23-5, secularization. Arta, Bridge of, 732*; passing through pierced stone and rag-tying at, 183, 183* ; rival lovers at, 748. Artemis, Lemnian earth and, 672, 673> 685, 687* ; S. Nicolas no 'survival* of, 388; spring sacred to, 108. Arthur, King, 465. Art-type, see eikonography. Ascension, of Christ, and Thessalian Olympus, 329*; of Mohammed, 629: see also Jerusalem. Ascetics, see hermits. Ashik Pasha, buried at Kirshehr, 494; George of Hungary on, 494, 496; love-troubles cured by, 280*, 496. Ashik Pasha Zade, historian, date of, 6 ; Haji Bektash in, 488-9; from Kirshehr, 341", 488. Asia, Central, ancestor worship in, 337; tribal names of Anatolia in, 6 128, I28 . Asia Minor, anthropology of, 124-5, *5 6 > 1 S&> 157-8; Arab graves in, 235-6, 702-16; Christian cults of early date in, 4, 377; conquest by Turks of, 3; Cretan Moslems in, 488 534J crypto-Christians in, 125, 46973; Khidr in, 328-9; von Luschan on, 124; under Seljuks, 377; Shia Iranian Turks in North-West, 140; Shia movements and propaganda 167-74; 'survivals' commoner in Syria than in, 114. Asim Baba, Bektashi saint, 541, 542, in, 4*8 ; 108, 466; 'survival* 2 567 Asklepios (Aesculapius), Amynos rea Cosmas and 60, ceived', 565 Damian succeeded, 6892 incubation to, 268, 689, 690*, 691, 692-3, 695; 2 2 268, 689 'survivals' of, 107, io7 Aspendus, Belkis's palace at, 749; bridge at, 749; nymphaeum of - ' at, 467. Arpat-sheikhli, Arrested Yuruk sub-tribe, 476. : ; pillar-cult at Cairo, 195, 215-16, 2i6 2 ; 2 , 219, 2i9 ; transference of mosques, 2O 1 : of rural sanctuaries of Christians, 56, 60, 70: of synagogue, 41 : of urban sanctuaries of Christians agents of, 3 21, 2 1 , 27*, 36, 71: examples of, see Adalia, Akhisar, Aleppo, Alessio, Athens, Batron, Bey rut, Constantinople (S. Francis), Jerusalem (S. . , aqueduct at, 428; rival lovers at, 747% 75Ass, of Balaam, 463'; of Mohammed, 8 3i3 of Queen of Sheba, 313*. Assib (Gezib), Mount, 713. 3 Assiut, S. Claude and, 322 ; . Index 3 Assos, agora in, 428 Assumption, see August i5th. Asterios, bishop, 101. Astrology, conquests and, 203*, 753; Persian ambassador's fears because of, 203*; Plato's observatory at Athens, 15-16, at Konia, 15-16, 364, 365; Turkish delight in, i&. Astronomy, well for, 364, 364*. Atabyrios, see Zeus. 3 Ataira, Mount, 32Q At-alan, Altji Yuruks near, 475. Athena, Poseidon and, 59. Athens, ambiguous cult of a iekke at, 584; aqueduct of Turkish, 639-40; arrested transference at, 28-9; 'Baba of a cave at, 222; bath haunted by Nereids at, no 3 ; Bektashi at, 584, 584*; Blessing of . ' ' 1 Waters kish, 384 at, 2 ; 220-3, 22 4 ; Erechtheum's 116; Ibrahim's tekke at, 1 Jesuit missionaries in, id ; sanctity, I3 I > Kara Baba at, 12, 12*, 255-6, 733*: Mohammed the Conqueror's sword 229; Odeum at, 640; Olympieum in, at, 199, 3 on, 329 . Atik,Valideh, mosque of, 273,327,327^ Attala, Altji Yuruks near, 475. 2 Attarin, mosque of, 2i9 . 5 Attica, rival lovers in, 747 d'Aubusson, Grand Master of Rhodes, . 652. August, panegyris on Mt. Tomor in, 2 548, 54S August 6th (Transfiguration), Athos 3 3 and, 329 388, 388 685*; Lemnian earth and, 675, 676, 677, 68O 1 , 685, . 324% 636-40; oriental know5 ledge of, 15, I5 ; Parthenon at, 5 3 l 13-16, i4 , 75 , i8i 755; pierced stone cult at, 183-4; Plato and, 15, , 5 , , 685'. August 1 5th (Assumption), 66, ioo3 , 101, 132, 680 1 cave-cults in TurJ 779 2 and, 440 , 441 ; Saracen influence on foundation of, 381; Temptation of Christ and, 685 5 ; Turkish treatment 3 of, 7 , 29; Xeropotamou monastery 8 on, 394 ; Zeus the cloud-gatherer . 100, . Aulashli, Aurelian, Turkoman and tribe, 479. solar cults, 329 3 . 2 Auspicious day, Friday, 272-4, 32 7 , 7 357-8, 694 ; Saturday, 182*, 529, 2 694'; Thursday, 32 7 , 694'; Wednesday, 529. Auspicious number, forty, see s.v.; seven, 309, 7363 three, 272 4 , 275-6; 3 twelve, 736 Austro-Hungary, Bektashi iekkem^^i. ; . Turkoman , 16; Propylaea at, 28-9; rain7 prayer in, 63-4, 324 ; SS. Anargyri's church made Bektashi Iekke at, 584, 584*; S. Demetrius Loum- Auzarli, bardieris Avlona, see Valona. Avranoz, see Evrenos. Azbi Chaush, Misri Efendi and, 517. Az-ed-din, Christian leanings of, 370-1. i5 (the 'Bombardier') at. 28-9, 221 ; S. John of the Column at, 3 2 S. 195-6, I95 , 197, 2i6 , 265; Nicolas's church at, 6i 3 S. Philothea secularized at, 452*; forgotten mosques at, 76'; talismans against plague at, 194; 'tomb of Cimon', 221-2, 224*; Tower of the Winds at, s 2 3 1 , 12, i2 255-6, 13, I3 , 229, 232 733* ; transferences to Islam at, a 13-!^ 75S 5 8 4, 5 8 4 ; tribe, 480. 2 Aveyron, de Gozons and, 658, 659 Euchaita and, 48. Avghat, . Avjilar, sacred springs at, 105. Turkoman tribe, 480. Azerbeijan, ancestor worship in, 337, 338; Turkish dialect spoken in, 129. Azedinli, - , . Athos, Mount, Armudlu saints' relics at, 466; dedicated to Transfigura5 3 founder tion, 329, 388, 388 , 685 as benefactor or restorer on, 382; 3 during Greek Revolution, 7 , 29; Lemnian earth and, 678, 685*; repentant renegades went to, 455; sacrilege by Turks punished on, 14*; S. Athanasius of, 31 2 4 ; S. Barbaros 1 S. John the Russian uf, 88 , 734 ; Baal, prophets of, 59. Baalbek, Belkis and, 749*; built by 2 jinns for Solomon, 194^ 200*, 28o ; 4 stone 2oo at, 200, ; 'pregnant' treasure hidden at, I945 . Baba, Bektashi ; E e 2 581; saint, eponymous 433 3 , 533, 567, ancestor, 338; head (sheikh) of a Bektashi tekke, 162, 164, 165, or of a tribe, 164, 338; nameless saint in general, 256, and in particular at Athens, 222, on Ida, 100, 132, 282-3, and at Lectum, 344~6, 345 s , 343, 350, Index ;8o Baba Dagh, Baba Saltuk 8 433> 5?6 founded S. Elias ; at, 134, 340, Bektashi tckke 523; 432-3; at, by Bayezid II, and dragon at, 434*; Sari Saltik at, 430, 432, 433, 523, 576*; colonized, 432-3, 576* ; transference from Christianity al- Tatars 147; father of Ali Eftar, 512; 5th 163, 512; Kizilbash patron, 163; virgin birth of, 146, 155, 162*. Bakmaja, healing spring at, 269-70. Bakri Baba, Bektashi saint, 508. Imam, Balaam, ass gigantic of, 463*; tomb of, ' Balchik in Rumania, ambiguous* cult 2 -4 at, 90-2, 9 o , 92*, 523, 580, 580'; incubation at, 91, 267; ostrich eggs leged at, 43 2 -4. Sultan, tekke at, 103, 103*. Babel, tower of, 317, 317*. Bachka, Bektashi tekke at, 548. Baba Back-ache, 3" cured by column, , - Badjazze (? Baias), 480, 481. Bagdad, Abu Hanifa buried at, 716; Bektashi tekke at, 514; Daniel buried 3 3oi ; gate walled up after con4 quest of, 753; Kasini buried at, i6 ; Khidr-S. George at, 326, 326*; Kizil- at, Cerchi 150; Maaruf buried at, 445; Christianity of, 92, 580, 58O . Balchik in Thessaly, mosque transferred at, 76*. Balia, village of Kirklar near, 392*. Bal Kiz, courted by King of Serpents, 749; perversion of Belkis, 749. charm against evil eye, 203, 203% 271*, 654*; divination with, 271-2, Ball, to, Abu Daher Manzur-el-Halaj martyred at, 527*; Noah's daughter's memorial at, 325*; Suleiman the Magnificent s 3 siege of, 707 , 716. Baghevi, Imam, cures by petrified horses of, 81-2, 82 l , 196, 266, 292; derivation of name, 82*; Kadri, 292; obscure saint, 282*, 292. Baghje, Bektashi tekke at, 529, 530. Bagthur in Khorasan, 82 Balli Baba, Bektashi 3 Balsamon, Th., 33 1 . Bahaderlu, Turkoman tribe, 480. Baias, see Badjazze. Baiburt, Kizilbash in, 142. Baindir (Bayandir), Turkoman tribe, 480; village and Yuruk tribe, r28. Baines, Sir T., 422*. Bairakdar, vizir, killed by Janissaries, 614, 619. 3 Bairam, among Bektashi, zoo , 561 ; kurban with deer at, 231, 231', 461, 461*. Bairam, Haji, see Haji Bairam. Bairami order of dervishes, at Angora, 54> 5*3 7 Il2 7 J 4; at Husain 2 Ghazi, 504, 7 1 1 ; saints Akbeyik Sultan, 509, Haji Bairam, 567*, Husain Ghazi, 504, 7ii 2 2 Bajileh, sacred grove at, 239 on bread Baking Sundays a typical . . sin, 465*. in an oven, to avert measles, 78; to cure fever, 78*. Bakir, Mohammed, Bektashi Imam, 4 554; concealed in cauldron, 78 , saint, 532-3, 767. . Baluchistan, Persian, volcano of Forty 1 Baking to 2 3 1 bash pilgrimage 232; impending transference at, 195 in > 395 7 Balukisr, healing - Bektashi demon tekke at, in tree at, 176. 510; Balukli, double legend at, 248, 248% 1 249 ; fish sacred at, 244, 244% 246% 249 incubation and medical treatat, 693; palace of Pegai at. 1 ; ment 1 249 ; sick children sold to saint at, 8 1 3 ; 'survival' improbable at, 249; Syrian version of legend of, 248. Balum Sultan, celibate Bektashi saint, 3 53> 54Balum (Balle) Sultan, Bambyke, sacred fish J 63 tekke of, 551. at, 244. Banias, Khidr-S. George at, 320*. Baptism, charm for Jews and Mohaml 3 6 medans, 31-4, 32 , 33 , 36, 63. - Barakli, Yuruk tribe, 477. Barbarossa, see Khair-ed-din. Barlaam and Joasaph, legend of, 464, 464'. Barmash, Bektashi tekke near, 545. Barn, haunted, 43. Barnabas, gospel of, 471*. Bartarza, sacred fish at, 245'. Barthschum passa, saint, 496. Baruch, Bektashi tekke in, 545. Barugunde, Bektashi tekke at, 512. Basin of miraculous water at Meron, 626*. Basra, 627*. Hasan buried at, 538 1 , 627, Index Bat, origin Beduin: of, 289*. 3 Bath, 'ambiguous' cults at, 107, joy , x 1 08, 468, 68o ; of Armudlu, 108, 466, 468; Beduin bathe in Pharaoh's, 1 393* ; of blood, 2 iS ; built for charity, 228; church transformed into, 38, 39, no-ii; of Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, 393, 393'; haunted by 'arabs' (jinns), no, no2 , 203*, 351, 1 732 , and by peris, 109-10, 109*, no2 , 268; healing saint at, 39, 39*, 3 1 no-ii, no , in ; human victim in foundations of, 265*; incubation in, io9 109, formed 3 , 268; into, 41 ; synagogue transDede perhaps Yildiz canonized spirit of, 40. Bath town, Prince Bladud's cure 462% 686. Batron, James arrested (S. at, 26, 26 l . 3 48 1 tribe, 3 478. Bayandir, see Baindir. Bayezid I (1389^402), girding of, 606; wars of, 171, 606, 7 1? 4 Bayezid II (1481-1512), at Baba Dagh, . 432-3; and Halys bridge, 96*; and Chelife, 169. . 549; Sari Saltik's foot-print at, - . Turkoman Beherli, tribe, 479. (Besna), Rishvan Turkonear, 138. Behlul of Samarkand, Bektashi saint, Behesneh mans 512. Behlul Baba, Bektashi saint, 544. Beisgitli, Afshar sub-tribe, 482. Beit Jala (' Booteshallah'), dangerous . Bekdeli, Turkoman tribe, 480. Bekir Efendi, built Kiatorom tekke, 546. Bektash, etymology of word, 126, 575*. Bektash, Haji, see Haji Bektash. saint, 544-5. Bektashi order of dervishes 2 Abdul Hamid and, 539, 62o 2 Abdul Mejid and, i6o 539 in Ala ; , bania, 161, 438-9> 438 51, Ali 581-2 Imam ; 500-1, 536Albanian Serbia, 525 ; l among, 93% i66 , 554, 560; ; , in at Pasha and, see Ali Pasha ambiguous sanctuaries, 564-96 babas among, see (BektashH hierBairam among, 100 561 ; archy (sacred) books among, 556, 5613 Brotherhood of Rum, 506, 5o6 Christ and S. Charalambos among, Ali ; ' , ; ; Bazuft, Turkomans near, 48 1 of ConBeads, Crypto-Christians 2 stantinople make, 474 of dervishes in turbes, 229, 273, 357; divination 3 with, 27i ; of Hasan Babu, 357; of Sultan Orkhan, 22Q 3 5 Bear, suggests a remedy, 686 3 . ; . . 3 Beatrice, fairy ancestress, 632 'of the World', Beauty, sleeping, 745; . - Becket,Thomas a, canonization of,2i7*. El Bedawi, Sheikh (Said Ahmed), birth 2 of, 663, 663 ; tombs at (a) Tanta, with 663-70, levitation, 667, and liberation of captives, 666 1 , (b) s Tripoli of Syria, 663 , with Balukli miracle, 248, sacred fish, 245, 245'-, 246*, 248, and tilted cap, 294-5. Bcdidun (Podandus), see Bozanti. Bedr-ed-din of Simav, rebellion 377, 568-9. 749. of, Beg, meaning of, 338. Beggars, Abdal Yuruks a caste of, 128. Beginnings, dangerous, 184, 203*, 259; kurban for, 224, 259-60, 259" 12 ; 186, 435- 74i bath, buried buried on to mountain- tops, io4 3 Bees, Belkis daughter of Queen * Bazaar Shiakh, Bektashi pilgrimage to, Pharaoh's : . Yuruk tribe, Hasan in Bektash Baba, Bektashi . Baxis, bathe 393*; make offerings sheikhs, 338*; sheikhs for Turks, 22 5 of S. transference Stephen) at, Battal, real person, 714*. Batum, conversion of Armenians at, 46 9 Bawai, Turkoman 78 ; 83 5 : . Christians, adopt saints of, : ' , : 2 2 tashi and, 83*, 84, 93 , 94, 548 : retraces in garded as saints by, 72 2 Bektashism, 436 : see also (Bektashi) : usurp ; of, 165 ; communion 2 7 i6o , i5i ; in Constantinople, 1 '3 der405% 516-18, 516''", 5i8 ; vishes, see (Bektashi) hierarchy ; divorce among, 555, 555' ; Bektashi Pages', doctrines, in brotherhood of man, 538, 554-6*2 553. 556-8, 562, 594: Christians circumcision of, * of, some 437-8: converted to, 439, 500-1, 535, 581-2 friendly with, 166, 2 3 66 288, 436, 493% 55^ 562> 585mu6, see (Bektashi) ambiguous tual identification of saints by Bek- : Index 782 Bektashi order of dervishes (contd.) doctrines (contd.) preferred to Sunnis, 288, 493* : community of goods, 568 : girdle's 1 mystic importance, 6I2 : graded, 165-6 : heretical to Sunnis, 422 Hurufi in character, 488, 493 : lati2 metemtudinarian, 72, 589, 589 2 psychosis, 570, 57o , 585: patriotism, 539 549, 552, 553, 55^, 562 : Per: : sian in character, 160, 565, 566: religious fusion, 377-8, 433-4, 438, $68 ; dress, ornaments, 28 7 409*, 541 3 : taj, 277, ; Fadlullah founded, 160, 565 ; fasts 3 of, 559, 56 1 ; feasts of, ioo , 561 ; geographical distribution of, in Albania, see s.v. : in Asia Minor, 142-3, 161, 502-13 : in Austria551 ; in Bulgaria, 522-3, Hungary, 3 525 : in Constantinople, see s.v. : in fegypt, 5i4-i6: in Greece, 525-36: . in Mesopotamia, 165, 514 : in Rumania, 523 : in Serbia, 523-5 : in Turkey in Europe, 501, 518-22 ; at Girding of Sultans, 612, 6i2\ 3 2 5 6i6 ; hare tabu among, 241-2, 242 hierarchy of abbots (babas, sheikhs), heads ; oftekkes, 162, 164, 165, 537-8: qualifications and appointment of, 161, 537*> 557-8, 561-2: service with 3 troops of, 281, 28 r 3 adherents, 164, i64 , 507 ; dervishes, Albanians numerous among, 161 : appointment and train; 3 history of, foundation, 83, 160, 488, 565: Janissaries associated with, see Janissaries: Mohammed Kuprulu persecuted, 422, 612: Sultans associated with, 160, 502, 613, 6i63 , 619, &c.: Young Turks voted for by, 595, 620* ; Hurufi and, 6o l , 488, 493, 565; associated Janissaries Janissaries ; with, Khidr among, see 57, 330-1 , - 1 ; Kizilbash and, 142-3, 335. 57 152, 157, 161, 162-3, 500, 570; Mahmud II attacked, 160, 502, 619, &c.; marriage among, 555, 560; Mevlevi rivalry with, 612, 612*' 3 , 3 6i63 , 621-2; Nakshbandi and, 2 83', 503, 54i, 567> 567 , 572; name, Yunuz a favourite, 581; Nevruz 6i3 , 4 among, 561 Pages', 552-63 patriotism inculcated by, 539, 549, 552, ; ; 553* 55 6 ' 5 62 ; pilgrimages of, 436, 2 4 , 549* 584, 5 8 4 ; political tendencies of, 377, 438, 539, 552, 568-9, 436 AH Pasha, Janissaries); 559-60; promiscuity alleged of, 165; propaganda, 161, 3 3 4 432 433-4, 236, 340, 429, 429 434-7, 5 OI 52, 564-9 6 ; Ramazan among, 559; ritual, 275; saints, 'abdals' claimed as, 567: Albanian buried away from living3 rooms, 538: baba as, 433 , 533, 567, 581: Christian and Bektashi identi- 586-96 (see prayers of, 165, " . ' ' a 2 83% 84, 93 94, 548 Christians adopt some, 437-8: dead Christians accepted as, 72: founders of tekkes as, 165: types of, 339-41, 5 OI 53 7 > ABDAL see * Abbas fied, , : ing of, 557 celibacy of, 163, i63 , 1 I64 , 28V, 503, 517, 528, 535, 547, 557 : head-dress of, 277, 409*, 541 : 1 marriage of, 162, 162*, 164, I64 , Ali, MURAD, 579: ABDAL MUSA, Abdi Bey, Abdullah, Abiddin, Ahmed, Aidin, Aine Ali, 557: 5 J 7 5 2 4, 5 2 7, 535> 547, 55 residence in tekkes of, 165 : service Akbeyik Sultan, Akhi-evren, Akyazili, Ali, Asim, Bakri, Balli, BALUM, with Janissaries 501-2; Behlul, Bektash, Binbiroglu Ahmed, Cadid, Dede, Demir, Dikmen, DURMISH, Elias, EMINEH, Emrem, Erbei, : of, 490, 502 : types of, khalifcs, 507, 510, 535, 537*, 541, 542; initiation of, 164-5, 2 276-7: rules for, 556-8, 556 : members, 3 '4 i64 , subdivisions of, Superiors, Chelebi; * 503, 506, 506*, 514; see Akhi Dede, The names of more important abbots who are when dead. still alive Fazil, Gani, GEYIKLI, Ghazi, Gul, Gulgul, Hafiz, HAIDAR, Haji Adem, Haji Ahmed, HAJI BAIRAM, HAJI BEKTASH, Haji Hamza, Haji Husain, Haji Khalil, Hajim Sultan, Haji Suleiman, Hamid, HASAN, Husain, A saints are indicated by capital letters. few are included in the list, as they will be canonized Index Ibrahim, Inje, Islam, Ismail, Jafer, Jelal, Jemal, KAIGUSUZ, Kamber, KARAJA AHMED, Kasim, . church ass SARI ; 537-8: architecture of Albanian, 538: 'base' in, 274-7: description of, 165, 274-7, 538: 1 destroyed in 1826, 506, 508, 5O9 , 4 5"> 5i3% 5i7> 5*8, 5*8 , 519, 521-2, 3 526, 527, 530, 532-3, 567, 579 3 development of, 531, 53 1 founders considered saints, 165: incubation of, 162, 164, 165, : : 529, 55, 267, 91, mosque 545: pillar in, 275-6, 527, 2 567, 507 : 271, in, 197, 274-7, 519*; theology of, AH preferred to Mohammed, 145, I661 554, 560: Imams of, 554, 560: Jafer Sadik , patron of, 163, 554, 560: principles of, 165-6; tribal connexions of, 565-6, 565 2 : see Haidar, Haji Bektash, Karaja Ahmed, Sari Saltik, Yatagan Baba; usurp, Christian cults, 53*, 54-5, 70, 409, 409*, 520-1, 564-96, methods 2 of, 564-5, 565 , 570-1 : Mohammedan cults of other orders, 404-5, 505*, 516, 565, 567: popular saint cults, 53i> 53 l3 tribal saints, 565-7, 565*; wine drunk by, 165; women unveiled among, 165, 555; Young ' Turks voted for by, 595, 62o2 Bektashler, village, 510*. and cuckoo 3i3 of, 5 ; in castle legends, 749-50; gold plant and, 645*; sites associated with, 713*, 1 4 749, 749 Bell, attracts evil spirits and repels angels, 189*. Belly pains, cured by Imam Baghevi, * SALTIK, Selim, Sersem AH, Shahin, Shahkuli, Shemsi, SHEMS TABRIZI, SIDI GHAZI, Sidim, Suja-ed-din, Suleiman, Tahir, Talib, Teslim, Turabi, Turbe AH, Urian, Yaman AH, Yatagan, Yunuz, Yusuf, Zeynel; Shias and, 83% 165, 166, I66 1 , 2 277; statistics, 161, i6i ; Sunnis 2 and, 83 , 288, 493*, 502, 540, 544, 549 Takhtajis and, 142, 158, 500, 507; tekkes of, abbots (babas, sheikhs) in, at, 25. Belinas (Apollonius of Tyana), bath of, 366*; manipulation of water by, 283^, 366', 367. Belkis (- Balkis), Queen of Sheba, ed-din, Nefes, Nejib, Niazi, Nuri, Nusr-ed-din, Ohad, Patuk, Piri, Ramazan, Resul AH, Rifaat, Risk, Rustem, Said AH, Said Jemal, Sali, Ismail, village, 341, 1S-U Kolu Achik Hajim, Kosum, Koyun, Kurd, MANSUR-EL-HALAJ, Mehemet AH, Melek, Memi, Merhum, Merizat, MIMI, Mohammed Shah, Muharrebe, Munir, Musa, Mustafa, NASIBI, Nasr- Sari ; 34I Bel and the Dragon, 293 a , 655 1 Belgium, S. Eustace in, 464. Belgrade, giants' bones protect gate at, 654*; partial transference of Khalil, Khidr, Kiafi, Kiazim, Kilerji, Kili, Kizil Deli, Koja Mir Akhor, Koji, Sanjakdar AH, 783 Bektashli, tribe, 143, 341 l 82, 82 . Belon, and Lemhian earth, 675-6. Benderegli (Eregli, Herakleia Pontica), 'ambiguous' sanctuary at, 88-9, 575; Beteshler near, 575; Beteshli 14 near, 34 i ; Ghazi Shahid Mustafa buried at, 88-9, 575; passion and burial of S. Theodore Stratelates, 3 47 , 88-9, 575, and of S. Theodore Tiron at, 47 3 , 88, 88 6 ; Varro buried 3 at, 89, 575, 575 Benedictine, S. Gertrude's abbey at 1 Nivelles, 633 ; S. Stephen's at . Batron, 26. Benevento, cult of Forty Saints near, 5 394 Benghazi, Cretan Moslems in, 536*; . Tripolines in Crete from, 535, 536. Berat, Bektashi tekke at, 549; Bektashism of beys of, 540, 54O2 S. ; Cosmas 455 5 590. tribe, 477. of, , Berber, Yuruk Berisha, dropped stone at, 200. Besh Karish, Bektashi tekke at, 510. Besna, see Behesneh. Beteshler (? Bekteshler), near Benderegli, 575. 14 Beteshli, near Haji Bektash, 34 i Bethel, Bethlehem/ of Jerusalem and, 629. ambiguous' cult of Khidr2 George near, 46, 326, 326 ; birthcave of, and Mithraism, 225; column of ordeal at, 633 3 medicinal earth 1 5 from, 682-3, 682 , 683 ; Nativity saved from church miraculously Saracen desecration, 27 5 6 ; stone 7 with imprint of S. Elias near, i86 . S. ; " . . Rock Index Bethshemesh, Samson cult at, 59*. 1 2 Bewitched, fish, 246, 246 ; princess, ' Yunuz Emrern Sultan buried near, 504, 504*; Persian propaganda at, 172 ; wall walks at, 489*. Yuruk , 6 25 bleeding crucifix at, 25**, 462' ; chain for madmen at, 6693 column cures back-ache at, I95 3 , 32I 1 ; ; ; dragon, princess, and S. George at, s 1 3 2 1 , 66o ; incubation to saint of cape of, 691*; Khidr has usurped S. George's day at, 320; transference to Islam at, 23% 25*, 31; travellers invoke S. Nicolas of, 35o4 Beyshehr, Bektashi tekke no longer at, . 513; lake at, 283, 366, 399*. Turks and Christians Bezirieh, fre- quent S. Chrysostom's at, 67. 2 Bibbeh, bread offered to Nile at, 343 ; 3 repair church at, 45, 45 Bible, see Gospel, New Testament, . Pentateuch. history, cults and legends modelled on, 33 6 , I97 3 , 329*, 380, 1 2 387-8, 388, 390, 445, 463 , 527 681. .< Bicher, Goat Castle near, 744-. Biglishta, Hayati tekke Kapishtitza near, 528; 539; at, Kuch Ahmed at, 430, 577. Bektashi Baba, i69 . Black Sea, mooring rings near, 284, s 284 ; Seven Sleepers protect shipping 1 of, 204 ; superstitious fears roused by dangers of, 304, 313, 346, 347, 4 347 Black Stone, of Kaaba, 179, 181, 214; . of Daniel's tomb, 214-15, 215'-*. Black Virgin, at Liesse, 667. Bladud, Prince, guided by animal to & cure, 462 686. , Blaizeau, Pere, Jesuit missionary, 16*. Blasphemy, martyrdom for, of Christ among Turks, 454; of Christ or S. 5 Charalambos among Bektashis, of Islam, 453*, 454, 4545 . ; Blatza, Bektashi tekke at, 551. Bleeding, Crucifix of Beyrut, 25% 462' hosts, 462'; ikon of Our Lady, 14; ; 4 '5 , 213. Blessing of the Waters at Epiphany, 2 32 , 384-90. Blindness, caused by Pambuk Baba's trees, 175, I75 curse, 96; typified by binding, 668. 5 Blois, medicinal earth from, 68 1, 68 1 . Blood, eastern superstitions about, 2 3 1 2 216-19, 2I7 , 2I8 ; ghostly guardians of buildings require, 732, 732 ' 2 Binding, of churches, 264 , 666 ; illnesses cured by, 262, 264-5, 2 ^42 > 668. 'Binding' of husbands, cured, 82*. Bir, Karashukli Turkomans near, 138, typified by, 668, 481. Birds, charity at Turkish graves to, 1 3 released 210, 2IO , 226, 251, 25 1 at church festivals, 384^ sacred, ; 2io l , 240; Solomon's army of, 280*. Birket Mamilla, Emir negro buried at, 3 73 1 Birs Nimrud, and Nimrod, 3i7 4 1 Birth, in caves, 225, 225 ; forty critical . days follow, 392; Mithraism and 1-5 ; in kurban, 259, 259 1 , 259", 260, 260% 261, 261% 275; lemon juice and brick dust substitute for, 219, 2i9 saint, 519, 579, 5792. 2 l ' near, 547Bilal the Ethiopian, tombs of, 235, 712. Bilejik, Edeb Ali's tomb at, 235. Binbiroglu Bitisht, Bektashi turbe at, 548. in Sweden, Sari Saltik's Bivanjah 83 dream made Mohammedan mason Biblical 235-6; . , Black Caps, nickname of Georgians, tribe, 476. Beyrut, 'ambiguous' cult at, 669*; Armenian renegade at, 23 8 450; arrested transference of S. Barbara's at, commemorated, and placenta, 225 1 236 1 tomb Beylik Akhor, in Haimaneh, 173*. Beylikli, 225; plane associated with, of, 178, 178'; virgin, 146, 155, 162, 162*. Birth-place, 744, 746-7, 748. Beybazar, caves 2 ; western superstitions about, 1 217*, 2I8 . Bloodstains, indelible at Kuch, 547. Blue objects as milk-charms, i82 4 . Boeotia,Minyans as magician-engineers in, 366-7. Bogatsko, measuring for cure at, 195*. Boghaz Keui, Ala-ed-devlet ancestor of derebeys of, 173; Shahruf buried at, 173- Bogus saints, 351-5; see also cenotaph. Bohemia, medicinal earth from, 68 1 ; Sari Saltik's tomb in, 430, 577. Boils, onions cure, 176. Boini Injeli, Bokhara, Yuruk tribe, 127, 476. Jelal-ed-din from, 167 ; Index Sheikh Mimi from, 588; Nusr-ed-din from, 50. Sheikh 785 miraculously crossed, 285, Bokrat, Arab 346*; froze in 1669, 722*; Giant's Mountain 8 on, 102*, 304, 304". *, 305, 308, 35i ; Boli, Kirklar bed of Herakles on, 304, 308 Joshua name of Hippocrates, q.v. Dagh near, 399. Bona, miraculous Book of Law at, 69 Moors and synagogue at, 69*. Bones, of 'dragons' used as charms and start legends, 203*, 231, 23i 2 2 4 fossilized, Christian 654-5, 654 and Turkish views of, 306, 306*, 401, 4 human attributed to Forty, 40 1 1 ; , " ; ; 314, 309, 400 399-400, 1 , 401, to Mamas, 43, 44, and to Seven, l 309-10, 3io , 314; of Skanderbeg used as charms, 24, 35 6 ; of whales used as charms, 231, 23i 2 8 , 654, 4 654 Book, sacred among Bektashi, 556, 561; buried with dead, 471*; Jewish veneration of, 69*, 471*; Jews and lire-worshippers not People of the S. " . ' Book', 150; among Kizilbash, 143, l 149-50, i5o , 159; of Law at Bona, 69*; Phorkan 202 2 ; among Samaritans, discovers thieves, 150*; in synagogue at Tedif, 471*: among Takhtaji, 150, 159; see also Bible, Koran. Booteshallah, see Beit Jala. Boots, as talismans and relics, 203*, 1 229-30, 230 654*. 2 Bor, church of Seven Martyrs at, 3O9 . Fort cures thin children S. Bordeaux, , . . 2 289 Bosdaghan, . Jerid Afshur sub-tribe, Turkoman sub-tribe, 482; 481; Yuruk tribe, 478. Bosnia, Hazret (Imam) Ali's stone in, a 3 93 > J 97 ; Bektashi tekkcs in, 551; conversion to Islam in, 441; cryptoChristians in, 4742 ; girl-ghazi in, 3 1 742 ; Joseph and Zuleika in, I97 ; 2 "3 stone Ahmed's from, I97 , Karaja 199, 277; S. Elias celebrated by Moslems in, 93 2 S. George, S. Elias, and dragon in, 434; S. Procopius celebrated by Moslems in, 71*. Bosporus, Alexander the Great cut, ; 284; Arnykos giant buried on, 304, living dervish controlled 35S 3^; wind , 308*; 2 s sailors' saints on, 347 , 348 Bosra, flying castle (Kasr Tayaran) at 2 199, I99 6 Boss, amulet on archways, 203 Bosurk (? Bozuk), Pehlivanli Turko. , . . mans in, 481. de Bouillons, Beatrice fairy ancestress of, 632. Bourges, Jewish child and Sacrament at, >]&. Bow, talisman of gate at Kemakh, 4 654 Box, in miraculous liberation, 666, . 2 667, 667 Bozanti (Bedidun, Podandus), Caliph Mamun died at, 301-2, 696-8, 696% . 703- Bozoklu, Turkoman tribe, 163'. Bozuk (Kirshehr), liva of, Kirshehr in, 1 I30 Kizilbash in, 174, 481; Sunni Kurds and Shias in, 173; Turkoman 2 rising in i6th cent, in, i63 ; eiifect on Yuruks of natural conditions in, 136; see also Bosurk. ; City of, in Arabian Nights, 189-90; near Jericho, 303*. Bread, marked with cross by Pontus Brass, Kizilbash, 30; offered to sea-demons, 2 1 2 344-6. 342-3, 342 343 Breshdan, Bektashi lurbe at, 548. Breslau, medicinal earth from, 681. ' 7 i83 2 Border, heroes, 706, 707, 7o8 ; saints, 1 335 702-4. Borrowing of legends, reasons for, at, ; buried on, 993 , 304-8, 305* on, 347; Durmish Dede , , 2 Bride, girded, 6o9 ; kurban for, 259. Bridge, built as charity, 228; stags brought stones for Ilalys, 96. 3 Brigands, negroes as, 73O ; as police- men, 599* ; political power of, 598. Brittany, birds released at church festivals in, 384*; churches bound in, 2 1 264 ; dolmens venerated in, I92 1 of 2 talisman Broom, Nile, 73 Brotherhood, of Man, in Albanian . . Bektashism, 538, 553, 556-8, 562, 594; in Rhigas's beliefs, 594; of Rum (Bektashi), 506, 5o6 a of ; Turkomans, 506, 596*. Brusa, Abdal Murad, buried at, 509: his (Roland's) sword at, 230, 306*, 654*; Akbeyik Sultan buried at, 509; Akchi Baba buried at, 107, T07 3 ; baths at Bekiar Hammam sacked Index 786 Brusa Brusa vilayet (Khudavenkiar), Bek- (contd.) to S. John, 107* : Evliya silent about curative powers of, io88 t haunted, no : Helena miraculously cured at, 686: Kainarja, peris cure at, 109-10, 2 io9 , 268: Kapluja, potent owing to proximity of Murad I's turbe, 106-7: 2 Kara Mustafa Hammam, named from negro, 730 3 Kukurtlu, long : religious pedigree of, 107; Bektashi, formerly numerous, now non-existent at, 508-9, 509 1 , 513: usurped Ramazan Baba's tomb at, 59, 567; tree bleeding = Baba at, I75 Doghlu Baba, Monastir S. =-= Elias, 5 Daghli ; q.v.; q.v.; Daud Doghlu (Daghli) Baba (Yoghurtlu Dede), buried at, 18; Emir Sultan and Eskiji Koja at, 292-3; fish of Ulu 230^; Haji Bektash at Orkhan's 2 incubation at, siege of, 488, 488 Khidr 268; at, 293; Kili, 109-10, ; Sheikh, buried at, 509; Misri Efendi from, 421; rnosques at, Daud, Ulu, qq.v.; Murad I buried at, 106-7, , 234, 234 5 ; Murad II lived as dervish at, 492 2 ; Orkhan, and Bektashi raptured, tomb 488, 3 at, 488*: at, 509: revisits his 2 229 , 5O9 ; Osman buried at, 18, 235; Perl gamon vase at, 6o2 ; plane as talisman at, 178; plough on Murad Fs 2 grave at, 106, 23O Ramazan Baba, Nakshbandi saint usurped by Bektashi at, 509, 567; Roland's (Abdal ; Murad's) sword at, 230, 306*, 654*; sacred from accumulation of saints' tombs, H3 1 ; Elias (Daud Monastir), destroyed after earthquake of 1804, i8 5 Osman buried in, 18: transS. : ferred to Islam, 18; John, Bekiar Hammam claimed as church of, 107*; Timur besieged, 293; transferences to Islam at, 18, 2 io7 ; Virgin of Pursos came miracuS. lously from, 285*; Yoghurtlu Dede, sec Doghlu Baba. in, . s 329 Buda-Pest, Bektashi tekke at, 551, 2 703 ; as Red Apple, 739; Turkish occupation of, 551. 6 Buddha, transformed into hare, 243 . Buddhist prototype, of Barlaam and - Joasaph, 464**; of stag stories, 85', 464 of transformations of men into animal form, 464; of tree stories, 85 3 ; . Budrum (Halicarnassus), castle of S. Peter at Knights of S. John at, s 3 talisman 33 , 203, 654*, 659, 659 inscription of, 203, 654*; trained ; 3 dogs at, 33 , 659, 659 1 Building, Arabs' guard, 351, 732, 732 cross as amulet on partially constructed Mohammedan, 31; kurban for new, 259 ; natural cults without, l transference from Chris98, 98 tianity not tested distinctively by, 75; victim immolated to stabilize, . Geyikli Baba, buried at, 509: planted talisman plane at, 178: rode on stag to siege of, 241, 29O 2 , 46o 5 ; giants' boots amulets for bans at, 5 Yuruks Bubes, Bektashi turbe at, 544. 5 Bucephalus, hoof-print of, 205 Buchon's weakness for 'survivals', 3 Jami sacred, 244; 230*, tashi tekkes in, 508-11; 475> 4?6, 477Brusalu, Sheikh, 588*. ; ' ' ; 4 '5 27, 36, 265, 265", 732, 732 Bujak, Bektashi tekke at, . 529-30; claimed by Christians as monastery of S. George, 530; Greek punished for buying land of, 530; oracle at, 271-2, 529-30. Bukhtiyariwand, 48i Turkoman tribe, 3 . Bulair, Suleiman Pasha and his horse buried at, 235, 269. Bulak, see Cairo. Bula Khatun, kbidrlik called tomb of, Buldur, Yatagan Baba buried near, 340. Bektashi lekkes in, Bulgaria(ns), 3 522-3, 525 ; kurban by, 208; S. Demetrius of Salonica invoked as, 3 344 S. Elias killed dragon in, 434, 6 1 434 ; S. John neo-martyr from, 455 ; S. Nicolas very popular in, 431* Sari Saltik's tomb in, 577 (arid see Kaliakra); Uniates appealed for cure to Greek priest and khoja in, ; ; 78-9. cross checked magic to mosque at, 31. Bugurlu, Christian Index Bull, in kurban, 8o 3 26i , 2 . Bunar Baba, tomb and sacred spring 357-8. Bunarbashi, Plato's river at, 365. Bunar Hisar, 'ambiguous' Bektashi of, tekke at, 519, 579, 579 3 ; inscription in 'Syrian letters' at, 519*. 3 Burburud, Turkomans near, 48i . Burenik, Turkoman tribe, 479. Burhan-ed-din, 'refused* turbe, 228*. 3 mosques, 8, 8 Burinna, well-house, 15. . Yuruk tribe, 476; 127^, distribution of, 128, 476. Burning bush, 358-9, Burning stone, 13-14, , 181, village converted to Islam, 156*. Busbecq, Lemnian earth and, 676, 677. Bush, burning, 358-9, 359*; images found in, 359*. Butcher saint of Alessio, 282*. formed and Virgin Christ Butterflies, into, 464 s from, 52-3, 403, 403 ; Mentish and Haji Bektash at, 489; pierced stone near, 182-3, 183*; S. John Baptist's Armenian church, cures animals, 67, 692*, and is frequented by S. Makrina's cures 67; animals, 269; S. Mamas's passion and ruined church at, 44, 95'; Sidi Battal's mosque at, 710; strongly Turks, Sunni, 513; Turkoman tribes near, 5 479; Yuruks of Adana near, I37 ; once in Zulkadr, I73 1 3 at pilCairn, at graves, 269^, 4i3 20I'\ grimages, 201-2, column from Cairo, mosque of Amr at ; 3 181*. Burunguz, Armenian near, 186; Kurdish tribes summer at, 1 482 ; Mene, wife of Khoja Ahmed, . 359*. 29, 67, 67 ; 269, Burial, Mohammedan generally outside walls of town, 8; speedy, 45 5 , 1 235 , 306*; in turbes but not in Burkhan, 787 incubation of animals at, 67, 269, 6 692*; Jews cannot live at, 22 Joban, Sheikh, print of his hand trans- 5 . Mecca 3 I98 , 623: columns of ordeal in, 623, 633: united prayer for good inundation of the Nile at, in, 198, 64; Bektashi of tekke s Kaigusuz Sultan on Mokattam near, 290-1, 514-16: and at Kasr-el-Aini near, 4 229-30, 514*, 516, 5i6 567; tombs boots and at, 351 bogus shoes as amulets at, 229-30, 23O1 ; , Evliya, followed Zeus Stratios at Ebimi, 6i 8 , 239, 329*. Buyuk Tepe Keui, ancients and Christians but not Turks held sacred a spring at, 108. Buyuk Buza, Sari Saltik and Tatar makers of, 432'- l ; Bulak, see Green mosque (below) column cults, at mosque of Groom, recent but already arrested, 195, 2 2 215-16, 2i6 219, 2i9 in Hasaneyn 2 in mosque of mosque, 219, 2T9 ; : , : Byron, on Karaosmanoglu, 597, 603. Byzantine, arrangement of columns, 624-5; ^ Ge r g e and S. Nicolas in Painters' Guide, 32 1 1 388*; type of Seven Sleepers in Persian art, 3i3 3 , . Cadid, 'ambiguous' cult of Bektashi, 4 580, 5 8o Caesarea (Mazaca), Ahiwiran Baba . from, 505, 505*; Ali Dagh near, 4 101-2, 283; Armenians at, 67, 399 ; 3 buried near, Battal, historical, 7i4 now Battal, Sidi, mosque of, 710; no Bektashi tekke at, 513, 513*; ; Belinas's bath at, 366; 'burning' stone near, i8i 5 ; Everek near, 183, 643; flood-legends at, 369; Forty Virgin Martyrs at, 399-400, 399*, l 4oo ; Haji Bektash and Mentish at, 489; Hasan Dagh near, 100, 339; Kalaun, 219*; corn-plait as amulet in, 233 corpses allowed into mosques at, 83 ; crocodiles as amulets in, 231'; good distributing centre for ideas, 3 i98 ; Esdras's pentateuch preserved at > 47 1 4 ; foot-print of Mohammed at, ; J86 1 gate avoided as unlucky by 4 Green mosque Ali, 753 no 'Frank' Bulak, may draw, ; Mehemet at ; 22 4 Groom's mosque at, see above, column cults; hand-print of Mohammed at, i86 9 Hasan Imam's head 2 in Hasaneyn mosque at, 6i column see above, Hasaneyn mosque, 4 cults; Kadri at, 5i4 , 516; Kaigusuz ; ; ; Sultan buried at, 290-1, 514-16, 4 Kalaun mosque at, see abwe, column cults; Kasr-el-Aini, Bek5i4 ; tashi tekke at, 229-30, 514*, 516 Index 788 Cairo (contd.) 4 5i6 , 567 ; mosque of legitimacy tested Amr at, 623, 633; in life grave at, 252*; Mehemet Ali avoided as unlucky a gate at, 753*; Mohammed's foot-print at, I861 , 9 hand-print at, i86 ; mosques at, see in Amr, Green, Groom, Hasan, Kalaun, Sidi Shahin; Nakshbandi and Kasr- el-Aini tekke of Bektashi, 516, 567; ostrich eggs as amulets in, 232; pulpit for rain-prayers on Mokattam near, 325; saint worship attacked in, 3 S. Barbara's body preserved 1 235 ; S. George, madness cured at church of, 67, 692*, Turks frequent, 67; Sidi Shahin' s mosque, inscribed ring cures at, 202 2 ; underground channel from Zem-Zem to, 3 365 ; shape of vases for ablutions 2 at, 6o2 Cakes, in cave cults by white magic, 221-2. Calabria, medicinal earth from, 681. Calf of Abraham admitted to Paradise, 255 ut, ; 38*, . 3'3 . Caliph, Ala-ed-din representative of, 607; Chelebi of Mevlevi might 2 become, 606-7, 606', 6i8 ; girding of Turkish sultans by, 608, 6o8 6 ; 3 girding with sword of, 6i5 , 616, 616*; see also Abu Bekr, Ahmed IX, Hakim, Mamun, Moawiya, Omar, Omar Abdul Aziz, Osman, Yezid. Camel, boots and shoes as amulets for, el 1 23O ; hoof-print of Prophet's, 186; kurban for, 259"; passing through eye of needle, 625*, 630; Salech's admitted to Paradise, 313*; transfer dead bodies from to cemetery cemetery, 73, 447, 448. Camel-drivers, Farsak and Kachar, i28;Pehlivanli, 138. 2 Candia, Bektashi in, 534, 535, 535' ; Kastron another name of, I88 1 ; Risk Baba, Bektashi gate-saint at, 53 1 3 , 4 S. Catherine's made 535> ^54 mosque at, 27; seven ghazis (one female) buried at, 742'; statue as 'arab' at, 188, iSS 1 , 190, 734; Turks ' ; captured in 1669, 535, 535*. Candles, burned before eikon with cantation, 79; Christians hammedans lit at offer, 42 l , in- and Mo- 4 80, 8i , 575; graves, 82, 258, 275, 359-60, and in tree of Passa, 177; measured and dedicated for cure, I95 6 . Canea, Bektashis in, 534, 535-6; cenotaph and founder's tomb in Mevlevi tekke at, 375-6; Mevlevi strong in, 535; Mustafa Ghazi refused' turbe at, 228 1 Rifai strong 5355 S- Nicolas transferred to Islam at, 27; Tripolines from Ben1 ; m > ghazi in, 535, 536. Cannon-balls, as charms, 203, 203*. Canonization: Christian by anthropomorphism, 2 I92 not of giants or warriors, 306*: : official type of, 217*, 255, 255*, 344, 458: popular type of, 192*, 217*, 2iB l 9 457-8, 459: qualifications for, 217*, 2i8 l ; Mohammedan phism, 40, i92 2 by anthropomorfortuitous, 442, 445: : of founders, 165, 278: of giants and 3 warriors, 99, 99 , 278, 281, 306', 351, 406: healing important for, at Yedi Kule, ii7 3 , 280: of mummy 1 popular in character, 353-4, 354 2 I92 , 255-7, 442: qualifications for, 278-80, 282, 351. Capes, S. Isidore and, 389^ Capitulations, date of early, 723". Cappadocia, Bektashi in, 161; triads of saints in, 4662 ; see Haji Bektash. Capro, offerings to demon of Cape, : 2 1 342-3, 342 , 343 Carbuncles, light buildings, 738, 738*; in Red Apple prophecy, 738, 739. 2 Caret, Abbe, on devils, i89 Caria, demon of Cape Volpo in, 342% . . 344; Forty in. 392, 400-1, 400*; Kirklar place-name in, 392. Carmel, Mount, continuous holiness of, H4 2 ; Mohammedan sailors invoke Virgin of, 348*; S. Elias and, 329", 388. Carnac, penitents raised S. Michael's tumulus at, 201. Carpet, magic in miraculous journeys, 2 231, 285*, 286-7, 28 6 287*; skil, fully made by llarmandali Turk- men, and Zili, 128. ' and Jabberwock ', 49 2 Carthage, Alexander the Great and King of, 284; death and cenotaph Carroll, Lewis, . 4 of S. Louis at, 442, 442 Casalius, on smell and baptism, 32. Caskey,Mr.L. D., 645'. 1 ' . Index and Monte, S. Benedict temple of Apollo on, 329'. Cassino, Castellorizo, woman janissary secured as disguised 2 . 6 3 '4 5 , 723-6, 723 724 , 725 ; forty 3 days' indulgences among, 393 ; prayers arid processions for rain by, - in, 73*, 735 1 224 birth ; ; 5 in, 225, 225 1 ; church in, - hammed's in, 223*; inspiration prison in, 223% 416, 416*; refuge in, 169, 223, 415, 4i5 ; saints connected with: S , s.v.\ S. 735: John at Smyrna, : Seven Sleepers, Mohammedan, see s.v.: see Forty, Kai- Seven Sleepers. 3 Cedars, sacred on Lebanon, 24o gusuz, Sari Saltik, . Celibacy, among Bektashi dervishes, 3 3 1 163, i63 , I64 28; 503, 517, 528, 535* 547; of Haji Bektash, 162, , , 3 ; among Kizilbash, 147; preferred in dervishes and priests, 147, 3 I64 1 , 535 547Cemetery, charity to birds in, 210, 3 2iol 226, 251, 25i ; Christians , , transferred to 'mother of forty- . Cephalonia, dragon-light 66o3 possibly Rogations Cerfroid monastery, legend ; in, in, 648 66oa 1 , . of, 465*. Chaban, Yuruk tribe, 477. Chahar Mahal, Turkomans near, 48i 3 . Chains, at Constantinople in Khoja Mustafa Pasha Jamisi, 389; in cures in general, 668 2 of madness, 3 *4 2 326 , 669, 669 ; dedicated after , 668 2 669, 669 2 ; of illness, 668, 668 4 5 incubation 2 in penances, 664, 664*, looses, 689 2 7 668-9, 668 689 of prisoners loosed 3 miraculously, 663, 665-6, 667 , 668; S. John the abbot loosed, 669; of S. Peter, 668, 668 2 669; of sin, 664, 7 664*, 668-9, 668 Yuruk Chakal, tribe, 475. column at, Chalcedon, 'weeping' liberation, 663, 666, , ; 'Arab', . 6 S. Paul in Malta, 4i6 , 681-2: S. Pelagia, 630: S. Poly carp, : 236, 279. ; 6 415, 4i5 ^ Centipede, called four legs', 39 1 2 " 6 Ch ris ti an 1 , l 8 of 325*; 224 ; thought tomb, 325*, 375, 376; of Turkish saints and heroes, 234-5, ; 402 ; grave in, 51, 51% 223-5, 308; 5 haunted, 89 , 220, 223, 270*, 351, 3 6 hermits ; of in, 169, 223, 223 735; the Holy Family at Bethlehem, 682-3; incubation in, 267-8; Mo- 416, 4i6 as, 89% 222-3; in, 3 , Forty, see retreats Noah's daughter, 325*; by venerated 220, 223, 270*, 351, cult at Athens of, 220-3, 89 312, 3i2 in, 380; cults in, 220-5; of Delikli Baba, 89*, 223; of dragon, 51, 51', 223, 308, 3 3 435 65 I t 66o 668 ; dwelling-place in, 223, 223, 308; Fates haunt, 221-2; Forty in, 309, 314, 399, 401, i63 ; mourners' plane, 178; at pulpit for rainprayer, 325; of S. Elias, 325*; of S. Louis, 442; of S. Stephen, 224, anthropomorphism i63 ; . 'arabs' 447: Cenotaph (bogus tomb) of S. Athanasius, 92; of Emineh Baba, 234, 527; of founder's master, 375-6; of ghazis, 231; of Hasan Baba, 236, 1 of Kasim Baba, 547; of 357, 357 Khidr, 327'-; of Khirka Baba, 234, 1 as memorials, 325*; 358, 358 l 64 Cave, 'ambiguous' cults 64, holy, in, 273, 325* , trees in, 176. 'flying', - in mourners 352, 449; situated outside walls of towns and away from mosques, 8; (sacred) stones in, 209, 220, and 2 Castle, 'arabs' guard, 323!, 733, 733 ; 199, i99 ; of Goats, 744, 1 744.2; of Jews, 748, 748 ; of the Maiden (Fair One), 741-50, 74I 1 ' 2 , 3 5 742*, 744 , 747 ; of the Messiah, 707, 2 743, 743 8 Cats, and hares, 241, 24 1 fanaticism of Turks Catholics, against, burial by shelters for in, 742*. 3 789 Mohammedan, 1 " 2 73, 73% 3oo, 360', 446-9, 448 , 584'; miracles readily occur in, 254; : pigeons in, 2io , 226; salvation , ; , . 27*. Chalcondyles, date of, 484. Chaldaea, Seven Martyrs of, 3092. Chalkis, apocryphal tomb of S. Stephen 1 at, 224, 224 ; giant's boot as talisman at, 203 6 , 2301 , 654* ; grove sacred to S. ized at, 76 1 2882 ' Kara Baba mosque seculartime and tide at, 288-9, George venerated 239; at, at, 733**; ; 3 1 289 ; water-castle on bridge 3 destroyed at, 28S , . Chambar, Yuruk tribe, 476. Changeri, liayaiitckke at, 539. Index 790 Changri (Gangra), Bektashi tekke near, 511 khidrlik near, 328; massacre of ; Christians at, 95'; S. Galenicius of, 7 95 ; S. Mamas born at, 44, 44*, 7 95 Chapanoglu, baronial family of Asia Minor, 595-6; friendly to Christians, 3 2 596 ; Mahmud II and, 596, 596 ; Rishvan and Pehlivanli, Rihanli, - Turkomans tributary gat capital to, 138; Yuz- of, 137, 596. Chardabago, Christians cannot 22\ live at, shelters for mourners, 273, 325*, 352, 449. Charles Charles . Chifut Kalesi (Ovraiokastro), frequent place-name, 748, 748*. Childbirth, aided by Ashik Pasha, 496: beads of Hasan Baba, 357: cave cults, 222: Lemnian earth, 678: Maslama's cup, 266, 719: 666 6 ; in caves, S. evil 225*; 225, dangerous during, 225*. Children, cures with blood and diseases Leonard, eye 218'; of, prophylactic names given to, i83 , 193*; saints that help, 82, 183% 272, 357, 2 357 ; SS. Hugh and William, 217*; sold when ill to a saint, 81, 8i 2 ; walked over for cure, 80- 1, Si 1 . of, 183' ; 7 Chiltik, depopulated by plague, 54, 520. 4 canonization of, 2I7 , 218*. XII of Sweden, in Turkey, I, 353. 353 1 . of, 68 1 Chimarra, S. Donatus in, 435 Chimera flame, Greeks connect . dering - Charms, see amulets. 2 Chartres, church bound at, 264 Chasseaud, Dr., 105*, 129-32. de Chateuil, Sieur, Moslems reverence tomb hammedan, 81 folk-lore Charik, Yuruk tribe, 475. Charitonides, Prof., 553. l Charity, by dead, 210, 2io , 226, 251-2, 3 with baths, bridges, 25i ; by living fountains and mosques, 228, with Mo- Christian labourers on Chiftlik, 1 . Yuruk Kurds, Chebrekli, 477. Chelebi, (a) one Superior of Bektashi, 161, 162-3, 162*, 503, 504: lives at Haji Bektash, 161, 162-3, 503, 504: marched in Janissaries 1526-7 against, 163: Kalenderoglu as, 163: Kizilbash and, 152: strained relations with Akhi Dede of, 164': as tribal chief, 164; Superior of Mevlevi at Konia, 6 2 46o , 606, 6o6 eligible as Caliph, 6 2 606-7, 6o6 , 6i8 Chepni, Kizilbash or Nosairi, 133*; Yuruk tribe, I27 2 476. Chersonnese, sacred because danger(b) : . , ous, 347*. ^ Cheshme, neo-martyr of, 458. Chetim Tess Baba, abdal of Monastir, 185, 359-6Cheusli, sub-tribe of Rihanli Turkomans, 480. Chibuk Ovasi, battles on, 171. Chichek Dagh, near Haji Bektash, Chichekli, rebellious Turkoman 1632. tribe, Chidrelles, see Khidr-Elias. of, i82 3 . n6 with, 7 ; Christians but not for Wan- sacred for Mohamme- dans, 116, n6 . Chios, crosses spared at Turkish con7 quest of, 3o ; image of S. Anthony of Padua at, 67-8; incubation in, 3 694 ; Jesuit missionaries in, 64; mastic from, 6763 medicinal earth 7 ; from, 671, 67 1 2 ; prayer by Turks after conquest of, 7*; S. Demetrius 6 neo-martyr of, 455 ; S. Isidore of Alexandria and, 389*; united prayer for rain in, 64, 64 2 . Chitmi, Yuruk tribe, 476. Chivalry, romances in Near East 1 706, 743, 743 of, - Choban Baba, tekkes of, 269, 525. Chobanli, Bektashi tekke, 512. Cholera, cured among Turks by S. John Russian, 65. Chorum, Bektashi tekke near, 504; Elwan Chelebi near, 47, 496*. Christ, Abgarus written to by, 37; adulterous woman and, 630; Ali equated to, i44~5 335> 57 1 5 ap-, 5 His peared to S. Thomas, 22 baptism connected with Blessing of the Waters, 387-8, and with cure for leprosy, 33; bats first made by, 1 289 ; Bektashi prophet, 554; blas; phemy 163*. Chicken-pox, red symbolic Jew 83*, of, Mohammedans forbid, 454; as butterfly, 464*; columns of Flagellation of, io5 , 195, 195^ Index 9&9 635; dead cock revived by, 248*; dead fish revived by, 248; Echmiadzin's plan drawn on stone 1 by, 198*; entry into Jerusalem by Golden Gate of, 752, 753% 754, 2 1 754 ; as fish, 249 ; footprints of, ' 12 u 6 5 i86 186, , 187, i87 , I95 ; goats refused shelter to, 317*; Jelal-ed-din reverenced, 371; Kizilbash views of, J44-6, 335> 57i; name of, in Mohammedan amulets, 34; as preislamic Mussulman, 72; prison at Jerusalem of, 628; Ramazan kept on Mount Quarantania by, 289 1 ; reincarnated in Ali, 335; SS. Christopher and Julian ferried disguised, 464; S. Sophia, Constantinople, and, lo 1 5 ; scourged at several columns, to5 , 195, i95 l , I985 seamless tunic ' : amulet for Mohammed II taken 8 ; second coming of, 7542 ; sheep sheltered, 317*; Smyrna and 3 much revered eikon of, 4i5 ; stag claimed to be, 85, 85 3 , 462% 463; transformed rarely into animal form, of, from, 34 464, 464*. Christian Woman's* 791 Karaosmanoglu 596, Kizilbash and, 140, 143, 145, 3 l , 150, i5o 151, 154-6, 157, Mahmud II and, 382, 335-6; > 6i9 5 Al- 5 giers, 73 , 448*, 643* Christianity, in Asia Minor in early times, 4, 377; exclusiveness of, 60, 75-6; Islam shares religious thought ritual practice of, 76, 80, 261-2, 1 575; Jelal-ed-din and, 37 I ~4, 374 , 377; Judaism thought inferior by Turks to, 75 2 ; Misri Efendi inclined to, 421 survivals in Islam from, see and ; survival; transferences from and to Islam to and from, and from paganism to, see transference; Turkish views in general of, 75, 752, 447 5 ; Yezidi and, 144; Yuruks and, 133. Christian(s), Ala-ed-din and, 370-1, 1 374 377; Ali Pasha and, 589-90; attack expected during Friday 3 prayers from, 721, 72i , 751-4, 751*; Bektashi and, see Bektashi; buried beside Moslems, 95, 234*, 375, 570, 708, 709*, 713, 731, 743; circumcized, 6 33 ; frequent Mohammedan sanctuaries, see frequentation friendliness between Mohammedans and, see friendliness; Ilurufi and, 436*, 568-9, 569*; Islam thought unclean , ; by, 75J Janissaries and, 483, 485, 3 4 485*, 486, 487, 487 , 493> 493 J Mevlevi ; Mohammed see and, II's 596*; 148, 158, 619, Mevlevi; at Con- mosque stantinople forbidden to, 13; numerous in Turkey in Europe, 3 ; princess and Moslem lover, 706, 706* ' 10 , 708, 1 743, 743 , and see (Christians) buried ; promiscuity and early, phylactics I53 6 ; pro- among Mohammedans, 6 33 > 36, 65; Seljuks friendly towards, 370-8, 382, 439; Shias and, see Bektashi, Kizilbash; statues forbidden but reliefs allowed to eastern, 190-1; stone cults permitted to, 33' 179-80. Christmas, Nosairi communion at, 7 I48 Chronology, popularly reckoned, 39, 1 602 1 603, 603*, 679. 53 1 . , , Church, bewitched, see magic (Chris2 tian); bound, 264% 666 ; building allowed by Ali Pasha, 590, and Mahmud by tomb near and, II and Seljuks, 382; founder's name often given to, 368*; frequented by Jews and Mohammedans, see frequentation; 3 2 haunted, 42 , 69; kurban in, 26i ; magic of, see magic (Christian); Mohammedan Albanians of Kachanik and Vallahadhes preserve, 8 l ; molested for political reasons by 3 Turks, 7, 7 53; mosque combined 2 1 with, 7 , 43-4, 44 , 45, 64*, 320'; 2 rock-cut, 43, 43 , 56, 576; sacrilege , to, see sacrilege; sanctity of mosque differs from that of, 8; S. Leonard and binding of, 6662 S. Peter fre1 quent founder of, 6O3 serpent ; ; guards, 27*; sleeping in, 694, 694*; stones carried to, to build, 200, 201, ' as penance, 201, 2OI 1 3 , or as pioub stones sacred in, 27'; 201; 200, act, tekke combined with, 54, 55, 55'; temples converted into, 6 , 201', 329'; transformed into mosque, see transference; Vallahadhes preserve, l 8l . Ciborium, as sarcophagus, 383*. Cid, El, Sidi Battal Ghazi prototype of, 705 1 . once in kingdom of Armenia, 1 301, 750 ; Hasan Dede in, 283, 283* Cilicia, ; Index 792 Ibrahim Pasha legendary figure in, 3 603*; King of Serpents in, 246, 246 , 1 l Kurdish tribes in, 482 482, 75o Shah Meran Kalesi in, 750*; Takh; ; taji in, 142, 159, 159"; Turkoman of Greek villages in, i563 ; Yuruk tribes in, 478. 3 Cimiez, crocodile an amulet at, 654 Circassia, sacred groves in, 239. Circumambulation, Hasan of Basra 5 and, 627 ; of Holy House at Loretto, 3 of Holy Sepulchre, 267; of i84 Kaaba at Mecca, 267, 273**; of S. Makrina's tomb, 632; of Turkish chiefs . ; saints* tombs, 91, 266, 267. 272-3, 5 2 75* 357; theory of, 262, 267, 273 . Circumcision, among Bektashi, 165; in forced conversions, 455, 455 1 2 ; among Kizilbash, 153; kurban at, 259; marriage confused with, 130, " 130*; non-Mohammedans may per- form for Mohammedans, 130*; pro1 among phylactically used, 33, 13 1 Yuruks, 130, I3I 1 , 132. Cistercians, carried S. Leonard to 6 Germany, 666 ; . Cistern, haunted, 27o 3 . Citta Vecchia, church of Publius of Malta at, 444*; S. Paul's cave near, 681-2. Club, relic of dervish, 229. 1 Coal, cotton unburnt by live, 290, 290 3 2 Cock, in kurban, 8o , 26i ; revived after death, 248 3 CofFm, suspended in air, if, 300-1, . . 3d 1 , 626*. Coidasa, see Kadife. Coin, hung on tree for healing, 176, 2 6 I76 ; offered to water, 302, 302 , 696, 698; transformed into flies, 643. Coincidence, cults originate by, 208, 220, 351. Collinson, Prof. W. E., 674'. Colossae, S. Michael at, 368, 368*. 3 4 Colour, cults started by, 182, i82 , 3 206, 432 ; cures effected by, 182, " i82 3 , 2i9 2 ; tribal names from, 128, 3 5 340 , 576 arrested cult at Cairo of, Column, 2 2 195, 215-17, 2i6 , 219, 2i9 ; in Bektashi oratories, 197, 274-7, 519*; . Byzantine arrangement in Christian cult, stantinople, 6 see 624-5; 195-6; in ConConstantinople; of, 1 by, io , 81-2, 82 , 192-3, 5 3 l 195-8, I95 , 198*' , 216, 2i6 , 219, 2 1 2i9 , 32 1 ; embracing ritual at, 274, 2 77 635; of execution, 215-17, 219, 2 2i9 ; of flagellation, see scourging; in Islamic cult, 196-200; levitation cures Cilicia (contd.) of, 277, 198, 623, 635; in licking 2 2i9 ; Maiden's, 713, ritual, 216, 219, 749 749, 4 from Mecca, 198, ; 198", Nimrod at Urfa, I945 317*; numerous in mosques of Cordova 623; of , type, 728; of ordeal, in Christianity, 624-9, 2 624 , 626*, 632-3: in Islam, 623, 629-31, 633-5: legitimacy tested 1 '2 by, 277, 628, 630-1, 63i , 633, 635: 2 predestination tested by, 624, 624 2 625, 626, 627, 630, 631, 63i , 633, 1 63.V , 634; oriental views of buildings with, 3 3 l 199, I99 , 4i6 , 74i ; 'palace* de3 noted by, 4i6 , 741 1 sacred, 1923 1 202; of S. George, I95 , 32I ; S. John S. see of, John; scourging (flagellation) of Christ at, io , 195, 195*, 5 IQ8 , 635, and of S. Paul, 195; 3 support buildings, 199, I99 ; 'sweatS. in io5 , 186, 10-11, ing' Sophia, as talismans, 389; *95> 193-4, 3 4 8 4 1 I93 , I94 , 368, 368 ; treasure 5 concealed by, 194, I94 , 368*; , ; r> " " ' weeping', 22, 27 8 . Communion, Holy, among 7 Bektashi, 15 1 denied to repentant renegades, 456 1 iish in, 249 1 among Kizilbash, 148, 3 i49 , 151: in Mithraism, 152: among 7 Nosairi, I48 : Semitic influence in, 151; with saints, incubation a form of, : : : 268-9: at tombs, 256-7. .Community of goods, Bektashi and, 568. Michael Comnenus, inscription of, 373 Como, S. Secundus 2 , (Amiraschanis), 383. at, 444 4 Younger ; 4 Pliny and, 444 Competition, legends * . Compos telia, see S. of of, 285, 289, 289 3 . James. by adulterous woman, 630; before ascending Mount Sinai, 625-6, 626 among Confession sins, 1 ; Kizilbash, 148-9; before ordeal at S. Pelagians tomb, 627; among Takhtaji, 159. Index 1 Conquest, cult changed after, 6-7, 6 , a 7 , see transference; gates walled up after, 20?, 752-3, 752*, 753 see also Turkish conquest. of Consecration under altar 4 * 6 , 754'; put Bir , talisman, conquest , in at, 3%: 95> 194*; at, 36. Conspicuousness, desired for grave, 3 104, I04 ; generates cults, 12, 194-5, 2 1 207, 207 2i9 , 220, 389, and legends, 202, 282-5. Constantine the Great, in chronology, 603; father (by S. Helen) of Sophia, 2 13 festival of, 76o l ; leprosy and proposed bath in child reri's blood measure of Nile Hood 2I8 1 of, Bin Direk cistern, 391 : of Marcian, see Maiden's Stone: 'sweating', 10-11, io 5 186, J relics church, 793 columns of, see 193-4, i93 3"4 ^ Turkish; Constantine, column of, 193, 193*: prophecy of Yellow Race found in tomb 2 of, 471*, 722, 722 Constantine Palaiologos buried at Golden Gate, 354, 354*, in Gul Jami, 6 5 40, 4o , and at Vefa Meidan, 234 ; , ; ; removed by, 64 5 ; prophecy of, 47 1 4 , 2 722, 722 spring sacred to, 108. Constantine Palaiologos, see Palaio; logos. Constantinople: 327, 327*; Abu Sufian (or Sufian) buried at, 266-7, 727; Ahmed 1's fountain in, 228: in, 182, 328; in Arab Jami 2 6I5 , 1 , : , from Christianity alleged of, 82% 83: 609, 724-6, well of souls at, 82, 270; Fanaticism 5 in, 13, 3'4 724 725 buried in, , Fatima and Zeinab 17, 267, 729^ Fethiyeh : Patriarch's in, Jamisi formerly cathedral (Pammakaristos), 725; footprint of Prophet at, 185, 185, from 609*; Forty Christian Saints Mohammedan, 394; Friday , in, 398% mosque Mohammed IPs mosque was, 7; Galata, fortified before Maslama's to siege, 720: Tower attributed Arabs, 717; Gates, see Golden, Top Kapusi 5 (below): talismans for, 203, 2O3 , 654'; Genoese, children in Capitulations of Pera, 487: fortifications at, 724: heraldry in Arab Jami, 719, * at, - ' ; ; Blessing of Waters at, 386* ; Bucoleon 2 palace in, portent at, 740 ; Buyuk Dere, plane of Forty Trees or Seven Brothers at, 398 2 ; "Chamlija, Bektashi tekke at, 517; chronology dated from fall of, 39, 53I 1 , 6o2 l ; churches see saints (below); clearingat, house for Mohammedan ideas, 121-2; 3295.2 : : 3 Noah's, 10, io 258; arrested transference at, 21, 726; baths at, sec Eyyub, Yildiz Dede; Bektashi at, i6o 2 , 4 Q5 3 , 516-18, 5i7 4 8 518* 3 Bin Bir (1001) Direk cistern at, 391 , : at, 9, 82, 228, 604, 608, 609, 714-16, 714% 722: plane of Mohammed II at, I78 2 sanctity now extreme, 115, 604, 609, but not preTurkish, 82-3, 115: transference YediKule, 734; Sophia i Eyyub) (S. * S. II divination at, 270: footprint of Prophet at, 185, 185% 609*: 2 Franks Forty cypresses at, 398 denied access to, 609: girding of Sultans at, 604, 607, 609, 609*, 610, ii 6I6 1 6i7 4 monument to IPs horse at, 272: mosque and tomb of Arab hero (see : in Eyyub, baths of Mohammed at, Mohammed 3 wood ; 6n Paul), 266, 717-21. 7!8S 7*9 725-6, 725*, 728, 729: early, 720: Gul Jami (S. Theodosia), 717, 717*: Kurshunlu Maghzen Jamisi, 306, 717, 726-8, 4 2 Maslama's, 6, 6 , 717, 719-20; 72 7 praying-places in, n: sieges of, 5 6, 714-16, 7*4 , 7i7> 7 I 9~2o, 719*, 2 1 , 720 726-7, 730: tower in, 717: woman's head at Rumeli Ilisar, 2 733 : Arab zade jinn and saint at ark, ; in, 'ambiguous' cults at, 266-7, 7-7; Arab, granary in, 717: graves in, 1 l 17, i8 , 266-7, 306-7, 7 2 7~9 729 (and see Eyyub): mosques ; 517; Aatik All's mosque mosque 2 Deniz Crypto-Christians in, 474 Abdal 'refused' turbe at, 228 1 Doghlu Dede, see Toklu Dede; Durmish Dede at, Bektashi and Khalveti in tckke of, 346% 518, 5i8 2 Eukuz Liman, Bektashi tekke at, 7I9 F f 1 2 ; Index 794 Constantinople (contd.) giants' bones as talismans at, 231*; Golden Gate, sleeping emperor (Cons tan tine or John Palaiologos) or saint (John) at, 354, 354 1 , 471*, 722: walled up, 753; guild patrons in, 279, 348, 348'; Gul Jami (Rose Mosque), attributed to Arabs, 717, 717*: Constantine Palaiologos buried in, 40, 40: formerly S. Theodosia, 40, 717*; Hasan Baba, cenotaph of, 357; Arab saint Hasan the negro at Hasan Husain buried 729 in, Mesjidi, 1 ; Arab siege of, 730; Helvaji Dede, sacred trees at grave of, 238; Horse's 4 6 , 717, 719-20: cup of, 266, 719: led a siege of, 709, 717, 719-20, to, 6, 1 '2 72o , 726-7: mosques of, 6, 719, 726-7; Melamiyun tekke at, 517*; Merdiven Keui, Bektashi tekke at, Mevlevi at, 620-1, 621*; 517; Moawiya led first Arab siege of, 727 ; Mohammed Kuprulu's open turbe at, 254: Mohammed the Prophet, foot8 print of, 185, i85 , 609: hand-print relics 186: of, of, 267, 358*, 609-10, 6 6o9 ; Mohammed I78 2 272: , mosque of, at II, Eyyub, in, hand-print of, 186: 7, 13, 328: at S. Sophia, Tomb at Skutari, 269, 269*, 272-4; inscriptions as talismans at, 194, 3 194*, 203 ; Jafer Baba, saint of galley slaves' prison at, 729; Jesuits persecuted at, 723*; Jews at, fanaticism against, 13, 725-6: fled from Spain to, 725-6, 1 726 : professions of, 676*, 679-80, Kadri in, 423, 735*; Kahriyeh Arab saint buried in, 729 Karabash Ali from Skutari, 423; 1 Jamisi, ; Karagach, Bektashi tekke at, 517; Karaja Ahmed buried at, 405, 405', 517*; Kariadin, Bektashi tekke at, 517; Khalveti in, 346*, 518; Khidr 5 l (S. Elias) in, 10-11, io , 12, i2 , 327, 327 5 328; > Khoja Mustafa Pasha Jamisi (S. Andrew of Crete), Arab saints buried in, 17, 729^ chain in, 389*: Companion of Eyyub buried in, i8 l : transference to Islam of, 17; Kirklar, see Forty; Koja Akhor 3 545 ; Jamisi, Albanian founder Mir of, Kurshunlu Maghzen, granary attributed to Arabs, 717; Kurshunlu Maghzen Jamisi (Mosque of the Leaded Store), Arab mosque with Arab graves, 306-7, 2 called also Yer Alti 717, 726-8, 727 Jamisi (Underground Mosque), 726: restored by Mohammed Said, 306; Latin conquest of, 720; Leaded Kurshunlu Maghzen; see Store, : Mahmud destroyed Bektashi 517; Maiden's Stone 1 (Column of Marcian) at, I97 , 713*; Maslama, Arab Jami attributed tekkes at, II Moors from Spain 724-6, in, 3 '4 mosques in, see Aatik AH, Ahmed I, Arab, Eyyub, Fethiyeh, Gui Jarni, Kahriyeh, Khoja Mustafa Pasha, Koja Mir Akhor, Kurshunlu Maghzen Jamisi, Mohammed II, SS. Anthony, John the Baptist, and Sophia, Toklu, Valideh 724*"*, 725 ; mummy canonAtik, Yeni Valideh ; ized at Yedi Kule, ii7 3 , 353-4, 354 1 ; Murad III at Eyyub, 608; Murad IV's pulpit for rain-prayer at, 325; 3 Noah, patron of sailors, 348, 348 , and of travellers in, io, io3 258, 348, , 348'; Ok Meidan, Murad IV's pulpit for rain-prayer in, 325; omens at, 722, 4 3 722 , 739, 74o ; Osman II's horse buried at Skutari, 269*; ostrich eggs as charms in, 232 3 6 ; Palladium under column of Constantine, 193; Patriarch* s Cathedral formerly Fethiyeh Jamisi, 725; Pehlivanli Turko> mans near, 481 ; plough as charm in, 06; Praetorium, early Arab mosque in, 720; Red Apple is, 736-7; Rose 1 see Mosque, Gul Jami; Rurneli Hisar, 733 at, 2 : Arab woman's head Bektashi tekkes at, 2 buried S. Durmish 5i8 285*, 346, 518; 518, 517*, at, : Andrew of Crete, see 517, Dede Khoja Mustafa Pasha Jamisi; S. Anna threatened with transference to Islam, 725; S. Anthony 3 made SS. Apostles, mosque, 725, 725 body of Constantine Palaiologos and, 8 saints of Armudlu in, 466; 4o ; ; Index and Yildiz Dede, 795 see Asterios, S. Asterios; S. Barbara's gate at, 5 2O3 ; S. Elias, see Khidr; S. Francis, arrested transference of, 21, 726; 3 serpent column at, I93 ; serpent talisman of S. Ambrogio, Milan, came from, 193'; Gregory and 'sweating' column Ghazi, at Maslama's siege, 2 709, 709 praying-place in S. Sophia S. S. Seven Towers, in S. Sophia, 10-11, io ; S. Irene secularized by Turks, 38; S. John the Baptist's made mosque, 725; S. John Chrysostom buried in S. : of, ii ; Skutari, Bektashi tekke in, 517, in, 32; 3 5 Spain, detested in, 723, 723 and Moors came Jews from, 723-6, 1 3 724 *-, 7 25 -*; Sudlija, Bektashi tekke at, 517; Sufian, see Abu Surian; 'survivals' 517; smell of Moslems bad Sophia's, 9, 9*; S. Mamas, mosque of Eyyub and church of, 82% 83; S. Michael cures madness in, 692*; : * Pamrnakaristosy i Fethiyeh Jainisi Pantokrator, secularized by Turks and reconsecrated, 40; S. Paul, see ; Arab Jami; S. Romanes, 12, in, 82-3, gate-saint at 604, 115, 609; Girding; 6 talismans at, 191, i9i , 193-4, 3 4 3 5 2 4 i93 ~S I94 203 23i , 654 736-7 Toklu (Doghlu) Dede replaced S. Thekla at, 18, 57; Toklu Mesjidi, transferred church of S. Thekla at, 13, Swords of Girding 5 Yedi Kule; see Sidi ft Top 3 Kapusi, 203 neo-martyr, 454 ; S. Sophia, Arab heroes' prayingplaces in, 1 1 carbuncle lighted, 738 ; Christ in, column of flagellation of, at, see ' : , ; , , ; 5 io : sacred stone of Virgin and 1 Infant, io ; Christians frequent still, l crosses defaced in, 30*; door 75 made from wood of Ark, io, io3 , 258; i8*57; Top Kapu, Bektashi tekke at, 516, 518: SS. Barbara and Romanos at, 203*: talisman inscription at, 203, ; 1 earthquake damaged, u; Eyyub s praying-place in, 1 1 Forty Moham- 203 Saints in, 394; Fossati repaired, 602* ; Ibn Batuta prevented by crosses from entering, 30, 30*; Justinian's 'apple' at, 736-7: architect and Khidr, ii ; Khidr in, 10-11, io , 12, 12 1 , 1 86, 327; Leo the Wise's miraculous statue in, 738*; Mecca, Mohammed the Prosand from, ; phet's hand-print in, 186: saliva at, tion , ; n ; Mohammed 1 Virgin, in S. Sophia, io II in, hand-print of, 186: transference to Islam by, 6-7, u Gregory and 'sweating* column 5 S. John Chrysostom 10-11, io in, ; buried 4 9 sanctity of, 9-10, 12, 13; Sidi Battal's praying-place in, 1 1 ; in, 9, 517: ; Solomon prayed on site of, 1 1 ' ; mummy Yeni trans- at, 117*. Valicleh see 353-4, 354*5 Jamisi, jaundice 2 Yer AIti Jami, in, 182, i82 Kurshunlu Maghzen Jamisi; cured ; stone of Virgin and Infant Christ in, io 1 ; 'sweating* column in, 10-11, io5 , 186, 195, 389; talismans in, 736-7; transferred to Islam, 6-7, 9-13; vases from Pergamon in, 1 4 well sacred in, io; 601-2, 602 S. Thekla, see Toklu Mesjidi; S. Theodosia, see Gul Jami ; secularized churches at, 38, 39, 39*, 40; : ported church to Russia from, 285 ; walls protected by inscriptions, 3 203 ; wells sacred at, io, 82, 270, 3 272 , 273; Yedi Kule (Seven Towers), Arab zade at, 734: Bektashi tekke at, 516, 3 9-13; ostrich eggs in, 232 ; pre2 Christian in, ; pre-Mussulman in, 1 1 ; relics of Christian saints in, 9, 10; S. of, ' r> : ; of, knrban at inauguraU transference of' 259 ; churches to Islam at, 6-7, 7 2 , 9-13, 4 4 40, 57' 7*7 > 17, 18, 21, 38, 39, 39 3 5 724-6, 725 ; Turabi, Kadri tekke of, 4 735 ; Underground mosque, see Kurshunlu Maghzen Jamisi Valideh Atik Jamisi, Khidr in, 327, 327 6 ; Vefa Meidan, Constantine Palaiologos buried at, 234*, 731 medan 1 1 5 tramways ; ; Yildiz Dede, bath of, 39-40, 39*, 228 3 ; Zumbul Efendi, neir, 294*. Contact with sacred objects heals and 2 sanctifies, 36, 80, 184-5, 2io 220, , 247, 262-9, 275, 276, 684. Continence, not essential to F f 2 sainthood, 450. Moslem Index 796 Conversion : from Catholicism to Protestantism, I55 5 ; from Christianity to Islam, at2 tempted, i5o Christian prophylactics continued after, 36: after death, s 446-9, 447 examples of normal, 36, 3 5 372, 374, 56, 86, 86 , 95, 155, i55 1 3 l , 402 375, 429, 429 436, 439 439 3 446, 469, 526, 526 573, 591 forced, 3 5 84*, 155, I55 158*, 439 439 455> 8 ? 5 a 47 i 457*> 46o, 469'* 47 455 474*, 526: individual distinct from 4 mass, 4692 methods of, 87, 156^ 1 2 motives 372, 374, 445-6, 455 455 5 8 of, 77> i55 > 336, 44 1 , 445> 445S 57> 576: psychology of, 445, 445*: rural : : , , > : , * , " < > > : , " - methods 3 "4 Russians' part in forced, 439', 471, 47i 3 4 474 2 : 1 2 secret, 58, 73-4, 73*' \ 74 , 89', 442, 444. 445~6> 355 355S 3^0, 360*, 570, 574; of, I56 : ' > from indifference, 85, 85 3 , to Christianity, a to Islam, 85, 291*, 465, 68 9 : 3 290-1, 29i see stag 85 2 , 460, 461: , by stags, ; from Islam to Christianity, ex5 3 5 of, 88 i55 421, 42 1 453 1 amples , , , , 3 734~5> 735 1: penalty of, 155*, 42 1 , ? 3 5 ^cret, 74, 87, 376, 453, 453 2 4 443, 443*, 444 45 ;. from jinn, to Christian, 87-8, 88 l 192, 223, 351, 734: to Mohammedan, 87-8, 402, 4O2 ; from Judaism to Islam, 445, 1 473-4, 474 " 449 : < , 1 ; from paganism to Christianity, 6 4 33 29* 434, 444 examples 6of, 7 1 462-4, 462 464 methods of, 462, 462*-', 463, 463*: motives of, 33*: SS. Augustine and Paul's theories l , > r Cordova, : 1 445, 445 secret, 444*: from paganism to Islam, of Satok Bogra, 134*, 432*: of Yuruks, 121, of, -" 132, 133, 158, 175; from Samaritan to , Corinth, rival lovers at, 747*. 8 Corn-plait, dedicated, 233, 233' to burial expiates Corpse, carrying . 2 I50 from Shia to Sunni, 154; from Sunni to Bektashi, 544, 589*. 3 Cooking, forbidden in mosques, 8 7 with Chimera flame, 116, n6 Coptic, Blessing of Waters, 386*; 1 S. offerings to Abu-'l-Hajjaj, 374 2 1 George, 32I 326 , 334", 335*, 692*; ; ; . ; , S. Michael, 321*. Corcyra, see Corfu. 10 and exforbidden in 3 mosques except at Cairo, 8 ; transferred to another cemetery, 73, 73* 392 sins, humation embalming ; of, 235 1 ; , 1 -2 l 360, 3<5o , 446-9, 448 , 5842; trans3 1 portation of, 235 ; undecayed, ii7 , s -53^ 3M. 352, 450, 729* 729 Corycian cave, varying sanctity of, 116. ; S. Cossacks, John's treasure for, 34 3 . finds gospel 3 Cotrone, S. Elias at, 329 Cotton, unburnt by live coal, 290, 290'. Coudanlut, sub-tribe of Rthanli Turko. mans, 480. Cough, cured by pierced stone, 183. Cracow, dragon of, 655*, 66o 5 Creed, in Christian magic at Ramleh, . 29 . Crete, Bektashi in, 501, 534-6; con- quest by Turks of, 420; conversion to Islam of, 36; crypto-Christians 2 in, 474 ; Digenes buried in, 710'; emigration of Moslems after 1897 from, 534; gold plant in, 645*; hoofprints in, 187; massacres in, 474* ; prehistoric gems as milk-charrns in, 182; S. 456 3 ; Gerasimos neo-martyr of, Sarandapechys conquered, Titus converted 710'; Younger Pliny in, 444*; Tripolines iru 535, 6 , -^ Crimea, Chifut Kalesi in, 748*; girding of Tatar khans in, 6o8 5 ; Haji Bek- death 2 in, 5O2 ; Maiden's l 74i ; Saltuk Baba in, 3 134, 340% 432, 576 ; Sari Saltik and, 6 3 340, 34o , 429, 43i 57^ , 577; Tatars in, 134, 340, 43 2 ~3 5763 , tashi's Mohammedan, at, Corfu (Corcyra), Ali Pasha coveted, 591-2; 'ambiguous* cult at, 435, 4 430, 439> 449 57^, 5 8 3-4, 59 1 2 ; Bektashi pilgrimage to, 436, 436*, 584, 584*; Seven Martyrs of, 309*. - , many columned mosques 728. Castle 6o8 6 in, . l Crocodiles, in amulets, 231, 23 i , 654, 654*; as dragons, 648^654, 654*; in ex-votos, 23 1 1 . 1 Cross, amulet for Christians, 2O , 194, and for Moslems, 34, 654* ; at Blessing Index of Waters, 384, 384', 386, defaced by Turks, 30. 30% 387; 205; 22, 30-1, helpful to Mohammedans, 3 34, 68, 206, 2o6 , 259"; hostile to 797 dream, fossil bones, sarcophagus; survival of, see survival; ness, transference transference, of, see Cuneiform writing at Bunar Hisar, ' 6 6 Mohammedans, 22, 30, 3o 63; in omens, 722, 722*, 739; repugnant only theoretically to Moslems, 68; on stag's head, 85, 462, 462 7 464, 465 in tattooing by Moslems, 30-1, 4 True, brought back to Jeru3o salem by Heraclius, 355, 752, 753*, , , 1 ; ; 754, Crucifix bleeds, see bleeding. ; ; . . 2 Crypto-Christians, in Europe, 474 ; Gamaliel, 444*; at Konia (Shems-ed74, 3 469 ; 3 at Mecca, Egypt, 443; at 87, 376, 443 Sultan of ; 3 - Trebizond, 125, 469-73, 470*Crypto- Jews, near Pergamon, 473-4; . at Salonica, 153, 474 1 1 '2 Crypto-Mussulmans, 73-4, 74 , 355* l 355S 36o, 36o , 442, 444, 445-6, 57? . ^ Cynossema, sea-demons and, 344, 344*. 2 on Cypress, Forty at Eyyub, 398 graves, 176-7, 178, 226-7, 2-6 , 238, 407; at Passa, 177; symbolism ; 1 of, Crusaders, dragon-legend of S. George 3 l and, 32 i , 66o influence on East of, 3 1 32 1 , 66o , and on West, 632*, 665, 5 667-8; at Jerusalem, 626 ; makams of Khidr on sites of, 326; miraculous liberation and, 665, 667-8; Sacred Lance found before Antioch by, 7i4 5 S. George patron of, 32 i l Crutch of dervish, as relic in turbes, 229. Crypto-Bektashi, Sheikh of Mevlevi u reputed, 6i6 3 clin), Cure, see healing. Curse, of Pambuk Baba, 96. Cybele-Rhea, see Mother of the Gods. 574- 226 1 . Cyprus, 'ambiguous' cult of Forty in, 6 395> 396 396 , 401 Barnabas buried 4 in, 47 1 binding of churches in, 2 264 ; crypto-Christians (Lino- Vain 2 vaki) in, 474 ; Digenes' memorial in, 7 fossil bones start cult in, 401 7io ; grove sacred in, 240; Mina's tomb ; ; ; 704 in, l negro brigand ; in, 730; pierced stone cult in, 184, 192-3, 4 1 I93 ; prehistoric buildings 192*' , thought tombs in, 62, 704, 704*; 2 Rogations in, 660, 66o S. Evlavios ; 704*; S. in, Therapon in, 87, 87*; sheep sacred to S. Mamas in, 240 Three Hundred Saints in, 401* ; Turkish conquest and colonization 6 ; 396; Turkomans of, tomb Haram's 6 3 in, in, 138; 702, Umm 703-4, 1 , 704 703 Cyreneia of Cyprus, Forty - in, 401; Three Hundred Saints in, 4oi 4 Cyril VI, Archbishop and Patriarch, hung at Adrianople during Greek Revolution, 379; inscriptions from . 1 Cuba, fish-pond at, 249 Cabin 9 form of mixed marriage, 362 . Cuckoo of Belkis in Paradise, Cult: Christians abolish a 6 1 3n . 6 . S. Mohammedan, 90-2, see transfer- 76 adopt, 89 , ence; of dead, 106-7, 250-77, 354, 3592 60; decays, 113, ii3 117, 118, 279, 279% 708; methods of, 220, 342, 354, : , Chan ton 381-3; map by, 43*, 1 3 379 ; Rizos copies, of, ' 84, 84', 379, 441*. Cythera, Panagia Myitidiotissa found in 1 bush at, 359 Cyzicus, Hadrian's temple thought palace of Belkis at, 749; legend of Mother of the Gods' on Dindymon, 6o2 , ioo l 329; Virgin of Kapu . ' Mohammedans see abolish a Chris- secularized: 3 adopt, 9 , a 1 lo-n, lo , 13-14, 16-17, T7 , 18, l 39, 40, 402, 402 , see transference; organization important for, 69-70, 93-4, ii2, 113, 117, 255, 255*, 280, 344; origins of, 61-2, 177*, 182, i82 3 4 , 191, 206, 208, 2i9 2 , 220, 231, tian, , lost and found, white marble as milk-charm Dagh (Dindymon) 359 1 ; near, 182. Dablae, see Tarakli. Dacian (Tatien), * 35i. 399~402, 414, 654*, 729, and see coincidence, colour, conspicuous- reigning when S 1 George born, 32 1 Dade Kirkan, Turkoman . Dadli, Turkoman tribe, 479. tribe, 479. Index 798 Daghli Baba, see Doghlu Baba. Dair Mughan, antidotal earth from, see Decius. Dakiyanus, Dallam, Thomas, entreated to turn 3 Turk, 455 Damad Ibrahim, Nevshehr founded - by, 137, i37 2 . 2 Damascus, 'ambiguous' cults at, 7 , 22 5 , 326% 692*; 'Arab' in Muhyied-din mosque at, 27 3 no Bektashi ; tekke at, 514; Belinas's canal at, 366*; Bilal buried at, 235, 712; 8 defiling of Forty mosque at, 395 Companions of Prophet at, 395; ; Mohammedan Saints at, 395; gate blocked at, 753*; hare tabu among Christians at, 243; inscription cures at, 219*; Judas' s house at, 22 6 ; Khidr at, 326, 326'; licking ritual at, 219*; life in grave of Pam- buk Baba mosque at, 1 252 ; Ommeyad 3 409 ; 'passing S. Paul's at place in, 184; through* S. George and Khidr at, 326; S. 5 George the Porter at, 326', 692 ; S. John Baptist's church transferred to Islam at, 4093 S. Simeon Stylites 6 at, 25 ; Seven Sleepers' cave near, 319, 319'; sheikh buried on hill- top at, , ; near, 259; stones (sacred) in Armenian cathedral at, 20I 1 suspended stones at, 395*; Turkoman ; tribes round, 480; Virgin's miracu4 lous image near, 27*, 462', 47 1 Damietta, mosque of Amr at, column ordeal in, 633: jaundice cured by mihrdb columns in, 2i92 Danae, immured princess, 744. . . Dancing, typical worldly pursuit of women, 465, 465'. Danger, kurban to avert, 259-60, and after escape from, 259; sanctity 2 originated by, 347 Daniel Israel, see Israel. Daniel the prophet, Black Stone at Susa at tomb of, 214-15, 215*; . buried at Bagdad, 30 1 3 : at Susa, 214-15* 2 45> 249, 298-303, 299, 1 '2 30I , 626*, 694*: at Tarsus, 298-9, 1 4 299 , 301-3, 303 ; cured by, 300; fish sacred drought at Susa to, 245, 249, 300-1, 301"; 2 303; incubation to, 689 , 691*; mosques of, see body Alexandria, Tarsus; , of, Danishmend prince, Melik Ghazi, 7o8 8 Danzig, Sari Saltik buried at, 430, 577, 583*; Svity Nicola killed at, 429, l 429', 43> 5 8 3 Daonas, Bektashi tekke at, 507; Suhayb born at, 235, 712. Daoudee, David's shop frequented by, . - 224. Dar Robat, exorcized 42 at, devil in convent 3 . Dardanelles, Alexander the Great cut, 2 284; Bektashi at, 510-11, 51 1 , 513; of independent sanjak, 510*; capital tomb giant's at, 2 5ii healing spirit ; 2 in tree at, 176, I76 . Darius, admiration for 2 7 1 471*; prosperity brought by 300; serpent killed by 1 stratagem by, 65 5 ; at Shah Meran 3 2 Kalesi, 298 ; tabu at tomb of, 694 . 298 of, 672'. Forty occult sciences patronized by, 298; ordeal at tomb of, 626*; prophecies i79 of, 3i9 2 , River Tearus 519*; Seven Sleepers and, 6 - see Brusa. Daud, Daundarlu, Yuruk tribe, 478. David, armourers patronized by, 224; Bektashi invoke, 560; Cenaculum, Jerusalem, as tomb of, 7* ; Kizilbash prophet, 145, 148; saved by mosquito, spider, wasp, and feigned 2 '3 idiocy, 700, 7OO ; shop of, 224. David, history of Trebizond by, 470*. 2 Dawkins, Mr. J. M., 634 3 Dawkins, Prof. R. M., 203, 344 , 4742, 2 1 66o , 701, 70I 485*, 4 Dead, book buried with, 47 i ; buried . . 5 1 quickly, 45 , 235 , 306*; catechism of newly, 250, 250% 471*; charity to animals by, 210, 2io l , 226, 251-2, 8 25i ; cult of, 106-7, 250-77, 354, 359-60; divination by, 269-72, 2 7 12 ' 4 ; embalming, exhumation, and of Mohammedan, transportation 1 1 235 ; Jews invoke, 250*, 257 ; Koran read at grave of newly, 250, 1 251, 25 1 , 258; kurban to invoke, 1 lf 3 , 258, 261, 26I ; prosperity 25i 2 brought by sainted, 300, 3O0 ; transferred from cemetery to ceme- 7 1 "2 1 446-9, 448 , discountenanced, 256; 584 ; see burial, cemetery, corpse, tomb. Death, in battle against infidels, 278; Bektashi disbelief in, 555, 561, tery, 73, 73 2 , 360, 360 visits to, , Index 560-1; of children stopped by prophylactic names, 2 i93 ; conversion to Islam after, prayers at, 5 446-9, 447 ; cypresses and, 176-7, 1 178% 226-7, 226 , 238, 407; forty critical days after, 392; life in grave 1 after, 250-1, 252-5, 252 437, 545, 663, 715-16; from looking at sacred , 6 4 1 ; from magic, 22-9, , 47 22 5 , 25 8 ; miracles reveal saints after, 1 227-8, 254-5, 258, 258 , 282, 351, I<J ; on 6 443, 456-8, 45 7S 9 perfection 1 being attained, 292, 292 ; preferred to marriage with unbelievers, 17, 2 l 729, 742, 742 ; revival after, 2i8 , objects, 27 3 -4 248, 248 32 1 by violence, 3 1 , , 334, 334 ; stones thrown on : : 3 , 253 s , 314,. 352, 399> 45^, 729, 729*. Decius, as Dakiyanus, 315*, 318-19; Seven Sleepers persecuted by, 310. Decollati, cult of, 217*. Dede, eponymous ancestor of tribe, 338; jinn becomes, 734-5; as Kizilbash priest, 147-8; nameless often, 256; as numen, 99 Takhtaji priest, 159. 249*, 8 , 134; as Dede Baba, see Akhi Dede. Dede Bair, cult of, 99-100. Dede Karkinli, Yuruk tribe, 476. Dede Sultan, Bektashi saint, 508. Dedeagach, named after sacred tree, 393. Deer, see stags. Defiling, of churches 29 5 > 395 89 5 6 - 2 I92 Demeter of Eleusis, no 'survival', 191. Demir Baba Ghazi, Bektashi saint, 2 4 186, 295-6, 2 9 5 , 522, 593, 593 . Yuruks near, 475. Demirji, Demon, baptism protects Mohammedan children from, 33; exorcized and pressed into Christian service, 42*; , . sea, ; see jinn. Denek Maden, Hasan Dede near, 53, 171. Deniz Abdal (Yunuz Baba), 'refused' 1 turbe, 228 ; sick fumigated with laurel leaves from grave of, 240; walked on sea, 58 1 8 . Denizli, aetiological legend of, Baba buried at, 285, 505, 505*; Bektashi tekkes near, 507-8; Kizilbash near, 141*; Sari Tekkeli Yuruks near, 476. Departmentalization, of modern Greek nomad 691-2; of Turkish saints, 279-80. Deprecation, cult by, 342, 347, 351. Deriji, Yuruk tribe, 476. 1 Dersim, Khidr-S. Sergius in, 335, 335 , 3 Kizilbash in, 52 , 147, 152*, 570-1; 154; Kurds in, Haji Bektash and, 513; two seyyids' competition in, 2 289 Dervishei, Bektashi tekke at, 548. Dervishes, animals tamed by, 282, religion, . 3 287*; at Athens, 12, i2 , 13*, 14-15; canonized, 278; celibacy preferable 3 1 i63 , I64 , 535. 547; Christianity and, 57, 421 ; divination with s girdle-stones by, 287 ; as dragon5 killers, 2O3 , 351; excesses of some, in, 147, l 165, 167; fairy characteristics ' as ghazis, 281, 28i 3 4 ; 1 of 281, ; gigantic, 306 girding novice, I4o and mosques, Deleyanli, sub-tribe of Rishwan Turkomans, 481. Delikanli, sub-tribe of Rihanli Turkomans, 480. 5 Delikli Baba, of Nauplia, 'Arab', 89 , 223; of Pylos, anthropomorphized stone-cult transferred to Christianity, John's Gospel banishes, 34'; of 342-50; Solomon's army of, 28o 2 ; winds caused by, 342, 342 1 S. 285*; Ahiwiran graves after, 413** superstitions con" nected in East with, 216-19, 2i7 2 3 , 2 1 '2 2i8 , 2i9 in West, 217*, 218*. Decay, corpse of saint or sinner does not, ii7 799 healing, in trees, 175, 176, 176*; low diet expels, 446; madness due to, 793 , 4 668, 668 , 670, 691*; relics banish, 466*; saint may develop from, 734-5 ; , 281; of, 609; government attacks on, 410, 4io 15, 4 419-23; heresy suspected of, 422; heterodoxy encouraged by, 420; inanimate objects manipulated 1 1 by, 282, 282 , 287 ; jinns work for, 280 ; knowledge of, 280; as magicians, 1 280-2, 28I marriage of, see Bektashi ; miracles of, 280-2, 28 1 1 4 583, , ; , 4 6 583 ; missionary, 340, 404 ; nature's 3 unity taught by, 58, 85 , 247, 282, 3 291; neo-martyrs, 421, 42 1 , 449% 5 orders ; 453 of, 404*; politics and 4 religion and, 15, 410, 4io 419-23, 429, 438-9* 611-13, 619-22; popular cults absorbed by, 531, 531*, 535; , 8oo Index Dervishes (contd.) of rebellion Turkomans and, 163; relics of, in turbes, 229; religious folk-lore disseminated by, 122 ; saint- cults organized by, 69-70, 93-4, 255; Seljuks preferred mystic type of, 281; sheikhs led into Asia Minor, 338; stags associated with, see stags; Sunnis suspect, 422; taj on tombs of, 226; tombs as dwelling-places of ascetic, 223; transferences due to, 4 47,* S3 , 57> 69-70 (see Bektashi transmigration of souls usurp); taught by, 58, 247, 282, 291; tumuli made by, 283; weather controlled by? 345? 346, 347 wicked town over; whelmed by, 283, 369; see also Bairami, Bektashi, Hayati, Jelali, Kadri, Khalveti, Melamiyun, Mevlevi, Nakshbandi, Rifai, Sadi. Desecration, of churches by Turks, 7; of synagogues, 41. Dei\ dervishes appear as, 281. Dev Euren, name derived from folklore, 733*. ' 2 Devil, as Arab', i89 367% 730% 734; blocked water-channels, 365 3 2 eikonography and ideas of, 49 Gabriel defends Mohammedan souls against, 250; grave of Abu Zenneh's horse haunted by, 269 5 ; hares as , in ; ; creatures of, 243**; among Kizilbash, 3 145; madness caused by, 79 , 668, 4 668 670, 691*; negroes as, 731*; ridden on by Jonas of Novgorod, 2 292 ; Solomon* s ring stolen by, 247; , 2 189, i89 ; transformed into animal shape, 464; windmills invented or perfected by, 1 1 1 3 in statues, . Diana, Hippocrates' daughter and, 1 746; 'survival' of, 465 ; temple of, 4i8 3 . 3 Diarbekr, sacred fish at, 245 Diarbekr vilayet, Kizilbash Kurds 168; in, Shah . in, 141; Ismail's in- trigues in, 169-72 ; Shia Islam Alevi Kurds in, 168. among 3 - Diercanli, leading family of tribal 6 origin, I35 706, 743 ; multiple 7 6i 4 , 433 2 , 7io ; and Ferhad and Shirin Regina, originals 4 of, 747 ; Sidi Battal's counterpart, tombs see of, 709. Dikmen Baba, Bektashi saint, 524. Dimetoka, Bektashi tekkes at, 521-2. Turkoman tribe, 479. Dindymon, Mount (Kapu Dagh), Dindishli, ' legend of Mother of the Gods 6o 2 , loo 1 , 3293 ' on, . Dineir, Sheikh Arab Gueul near, 283, 369; Sheikh Arab Sultan promoted jinn at, 734; Turkomans near, 138. Dioscuri, Greek cult of relief of, 191. Diospolis, see Lydda. Diplomats, Spanish Jews as, 679, 725. Dirges, not sung by Bektashi, 561. 2 'Disappearing' baints, 234, 333 , 358, 527, 528'. 'Discovery', of books in tombs, 471*; of saints, examples of, 64 17, 43-4, 2 '4 61, 6i 213, 237, 253, 306-7, 351, 5 , 35i 512, 524, 604, 607-8, 704, 707, 5 709, 714-16, 7i4 , 728: for political 4 "5 purposes, 714-16, 7i4 processes see of, 716, 729: bones, dog, dream, fall (of a wall), light, miracles, sarco, , : phagus, shepherd, undecayed. Disguised janissary and other at3 tackers, 742-4, 742 745'Disinfection' of Monte Cassino, 329*. , Dittany, goats and, 687*. Ditumli, Turkoman tribe, 479. Divani, Sultan, apoplexy cured iron shoes of, 266. by Divination, about absent, 271-2, 271*, 287*, 529, 530; with ball, 271-2, 271*, 529, 530; with beads, 271*; with book Phorkan, 202 2 ; cult of " 2 4 with girdle269-72, 27i stone by dervishes, 287 3 ; incubation 8 3 4 for, 55 , 268, 271, 690, 69o ; by lekanomancy, 364, 364'; by living saint, 499; with pebbles, 271, 271*, dead in, ; 275; with S. John's gospel, 34*; by Saltuk Baba, 134-5* 34o, 43 2 , 576*; see Eyyub, Divorce, . Dieudonne de Gozon, 1 Mohammedan, - Dibra, Bektashi tekke at, 525, and near, 551; immured mother of, 732*. Dicte, Mount, Zeus cloud-gatherer on, 329 706* ; bones of, over S. Catherine's l gate at Rhodes, 3o6 , 654*; gigantic l size of, 3o6 , 433*5 hoof-print in Crete of horse of, 187; married a de Gozon. Digenes Akriras, Akrates was perhaps, oracle. among Bektashi, 555, 555*; Kizilbash, 151, 153. Divriji (Tephrike), Al Albruk and, 314, among Index 314; Bektashi tekke near, 512, 512*; Bektashli near, 341"; Kizilbash in kaza of, 142; miraculous ball in mosque at, 271*. 3 Dizful, Turkomans near, 48 1 Djziey Kurds, Hasan Ghazi reverenced . by, 237. 80 1 Gozon, 1 'place 203* , 646-62; earth from at Elwan Chelebi of, 48, 3 2 263 ; Gargantuan, 659 ; of Gilles de 4 Chin, 646 650, 659-60; hostile, 351 ; , huge jaws 2 659, 659 Crusades important for, 3 1 32 1 , 66o often dervishes, 203*, 351 with dogs, 647, 649, 650, 650 2 , 658, 659: of dummy dragons, 647, 649, 2 4 65, 655-7, 656', 657 658, 659": explanation of legends of, 231: false claim of, 430, 430*, 434, 435, 647, of, ; killers of, : Dobruja, Bektashi propaganda among Tatars of, 501 Sari Saltik's dragon tight and burial in, 429-30, 437; victims for foundations in, 265*. 2 Dog(s), of Abbas, 8i angels banished ; ; by presence of, banned from 189*; houses as unclean, 313; of Budrum, 3 33 > 659, 659*; demons of sea and, 1 2 in dragon-fights, 647, 344, 344 2 649, 650, 65o 658, 659; Katmir breed of, 313; martyr proved saint 1 memorials in Palestine to, by, 457 Omar transformed into a, 241*. 269*; ' ; , ; Doghan (sparrow-hawk) castle, 746-7, 747'- : - , 3 3 in folk literature, 646 647 geographical distribution in East of, 1 2 434-5, 648, 648 , 65o 660*, and in W. Europe, 6563 ,66o3 ,6683 historical personages as Gilles de Chin, 646*, 650, 659-60, de Gozon, 646-62, Mansfeld, 646*, S. Alexander Nevski, 3 1 646*: methods of, 655, 655 , 66o 1 1 Perseus, 32 i objects of, 650, 650 66o3 prince as, 32 1 1 saints as, see Khidr, SS. Elias, George, Michael, : : , : : : : Doghlu (Daghli) Baba of Brusa, 18, i8 3 ; also called Yoghurtlu Dede, i8 4 Doghlu Dede of Constantinople, see . Toklu Dede. Romanus, Silvester, Doitsi, Bolen, Bulgar by 'Arab', and Theodore, Sari Saltik; 1 '2 in slain , : Kos, 648, 648 660, 746; 1 opprobrious epithet, 32 1 princess in legend of, 32 1 , 66o s processional , ; 1 73i- ; Dokuz, place-name near Konia, 391*. 1 Dolmen, venerated, I92 Dome, ball as talisman of mosque, . 271*; rarn's horns as talisman 232. ; Constantinople, 718, 724*% 725*. Domuz Dere, ambiguous cult at Bektashi tekke (S. George's) at, 54, 520-1. Doria, Andrea, victory at Lepanto of, 4?i> 7395 Doris, rival lovers in, 747 to revive how bear Dosicles, taught by rivers personified as, 657, 659 2 ; in 2 3 Rogations, 656-7, 656*, 66o ; at 2 4 water and, ; Tarascon, 657, 657 2 1 3 651, 656, 657, 657 , 659 , 66o and Dragonetto Clavelli, dragon of . ' ' . 6 Rhodanthe, 686 Rhodes, 65 1 2 . 2 Dragon -stone (snake-stone), 65 s, 6 s V > 661. Drawing, dangerous to Green Mosque, 4 Bulak, 22 . ' Dreams, churches 'bound' after, 264*; 'discoveries' of holy spots by, 61-2, 6i 2 8 6 , i77 2 , 220, 566, 707, 729; - ' . Yuruk tribe, 476. Dosuti-Arapli, Doves, released at Blessing of Waters, 2 . 2 Drac,personified river of Grenoble, 659 Dragon(s), in Albania, see S. Donatus, S. George, Sari Saltik; on Argaeus, 644; bewitched maiden in Kos a, 646*, 648, 648% 660, 746; bones of, 1 6 1 2 203 , 231, 23i , 306 , 32I , 650*, 654, caves of, *; 51, 51', 223, 308, 654** 3 3 435, ^S 1 ? 66o , 6 68 ; crocodiles as, s of Dieudonne de 648*, 654, 654 . ; 4 (tarasque), 655-7, 656 , 657** , 658, 2 659 ; at Rhodes, 203*, 646-62; ~ of, Dominican(s), George of Hungary a, 1 in S. Paul's (Arab Jami), 494 384 1 incubation does not require, 268, 2 690, 69O , 695; kurban after, 259; and, 122; miracles proved legends a by, 449; orientals and, 45, 55*, 6i , 223,414, 716; sacrilege arrested by, 8 l , 71; scepticism punished by, 308; transferences of cult aided by, 61. Drink sanctified water for cure, after Epiphany, 384, 386; from graves, 2 210, 2io , 263; from khirka, 267, 2 mixed with sacred earth, 358, 358 * 263 from relic, 266-7, 26 A 35 8 > 35 8 ; ; Index 802 Drinking-cups, Seven Sleepers' charm name Turkish pasha (Drishti), works miracles for Christians at, 893 . Drizar, Bektashi tekke at, 543. Drivasto Drought, cured by holy men, 296, 300; by prayer, see rain. Druses, baptism of, 33, 33*; incest and promiscuity among, 153; Khidr among, 320; women admitted to Akal brotherhood by, 702*. Duff Gordon, Lady, to be transferred to Moslem cemetery, 449. Dunmedes (Mohammedan Jews), dew by, 210; images prohibited by, 471*; at Pergamon, 473-4; at Salonica, 153, 1 474 ; at Smyrna, 474, 474! Dunuk Tash, Dakiyanus and, 315*. from tombstones used . Duraki, Turkoman tribe, 48 1 Durazzo, Bektashi pilgrimage 3 . to, 549; Sari Saltik at, 435, 549. Durcadurli (Zulkadr), leading family of tribal origin, 135. Durgut, tribal village chief, name, 128; 136*; tribal Yuruk and tribe, 127, 477- Durham, Miss M. E., 642 Dur Hasanlu, possibly tribal name, 1 . IOI 1 Earthquake, Christian magic caused, 21 for, 313***. . ; occurrences Bektashi claimed, 518, 5i82 ; Bosporus miraculously crossed by, 285, 2 10 346 ; buried at Rumeli Hisar, 285 , 2 Khalveti claim, , 346, 518; 346 518; local saint only, 350; sailors' saint on Bosporus, 346, 3462 348 a , 350. Dushk, Bektashi tekke at, 544. Dysentery, Lemnian earth and, 672. , 5 Eagle, as talisman, i89 Earache, cured by horseman relief, 190. Earring, of celibate Bektashi dervishes, . 3 287 Earth, amulets of sacred, 275-6; 3 curative, from graves, 262-4, 263 , 267, 275-6, 404, 467, 467*, 684-5, 2 from Kaaba, 263 1 from 684*, 685* Khidr's 'place', 48, 263"; . ' : : edible, 683*; Lemnian, 671-88; medicinal other than Lemnian, 671, 2 l 6712, 672', 676 , 680-3, 68o , 681-2, 68i 3 , 682 2 5 , 683, 683 l 4 ; spirits of, and primitive Turks, 134. Earth-gods, snakes as, 245. - n, 18*, 4I 1 , 169*, 542; ominous, 169*; S. Leon this 1 caused, 228 Easter, promiscuity in Jerusalem at, 153; Semitic influence on, 261. Ebimi, Kizilbash village, 239; sacred . ' grove 329 at, 6 239; survival' at, 6i , 239, 2 . Ebul Huda, Rifai adviser of Abdul 3 Hamid, 62o Bektashi tekke near, 513; Echmiadzin, Christ drew plan of Armenian church 6 at, i98 ; (sacred) earth and oil from, . 684* ; exorcized devil in Christian service at, 42 J ; seventy Virgin missionaries to Armenia at, 399*; stones 5 Juifa from, I98 Edeb Ali, Osman's father-in-law, 235; tombs of, 235, 235 4 . Edessa, see Urfa. flew to New . Edifying legends, examples of, 464. Edmonds, Mr. W. S., 5i42 4 516, 5I61 Edward the Confessor, canonization of, - . , 2I7 4 . Eflaki's Acts of the Adepts, and Jelaled-din, 295; literary character of, 296-7; Redhouse translated, 295^ Eflatun, see Plato. born after death by violence, Efrits, Durmish Dede, from Akkerman, 346; of, 3 suicidal mania due to, 2i7 ; 2i7 talisman eagle in Arabian Nights served by, 189*. Efsepi (Eusebius?), bishop buried at 3 ; Konia, 85-6, 85% 375. Egerdir, Plato formed lake of, 283, 366; saved from Timur by Sheikh 2 4 Baba, i68 , 33 9 3 Egerli Dagh, Balaam buried on, 3o8 . . Pvgg, in sterility cures, 359; see ostrich, roc. Egypt, Albanians in, 515, 516, see also Ali; Bektashi tekke at Cairo in, 514-16; cross in Moham- Mohammed medan amulets in, 31; cryptoChristian in, 443-4; crypto-Mussulman in, 73'; flying castle in, 199, 2 2 I99 ; gold plant in, 645 ; Khalveti in deserted Christian monasteries of, 6I 1 ; Nevruz and Solomon's ring in, 2 247 ; Nile flood and paganism in, 6 through* to cure S. Barbara's body 4 1 3 in, 8 , 38 , 235 ; S. Francis converted sultan of, 443-4; 64 ; 'passing sterility in, i83 3 ; Index S. George Michael in, 1 32 1, 334, 334'; S. 1 692 sarcophagus 32 1 haunted in, 2o8 2 Eikon, enkolpion of Virgin as Mohammed II's amulet, 35*; sea cast up, 69*; Virgin* s, painted by S. Luke, 66, 285: turns to flesh, in, , ; . 4 see also image. ; Eikonography, legends influenced by, 2 4 1 49 , 224, 289 , 329', 334 , 659-60, 27*, 462% 47 1 667*. Elassona, Bektashi tekke at, 530-1. Elbassan, Bektashi tekke at, 549; funeral feast of Christians at, 25 1 2 ; Kasim Baba's hand at, 526*, 549, tomb at, 547; Khidr's hot spring near, 328. Eleazar, Rabbi, tombs 359 of, burning bush at 1 . at, 191. Elias Baba, Bektashi saint, 543. Elijah, Khidr and, 3272, 332, 333*; as 9 kutb, 333 ; prophets of Baal and, 59; Rabbi Jochanan and, 331-2, 699; unjust deeds of, 331-2, 699. Empress of Russia, and Yellow King, 471*. 69o l , 693 4 Turkey, 7233. . Asia Minor, 595-6, 5962 Elmali, Abdal Musa buried near, 506; Bektashi centre, 142, 506-7; in Shahkuli's campaign, 171; Takhtaji . 507; Tekke village near, 507- Eiwan Chelebi (Tekke Keui), 'am1 biguous' cult at, 47-9, 75 , 328, 571; dragon-legend at, 48, 88, 328; earth from dragon's place at, 48, 263 s ; Elwan, Sheikh, buried at, 48, 49'; Euchaita identified with, 47; George of Hungary describes, 496, 496*; hoof-print of Khidr's horse at, 329; no 'survival* at, 47 2 ; as Tekke Keui in i6th century, 48. illegal for Embalming, ordinary Mos- lems, 235'. Embracing 277, 635. ; of, 234, 527. Emir, negro buried in Turbet Birket Mamilla, 731*. Emirghian, secularization of S.Nicolas's at, 41. Emir Sultan (Sheikh Bokhara), at Baba Sultan, 103; Bayezid I girded by, 606; and Eskiji Koja, 292-3; Sheikh of Mevlevi called, 606; spring made 2 by, io5 . 3 Emmanuel, charm for lintels, 2o6 Emrem Yunuz Sultan (Yunuz Imre), . Bektashi saint, 291, 504, 504^ 581; food multiplied by, 285', 291 unknown saint, 282 4 , 291. Enemy, Black Stone of Susa warded off, 215; gates blocked to exclude, 6 203 Engineering works of ancients, 366, . 366*. England, profited by 16th-century enmity between Spain and Turkey, 3 - Enoch, chariot of fire of, 333 2 ; Foun- of Life discovered by, 333*; sa g e > 333; S. Elias and, 333, 333% 2 334; in terrestrial Paradise, 333 Entrances, magical virtue and dangers . curative cross and inscription 3 at, 30, 206, 2o6 baronial Ellezoglu, family of Western Eljik, round, 'disappeared', 234, 527, 1 tain . Queen of England, and Elizabeth, ; Khirka Baba and, 528'; S. Menas and, 528; tombs multiplied 528 723 Elisha, fish sacred to, 245**; incubation to, a 527-8, 52 7 ; Eleusis, 'survival' in Demeter's statue Elisabeth, 803 Emetic, Lemnian earth as, 672, 673. Emineh Baba, Bektashi saint, 234, ritual, at columns, 274, of, 184, 203; see archway, gate. Ephesus, ambiguous incubation near, 5 692 ; Isa Bey's mosque at, no 'survival', 19, 115, 521; New, see Scala ' ' Nova; S. John's church at, as S. Pantc5 leemon's, 4i7 : secularized, 38*: transformed into mosque, 19; S. John's deathless sleep at, 310, 5 3 1 3io -, 31 1 354 , 408, 416; Seven cave at, 3io3 , 311, 311*, 312; victim buried alive in founda, Sleepers' tions, at, 265 2 . Ephraim Teuvetlu, miraculous journey of, unknown 285; 2 saint, 282*, 293, 293 Epidaurus, modern pa:allel to incuba. tion at, 109, 457. Epidemics, storks foretell, 262. Epilepsy, baptism shields Mohammedans from, 33 6 , 34, 34*; circumcision protects Albanian Christians from, Index 804 Epilepsy (contd.) 33* evil eye causes. 79; S. John's Gospel in Western Europe cured, s 34 Epimenides, long sleep of, 310. Epiphany, Blessing of Waters at, see ; - communion Nosairi Blessing; . patchwork of Christians and Mohammedans, 439; Shahkuli's adherents ancestor, see tribal hero. Erbei Baba, Bektashi saint, 528. Erdebil, Shah Ismail's grandfather from, 169. Erdek, Sidi Battal's castle at, 710. Eregli, see Benderegli. Eregli (Kybistra), Krakka near, 697. Eretria, medicinal earth from, 671. Erghne, obscure people in Rhodope, 170*. cave and, Sleepers' V?spittle of Ilaji Bektash at, 287-8, 287 3 Ertoghrul, as Ala-ed-din Ill's succes- Ermeni, petrified . sor, 605; Osrnan, Jelal-ed-din, and, 613*; tomb of, 114. Erzerum, 'ambiguous' cult at, 107; dome of church fell in on Mohammed's birthday at, n 7 Egerli Dagh near, 308*; S. Eusebius martyred at, ; , Theodore Tiron buried at, 47 3 Eudoxia, Empress, S. Peter's chains S. . arid, 668*. Euren, see Arab, Dev, Kara. Euripus, sacred grove on, 239; tides 2 1 of, 288-9, 288 289 Erzerum vilayet, Bektashi 500; in, Kizilbash in, 142. Erzinjian, Kizilbash in sanjak of, 142. Esdras, pentateuch written by, 471*. Esef (Eshref?) Dai, tomb of, 82. Eshpek, Yuruk tribe, 476. Eshref (?), see Esef. ' ' Eski Baba, ambiguous cult at, 54-6, 5 4 1 S5S 257, 423 , 43. 431-2, 43i , 432 , 8 5*9* 521, 57&~9> 5?8 , 579S 5^6, 761-3; Christian mitre shown at, 578; divination and incubation at, 5 6 55 , 268 , 271 Kan bur Dede at, 55*, ; 423% 432; Saltuklu near, 340* s 576 , 432', . Yumk, Yuruk Eskiji Koja, Emir tribe, 127*, 476. Sultan, Timur, and, 292-3. Eskishehr, Bektashi tekkes near, 510; Edeb Ali's Saints at, tomb 106, at, 235, 235*; 3i2 3 ; Sidi Seven Battal . , Eusebius, see Efsepi. Evans, Sir Arthur, 210-11, 274-7. Eve, invoked by Bektashi, 560. American treasure-hunter Everek, near, 643-5, 645*; cult near, 183. pierced stone- Evil eye, amulets against, 186, 203*, 6 1 1 3 , 233, 271*, 229-32, 230 , 23I 3 4 1 ; during childbirth, 654, 654 225 ; caused exorcized by, 79; epilepsy by reading over, 78; gates and vaults menaced by, 203 5 Evliya Efendi, descent from Ahmed of Yasi of, 405; reverence for saints 3 1 of, loS " . " . - Evrenos 107. Eski . Stratelates buried at, 47, 47 3 , 88; transported to, 170. Ermenek, Seven 1 706 , 708*, 743*. Esme, Sarach Yuruks near, 476. Essad Pasha, see Topdan. 3 Ethiopian, statue, 376*, 73o Etymology, saints' functions decided 2 l by, 82 , 183', i93 280, 28o\ 666 ; transferences aided by, 18, 57, 528. Euboea, see Negropont. Euchaita, identified with Avghat, 48, with Elwan Chelebi, 47 ; S. Theodore 705*, fl at, 7 i48 Epirus, Bektashi tekkesm, 536, 539-40; Eponymous buried near, 494, 495 1 , 510, 705-10, . (Avranoz), Ottoman early 1 356 12 Excavation, kurban before, 259 Execution, blood taken after, cures ophthalmia, 217; cures sterility, 2 a 2i9 ; see also 216-19, 217% 2i8 death column, by violence, decollati. Exhumation, profanation to Moslems, 1 S. Leontius 'refused', 228 1 235 s Exorcism, of demon, 42 epilepsy ghazi, . . , . ; ; cured by, 79; of ghost, 220; by Greek inscription, 207; by priest's 3 stole, 34 ; by reading over, 77; with S. John's gospel, 343 of 'spirit* in ; desecrated church, 41. Ex-votos become relics, 23 1 1 , 232-3. Eye diseases, cured by Chimera flame, n6 7 ; by liquid from suspended stone at Damascus, 395; by S. Photine's well, 66, 409*; see also ophthalmia. Eyyub, Agha of Janissaries descended Index from, 6n ; Arab hero, u, 82, 604, l 607; Companion of, tomb of, i8 ; Job and Samuel identified with, 82 ; 1 life in grave of, 252 715-16; mosque 2 , and tomb at Eyyub Con- see of, stantinople; praying-place in S. Sophia, Constantinople, of, n. Ezechiel, Jewish ordeal at tomb of, 626 3 . Fabri, stones collected on pilgrimage 3 by, 2oi . Faces, smeared with blood after kur3 ban, 259 26o , 275. Fadlullah, Persian founder 1 , tashi, Fainting 1 of IJek- 60, 565. iits, 57 , 3 3 39<> , 3 '5 5 724 , 725 friendliness, massacre. Farsak, Afshar sub- tribe, 724-6, by, also see ; 3 I27 , 475, 128; geo- 478, 482; camel-men, graphical distribution of, 129, 172*, 475. 478; Osmanli tribe, 135. Fasts, of Bektashi, 559, 561; conversion to Islam promoted by severity of Christian, 155*; for forty days among Christians and Khalveti, 393; of Kizilbash, 143. Fate, inevitability of, 697, 697*, 745, 1 745 Fates, see Moipat. Fatima, daughter of Imam Husaiu, at - dew from tomb- cured by stones, 210. One (Maiden), Castle of, 741-50, 1 3 74I 744 , 747* of western families, ancestresses Fairy, 632"; characteristics of dervishes, 281; cikonography and our ideas of, 2 - Faith, Profession of Christian, 445-6, and of Mohammedan, 446, 4462 , 448. Falling, minaret, mosque, wall, s.vv. False, claim in dragon legends, 430, 3 430* 434, 435, 6 47 r>47 J Messiah , crossed 64, 174, I74 617*; Seljuks free from, 370-8, 382; transference of churches in Constantinople caused Fair 49 805 1 river miraculously, 285'; 5 prophet in Albania, 438', 58 1 Famagusta, S. Catherine buried at, . 704. Fanaticism, against Christians, Alaed-din showed none, 370-1, 374 1 377; Bektashi free from, 288, 436; 3 5 724% against Catholics, 723-6, 723 3 4 forced con versions by, 84*, 725 ; , - , Constantinople, 17-18, 267, 729*. daughter of Mohammed, Fatima, Bektashi, among born 560; 554, underground, 225. Fazil Yezdan, Bektashi saint, 507 3 . Fecamp, Jonah sea-saint at, 349*. Fees (Phison), Seven Sleepers* cave , at, 318-19. Female Mohammedan saints, see sain ts Ferejik, Bektashi tekke at, 520. Ferhad and Shirin, Persians, 7 47 2 - . 747, 4 . Feridun, Turkomans near, 48 3 charm at Murad Ps grave 1 Fertility, . for, 106-7. Festival, birds released at church, 384*; 'survivals' and dates of, 414. Fever, caused by jinns, 195, 2o6 cured by, baking in oven, l ; 78*: ' circumambulation, columns, 91: 7 6 3 455> 455; > 457% 4<>9> 469 , 4?o ; at 13, 609, 724-6; Constantinople, crosses defaced by, 30, 30', 205; Greek revolution increased, 7 j , 29, 2 of Janissaries, 4i. 379 45 2 474 > ; 538; Jelal-ed-din free from, 371-2, 1 374, 374 , 377; at Jerusalem, 30', 3 629, 63 1 ; Jews of Constantinople suffered from, 725-6; of late growth 3 among Turks, 452, 452 Lepanto 3 roused, 471; Manmn free from, 64 ; Mevlevi free from, 72, 167, 355, 3714, 438, 619*; in renegades, 23% 450; in Rhodes, 400'%- Russian ag2 3 gressions roused, 439 , 471, 47 1 '*, 2 of S. at tomb, ; 627*; Pelagia's 474 Saracens, 381; Selim I free from, ; 195, 195*, 196, 197-8, i98 seal, 64 1 2 earth : 3 l : consular from dragon's fumigation with 'place', 48, 263 laurel leaves, 240, 305: inscriptions, 202 2 , 206-7, 2i92 : Lemnian earth, : tese 681, earth, 682* 2 Malmeasuring 678: licking ritual, 216, 2i9 : : 3 S. John's column, 195-6, 195 197: obscure saint, 691*: pierced stones, 183, 183*, 192: plane-tree of Mohammed II, 1*7 82 prayer, 2o6 l rag- tying, , : : 5 i83 , 305: skin of newly l slaughtered sheep, 2i8 under S. John's buried spirits of, column, 195; yellow symbolical of 3 malarial, i82 El born at, 663. Beclawi Fez, 183, ; . 8o6 Index Fez, Mufti objected to Abdul Mejid's wearing, 616. Pldsjeli, Turkoman tribe, 480. Financial motives of transference of 3 cults, i6 53, 80, 412, 5 8 5~6. , Finders, S. 247-8, 247 fish, Menas, 183% 403 i8 3 3 ; 2 ; S. Joseph, 270; Phanourios, 7 . Fineka, Bektashi tekke at, 507 ; village 3 Halaj near, 507 Islam by raising professed Finger, 2 index, 446, 446 6 Fire, Easter, i53 ; Elias's chariot of, 3 2 Enoch's chariot of, 333'-; 329 333 ; kiirban to check, 259; ordeal by, . . , 43o 430, 2 434, , Sleepers* name Fire- worshippers, 498, charm 498 2 Seven ; against, 313. at David's shop, 224; incest and promiscuity charged against, 153; Kizilbash, 149, 150; Nimrod, 317; not 'People of the 1 Book', 150; Seljuks thought, I68 6 First-fruit offerings of corn, 106, io6 , . 2 33> 386 2 to dead, gods, or king, , 2 33 8 - , Fish, 246 4 anthropomorphism of, 245-6, in Christian communion, 249*; ; Khidr found by, 248; King of, 1 247; magic, 246, 246 , 696-8; Mamun and, 302, 302*, 303, 1 10 696-8; ornamental, 249 , 283 ; revived after death, 248; sacred, 4 2 ~3 5 4 5 3 1 > 2 46 249* , 245 244-9, 244 3 found Solomon's 300-1, 663 ; ring 2 by, 247, 247 lushermen, S. Andrew of Sinope saint 246, 122; religion and, 122, 256; Turkish, influences, 121-2, 346. Food, Bektashi pray before and after, 2 '3 559-60; at graves, 251, 25i , 254; and foreign miraculously transported, 293*, 296, 440; multiplied, 285, 285', 291; sea2 saints offered, 343, 343 , 344, 345, Seven Sleepers' name ; on, 313*. Footprints, sacred, 185-7, 185*, 435, 349 346, tt charm 6 2 6o9 Fortezza, Bektashi tekke 435 , . at, 535; Tur- kish head-quarters during siege of Candia at, 535*. Beduin bathe forty days in Pharaoh's bath, 393*; in caves, 309, 1 314, 398, 399, 401, 402 jinns, 392, 9 392 398-9, 402; at Khidr's place in S. Sophia, Constantinople, pray forty days, 12; in magic prescrip10 tions, 727; maidens 392, 392 Forty, ; , , suicide at Kilgra, 742 2 ; meaning of term, 39 i 399; mystical number, 39i> 39 2 -9; among Nosairi, 395, , ; 4 49% 200, 295, 296; primary and secondary elements in, 2 at Daniel's tomb, 245, 249, 300-1, 3 30i , 303; as deities, 245-6, 245% 246 literature and, 246*, ' ' ' , , . ? 343 ; S. Eadmund saint for, 349 Five, hidden things, 270; indefinite 2 number, 39i see Christ, column, JeruFlagellation, 2 . of, . salem, scourging. Plies, coins transformed into, 643. Flood, ancient, 284-5, 3^5-6, 3^9; expected at Granada, 369^ talisman column against, 194, 368, 368 de Flor, canonization 1 . of, 255*. Florence, medicinal earth from, 681. 2 2 horses, 286 , Flying, castle, 199, I99 ; 1 287 , 292; pictures, 285; stones, 3 5 3 , 277; treasure, 2O7 . 198, I98 Folk-lore, children's diseases and, 183* ; as history, 296-7, 369, 537 1 , 597, ' 3 646*, 714, 7i4 ' 5 , 7!6, 718-20, 728; 39 395 ? ; saints (or martyrs), account of, 391-402: Christian, predominating of, 309, see Adrianople, Alexandria, Benevento, Albania, Caesarea, Caria, Constantinople, Hebron, Jerusalem, Lyons, Malatia, Marseilles, Mysia, Pyla, Rhodes, Rome, SS. Quaranta, Sebastc, Sinai, Sis, Sivas, Thrace, Zile: Mohammedan, see Constantinople, Damascus, Kirklar Jerusalem, Kirk Kilise, group Tekke, Larissa, Medina, Menzaleh, Palestine, Ramleh, Seilun, Tekrit, Victims; in Sari Saltik's story, 437, 437% 577; Semitic influence on belief in, 3 393 ; souls of Mohammedans detained forty days at grave, 250, 254; in transferences of cult, 57; Virgins of Kirk Kiz Dagh, 710; Volunteers of Sidi Okba, 395. 4 Fossati, S. Sophia repaired by, 6o2 . Fossils, see bones. Foundations, victim sacrificed for, 27, 5 36, 265, 2652, 732, 7 3 2<Founder, as benefactor or restorer, 382 ; buried at or near benefaction, 228, . at gate, 541; canonized. 165, 278; Index church named prayer for after, 368*; soul of, 9, 228, 2288 ; of tekkes, 165; tomb and cenotaph of, 375-6. Fountains, charitable building of, 228. Foxano, G. A., Rhodian Knight, and de Gozons, 661-2. 5 conFrance, bleeding trees in, I75 quest of Jerusalem by Emperor of, 3 S. Nicolas in, 35o 2 stinking 752 stones in, iSo 1 ; stone-carrying in, ; ; ; 200, 201. to, : also Constantinople, Tarsus ; prayers, Turkish fear of attack 3 2 751-4, 75 l4 > 754 God on, 274. Friendliness between Christians and Mohammedans, see Ala-ed-din, Ali during, 721, 72i souls commune , ; with Pasha, Bektashi, Chapanoglu, Elle- Franciscans, given 807 Friday, auspicious day for cures, 272-4, 7 327% 357~8, 694 ; mosque, in conquered towns, 7 elevated site required for, 23: see Chapel 4i l ; of Flagellation at Smyrna, 406, 409, , Franks, disastrous interest in inscriptions of, 208, 215; drawing Green 4 Mosque, Bulak, forbidden to, 22 ; Eyyub inaccessible to, 609; liaram at Jerusalem inaccessible to, 629, 631*; Roman lettering by, 211; as saints for Mevlevi, 72; at Smyrna from 1344 to 1402, 415, 417*; travelling, oriental views of, 641-5; as treasure-hunters, 367, 642, 642 1 , zoglu, fanaticism, Jelal-ed-din, Kotube, Mevlevi, Selim, Seljuks. 4 Frontier, political burials on, 7I4 ; saints, 335 Fudeil Baba, 1 . hill and sheep sacred to, 240. 1 Fumigation for cure, 238, 240, 3O5 Funeral feasts, 251, 25 i 2 3 ; saints . ' revealed by, 254. Gabriel, Black Stone brought by, 179; Mohammedan souls defended from Devil by, 250. 643Frasheri, Bektashi Ickkc at, 537, 547-8, turbes near, 548; Nasibi buried at, 548; Premct tekkc an offshoot from, Gadara, incubation cures leprosy 545Frasheri, Galata, see Constantinople. Galatians, survivals' in Asia Minor . Abdul Bey, Albanian nation- 3 Frasheri, Midhat Bey, 52 2 , 523*. Frasheri, Nairn Bey, author of Bek' tashi Pages', 552. Frasheri, Saini Gaduchi, Bektashi tnrbe Gaghni, cult of, 575*. Bey, historian, i66 3 , influence of doctrines of, 538. Frequentation: of Christian saints or sanctuaries, Jews, 66, 66 6 68 1 by by Mohammedans, 63-74: examples theory of, of, , ; 1 2 66-7, 68 , 69-70, 7 1 , 74: transferences aided 68-71 : by, 66 ; of Jewish saints or sanctuaries, by Mohammedans, 69 Mohammedan of 1 ; saints or sanc- tuaries, by Christians, 50, 75-97, 357, 2 1 374 4 1 1 , 412: in Syria oftener than in Turkey, 76: theory of, 59, 76-81, , 95; . . of, 57 French, renegades, 441", 450, 451, 2 45 1 , see also Manzur; revolution, Elmo and 346 1 ; S. James 69*; Pierre Gonzalez of, 350% 248^, 2 - 5 Galilee, Jonah's grave in, 349 4 Gallipoli, Bektashi tekkes on, 518, 5i8 . inakam of Khidr-S. Elias at, ; 328; pierced stone cult at, 183.' 4 Gamaliel, crypto-Christian, 444 Game, tabu, 240-1; see deer, hare, - sheep. Gangra, see Chang ri. Gani Baba, Bektashi saint, 512. Gargano, pilgrims carry stones to, 202'. 2 Gargantua, and dragons, 659 sacred with in left contact Garment, . object for cure, 266, 275, 276. Gascony, home of de Gozons, 649. 5 Gates, blocked by conquerors, 203 4 e 6 cenotaphs 754 752-3, 752 753^ 5 at, 231; charms over, 203, 203 , 231, 4 1 '3 buried founder by, , 23I 654, 654 541; Golden, see Constantinople, , , , ; by Jews, of, 8 97 , 44 Galen, Lemnian earth and, 672; ousted 6 by Plato at Pergamon, I5 1 Galicia, S. 55 2 - at, 548. ' 2 alist leader, 539, 552. at, 691*. ; 8o8 Index Gates (contd.) Jerusalem; legends evolved from charms over, 203*; new, for special entrants, 203*; protection needed by, 203*; saints 535> 6 544 ; buried at, 231, 53i 3 , shut during Friday prayer, 721, 72i 3 , 751-4, 75 l4 > 754 unlucky and avoided, 2 ; . Mohammed Gedik . tomb 169*; in, ; . Geredeh (Krateia Bithyniae), khidrlik at, 328. Gerinisli, 753*. Gauls, defeated by Cn. Manlius, 171. Gaza, bread offered to sea at, 343 s Gazelle, Sultan San jar's son cured with 5 help of, 462*, 686 Gebze, Hannibal's 7 io 3 . footprint of Queen 187; hare tabu among, 5 maiden defender of castle 243, 243 a in, 742 ; witches' assembly on 3 August 1 5th in, ioo bash), Tamar near, 103, of, 599- tribe, 476. . Musa and, 290; Ahmed Yasevi and, Bektashi 509; Pasha, rebellion Yuruk Germany, Seven Sleepers in, 311*. Geubek, Bektashi tekke near, 405*. 2 Geuchebeh, meaning of, I39 Baba (Ghenglu Baba), Abdal Geyikli claim, 509; deer tamed and ridden on by, 241, 290% 6 46o meaning of name, 256, 460*; ; Geigel, Yuruk tribe, 476. Geikli, Turkoman tribe, 480. Gelikanli, sub-tribe of Rishwan Turko- talisman plane of, 178. Gezer, methods of working oil-presses mans, 481. Gemerek, Shahruf buried at, 173. Gemlek, sacred fish at, 244'. Gezib, see Assib. Ghaibi, Sultanzade, sec Sultanzade. Ghazis, as Bektashi saints, 506', 538, l 579; canonized, 278, 3o6 , especially by Osmanlis, 281, 501, see Arab; cenotaphs at gateways of, 231; dervishes as, 281, 28i 3 4 ; female, 7O2 a , 1 742 ; relics in turbes of, 229; of Rum, Gems of ancients in modern cults, 182. Genazzano, Virgin's picture 'flew* 285*. Gennadius, Patriarch, prophecy to, of Yellow Race interpreted by, 471*, 722, 722'. Genoa, crypto-Mussulman princess of, 74'- Genoese, in Capitulations of Pera, 487; fortifications at Constantinople, 724; heraldry in Arab Jami, Constanti1 2 in popular nople, 719, 7I9 ; as;V 3 603, 6o3 679. chronology, * , Gentiles, as Kaffirs, 736. George of (Miihlenbach in) Hungary, bibliographical details of, 1 494 ; captive in Asia Minor, 707; on 1 early Turkish saints, 322, 323 , PYater, 494-9; Georgewicz and Magister George of Hungary different from, 1 494 ; on Haji Bektash, 488, 488*, 494, 496; miracles by, 494*. George of Hungary, Magister, Frater George different from, 494*. George von Miihlenbach, see George of Hungary. gary different from, 494*; Red Apple published 2 prophecy by, 736, 736 , 737 Georgia(ns), as 'Black Caps' (Kara- see Abdal Murad, Ahmed of Baghje, Demir Baba, Kvrenos, Fazil Beg, Hasan Baba of Tempe, Ilulfet, Husain, Fazil, Ali Baba Jafer, Malik, Melik, Mustafa Ghazi of Canea, Mustafa Shahid, Shahkuli, Sidi Battal. Ghazi Baba, Bektashi saint, 530. Ghazi Baba of Uskub, kurban to, 261; divination at tomb of, 271. Gheel, treatment of madness at, 693. Ghegs, anti-Bektashi, 537, 540, 549, 55> 55 1Ghenglu Baba, see Geyikli Baba. 5 Ghosts, blood required by, 732 ; exorcised or placated, 220; formidable after violent death, 217; of Kamares cave, 220, 733 negro's dreaded, 731*; stones thrown on 3 graves to keep down, 4i3 3 Giants, Aizani temple built by, I99 bones of, 231, 23i a , 306, 3o6 l , 654*; boots of, 229-30, 23o l , 654*; canon 1 ; . ;. Georgewicz, Bartholomaeus, account t 35* 35*> 485'; captive in Asia Minor, 736; Frater George of Hun- a * 506* ; ^ of at, 192*. 1 ized, 99, 99*, 306 , 351, 406; dervishes as, 281, 3O6 1 evolved from s boot, 203 ; killers of, 231, 296, 308; 3 malignant in folk-lore, 306, 3o8 , millstone 317*; perhaps connected ; Index 1 3 on mountains, 38 317*; discovered cures and by, by, 687*; horns of, prophylactic in turbes, 232, 1 '2 ; Lem232*; in kurban, 259", 26I nian earth and, 672, 673 1 , 686-7, 2 687 ; prayer-mats made from skins 1 Noah, Osha, Sa'dan. Giaur (infidel), death 461, 46I God, Kizilbash belief in, 144; servant of, see servant; wrong cannot be done by, 700. Goivelmir tchin, guardian of flocks and of, to preferred marriage with, 17, 729; in sense of pagan, 369*; salvation secured by death in battle against, 278. Gibraltar, Alexander the Great cut Strait of, 284. 5 Gie, Jonah as sea-saint at, 349 . Gilevji, Bektashi tekke at, 507. Gilles de Chin, Sire, dragon-fight of, 4 646 , 650, 659-60; lion killed by 4i3 Spanish Pierre, sailor's 1 . Gothic doorway of Arab Jami, Constantinople, 718. de Gozon, Dieudonne, and dragon of Rhodes, 646-62; fossilized head of 2 dragon of, 203% 65o , 654; French 1 of, Rogations 649, 658, 658 origin associated with, 66o 3 ; tomb of, 649, : ' ' ; 3 651-2, 652 , 662. de Gozon, Pierre Melac, 662, 662 1 Gran, see Strigonium. 3 Granada, flood expected at, 369 ; Moors at Constantinople from, 3 4 pomegranates, 724-6, 724 , 725 Red Apple, and, 738s , 739. 1 Grech, Mr. R., 5H Greece, Bektashi in, 525-36. 2 Greek(s), Afshars claimed as, I56 ; in Albania after Balkan wars, 539-40, 542, 545> 546, 547> 548; Anatolian ' . : : 2 9 Prophet, i86 609, 609', 6n 616, of Mohammed II, i86 9 , 610, of 1 4 Osman, 604, 615, 6I5 , 6i6 , 617, 5 4 1 arid of Sultan Selim, 6o9 ; 6I7 of Tatar khans, 6o8 5 of Toghrul 8 2 Beg, 6o8 ; of young men, 6o9 Girdle, mystic importance for Bektashi 1 of, 6I2 Girdle-stone of dervishes, divination ; , . ' , ; . anthropologically similar to Kizilbash, 157; Church found at low ebb by Seljuks, 377; in Cilician 3villages with Turkoman chiefs, I56 ; forty 3 among ancient, 393 ; hares thought creatures of Devil by, 243*; Jelaled-din knew language, 371, 37 1 3 ; kurban by, 8o3 , 261, 26i 2 ; prophecy of Yellow King applied to, 47 1 4 ; . 8 with, 287 Giushji, Yuruk tribe, 476. . Glava, Bektashi tekke at, 544. Glorious Hand, potency of, 217*. 3 Gnat, Plato's talisman against, iQ3 2 Goats, Belkis had foot of a, 645 ; . besiegers disguised as, 743-4, 744 346 leave graves in Cairo on, 252*. Gorun, Rihanli, summer near, 480. Gospel, read over sick Turkish horse, by Mevlevi Sheikh, 604, 605, 607, 1 3 1 3 610, 612, 6I2 , , 613, 614, 615, 6I5 1 1 3 6i8 2 , 622: 616, 6I6 , 617, 6I7 , 618, 3 1 2 by Mufti, 607, 609, 6o9 , 6H , 6i2 , 1 2 6i3 , 6I5 , 622: by Nakib, 607, 609, a 1 2 4 611, 612, 6i2 , 613, 6I5 , 617, 6i7 origin of, 605-6, 608: by Silihdar, 607, 609, 611 with sword of Caliphs, 4 8 6i5 , 6 1 6, 6i6 , of Mohammed the , - Good Friday, dead : . 3 saint, Minor, 172*. of apprentices, 608-9; of 2 brides, 6o9 ; of dervish novices, 609; of guild patrons, 608; of Melik Mensur, 608; of Sultans, at Kyyub, 604-22: by a Bektashi, 612, 612*, 6i63 by 6n 2 herds, 496, 497- Goklen, Yuruk tribe, 128. Gold plant (lampedona, tortoise-herb), 2 alchemy with, 645, 64 5 ; on mountain-tops, 644-5 645*Golden Street of ancient Smyrna, 428'. Gon9alez, Girding, Agha, 607, 611, . Goliath, stones thrown on grave of, historical, 659-60. Giormi, Bektashi tekke at, 551. s Giovio, date of, 484 ; source of Leonardo da Vinci's travels in Asia 3295.2 of, Abraham > Janissaries' 809 2 3 Christ ; 744, 744 refused protection - castle with, I83 ; 99, 99 , I02 5 , 304, 304*. 4 , 305, 305 3 6 , 308, 8 8 , 35*> 35i (see Bosporus); Sari Saltik perhaps, 433, 433 2 ; tombs of, 5 s 1 99, 99 , I02 , 304, 305 , 306, 306', 3 2 1 1 see also , 308, 3o8 406, 5 ; Amykos, Arba, Balaam, Digenes, Joshua, 2 ; c 8io Index Greek(s) (contd.) Revolution, churches molested by Turks during, 7*, 41 Cretan cryptoChristians massacred during, 474a Cyril VI hung at, 379: Halid Efendi advised war of, 620': martyrs of, 452: Tenos church connected with, : : 67 Turks quartered on Athos during, 29; Seven Sleepers as charm for sleep: lessness among, 312, 312*; Solomon's power over demons credited by, 280*; stones of penance carried by, 20I 1 . Green Caps, nickname of Usbeks, 169*. Gregory the Great, Trajan and, 72*. Gregory II, patriarch, in inscription, 381-2. Gregory of Tours, Seven Sleepers and, 2 3ii Grenoble, river Drac personified at, . 659 s a Grevena, S. George neo-martyr of, 457 Gridley, Nathan, missionary treasurehunter on Argaeus, 644-5, 64 5 1 Grosseteste, Robert, not canonized, . . spirit, see negro, serpent, snake. Gueuk Musali, Yuruk tribe, 127, 475. 3 3 Guilds, patrons of, 279, 348 , 432 ; of 608. of, girding patrons Gul Baba, Bektashi saint, 551, 703*. Gulgul Baba, Bektashi saint, 514. Gul Hisar, Bektashi tekke at, 507. Gumush-hane, Stavriotae near, 470. Guzel-beyli, Yuruk tribe, 476. Habit (khirka), of dervish in miraculous journeys, 583* of Khirka Baba, ; 267, 358; of Prophet, 267, 358*. Hades, Well of Souls descends to, 270'. Hadrian, at Cyzicus, 749; Olympieum at Athens as palace of, 636, 636*; 4 '5 427, 427 Hafik, Kizilbash in kaza of, 142. Smyrna aqueducts and, . Hafiz Baba, Bektashi saints, 517, 525, 547Hafiz Khalil Baba, see Akyazili Baba. Hagios (S.) Vlasios, Bektashi tekke at, 534- .33 Khoja Ahmed of Yasi, 52, 403, 566, 572; Haji Bektash and, 52, 403; tribal ancestor, 52, 52*, 337, 339, 2 403> 405 Haidar of Persia, confused with Haidar of Haidar-es-Sultan, 52, 403; father Shah Ismail, 52, 140, 168-9, 43J Haidari Shias founded by, 52, 169; Kizilbash cap invented by, 169. Haidar Baba, Bektashi saints, 506, 536, 55 1 ' Haidar-es-Sultan, ambiguous* cult at, 3 5*-3 403, 403 , 572; hereditary sheikh at, i62 a ; Kizilbash, 52, 572; madmen's well at, 52, 52*, 267*, 4O33 ; prophetess at, 269. Haidari, Shia sect, 52, 169. of - Haimaneh, imperial estate, 173, 173*; Rishwan Turkomans in, 481; Shia Kurds in, I73 8 Sunni Kurds in, 136*; Yuruks affected by natural ; conditions in, 136. 255'.. Guardian 1 Karaja Ahmed, 403, 566, and with Haidarli, Haidar eponym of, 52, 403; Kizilbash tribe of Dersim, 52'. - Greshitza, Bektashi tekke at, 543. Haidar, adopted, 339, 403; buried at Haidares-Sultan, 52, 403, 572; confused with Haidar of Persia, 52, 403, with AH called, 52 3 ; Yuruk name, 8 - Haidar of Haidar-es-Sultan, Bektashi s saint, 282 Haji Adem Baba, Bektashi saint, 525. Haji Ahmed Baba, Bektashi saint, 517. Haji Baba, Bektashi saint of Premet buried at Kesaraka, 545, 547; life in Haj Alian, unknown . grave of, 545. Haji Baba, buried at Kaliakra, 51, 578, 578*. HajiBaba, buried between Turkhal and 3 Merzifun, 489 ; made wall walk, 489'. dervishes Bairami Bairam, Haji founded by, 567*; Bektashi claim, 509", 567*; Haji Bektash and, 289*; well on Ali Dagh of, iO2 8 Haji Bekir, animals incubate at mill of, 5 in, 234, 268, 268 , 692*, 694'; 're. fused* turbe, 234; Syrian saint of same name connected with, 2683 Haji Bektash, Abdal Murad and, 509; agate of Nevshehr and, 287-8, 287*; . Ahmed 289 a , Rifai and, 84, 46o 9 ; Ahmed 1 287 , 289, of Yasi and, 285**, 2 '3 52-3, 52*, 135, 403-5, 404 , 566; Albanian legend of invention of Bektashism by, 493*; 'ambiguous' cult of, see S. Charalambos (below); Anatolian saints and, 501, 501'; Index 811 83*, 503: Nakshbandi at, 83% 503, 567, 572: Okhrai as, 83*: ordeal of passage at, 634: Orkhan as Tatar khan at, 502 a revenues of, 503: S. Charalambos at, 83-5, 438, 571-2: 2 Shia, 83 , 1 14 Sunnis unwelcome at, Bektashi founded by, 83, 488: invoke at marriages and betrothals, 560: patron, 554, 554* : unconnected with, 565; at Brusa during Orkhan' s siege, 2 488, 488 ; buried near Kirshehr, 83, 488, 502, 502*; at Caesarea, 489; Chelebi of Bektashi and, 162; coma panions of, 135, 429, 488, 5oi , 509, : : 83 2 : tumulus adjoining, 104; tribal hero, 135, 143, 157, 341, 489, 493, 565* ; wall made to walk by, 565'; death of, 160, 403, 490-2, 502*; 1 Girding of Sultans and, 6I2 ; Haidar and, 52, 403; Haji Bairam 2 and, 289 hand-print at Sidi Ghazi of, 186; Hurufi usurped tomb of, 1 135, 160, I60 , 488, 493, 565; Janis3 saries and, 159, 483-93* 6i3 Kalenderoglu's descent from, 163, 174; Karaja Ahmed and, 85, 404, 404*, 460; from Khorasan, 135, 489; Kizilbash tribal saints and, 157; on Kossovo, 490-2; among Kurds, 513; 2 1 life of, 83, 159-60, I62 , 488 , 489, a 3 565 ; marriage of, 162, 163, i63 , at Mentish Mecca, 174, 405; 289; brother of, 341, 489; Murad I and, 490-2; Nakshbandi, 503, 567, 572; 1 Orkhan and, nefes oglu, 162*, 52O 2 341, 483, 488, 488 , 489, 490, 493 3 502 ; patron of Bektashi, Janissaries, ; : ; pilgrims, soldiers, see s.vv. ; petrified 3 spittle of, 287-8, 287 ; S. Chara- lambos and, 83-5, 2 289 438, 571-2; S. Eustathius and, 84, 84', 85, 572; saltings of, 283; Sari Saltik and, 429; seven hundred dervishes of, 135, 429, 488, 501% 509, 2 56s ; at Sidi Ghazi, 186, 5732 at Sivas, 489; sleeve of, 483, 490, 491* 3 stag and, 85, 460, 461% 492, 6i3 Sunnis accept, 503; talking 572; wolf and, 294 1 ; Tatar interest in, 2 502 ; tekke (Pir Evi) of, account of, 3 1 agate at, 287 , 288: 502-4, 503 Akhi Dede (Dede Baba) at, 161, 503, 506: Albanians at, 161 ambiguous* sanctuary, 83-5, 571-2: Balum Sultan buried at, 503, 504: Chelebi lives 83*-*, 84*, , ; ; : ' : 161, 162-3, 503, 504: copper cauldrons at, 5O2 2 George of Hungary and, 494, 496: Hurufi at, 135, 1 60, i6oS 488, 493> 565: near Kirshehr, 83: Kizilbash pilgrimage to, 143, 150: Mahmud II's action at. at, : Haji Ephraim Teuvetlu, miraculous journey of, 293. Haji Hamza, liver offered to Bektashi 3 l saint, 255 ; lurbe of, 55o . Haji Husain Baba, Bektashi saint, 551. Haji Keui, Kizilbash in kaza of, 142. Haji Khalfa, and Yakut, 364. 1 Haji Khalil Baba, Khalveti saint, 542 Haji Koyunlu, Yuruk tribe, 478. Haji Mustafa AH Ushak, sub-tribe of . Afshars, 482. Haji Mustafa Rejeb Ushak, sub-tribe of Afshars, 482. Haji Ouren (Ouran), buried at Akshehr, 3 505 55 Haji Sheikhli, sub-tribe of Sheikhli Yuruks, 476. Haji Suleiman Baba, Bektashi saint, - 54i. Hajim Sultan, MS. of Bektashi 437577 2 saint, - El Hakim, Caliph, conversion to Chris2 3 45o ; Sepulchre tianity of, 443 church and, 450, 45o 2 transformed , ; woman, 241. Hakmun the Jew's immured daughter, into 4 745 3 Halaj, Bektashi associations of, 5O7 Halicarnassus, see Budrum. Halid Efendi, Mahmud IFs minister, 3 620, 62o ; Mevlevi benefactions of, - . 620, 621*. Halid Khalid, see Khalid. Halikuti, Tripolines in Canea, 535. Hallalu, Turkoman tribe, 480. Halys, River, bridge across, 96, 96*. Hamid Baba, Bektashi saint, 548. Hamor, see Omar (Caliph). Hamza, and giant Sa'dan, 308. Hanauer, Rev. J., 394*. Hand, sacred imprints of, 9 186, i86 , 195- Hand-reliquaries, and 1 252 in life . Hannibal, tomb G g 2 of, 103, IO3 7 . grave, 812 Index Constantinople of, Hasan Hare, Buddha as, 243*; cats and, 241, Hasan 241*; souls of wicked as, 241, 242*; food El Harawi, visit to 720. in synagogues, 2 243 5'8 s ; 1 tabu against, 8 '5 the ; Yezid , 243 241-3, 242 6 Caliph's soul in, 241, 24i Harmandali, Yuruk tribe, 128, 476. Hartal, Yuruk tribe, 476. Harun-al-Rashid, Jafer Baba ambassador of, 729; talisman inscription * . stolen for, 203; by, Tyana mosque built 6. el Merabet, Arab sailors offer to, 343*. Hasan the negro, at Arab siege of Con- stantinople, 730. Hasan Pehlivan Baba (Pehlivan Baba), Bektashi leanings of, 593; Demir Baba confused with, 295-6, 295*; Demir Baba's tekke founded by, 295, 593> 593 a - Hasan, Sheikh, at Ali Pasha's court, 588. Hasan Askeri, nth Bektashi Imam,554. Hasan Baba, Bektashi saints, 507, 535, 543> 545- Hasan el Masri, father of S. Pelagia, 4 '5 627, 627 . Nakshbandi, Argyrokastro and, 541; decaying cult at 1 Tempe of, 118, 357 , 533; seven Baba, tombs of, 236, 357, 357 ; women and children helped by, 356-7, 356 1 . Hasan of Basra, Hayati patron, 538 1 ; ordeal of passage at, 627, 627 5 Hasan of Cappadocia, and Tur Hasan Veli, loo-i. 1 . Hasan Chelife (Khalife), hermit life in cave of, 169, 223 8 ; in Shahkuli's campaign, 169-72. Hasan Dagh, Christian chapel and Turkish tomb on, 100-1 ; early chieftain Hasan and, ioi 2 Tur Hasan ; Veli on, 100-1, ioi 1 , 134, 339. Hasan Dede, Bektashi saint, 228 1 ; 're- Cilician saint and lagoon, Haskovo, Bektashi tekke at, 522, 522*. Hassa Keui, ordeal of passage at S. Makrina's tomb at, 632. Hatzidakis, and Janissaries, 485*. Haunted, barn, 43; bath, 40, 109-10, 2 5 2 2 loo. , no , 203 , 265 , 268, 732*; cave, 3 89*, 220, 223, 270 , 351, 735; church, 3 42 , 69; cistern, 270*; cross and column talismans against, 194; l house, 41, 4i 732* ; idols, 189; in3 scription, 208; lake, 365 ; mill, in, 5 203 ; ruins, 69, 351, 402; sarcopha2 gus, 2o8 ; springs, 110-11, 351; 1 stable, 4I , 42, 43, 44; statues, 189, i8o2 , 190, 192, 351 ; stones, 208, 2o82 , , 21 1 ; trees, 175-6, 175 * 5 , I76 associate and, 171; sheikh heredi2 tary in tekke of, i62 ; venerated stone from Mecca at, iSi 1 , 198. Hasan Dede of Klissura, 537 3 , 543. Hasan Demir Pehlivan Baba, see Demir Baba. 2 213; , underground water-channels, 365*; 5 1 3 10 vaults, 2O3 ; water, no , 27O , 283 , 1 , 27o 367-8; wells, also ghost, jinn, spirit. 3 , 351*; see Havatan, 283, 283". Hasan Dede, Kizilbash village near Denek Maden, 53, 171; Shahkuli's saint, 536, 588. no fused' turbe, 228 1 . Hasan Dede, Hasan Sheret Baba, Bektashi Haji Ephraim buried at, 293. Teuvetlu Al Hawiyah, Seven Sleepers' cave at, 2 315, 3i5 dam burst at, 215. Hawizah, Hayati dervishes, in Albania, 538-9, 1 538 ; Hasan of Basra patron of, 538* Khalveti offshoot, 538. - ; of, Hayetti, heretical sect in Turkey, 538*. Hazarasp, Castle of Messiah given to, Hasan Hasanoglu, Yuruk tribe, 478. Hasan the Imam, among Bektashi, Headache cured by circumambulation, 266; by S. John's Gospel, 34*. Hasan Ghazi, makam in Kurdistan 237- 707. a 554, 560; head at Cairo of, 6i ; Kizilbash identify S. Peter with, 145, 151, 335* 57i- Hasan Khalife (Chelife), Bektashi leader of Janissaries, 169, i693 . Hasan the Maksum, Kizilbash pilgrimage to grave of, 150, 150*, 512*. Head-carrying 'saints, examples of, 2 3 2 1 196-200, I97 , 200 , 413, 4I3 , 711; and multiplication of tombs, 413*; power of virginity in, 197-200, 197*, 2002 . Head-dress, of Bektashi dervishes, 277, 409** 54i; of court officials, 3 6i3 ; of Index Janissaries, see s.v.; of Kizilbash, 8 I39> J 69; of Mevlevi, 490*, 6i3 , 767* ; of Nakshbandi, tombs, 226. on Turkish 541; Healing, agents of, see animal, baking, bath, beads, binding, blood, circum- ambulation, coin, colour, column, contact, demon, dragon-stone, earth, egg, fumigation, incubation, inscriptions, khirka, kurban, Lemnian earth, lemon, measuring, moon, mud-bath, nail, onion, passing through, petrified, prayer, rag-tying, reading over, relic, S. Panteleemon, S. Therapon, spring, walk over, well, yellow ; 'ambiguous' sanctuaries frequented for, 16, 67, 67', 70, 77, 78, 78 2 , 79, 81-2, 212, 530, 570, 580*, 585, 692, 692*; canonization for, 280; of diseases, see back-ache, belly childbirth, boil, children, pains, cholera, cough, dysentery, earache, fainting, fever, headache, jaundice, leprosy, lost memory, love troubles, madness, measles, neuralgia, ophthalmia, palpitation, paralysis, plague, rheumatism, poison, pregnancy, sleeplessness, small-pox, snake-bite, sterility, thinness, toothache, witchcraft; religious scruples overcome by miracles of, 58, 80, 566, 570, 580*; transferences of cult promoted by, 65-70,89,113. Hebron, Arba's gigantic grave at, 306* ; Forty Christian Saints at, 394; ostrich eggs at, 232 3 . Hecuba, Cynossema and, 344, 344 2 sailors* patron on Hellespont, 348 s in men, 465 Hedging, sometimes sin hare tabu 242*. in, Hejaz, 2 ; . . Heliopolis (Cairo), S. Barbara localized at, 38*. no 'survival' of, 329*, 388; Zeus Atabyrios replaced by, 329*. Helle, cenotaph-tomb of S. Elias at, Islam, 355, 355S 444 J Jerusalem conquered and Cross restored by, 355> 75 2 > 753% 754; Mohammed and, 1 355 , 444; Turkish veneration of sarcophagus of, 354-5, 444Herakleia (Irakla, Rakkah), alive to Xerxes, 179*; 2 Cynossema on, 344, 344 ; sailors' 3 a sanctuary on, 347 , 348 . Caliph 3 Mamun's death near, 697, 697 Herakleia Perinthus, S. George seasaint at, 389. . Herakleia Pontica, see Benderegli. Herakles, Apollo and, 59; bed of, 304, 308; hot springs only sacred to, 108'; as magician -engineer, 366-7. 1 2 Heraldry of Genoese, 719, 7I9 Herat, dragon-fight at, 655* Hergan Kale, see Amorium. Hermes, cippus near Pisidian Antioch 2 of, 209, 209 ; helper in sudden need and sailors' patron, 350. Hermes Trismegistus, see Hermo" . t genes. 2 Hermit, of Adalia, 74, 74 , 574; in 3 8 deer familiars caves, 169, 223, 223 ; 10 460, 460*, 461-2, 461*, ; dervishes as, 223; lions familiars of, 460, 460; on mountain-tops, 99; mysticism of, 281-2; Nature one with, 58, 6'6 3 neo; 8<5 , 247, 282, 291, 460, 46o saint of Katirli, 459; renegades as, of, 97 3 , 449 7 ; saints, 74, 74 2 , 278, 281, 574; Stylites, see s.v.; weather and, 346, 346* 2 , 347Hermogenes the Wise, pre-Christian 282, 461*, Christian, 72; perhaps Hermes Trismegistus, 72*. Hermus, River, Kizilbash near, 140, 140*, I43-4Hero, Ala-ed-din as popular, 607; see tribal; historical 8 2 1 figure as legendary, ioi , 283 , 537 , 1 603, 603 , 646, 646*, 651, 651% 6597 60, 7io ; power of intercession of, eponymous, 250; sanctity of 325'- Hellespont, Helvaji Dede, sacred trees on grave of, 238. Henry IV of France, de Gozon's dragon -stone owned by, 653. Henry VI of England, canonization of, 217*; cult forbidden of, 255*. Hephaestus, Chimera flame and, 116; Lemnian earth and, 672, 685, 686. to Heraclius, Emperor, converted " Hekali, Bektashi influences at, 543. Helena, daughter of Yanko-ibn-Madyan, cure of, 686. Helios, S. Elias 8i 3 tomb of, 250. Herod, strangers warned away from 5 temple of, 22 see Kolonia. Herseka, . Index 814 Herzegovina, stones thrown on graves in, 413*- Heshdek in Muscovy, Sari Saltik's missionary journey to, 432*. Heterodox Mohammedans, Shias in Turkey and Sunnis in Persia, 125; Hoof-prints, sacred, 48, 186-7, 187', 205', 328-9. Hor, Mount, Moslem graves on, 104'. Horeb, Mount, rainfall determined by Pentateuch on, 202*. Horns, of Moses, 462'; prophylactic, 1 see also Shias. Heterodox Tribes, account of, 124-66, 231-2, 231*, 232 ; in tekkes, 231, 231', 241, 461. 2 Horse, flying', 286 , 287*, 292 ; Gospel, or Pentateuch read over Koran, ' 172; lists of, 475-82. 1 Heurtley, Mr. W. S., xxiv . 1 Heyrnann, travels of, 598 Hhouames, promiscuity of, Hidirnal, see Khedernale. grey for Khidr, 48, 186, 322, 328-9, 498, and for S. George, 322"; omens from markings on, 63I 1 ; red for S. Demetrius, 322 s ; tombs of, 269, 269*'*, 272-4; white for S. Claude or S. George, 49*, 322'; sick, 77 . 153*. Hierapolis, see Membij. Hill as sanctuary, see mountain. Hill-god, Zeus as, 329*. s Hill-goddess, Cybele-Rhea as, 329 Hill-saint, prototype 329% of, . 388; S. Elias as, 329'. and Shammai, miraculous water tombs of, 626*. Hillel at Hind, immured daughter of Hakmun, .745': Hinduism, animal form of gods of, 464. bewitched Hippocrates (Bokrat), daughter of, 646% 648, 648*, 660, 746; sites in Kos connected with, 15*. Historical facts, folk-lore version of, 1 296-7* 369, 537 , 597> 646", 3 6 , 716, 718-20, 728. 7I4 714, ' Historical figures, in dragon legends, 646-62, 646*; in popular legends, ioi 2 , 283*, 537 1 , 603, 603 1 , 646, 646*, 651, 651% 659-60, 7io 7 364 s ; monument at of, 363* 365> 366, Plato's spring 367. Hocha, Neby, see Osha. Hogarth, Dr. D. G., on Cyprian monoliths, 192-3; S. Panteleemon identified with, winged, 187, i87 Horseman 3 . as S. Demetrius, 190, 467*; as S. George, 190, 467. Horseman saints, Khidr, 48, 49, 322, relief, 5 3 322 , 327 , 329, 498; S. Alexander Nevski, 646*; S. Claude of Antioch, 2 3 322 ; S. Demetrius, 49 , 190, 322% l S. George, 48, 49", 190, 32i , 467*; 1 3 322 , 3232, 467; S. Michael, 32I ; S. Theodore, 49. 1 Horus, S. Michael, S. George, and, 32I . Hosea, see Osha. in, 151; prostitution Hospitality, Yuruks characterized by, 137. Host, bleeding, 462'. Houses, charms for, 204, 205, 231*, 2 3 2 ~3> 3*3; dogs not admitted into Mohammedan, 313; haunted, 4 1,41*, . Hittites, anthropologically similar to Kizilbash, 157; monument at Ivriz of, ; 6 12. Hojanli, sub-tribe of Afshars, 482. Holland, and i6th-cent. enmity be- tween Spain and Turkey, 723*. Holy Cross, Golden Gate at Jerusalem opened for, 753'; restoration of True 732 1 ; placation with corn-plaits of spirits of, 233, 233*. Huelgoat, church of Notre Cieux bound at, 2642 . Hulfet Ghazi, origin of cult ' Human Dame des ' sacrifice, at of, 61*. Yannina, 259 8 ; in 2 bath at Ephesus, 265 Humesh, Blatza near, 551. Hunting, as typical worldly pursuit of . men, 460, 461, 461*, 462, 465. Hunyadi, John, Turkish perversion of name of, 686*. 753-4; Hurufi, Bektashi originally called, 565; s 2 Christians and, 436 , 568-9, 568 ; disguised as Bektashi and Mevlevi Homer, pre-Christian Christian, 72*. Homereion at Smyrna, 416*, 418, 4i83, when persecuted by Timur, i6ol ; Haji Bektash's tomb usurped by, commemorated Cross by, see also Orleans. 425*- Horns, 'ambiguous* cult of S. George at, 46*. Honey, in white magic, 221, 222. 135, 160, i6oS 488, 493, 565; heretical doctrines of, 160, 565; MS. at Sidi Ghazi of, 510*. Hur-Ushak, sub-tribe of Afshars, 482. Index Husainabad, see Alaja. Husain Baba, Bektashi saints, 356, 517, 524, 536, 542, 543, 544, 545> 546. Husain Dagh, Husain Ghazi buried on, 504, 711-12, 7ii 2 . Husain Ghazi, 'ambiguous' tekke of, 573, 7 IO~i 2 ; Arat> warrior adopted by Bektashi, 94, 505, 710a 12; Bairami saint, 504, 7ii ; buried on Husain Dagh, 504, 711-12, 7ii a , 94, 55> and in Shamaspur 6 234 , 55> 55S 573, 7"J nsh sacred to, 1 244, 244 , 246-7 headache cured by, tekke, 95, ; 266, 267; Jafer's father, 711; Sidi Battai's father, 95, 573, 709, 711; tomb duplicated of, 504, 505, 711, 7 i i. Husain, Imam, Bakir born from head 3 Bektashi accept, 554, of, 146, I46 2 559, 560; buried at Kerbela, 685 buried at Constandaughters of, ; ; tinople, 17, 729; (sacred) earth from 8 a grave of, 68 5 ; head of, 146, I46 ; among Kizilbash, 145, 151, 335, 571 ; Paul as, 145, 335, 571; Yezid caused death of, 241. Husband, won by cave-cults, 222. Hyny, Seven Sleepers' cave near, S. 318-19, 319*. Ibn Batuta, and Christian recruits for Janissaries, 486; crosses hostile to, 5 30, 3o ; date of, 19", 720. Ibn Haukal, date of, 301 1 Ibrahim Baba, Bektashi saints, 520, . 547- Ibrahim, Bektashi and formerly Sunni, 8i 5 Ida, Mount, in Troad, Baba venerated on, 100, 132, 285'; Cybele-Rhea on, s 329 ; as Kaz Dagh, 141; Kizilbash on, 141; 282-3; Yuruks on, Ibrahim Bey of Kavaya, Bektashi, 3 54o Ibrahim Manzur, see Manzur. Ibrahim Pasha, Bektashi tekke of Kasrel-Aini and, 516, 516*; Chapel of . Flagellation 1 hero, 603 and, 4I 1 ; legendary . Ibrahim (1640-8), Sultan, Janissaries dethroned, 420, 610; Mevlevi in3 fluential under, 42 2 1 , 610, 6io . Ibrahimovce, Roman altar as raincharm at, 210-11. Ich-ili, later revolts in, 173-4; Selim I and, 173. Iconium, see Konia. Ida, Mount, in Crete, gold plant on, 645*. festival at Assumption Jew at marriages of, 130: Ramazan among, 132: sick 100, 132: of, children sold to saint by, 8i 2 : Sunni and, 132, 133: wood-cutters, 128. Identifications of Christian with Mo- hammedan by Bektashi, 83", improbability does not prevent, 224; Khidr used for, 57, "1 ; metempsychosis 33o-i, 335> 57 implied by, 58, 72, 570; Plato used for, 57, 368, 368*, 373, 374, 570; 'survivals' in, 336; transferences of cult helped by, 49* 57, 5 8 ~9> 94, 336, 374, 433-4, 5 6 4, 576, 5 8 4~5Idiot, David saved by imitating, 700, 84* 93 7oo 2 , 548 saints, a ; 3 . Arabian Nights, 189; before Constantine, 603 oracles from jinns in, 189; S. Martin destroyed, 329*; see also eikon, images. Igneji, Yuruk tribe, 476. Ilbegli, Turkoman tribe, 479. 5 Illness, binding typifies, 668, 668 ; 1 jinns cause, 195, 206 , 642 ; sin causes, 5 668, 668 ; see also healing. Images, angels excluded by, 188-9, 1 1 I89 ; animate, 67-8, 68 ; bleeding', 1 14; in bushes, 359 ; Christian regard 1 3 for, 69 75, 75 ; exceptional cults of, 1 I88 188, ; flying, 285; forbidden to Idols, in ; ' , Jews, 69*, 190, 471*, and to Moham3 2 68, 75 188-90, i89 , 601; legends influenced by presence or absence of, 49, 49 2 , 224, 289 1 , 329; 2 4 miracles stimu334 , 659-60, 667 lated by controversy of, 462'; sea casts up, 69 1 ; soul required from makers of, i892 ; in trees, 359 1 ; see also Virgin Mary. Imams, Twelve, among Bektashi, 554, 560; among Kizilbash, 145, 151, 169, 335, 571; see Abu Taleb, AH, AH Neki, AH Riza, Baghevi, Bakir, Hasan, Hasan Askeri, Husain, Jafer Sadik, Kasim, Mohammed Mehdi, medans, 544- Kiz on, 100, 132, Sari , ; Mohammed Teki, Musa Kiazim, Riza, Shifei, Zein-el-Abidin. Imera, unjust deeds at, 701. Imir, Turkoman tribe, 480. 8i6 Index Imir-hariji, Yuruk tribe, 476. symbolize, Immortality, cypresses 2261 ; of Enoch, Elias, Khidr, Phinehas, and S. George, see s.vv.; Fountain of Life bestowed, 319. Immured, mother of Dibra, 732*; 1 4 74&. princess, 744~5> 745 ? Imperial estate of Haimaneh, 173, 8 I73 ' - Imrazli, Yuruk tribe, 477. Inanimate objects, dervish power over, 1 282, 282 , 287'; miraculously transported, 285; regarded as animate, 67-8, 68'. 3 5 . Incest, alleged, 153, i53 Incubation, to Amphiaraos, 268, 690i, 695; by animals, 67, 268-9, 692, 692*, 694'; to Asklepios, 268, 689, 690*, 691, 692-3, 695; in baths, 109, 268; bedding for, 669; in Bektashi tekkes, 55*, 91, 267, 271, 275- 6 > 5 2 7> 5 2 9> 545J b Y Bulgar 109*, Uniates, 79; in caves, 267-8; com- munion in, 268-9; 80, 91, 91*, 109, r cure, f in, 55, 79, 262, 267-9, 2 7 J > '4 2 457> 5 2 9> 6 9 J > 69i , 692*; dreams a for, 268, 690, 69o , 695; at modern Epidaurus paralleled shrines, 109, 457; at graves, 91, 457; not essential 219*; evil spirits and, 207; magical, 1 202-7, 203*, 206*, 207 , 210, 220; as rain-charms, 211; selected caprifor veneration, 207-11, ciously 214-15; Syrian lettering in, 519*; as talismans, 194, 194*, 202-5, 203*, 654*; treasure located by, 207, 207*, 642, 643; treasure-seekers destroy, 207, 207*, 208, 215, 367. Intercession of saints, by Jews, 25o l , 1 25 7 , and by Mohammedans, 250, 1 256-7; methods of, 257 , 258, 26177; miracles obtained by, 280, 325. 5 Ipek, Bektashi tekke at, 525, 525 . Irak, Turkoman tribe, 479. Irakla, Arab name for Herakleia, 697. Iraq, cat of Ali in, 241*; hare tabu in, ' ' 242*. no Bektashi tekke at, 513; Karamanli Yuruks near, 477 Sheikh Baba's tomb and healing spring Isbarta, ; near, 339. dragon of, 65 5 Ishmael, altar of, 276; Isfendiar, 1 , 66o 3 ram . of, 232, 313'. Ishtip, Bektashi tekke at, 269, 525. Isidore of Sculli, stella Mariae in, 348*. 1 after, sea-goddess, 350 Islam Baba, Bektashi saint, 544. Ismail Baba, Bektashi saints, 525, 542, 109; medical treatment combined with, 693; observations on, 689-95; for purposes other than cure, 268, 543, 544, 545, 548. Ismail, Khedive (1863-79), Kaigusuz Sultan's tekke rebuilt by, 515. in haunted mill, in; kurban 2 3 "4 689 , 690 , 694; see also Balchik, Balukli, Brusa, Caesarea, Chios, Ephesus, Epidaurus, Eski Baba, Jerusalem, Jobar, Kirk Ku268*, 316, pekli, Marsovan, Paris, Patras, S. Mosul, Oropus, Theodore, Tekke Keui (Alexandrovo). India, Christians at Jerusalem from, 22 6 . 3 Indulgences for forty days, 393 s Ineboli, mooring-rings near, 284 Bektashi turbe Ineli, at, 530. Ine Obasi, Bektashi village, 529* . . 4 . Inevitability of fate, 697, 697*, 745, 745 1 - of Yuruks, 132. ceremony Inje (Injir) Baba, Bektashi saint, 511. Inje Su, caves of Forty at, 398. Innocent VIII, Pope, children's blood 1 prescribed for, 2I8 . Inscriptions, . Ismail Milk, beggar and, 253 1 Ismail of Persia, Shah, descent of, i68 8 , 169; Haidar father of, 52, 140, 169, 403; Safavi dynasty founded by, . 169, 139, curative, 202*, 206-7, 403; Shia propaganda against Turks of, 169-72. Ismail Rurni, Kadri, 420. Ismid (Nicomedia), Armasha near, 67; Armudlu saints martyred at, 466; S. Barbara at, 38*, I77 1 ; S. Panteleemon's monastery at, 60; Turkish captors disguised as goats at, 744. Konia at, 366, 3662 Isnik (Nicaea), 'burning' stone at, i8i 6 ; gate-saint at, 654*; saints' Ismil, sea of tombs Infidels, see giaur. Initiation Isis, at, . H3 near, 314. Daniel, Israel, 474 1 ; Seven Sleepers' cave Mohammedan Jew, 1 - Istaria, Bektashi tekke at, 545. Istranja, Bektashi tekke at, 518, 518*. Itinerant preachers, I33 3 , 143-4, i44a , Index 147, 148, 151, 152; legends influenced by, 122. Ivan the Terrible, and Russian power, Yuruk tribe, 475. Hittite Ivriz, Otter never 3 283, 3 68 monument s at, 364 ; 364 ; spring at, 106, of, . Jacobites, at Nisibin, 42; at Urfa, 632. Jadikula, of Tepelen, 543. Jafer Baba, Arab saint at Constantinople, 729. Jafer Baba of Rini, Bektashi saint, 532. Baba of Tulumbunar, Bektashi and Arab ghazi, 103, 508; Husain Ghazi father of, 711; sacred saint of, 239; Sidi Battal called, Jafer Ghazi of Uskub, divination at 3 of, 2 7 1 . Jafer Sadik, Bektashi patron, 163, 514, 554, 560. Jaghatai, Yuruks speak Turkish dia- . Bairakdar killed by, 619; Bektashi allied with, 160, 419-20, 4 433 , 49, 49 2 493* 5 OI > 5 2 , 611-12, , 723: chaplains to, 490, 502: Chelebi attacked in 1526-7 by, 163; bodyguard of Sultan, 484*, 486-7, 5 486 , 493; Christian children as, 483, 4^5 485*, 486, 487, 487*, 493, 493* ; date of institution of, 483, 484-7; a Eyyub and, 6n ; fanatical, 538; at 2 Girding of Sultans, 607, 611, 6n ; 3 Bektash and, 159, 483-93, 6i3 ; Haji head-dress of, 483, 490, 4903, 491, 8 8 6i3 ; Jelal-ed-din and, 6i3 ; Kastoria tombs of, 325*; as kavasses, 5 486 Osman II and, 484, 484 and, 420: Selim III and, 613; Ulema and, 619*; Uskub recruiting-centre for, 485. 1 : Janissary, in 3 7 4 2 , 745. Greek folk-tales, Turkomans Janniki-Garmasir, 3 48i 742, near, . January January ist, communion 5th, evil on, 148, I48 spirits 7 . between November 27th and, 392. s Janus, temple at Smyrna of, 418, 41 8 3 Japalak, Turkomans near, 48i Japhet, Noah's rain-charm and, 211. Jason, built temple to Mother of the a 1 Gods', 6o , loo cured by licking ritual at Jaundice . . . columns, 219*, and by yellow stones, 2 2 "3 182, I82 2I9 see Yarput. Jebel Bereket, , . Jehangir, wheat on lect of, 129. Jaiji-Ushak, sub- tribe of Afshars, 482. Jajeli, Turkoman tribe, 479. 5 Jakova, Bektashi tekke at, 525, 525 James I of England, 723*. as Janissaries, Ajemoghlans, 485; 492, Murad I and, 484-5, 485*, 487, 490-1: Murad II and, 484-5, 485': Mustafa IV and, 596% 613, 6i68 Orkhan and, 483-5, 487, 49, 493502: ' 7 11 - tomb 6n: and, Osman 1 grove III : Jabar, Yuruk tribe, 127*. Jaber, Maiden's castle at, 741*. Jacob, makam of seven daughters Jafer Sultan- Ahmed : 3 at, . 3I0 some, 420, 611-13; slaves as, 486-7, 486*, 493; Suleiman Pasha and, 613'; Ibrahim and, 420, 610: Mahmud I l Mahmud II and, 160, and, 6i4 471*. Ivatli, 8i 7 ; Kuprulus and, 420-3, 421*, 1 612; meaning of word, 483, 484 , 486, 486*, 487; Mevlevi and, 493, 3 6i3 ; oppression of, 485*; Pasvanoglu and, 593 ; politically trouble- Jejale, Yuruk tomb of, 106*. tribe, 478. Baba, Bektashi saint, 543. and Ala-ed-din, 167, 371 from Bokhara, 167; buried in Mevlevi tekke at Konia, 85-6, 87, 95, Jelal Jelal-ed-din, ; 375; Christ reverenced by, 371; Christian friends of, abbot of 'monastery of Plato', 56, 86, 372, 2 374, 375* 375 > 377 bishop, 85-6, 863 290, 372, 375; monk, 86, 375: and Christianity, 37 1-2, 374, 374!, : , 377 Eflaki's Acts of the Adepts and, 8 295; Ertoghrul and, 6i3 ; and 3 Greeks, 371, 37 1 , 377; Janissaries 3 and, 6i3 ; married Ala-ed-din' s daughter, 612, 613; Mevlevi founded ; by, 56, 83, 85-6, 167, 371, 375, 605, their Superior descends from, 374; and monk's habit, 290, 372; mystic poet, 167, 371, 377; Orkhan and, 3 8 6i3 ; Osman and, 605, 612, 6i3 ; Sadr-ed-din and, i683 ; S. Chari ton's monastery visited by> 372, 377^ r escue of son of, 56, 373-4, 8i8 Index Dome Rock (Sakhra), Abraham's footprint on, 187, 187*: Jelal-ed-din (contd.) Shems-ed-din master of, 167, 371 ; as Sultan of Konia, 612; talisman inscription by, 203. Jelali dervishes, at tekke of Sultan, 514*. saint, 545. 71 3 . 2 Jenabi historian, date of, i68 vision of, Khan, 322*. Jenghiz Jericho, City of Brass with Abu Taleb's grave near, 303*; Joshua at, 303; sacred fish at Elisha's spring 5 near, 245 Turkoman tribe, 138, 479, 481 Jerid, . . ; Yuruk tribe, 476, 478. Jerusalem, Abraham's 5 187, i8 7 ; footprint at, El Aksa mosque, column ordeal 3 631, 63 1 , 633: Forty Mohammedan saints in, 395: Saracen emir and Templars' chapel in, 57; ambiguous cults in, see Ascension, Cenaculum, Virgin; Ananias' s house made mosque at, 2o3 ; Ascension church, ambiguous cult of, 2o2 463 column ordeal in, 624-5, 624% 626, 629, 632, 635: ' ' ' ' : , Crusaders rebuilt, 626* : ordeal at S. Gertrude's, Nivelles, modelled on, 632-3: S. Pelagia's cave below, 630: Saladin destroyed, 626 5 secularized after transference to Islam, 2o2 ; no Bektashi tekke at, 514; Cave of Invention at, 692*; Cenaculum (' David's tomb') am: ' made mosque, in, 46': 7 1; centre for distributing ideas, 1212, 624 ; chain in Khoja Mustafa Pasha 8 Jamisi, Constantinople, from, 389 ; 1 Chapel of Flagellation at, 4I , 45, 45 : : 2 I53 Christ's footprints at, 186, i86 12 , 5 5 columns of , 195 : prison at, 187, i87 Golden Gate of, Christ and, 752, 2 Christian army and, 752, 754, 754 3 752 754: Heraclius and, 752, 754: Sechinah and, 7542 walled up, 203% : : 752-3, 752 at, 267 6 , 753 8 .; 3 Haram, Christians and, 629, 63 1 : vaults built by jinns for Solomon, 28o2 , 4i3 3 well of souls in, no 1 , : 270'; Heraclius at, 355, 752, 753% 754; incubation at, 268, 6892 , 692*; Jonas of Novgorod and, 292 2 ; Khidr-S. George at, 3208,326; Mohammed's ascension from, 629: footprint in, 186, 187: miraculous 2 journey to, 286, 286 ; 12 Olivet, Christ's footprint on, i86 ; Omar's mosque, see Dome of Rock: prayers at, 7 1 ; S. Anne's house made mosque at, 25; S. George, madness cured at 2 692 , at Coptic con2 692 ; S. Helen's column in, 389; chapel, 'sweating* S. James (Armenian), sacred earth in, chapel of, 669*, of, 326 a , 684*; S. Longinus, ordeal of passage 628; S. Mary of the Swoon, ordeal in, 628; Column ; 752'; vent ; circumambulation 5 Forty Christian martyrs in, 394 ; Forty Mohammedan saints in, 395; Frankish emperor to conquer, at, 7 in, biguous' cult in : Jemali historian, Leunclavius based 1 and adulterous woman crypt of, 630: His footprint in, 186, i86 12 , 187, 187', I95 5 Christians and, 30% 629 columns of ordeal in, 629-30: crosses and Omar at, 30': gold plant on, 645*: talisman horns in, 232 Mohammed's ascension from, 629, footprint on, 186, 187, uncle's buckler in, 232 2 oath by, 569*; sanctity of, 30*, 2 569*, 629; talismans of, 232, 232 ; Templars' churches and, 389; earthquake at, 41*; Fire ceremony : Jemal Baba, Bektashi on, Bethel as, 629: Christ Kaigusuz the of at, ; em- bracing ritual at, 635: various sites 1 of, I95 , 198'; columns of ordeal in, see El Aksa, Saracen sacrilege and, 27; S. Paul's cell, and Moslems, 22*; S. Pelagia, cave of, 630: cell of, 62 7 1 Hasan el Masri father of, 627, Ascension, Dome of Rock, Sepulchre, Zion; Copts in, 326*, 692*; David's 627*: ordeal of passage at, 627, 629, 632: and S. Mary of Egypt, 627*: tomb, see of Flagellation Cenaculum; at, : tomb of, 627, 627 1 * 4 '5 ; Index 2 S. enter, Veronica, Moslems may not 22; Sakhra, see Dome of the Rock; Sepulchre church, Adonis and, 89*: circumambulation at, 267: columns of ordeal in, 627-8, 629: Easter Fire at > *53 6t El Hakim and, 450, 45o2 * : 689 Omar and, 1 4 7 'passing through' in, 628, 628 churches Venus and, 389: Templars' temple and, 89*; sites changed, 198*; Solomon's 1 fish-pools at, 249 , 283 ; Stone of Unction in, 179, I95 6 ; 'survivals' in, 8 94 , ii42 ; Temple, images excluded from 3 S. Elias in, 333: Sakhr rebuilt, 2o 2 and, 28o strangers and Herod's, incubation 2 in, 268, : : : : : 22 5 ; transference to Islam at, 7 1 , 2o3 , 2 5 2 7 6 > Virgin's tomb in, 64 l ; 3 1 Well of Souls in, , 27o ; Zion, column of ordeal on, 628. 1 Jesuit missionaries, in Athens, I6 ; in Chios, 64; at Constantinople, 'Jesus Conquers' as charm, 205. Jewess, Fair One' as, 748. no ' 2 Jews, and Angaua of Tlemcen, 289 as apophthegms and, 700; baptism ; charm for, 33, 33'; bath-spirits 2 blood-bath among, among, no 1 2I8 Book of Law sacred for, 69*, ; ; 471*; Castle of, 748, 748*; child saints murdered by, 217*; Christi2 anity better than religion of, 75 ; dead invoked by, 250 1 257 1 death by violence among, 217*; as diplomatists, doctors, and tax-farmers at , ; Constantinople, 676*, 679-80, 679*, 725-6, 726*; at Ezechiel's tomb, 626s ; fanaticism against, 13, 725-6; frequent Christian sanctuaries, 66, 1 1 66*, 68 , and Mohammedan, 69 hare tabu among, 243*; images forbidden to, 69 1 , 190, 471*; Kizilbash ; and, 150; magic by, see magic; at Meron, 626*; in mixed marriages, a 75 ; Mohammed IFs mosque at Constantinople and, 13; Moham- medan, see Dunmedes; names 819 not 'People of the Book', 150; in place-names, 748, 748*; pork tabu S. Peter's chains from, 668 ; S. Thomas's house at, 22*, 27*; scrib- bled in holy places for cure by, 267 1 ; * ordeals of passage among, 6268 4 ; pentateuch buried with rabbis, 471*; among, 243*; printing-press and Spanish, 679*; prophets adopted by Mohammedans, 278, 2781 ; saints grouped in sevens or twelves, 309*, a 311, 311% 396 ; Sinai gate impassable for, 626; smell, 33, 33*; and Solomon's magic power over jinns, 28o2 Spain expelled, 725-6, 726 1 ; at Thaurus, 22 5 ; at Yunik marriages, 130; see also Dunmedes, Wandering. Jigher (Tomruk) Baba, liver offered to, ; 255> 3^0. Jtnn(s) ('Arab'), Arab as, 731-5, 731*, 1 1 732 ; bells attract, I89 ; castle of, 1 dervishes work 280; 323 ; by, disease caused by, 195, 2o6 l , 642; in 398-9, 402 Genohaunt baths, &c., see forties, 392, 392*, ese as, 6o3 3 ; ; haunted; inscription exorcizes, 207; magicians work by, 280; nymph as, 283 10 oracles from, 189; saint from, ; 1 1 88, 88 , 223, 351, 402, 402 , 734-5; Solomon's power over, 190, 200*, 2 3 280, 28o , 4i3 ; talisman of gates, 5 4 2 3 > 654 , of mosque, 27, of treasure, 202, 637, 642. Job, Eyyub as, 82; moral bearing of story of, 700. Joban, Sheikh, hand-print of, 186. 4 1 Jobar, incubation at, 690 , 693 ; Turks cannot live at, 22 5 . Jochanan, Rabbi, and Elijah, 331-2, 699. ' John II of ' France, church bound for, 2 264 Jonah, buried in Galilee, 349*, and at 5 5 Nineveh, 349 sea-saint, 349 ; whale in Paradise of, 31 3 s Jonas (Yunuz), Bektashi name, 581. Jonas of Novgorod, miraculous journey . ; . Of, 292 2 . Joppa, Perseus and dragon 66o3 at, 32 1 1 , . Jordan, River, Blessing of, 387-8, 1 388 Christ's baptism and Naaman's bath in, 33 6 ; Seven Virgins' cave 1 near, 3I0 ; shrouds wetted in, 388, channel to 388*; underground Messina from, 365 s water unlucky, ; ; 387*. Joseph, finder, 270; prosperity brought by body grave Rachel spoke from watches invented by, of, 300*; to, 252*; 820 Index Joseph (conid.) connected with, 270, and Zuleika in Bosnia, 197*. Joshua, buried on Bosporus, 99*, 102*, 289*; 270*; wells 2 3> 5 3o8 , and elsewhere, 304*, 308* ; dead fish revived 33-8, 304', 305 , by, 248; giant, 99", 102*, 305, 305*; giant-killer, 308; at Jericho, 303; in Koran, 248, 303; laurel on grave 240, 305; Moses* servant, 248; of, Nakshbandi at tomb 305; 'refused* turbe, 228; saint for Turks, 278; sun stayed by, 303. Journey, fragment of hell, 641 ; kurban before, 259, 259"; miraculous, of Christian saints, of, 8 285*, 286 , 583*: of Mohammedan, 231, 285-7, 285', 286*, 287*, 583, 583*: prayer-mats as vehicles of, s 231, 285*, 286-7, 286 , 287*, 461, see traveller. Judas, 'ambiguous' cult of house of, 22 5 Judgement, Day of, kurban animals . pray for sacrificers at, 260; souls of s 1 Just in Well of Souls till, no , 270 . column of, 713, 749, measure of Nile flood and, 64*. Julian, 749*; S. Elias celebrated on, 329*. tekke at, 271, 528-9; 1 9th, Juma, Bektashi former church at, 530; oracle at, 271, 529; sacred well at, 529. Juneid of Erdebil, 168-9. Jupiter Optimus Maximus, rain-making altar of, 210-11. Justinian's 'apple' as talisman, 736-7. see Kabagach, Karagach. Turkoman tribe, 480. Kachanik, Musa Tekke near, 268*. Kabeli, Kachar, camel-men, 128; Persian dynasty, 128; in Transcaucasia and Asia Minor, 128; Yuruk tribe, 127, I27 2 1 , made mosque . Kaffirs, Gentiles called, 736. nymphs Kafsa, at springs of, 467*. Kaigusuz Baba or Sultan (Sultanzade Ghaibi), Abdal Musa and, 514; Abdullah el Maghawri real name of, 515; from Adalia, 516; Bektashi 4th branch founded by, 514: missionary to Egypt, 514, 515; cave-tekke on Mokattam at Cairo of, 290-1, 514-16, 516* ; conversion by stag-dervish, 3 , 285% 290-1, , 46i , 462% 465*; 29I , at Kasr-el-Aini, Cairo, 229-30, 514*, 516, 516*, 567; meaning of name, 2 5i4 ; Nakshbandi claim, 516, 567; talking tree and, 85, 85*, 291. I Kaikhosru (1192-9, 1204-10), l friendly towards Christians, i68 , 1 -2 460, 4<5o 85, 85 8- 2 370- 583; July Kaffa (Theodosia), church at, 76 1 475J.475 - Kadife (Coidasa), Queen of Smyrna, 284, 285, 419. Kadije, among Bektashi, 554, 560. Kadi Keui, Sidi Battal and, 710. Kadri dervishes, at Athens, i2 a ; at Cairo, 514*, 516; at Constantinople, 423, 735 4 ; Ismail Rumi founded 48 420; Karabash AH be3 longed to, 423; mitre of, i2 ; saints, see Baghevi, Turabi. convents of, Kainarja, baths at, see Brusa. Kairuan, column ordeal at, 633; French renegade at, 451, 451*; holiness of, 45 1 1 Kait Bey, see Kotube. Kalabak, Yuruk tribe, 477. . Kalamata, kurban to S. George at, 80*, 261*. Kalaunlu, Yuruk tribe, 478. Kale Dagh, tekke of Melik Ghazi on, 708*. Kalejik, Bektashi tekke at, 511. Kalenderoglu, as Chelebi, 163; dervish rising led by, 163, 174; descent Ilaji Bektash from of, 174. Kalenderoglu, i7th cent, rebel and Persian agent, 174, 174*. Kaliakra (Kilgra), 'ambiguous' cult of Haji Baba, Kilgra Sultan, S. Nicolas, and Sari Saltik at, 51, 223, 224, 430-1, 578, 578*; Bektashi tekke at, Si* 523, 578; cave at, 51, 51% 223, 1 224; dragon-fight at, 223, 434, 434 , maidens death at, prefer 578; forty 2 742 ; in Haji Khalfa, 90*; Bektashi Kalkandelen, ambiguous ' ' tekke at, 93, 281*, 437, 524-5, 548*, 582, 592; hereditary pashas once at, 593- , KaXXiKdvrfcpoi, Greeks cannot draw, 2 49 ; mills haunted by, 1 1 1 Kaloyanni, con version to Islam of, 372*. Kamares cave, female 'Arab* of, 220, . 733 1 - 821 Index Kamber Baba, Bektashi saints, 523, 544, 549- Kanadlar, Bektashi tekke at, 524. Kanbur Dede, Eski Baba as, 55*, 423*, 432; meaning of name, 256; Vani Efendi and cult of, 423. Kapani, Bektashi tekke at, 543. see ' ' cult on, 99-100; near Cyzicus, 359 1 ; Jason's temple to 'Mother of the Gods' on, 6o 2 roo 1 ; Panagia's image lost and found in bush at, 359 1 Kara, meaning of word, 733'. Kara Ahmed, see Karaja Ahmed. Kara Ahmedli, sub-tribe of Rihanli Turkomans, 340, 480. Kara (Arab) Baba, meaning of name, , . 7 ; Turkish cults mans, 481. Yuruk tribe, 478. Kechili, subdivision of Kechili Yuruks, 127% 128. Karakaialu, Kara Kara Khalil, vizir, 484. Kara Koyunlu, Turkoman 255-6, 513'; Mevlevi predominant in, 513, 3 5i3 ; Platonists' at, 363; S. Nicolas 1 neo-martyr of, 455 ; Valideh tekke 733. 12, i2 4 , at, - sheikh tribe, 479. of Jerid Turko- of, 733, 6 veti Kara j alar, sub- tribe ' Kara Baba of Arabkir, Kara Baba of Athens, Karabash, Georgians at, tribe, 480. Karalar, Kurdish tribe, 482. Karali, Yuruk tribe subdivided into Karin and Sachi, I27 2 , 477. Karaman, no Bektashi tekke at, 513, 733'- 733 710. Karaja Hisar, church made mosque Karaja Kurd, Turkoman Topdan. Kapu Dagh (Dindymon), ambiguous 256, 733. 733 Karaja Ahmedli, village, 340, 405*. Karaja Dagh, Sidi Battal's castle on, 6. Kapishtitza, cenotaph at, 528. Kaplan Pasha, i97*~S 198, I99> 2 77 519% 635; tekkes of, 405, 405* -*; as tribal ancestor, 236, 340, 405^ 566. as, 169*; Khal- i44 called, 3 ; among 5J3 3 . Karamania, conquest by Ottomans 605-6; Shahkuli's partisans Karamanli, Yuruk tribe, 477. in, of, I72 3 . 143; meaning of term, 2 "3 ; 144, I44 among Syrian Yezidi, 143-4, 144*. Karabash Ali, and Vani Efendi, 423. Karabeyik, see Shahkuli. Karamanoglu, lost Karamania to Ottomans, 605-6. Karamuratadhes, conversion to Islam 5 2 of, I55 474 Kara Dagh (Monte Nero), Karandirlik, Kizilbash, kuli's in Shah- campaign, 171. Kara Euren, meaning of name, 733. Kara Euyuk, Yatagan near, 508. Karafakoglu, Yuruk tribe, 476. Bektashi (? Kabagach), Karagach saint Niazi Baba buried at, 508, 508* Yataganli Yuruks near, 477. Karagachli, Yuruk tribe, 127*. Kara-hajelu, Yuruk tribe, 478. Kara Hisar, meaning of name, 733. Karaja (Kara, Stag) Ahmed, Ahmed Yasevi (Khoja Ahmed) and, 340, 403-5, 404% 572; Bektashi saint, ; 45 3 > 566, 582*; 236, 276, 340, 403-5* buried at Akhisar, 404, 404** 6 , 405, 1 earth from grave of, 263', 404; Haidar and, 403, 566; Haji Bektash and, 85, 404, 404% 460; head-carrying saint, 197; multiple tombs of, 4 236, 276, 340, 404, 44 'S 45 6 1 8 405 > S 1 ? * 525> 5 82 Persian prince, 6 404, 404 , 566; S. George as, 276, 582; stone at Tekke Keui of, 197, 405 ; ~ ; . , Yuruk tribe, 477. Kara Osman, see Osrnan Ouglou. Karaosmanoglu, not ancient, 595-6, 597-603; Christians and, 596, 596*; II and, 596, 5963 603; Manisa capital of, 595, 599; Pergamon under, 474, 598, 599; Pergamon vase and founder of, 601-2. Karashukli, Turkoman tribe, 138, 481. Mahmud , Orkhan and prince of, 603. Karasman, in Byron's poem, 597, 603. Karasi, Kara Soleimanlu, Turkoman tribe, 480. Kara Tekkeli, branch of Tekkeli Yuruks, 127, i27 2 , 475, 478. Karayaghjili, Yuruk tribe, 477. Karin Karali, branch of Karali Yuruks, 2 I27 Karitinlu, Yuruk tribe, 478. Karken, Rihanli Turkoman tribe, 480. . Karneit, Ivatli Yuruks round, 475. Karpathos, Digenes and wife buried in, 6i 4 , 7io 7 Karsant, Afshar sub-tribe, 482; Kur. dish tribe, 482; Yuruk tribe, 477. Index 822 Kash Kasaba, Kasim Baba, saint, 526 ; as Tascia, 171. early date of Bektashi hand at Elbassan of, 549 ; multiple tombs of, 526, 526% 547. Kasim, 6th Imam, buried at Bagdad, i64 ; October 26th sacred to, i64 ; S. Demetrius as, 8l , 16*. at Old Cairo, tekke Kasr-el-Aini Bektashi saint Kaigusuz Sultan at, 229-30, 514*, 516, 516*, 567; Kadri held, 514*, 5 1 6 ; Nakshbandi founded, Kengerlu, Anatolian and Transcaii- casian tribal name, 128. Kerasund, bewitched princess and sparrow-hawk of, 746-7. Kerbela (Meshed Husain), Bektashi tekke at, 514; for clearing-house Mohammedan ideas, 121-2; Husain the Imam buried at, 6852 Kizilbash ; pilgrimage, 150; sacred earth from, 684*, 685, 685'; shrouds from, 388*. Kerim-oglu, Yuruk tribe, 478. 1 516, 567.. Kasr-i-Shirin, story Shirin at, 747*. Kasr Tayaran Kesaraka, Bektashi tekke (Flying at Castle), Bosra, 199, 199*. vilayet, Bektashi tekkes in, 5"Kastoria, Bektashi tekkes at, 526, 537; conversion to Islam near, 501; Kasim Baba buried at, 526, 547; open turbes at, 325*; S. Jacob martyred at, 453*; Samson at, 278*. Kastriotes, George, see Skanderbeg. 1 Kastron, name of Candia, I88 Katirli, Auxentios ascete of, 459; S. Paul's tree at, 177'. Katmir, breed of dogs, 313; charm, . 313; Seven Sleepers* dog, 313, 313% 3i9'- Kavak, Arab Oglu near, 734. Kavaya, Bektashi bey at, 540*. Kazan Balkan, Sari Saltik's ordeal by fire gave name to, 430. Kaza Ujuk, journey of Haji Bektash of at, 547 Khorasan buried Haji ; at, 545, as, 141; Keshan, Bektashi tekke at, 520; Domuz Dere near, 520. Keshish, Akh Murtaza, Husain' s head and, 146. Kestel, Vani Efendi died at, 422*. Keusheler, Yuruk tribe, 477. Khair-ed-din (Barbarossa), Ambiguous' cult of, 279, 2793 , 346 a Khalid, Halil, stag ridden by Khalveti . great-grandfather of, 286, 460*, 461. Khalife, Bektashi, 507, 510, 535, 537*, 541, 542 ; meaning of term, 507, 537*. Khalil Baba, Hafiz, see Akyazili Baba. Khalil Baba, Bektashi saint, 360. Khalil Pasha, tekke of Maksumler founded by, 5H-T2. Khalveti dervishes, in deserted Christian monasteries of Egypt, 6I 1 fast ; for forty days, 393; geographical distribution of, see Albania, Brusa, at, Durmish Dede, Constantinople, Egypt, Tepelen, Uskub, Vrepska; Hayati sub-order of, 538 ; Karabash as name of, I448 Misri Efendi as sheikh of, 421; saints, see Akhi near, Mirim, Durmish Dede, Khalid; Sunni, 538'. Kharput vilayet, Bektashi tekkes in, to, 489, 489' Kaz Dagh, Ida Baba 547- Kastamuni, Kizil Ahmedli near, 340, 405*; Turabi from, 87. Kastamuni Kerman, Maiden's castle at, 74 1 Kermanshah, David's shop near, 224. . Ferhad and of Kizilbash on, 141. ; Kazimain, Bektashi Imams Musa tekke 514; and Jafer Sadik buried at, 514. Kebsud, Khidirli Dagh Tekke Keui near, 510*. Kechili, Yuruk tribe, 328; 141, 142, 500. 127*, 128, 475, Khass, Sari Saltik's tomb at, 3 55O . 478. Kekili Ushak, Afshar sub-tribe, 482. Khatun Jikana, Keles Kachar, branch of Kachar Yuruks, 127, 127*, 475. Kelkele Sali Agha, oak-twigs on grave Khavsa, Eski Baba and Kanbur Dede of, 227*. Kemakh, talismans over gate at, 654*. Kenger, skilled in massage, 128; tribal and village name, 128. ancestress of Bektashi l Chelebi, i62 . near, 55*, 423. Khedernale (Hidirnal), and hoof-print of Khidr's horse, 328-9; near Sivas, 328-9, 328". Kheirani, affinities of name, 505*. Khidr (Khizr), among Albanians, 320% Index 1 Alexander the Great and, 333; in Bektashi propaganda, 57, 33 1 * 335> 57-i; boneless thumb of, 328; Brusa and, 293; buried at Bagdad, 326, 326*, at Damascus, 326, at Mosul, 327; cenotaph of, 335> 576 ; &?' in Constantinople, in S. Sophia, 1 , 12, I2 , 186, 327: and elsewhere, 327, 327*% 328; at Crusaders' sites in Palestine, 326; at Damascus for prayers, 326'; lo-n, io6 of, dragon-legend 48, 321, 328; amongDruses, 320 earthfrom 'place' ; 3 263 ; as Elijah, 3272, 332, 333'; festivals of, 148, 239!, 320; of, 48, found by fish, 248; general account 3 of, 319-36; groom of, 48, 49 ; Hi gh Priesthood and, 333; 'holy man 1 , 1 329 ; horseman saint, 48, 49, 322, 3 322 , 327*, 329, with grey horse, 48, 186, 322, 328-9, 498; hot spring of, 328; human saint called, 325 s ; with Christian Elias, George, Sergius, Theodore, see s.vv. ; 6 immortal, 48, 327% 334, 334 ; among l Kizilbash, 145. *48, 3 20 > 335 335 > identified 570-1 ; at Koch Hisar, 197 in Koran, 278, 279, 319, 33 r 2 ; as kuib : 333*; learning and, 333, 333*; literary aspect of legends of, 319"; madness cured by, 326, 3262 ; in Mesopotamia, 3 1 1 326, 326", 327, 327 , 334 , 335, 335 ; Moses and, 248, 279, 334, 700; 2 3 nephew of, 48, 49 ; among Nosairi, 4 20 3 > 335 570 ; P en turbes to, 325, 449, 449*; patron of travellers, 279, 320, 322-3, 323*, 324, 324', 331, 334, 3 498; physical aspect of, 320, 320 , of, 324-5, 324*, 331; praying places 1 6 326-7, 326 , 328, 33I ; sailors' saint, 2 324 ; S. Elias and, see S. Elias; S. George and, see S. George; S. Ser"1 ; gius and, 145* 335> 335S 57 2 S. Theodore and, 47-9, 49 186, 328, 571; Servant of God and, 319, 331-2, 700; among Shias, see (Khidr) Bektashi, Kizilbash, Mesopotamia; springs of, 48, 326, 328; sudden need helped by, 320, 323, 323'; Sunnis ; " accept, 320, 335, 570; in Syria, 320', l in transferences of , 3355 325-7, 3 2 6 cult, 57, 33~ I > 335 57o- J ; travel1 patron, 279, 320, 322-3, 323 , 324, 324*, 33i> 334, 498; in Turkey, lers' 823 327-9; unjust deeds of, 331-2, a 700-1; wanders eternally, 327 334; Water of Life found by, 48, 319, 324, , 332-3; 3 among Yezidi, 320, 32o Khidr Baba, Bektashi , 335. saint, 524. Khidrlik, at Christian sanctuaries, 328; geographical distribution of, 328-9, 2 329 5*9; P e n turbe as, 325, 449, 449* ; rain-charm at, 324-5, 331. Khirka Baba (Kulali Mufti Sheikh Mahmud Efendi), cenotaph and tower of, 234, 358, 358*; 'disappeared', 234, 358; Emineh Baba 1 and, 528 ; kill-or-cure remedy by, 2 67, 358, 3582 ; Nakshbandi, 358; sterility cured by belt of wife of, 358. Khizr, see Khidr. among Lycian Yuruks, 132. Khorasan, Afshars of, 128; AH Baba of Kruya from, 551 ; AH Dede of Candia Khojas, from, 535; AH Dede of Teire from, 1 507; Baghevi from Bagthur in, 82 Haji Baba of Premet from, 545, 547 ; Haji Bektash and his 700 dervishes from, 135, 489; Konia saints from, 167; Koyun Baba from, 512; Mohammed Shah Dede from, 511; stone at Tekke Keui 'flew' from, 277; Yasiin, 403. ; Khorgun i Yuruk (Khurzum), 2 72> tribe, 1 475 Khozanoglu, Yuruk tribe, 478. Khubyar, AH concealed in furnace - at, 147; Kizilbash tekke at, 147, 152. Khudavendkiar, see Brusa Khurzum, see Khorgun. vilayet. Khutba, after conquests, 6. Kiafi Baba, Bektashi saint, 507. Kiatorom, Bektashi tekke at, 546. Kiazim Baba, Bektashi saint, 546. Kiazim, Musa, see Musa. Kichok, Bektashi tekke at, 523, 544; Marichan tekke rebuilt by, 542. Kighi, Kizilbash in kaza of, 142. Kilaz, Yuruk tribe, 477. Baba, Bektashi Kilerji saint, 507. Kilgra Sultan, Bektashi saint, see Kaliakra. Kili, Sheikh, Bektashi saint, 509. 5 Kilij AH, date of, 230 ; relics of, 230. Kilij Arslan I, Ak Serai founded by, J 37> I 1 37 Kilij Arslan II, suspected infidelity I68 1 Kilij Bahr, Bektashi lekke at, 518. . of, Index 824 Yuruk tribe, 478. Kill-or-cure remedies, 52*, 267, 267*, Kilisle, 358. Kimolos, medicinal earth from, 671, 67 i j . Kings, canonization of western, 217*, 218*; natural sanctity of, 217*; see Arthur. 246, 246*, 247; of 1 serpents, 246, 246*, 749, 750 . Kings, of fishes, King's evil, 217*. ' Kirhor Dede, burning bush at tomb 1 of, 358-9> 359 Kirja (Kirja Ali), Bektashi once at, 522, 593; Pasvanoglu's fief, 593, ' - Kirjali, see Kirja. Kirk Agach, as place-name, 391, 398, 398*. Kirk Er, Gechid, Gueuz, and In, placenames, 391. Kirk Jamisi (Mosque of the Forty), no 'survival* at, 398, 398 3 at, 51, 5i . ' ' cult of Forty ambiguous ' Kilise, 2 , 397, 397 3 4 ; Bunar Hisar near, 519; haunted inscription near, 208; meaning of name, 51, 51*, 397, 3 397 ; origin of town, 397; Sari Saltik at, 437; Uniate Bulgars in hills above, 78 3 . Kirk Kiz Dagh, Sidi Battal at, 710. Kirk Kupekli, incubation at, 692 5 Kirk Sultan, 40 female saints, 395". Kirklar (Forty), distribution of name, . a 391-2, 392 ; jinns as, 392'. Kirklar Dagh, Christian origin mountain, 392. Kirklar Tekke, see Kirk of, 399; Zile. Afshar sub-tribe, 482. Kirsak, Turkoman tribe, 479. l Kirshehr, Ashik Pasha buried at, 28o , Ashik Pasha Zade from, 494, 496; 12 34i , 488; Bektashi tekkes near, see Akhi Evren, Haji Bektash, Patuk 1 Sultan; in Bozuk, I30 ; Dur (Tur) Hasanlu near, loi 1 , 339 ; Mujur near, 506; saints' tombs at, 113*; Shamas castle near, 95; Shia ; Sidi BattaPs Turkomans near, i3ol tomb at, 710; once I73 in Zulkadr, 1 - Kirtish, Yuruk tribe, 1272, 128, 477. Kisat-Sheikhli, sub-tribe of Sheikhli Yuruks, 476. Castle. Kizil Ahmedli, sub-tribe of Ahmedli Yuruks, 340, 405*; tribal unity of, 135'- Deli Sultan, Bektashi saint, 1 521-2, 522 . Kizil Elma, mountains called, 738*; Kizil prophecy Kizil Red Apple. Yuruk tribe, 477. of, see Kizil- Ishikli, Kaya, Shahkuli's campaign Yuruks, sub-tribe of at, Kechili 127*, r28, 475. Kizilbash, animism among, 149*, 151, 157; anthropological type of, 157-8; Apostles as Twelve Imams among, i45335.57i; Armenian feasts kept by, 148, 151, 155: parrains at marriages of, 151: strain in blood of, 142, 155, 156, I57.57I; Bektashi and, 156*, 142-3, 152, 157, 161, 162-3, 500, 570; (sacred) books of, 143, 149-50. i5S X 59; ca P of 139, 169; celibacy among, 147; Chelebi of Bektashi among, 152; Christians and, 140, 143, 145, 148, 1 * 3 I50 151, 154-6, 157, 158, 335-6 (and see Armenians, above); circumcision among, 153; communion among, 148, I493 , 151; con150, , fession of sins Kilise, Nicosia, Kirli, governed at, 524; transference to S. Nicolas of, 524. Kislilerli, Yuruk tribe, 477. Kissing, in Bektashi ritual, 275. Kiz Kalesi (Kulasi, Serai), see Maiden's I7r. Kizil Kechili, 593*- Kirk Kishova, Bektashi tekke among, 148-9; cross among, 145; divorce among, 151, 153; fasts and among, 30; devil feasts of, 101, 143, 148-9, 151, 153; fire worshipped by, 149, 150; forty among, 395'; general account saints 139-59; geographical 'distribu- of, tion of, 30, 52 3 , 53, 96% i33 3 4 , 140-4, 6 140*, i4i. , 147, 152*, 171, 174, 239, a , 481, 566, 572; Haji Bektash among, 157; hare tabu among, 241; Hasan and Husain among, 145, 151, 335.57I; 239 hierarchy of, bishops, 147, 152, 4 1 IS2 : patriarchs, 147, 152, i52 priests, 147-8, 152, 162, 163-4; Jews and, 150; Karabash among, 143; Khidr among, 145, 148, 320, 335. 335S 57; at Khubyar, 147, : Index 152; Koran among, 150; kurban 1 among, 149; Kurds are, 335, 5I2 825 Kochairah (Aidareka), Bedidun rises in, 696 coin thrown into, 696, 698. Koch Hisar, columnar stone at, 196-7, , ; 571, 574; marriage customs of, 143, 147, 151, 152, 153-4; mass among, 148-9, 151, 153; meaning of word, a 126, 139-40, 169, i69 ; Mohammed 199, 202. Kodlija, shepherd 'discoverer* of Sidi Battal's tomb, 707, 708. Koja-Beyli, Yuruk tribe, 477. Koja Mir Akhor, Bektashi cult of, 545*; Imam, patron of, 163; Moses among, 145, 148, 149; no Bakir, 5th mosques among, mosque 143, 148; mythology of, 146-7 ; Nosairi and, 140, 142, 1 I42 , 156, 157; patriarchs of, 147, 152, 152*; Persian intrigues of, 157- of, 545*. Koji Baba, Bektashi saint, 511. Kolonia (Herseka), Bektashi tekkes in, 545; conversion to Islam of, 591. Kolu Achik Hajim Sultan, Bektashi 169-74; pilgrimages of, 143* I5> 1 ; prayers of, 149, 153; priests of, 147-8, 152, 162, 163-4; prophets of, 145, 148, 149 (and see 8, saint, 510. 150% 151, 5I2 Komari, Bektashi tekke at, 544. Kombach, Yuruk tribe, 475. Konia, Abdul Aziz's mosque AH, Mohammed); Safavi dynasty and Persian, 139-40; S. John Baptist's scrip among, 149; S. Paul as Husain and S. Peter as Hasan among, 145, 335, 571 S. Sergius and Khidr among, 145, 335, 335*, 570-1 Second Coming among, 144, 145, at, 617*; Ala-ed-din at, see Ala-ed-din; Alaja Koyunlu near, 476; 'ambiguous* cults at, see (Konia) Mevlevi, S. Amphilochius, S. Chariton, Shemsed-din; Baghevi, Imam, at, see Baghevi; no Bektashi at, 513; bishops at, 85% 364 ; Christianity and Islam at, 370-8, 586; crypto-Christian at, 74, 87, 88 1 , 376; cryptoMussulman at, 86, 863 , 290, 372, 375; at, flood-legend 365-6; Friday ; ; 151; Shia, 133; statistics of, 141-2; sun worshipped by, 149; Takhtaji and, 140, 142, 158-9, 168; theology of, Alevi, 140, 142, 144-5, 151, 158, 335, 571: Allah among, 144-5: Christ among, 144-6, 335, 571: general accounts of, 144-6, 151-2, 153, 154, 156-7: Mohammed among, 145, 151; (sacred) trees among, 238-9, 239*; mosque at, 23*; Fucleil Baba near, 240; gate-charms at, 654*; Jelai-ed-din at, see Jelal-ed-din ; saints at, 167; lekanomancy at, 364, 364; massacre of Christians prevented by Mevlevi at, 8 6i9 ; medreseh architecture at, 94; Mevlevi at, 'ambiguous* cult in tekke of, 85-6, 87, 569: and Christians at, 6i9 8 : date of tekke of, 363: Khorasan Twelve Imams among, 145, 151, 169, 335> 57i; Virgin Mary among, 146; wine among, 143, 153; women unveiled, 143, 153, 154. Klaietsi, see Nerses IV. Klissura, Hasan Dede at, 537, 543. 1 Klissura, Ali Bey, 545", 548", 634 2 Fadil 164*, Klissura, 493 , Bey, founded by Jelal-ed-din, q.v.: predominant at, 513, 6i7 3 . : Abdul Aziz, Alaed-din, rock-cut, Selim I; Murad II mosques 634'. at, see Knidos, modern cult of ancient tomb captured, 606; Persian culture at, near, 392, 401. Knights of S. John, Bosio historian of, 648, 651 ; at Budrum, 33**, 203, 654*, 3 folk- tale heroes, 646; at 659, 659 Kos, 646', 648; at Malta, 415, 652, 681-2; at Rhodes, 203, 646; Smyrna 167-8,363; ; taken by Timur from, 415; talisman 280. in folk-lore, 363-9: of, Amphilochius, 364, 365, West of Konia (Eflatun Bunar), 363, 365, S. 365 , 366, 367: tomb of, 17, 364, 365* 373; Rini dervishes from, 532; Sahib Ata's tomb at, 263*; saints' tombs at, 113*; t at, 56, 372, 374, 374*: observatory of, 15, 364, 365: river of, 365: sea of, 366, 366*: springs of, in 2 inscription of, 203. Knot, for cure, see rag-tying. Knowledge, canonization for, 257, 278, 280-1, 351; dervishes have occult, 3295.2 Plato monastery Index 826 Konia (contd.) S. Amphilochius at, 'ambiguous* cult in, 17, 364-5: arrested transference of, 17, 22, 372: Plato's observatory, 15, 364, 365, spring, 364, 365, and tomb in, 17, 364, 365* 6 372-3: secularized, 23 : see also S. Chariton (below)-, S. Chariton ('White Monastery') 3 churches of near, abbot of, 86, 86 : Amphilochius, S. Chariton, S. Sabbas, and Virgin, and rock-cut 3 a ~3 56, 373-4, 373 > 374 , mosque at, 3 -8 date of, 56*, 381: in380, 38o scriptions from, 379-83: Jelal-ed-din at, 372, 377: Mark monk at, 381: Mevlevi and monks of, 56, 86, 374, S. : a , 377: o f Palestine origin, 380, 381: as Plato's monastery, 56, 372, 374, 374*: restorer of, 382: spring at, 3 374 , 380: transference to Islam of, 56, 373-4: as 'White Monastery', a 375 , 380: see also S. Chariton; S. Eustathius at, 84'; S. Plato of 374 Ancyra at, 368* ; S. Sabbas's at, monk Mark abbot 381: within S. Chariton's, 56, of, 3 8o 3 ; sea church 366, at, at, 23*; secularized 366'; Selim I's mosque 8 Seljuk capital, 167, 381 kuli at, 170; 6i7 ; Shems-ed-din at, at, Shah- ; 'ambiguous' 2 cult of, 86-7, 376, 376 : as crypto1 88 Christian, 74, 87, , 376; talismans at, 203, 654*; transference to Islam at, 17, 22, 56, 372, 373-4; Turkomans near, 138; under- ground water-channels at, 365, 366, 3 Virgin's church in S. 367, 368 Chariton's, 56, 380; White Monas; in, 500, 506-7 ; Yuruk tribes in, 477. Koniars, in Macedonia and Thessaly, 501, 528; transplanted to Asia 1 Minor, 50I Konitza, Bektashi tekke at, 536, 537; conversion to Islam of, 591 ; S. John . V 132. Bektashi tekkes near, 537, 545-6; conversion to Islam of, 591; Hayati tekke at, 539; Koja Mir Akhor at, 545*; S. Naum pilgrimage for Bektashi of, 436. Koron, ancient terra-cotta as S. Luke 5 at, 6i ; church 'bound' at, 264*; Shahkuli's adherents at, 170. Koritza, Korykos,FairOneat, 744, 745, 748, 749. Kos, bewitched daughter of Hippocrates in, 646% 648, 648 a , 660, 746; Burinna well-house in, i5 6 ; dragon 1 a in, 648, 648 , 660, 746; Hippocrates in, i5 ; Knights of S. John in, ' fl 646', 648; plane venerated in, 178; S. Joannes Navkleros neo-martyr 5 neo-martyr of, 449 > 454S 536 Kopais, blocked water-channel, 365^ Koran, amulets from, 34; buried with dead Mohammedans, 471*; and (visits to) dead, 256 ; exorcisms with, 77; Joshua in, 248, 303; Khidr in, . of, 4552. Kosan, Afshar sub- tribe, 482. Koshdan, Bektashi tekke at, 542. Koshina, Bektashi tekke at, 544. Serbia), Haji Bektash's death on, 490-2; Hasan Baba's cenotaph on, 357; Murad I's death Kossovo (Old and burial on, 234-5, 490, 491, 703*; George and dragon on, 435 1 ; slayer and slain buried together on, S. 234 5 - Kosum (Kuzu: Shemsi) Baba, Bek- tashi saint, 543. Kotube (Kait Bey), Sultan, and Chris- tians, 444*. Kotylos, Mount (Kizil Elma Dagh), in 3 Troad, 738 see Koutetes, Wandering Jew. Koyun Baba, Bektashi identified with . Pambuk Baba, 95, tery, see S. Chariton. Konia vilayet, Bektashi 278, 279, 319, 331-2; among Kizilbash, 150; Nimrod in, 317'; read at 1 graves, 250, 251, 25I , 258; reading be endowed, 258; Seven may Sleepers in, 278, 312; among Yuruks, 512. Koyurilu, Yuruk tribe, 128, 476. Kozani, Bektashi tekkes near, 528-30. Krahas, Bektashi tekke at, 542. Krakka, near Kybistra, 697 3 . Krai Bunar, Demir Baba's spring 296. Kraljevich, Marko, hoof-print 8 winged horse of, i87 at, of . Krateia Bithyniae, see Geredeh. Kremenar, Bektashi tekke at, 543. Kreshova, Bektashi tekke at, 545. Kromna, in, crypto-Christians (Kroumi) 5 1 470, 47o ' . Index Kruya, Bektashi at, 439, 540, 590; cave at, 223; dragon-legend at, a , 434S 435> 43^S 578; foot-print 48 of Sari Saltik at, 186, 435, 435 a > pilaf-dish of Sari Saltik near, 550*; 1 Sari Saltik at, 48", 186, 223, 434 , 2 435 435 > 55> 55<>S 578; Skutari pashas and those of, 550; Topdans 1 at, 550, 550 ; (sacred) trees at, 176', Baba's spring at, Zem-Zem 550-1; 3 a tree at, I76 . Kuch, Bektashi tekke at, 526', 547; Seven Saints buried at, 547. io5 8 8 dans, 80, So ; with cocks, So 261*; dead invoked by, 251*. 8 , 258, 261, 26I 1 ; with deer, 231, 231', 461, 461*; equipment for, 261; with goats, 8 l 2 12 259 , 261 ; among Greeks, 8o , 2 26i ; among Kizilbash, 149; meal at, 2 260, 261, 26i ; meaning of, 30% 259; at new undertakings, 224, 259, 259"; occasions for, 109, 258-61, 259'' "-", 26o3 675; Semitic origin of, 3o2 , 258; with sheep, 260% 275. Kurban Bairam, deer at, 231, 23 1 7 , 6 461, 46i ; kurban at, 259, 259*. Kurd Baba, Bektashi saint, 524. , ? 255*; (Sheikh) Mimi Haji a *> 549~5> 59 petrified melon of Sari Saltik at, 223, 435; saddle and Hamza at, , Kuchuklu, Turkoman tribe, 479. Kuchuoglu, Yuruk tribe, 478. Kufa, AH's mosque and oracular column at, 277, 635; Kizilbash ' , among Yuruks, Kurdish, Kurdistan, Bektashi propaganda 161, 432*, Kula, Kheder Elles near, 328; Yuruks near, 475, 476. Kula-Kachar, sub-tribe 129; Zaza dialect of, 140. pilgrimage, 150. and in, tekke in, 513, 513*; (sacred) fish in, 245, 245*; Khidr and 323-4; Khidr at Wishing Rock in, 33I 1 ; Sari Saltik in, 432*; Seven Sleepers' cave in, 318-19; Turkish province since i6th century, S. Elias in, Kachar of Yuruks, 127*, 475. Kulak, Turkoman tribe, 479. Kulali Mufti Sheikh Mahmud Efendi, see Khirka Baba. 173- Kurds, Afshar, 482 ; Alevi Kulinjefli, Turkoman tribe, 479. Kumanovo, Bektashi babas at battle u i Bektashli near, 28 1 3 of, 827 a 261, 26i , 275; by Bulgar, 208; with 8 bull, So , 261*; ceremony of, 260*, 275; by Christians and Mohamme- 549~5> 34 ; in Diarbekr, Ali among, 571; Apostles among, 571; of Armenian blood, 5 140, 155, i55 , 571; Bektashi among, 1 68; ; 500; Chebrekli tribe of, 477; Christ I44~5, 57 1 ; geographical Choban Baba's tekke near, 269; Tekke Keui near, 525; wheat-ears in among, 6 tekke at, io6 . distribution of, see Adana, Bozuk, 3 Kunursi, Turkoman tribe, 48 1 Kupekli, Bektashi tekke at, 533. BektashiKuprulu, Ahmed, and Janissary combination, 420, 422-3, Caesarea, Cilicia, Dersim, Diarbekr, . Haimaneh, Mahalemi, Rumkale, Yuzgat, Western Asia Minor; Haji Bektash and, 513; at Hasan Ghazi's makam, 237; Hasan and Husain 612. among, 571; Khidr as S. Sergius among, 570-1; Kizilbash, 335, 512', Kuprulu, Mohammed, and BektashiJanissary combination, 422, 612; and dervish orders, 410, 420-2; and Janissaries, 421-2, 421*; open turbe of, 254; Ottoman power revived by, 420. Kuprulu (Veles), Bektashi tekke at, 525. Kurban, animals sacrificed at, see bull, cock, deer, goat, sheep (below): their prayer at Day of Judgement for 260; apotropaic, 29-30, 260; by Arabs, 1 259-61, 259", 26I ; by Armenians, 2 1 3 So , 2I8 , 259, 261, 26i ; blood im8 1 12 260, 26o , , in, 259 259, portant sacrificers, 574; pilgrimage to Sivas of, poplar sacred among, 239; Shahsavand, 135; Shia, 173*; Sunni, 5 I36 , 173; transplanted, 136, 137% 173; tribes of, 135, 47 7> 482. Kuri Yalova, Apollo, S. Michael, and 1 abdal venerated at, 107-8, I08 ; 686. cure miraculous Helena's at, Kush Kavak, Bektashi tekke at, 521. Kuta, Bektashi tekke at, 543. Kutahia, Ali Pasha and, 587*; antiMoslem church at, 23'; Said Omar buried near,232 x ; Shahkuli captured, ' H h 2 57i> 5I2 1 170. ; 8a8 Index Kutb, Elijah and Khidr as, 333'; miraculous journeys of, 285 10 , 664*; power over inanimate objects of, 282* ; seen often but seldom recognized, 664*. Kuzu Baba, see Kosum Baba. Kybistra (Eregli), Krakka near, 69 f. Kynouria, disguised janissary at, 742'. de La Brocquiere, B., 486. Ladik in Pontus, khidrlik near, 328. La Guilletiere, doubtful authority, 14, 1 IS - Lahore, wheat on Jehangir's tomb at, 1 Lausanne, Treaty of, 50I , 525*. Lawrence, Col. T. E., 395'. Lawson, Mr. J. C., and Kallikantzaroi, 49 2 - Lazar, King of Serbia, 491. Lazistan, Trebizond district, 470*. Leander's Tower, princess and treasure 1 744-5> 745 ; 749Learning, canonization for, 257, 278, 280-1, 351; of Enoch, Khidr, and in, S. Elias, 333, 333*. 2 Lebanon, cedars sacred on, 24o Moslems reverence de ChateuiFs ; tomb in, 68 1 Nimrod story in, 317*. Lectum (Cape S. Mary), 'Baba of, ; 1 106*. 3 Lake, devil-haunted, 365 ; in legends of Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, 393, 7 2 393 > 399 399 > of P lato > 283, 366. 2 obscure Laleli, saint, 282*, 292 . Lamb, Sir Harry, 481*, xlv. Lampedona, see gold plant. Lampedusa, 'ambiguous* cult at, 46, 238, 755-9. Langres, tomb of 'three children* at, , 466". Language, important factor in assimilation of religions, 570*. conversion to Islam of, Lap Albanians, 59'Lapolets, Bektashi tekke at, 543. Lapsista, Bektashi near, 526-8; see ' 734-5; S. Lazaros's church transferred to and from Islam at, 7 2 ; at, 87-8, Lazaros made saltings of, 283'; Phaneromene near, 704, 704*; Haram's tomb near, 702, 3 5 74 l undecayed 703-4, 7<>3 S. Umm ' > ; 3 s corpse as saint at, ii7 , 729 Mohammedan Last Supper, in . 289*. : 1 tinople: in Greece, 76 ; of conquest Constantinople, 720; monastery at Rini, 532, 766, 766*. Latmus, monastic colonies at, 381; at, 312, 312*. Laurel, curative if on graves, 238, 240, 305 magical, 305 ; , 348, 1 . 350; Bektashli 13 origin of sanctity of, SS. Quaranta village near, 'survival on, 345* 347> 348. ; 347 ; 4 4oo Legends, aetiological, 100, 132, 1 ; 199', 6 465*; at ^282-5, 'ambiguous* sanctuaries, 89, 585; about ancient buildings, 12, 61-2, a 704; borrowed, 289 ; dreams and, 3 122; from East to West, 632 ; 203 2852, , edifying, 464; eikonography and, 49, 2 49 , 224, 289*, 329', 334*, 659-60, 2 667 ; history and, 296-7, 369, 603, a 1 603 , 646, 646*, 651, 65i , 659-60; nomenclature and, 303, 365^ 658-9, 754*; organization and, 122; origin of, 89, 122, 202, 5 282-7, 295, 296-7, 390, 597203 3 603 (cap. xlv), 632 , 654*; pilgrim1 2 1-2, 198', 390, 624; ages and, talismans beget, 203*, 231, 306, , 6544. Legitimacy, column ordeals to test, 2 1 , 277, 628, 630-1, 63I 633, 635; 2 distinct from, 63 1 . predestination Lek, Kurdish tribe, 482; Turkoman 1 tribe, 479, 481, 48I at Konia, 364; elseLekanomancy, where, 364*. * . legend, Latakia, Mountain of Forty near, 395'. Latin, churches at Andros, Si 1 in Constantinople, see SS. Anna, Anthony, Francis, Paul, s.v. Constan- Seven Saints 2 and development Odra, Vodhorina. Larissa, Bektashi claim Forty Saints 1 at, 396, 396 , 534c Larnaka, ambiguous' cult of S. Arab* S. 345 near, 341, 34i 202, a 46 344-6, 5 Lemnian earth, see terra Lemnia. Lemnian seal (sigillata), Lemnian earth called, 673, 673'. Lemnos, strategic importance 678 of, 678, 2 . Lemon- juice, in cures, 219, 2i92 Leo the Wise, Daniel's prophecies . found by, 471*; wonder-working statue of, 738*. Leonardo da Vinci, fictitious travels of, I72 l . Index Lepanto, battle of, effect at Constantinople of, 471, 723, 739; portents s before, 722, 722 . Leprosy, averted by baptism, 33-4, 1 33% 34 by circumcision, 33'; cured by blood, 2I8 1 by incuba: : tion, 691*, 692. Leprous prince, in folk-tales, 686, 687*; Philoktetes like, 686. 829 Lightning, Christian magic causes, 20, 21, 31. S. Limoges, from, S. 691*; . of, 668*. demon Linguetta, Lerna, Herakles as magician -engineer Israel Leonard from, 666 2 Limyra, Bektashi tekke on site of, 507. Lincoln, see S. Hugh. Lingonicum, madmen cured by abbot of Cape, 343. 2 Lino-Vamvaki, crypto-Christians, 474 3 Lintel, Emmanuel' as charm for, 2o6 . ' at, 366. Lesbos, see Mytilene. Leskovik, see Liaskovik. Letters, Katmir presides over, 313. Leuklu, sub-tribe of Rihanli Turkomans, 480. 3 Leunclavius, based on Jemali, i7i Levetzova, ancient relief venerated at, . 191. Levitation, of columns, 198, 277, 623, 10 635 ; of kutb, 285 , 664* ; miraculous ' 10 286 2 3 , , journeys by, 285-7, 285 s 2 1 liberamiraculous ; 664 , 287 , 292 tion by, 663, 664, 665-8, 666 1 S. Leonard characterized by, 665-6; - ; see flying. . Lion, AH as God's, 52*; familiar of hermit, 460, 460; ridden on, 84, 289, 6 289', 46o , 461, 461". Lipka, Sari Saltik's journey to, 432'. Literature, folk-lore and, 49*, 200, 295, 296. Liver, offered to saints, 255, 255*, 360. Liyen, Bektashi tekke at, 405*. Locusts driven off by united prayer, Virgin of Sumela, 66: ZemZem water, 203*. Looking back, charm spoiled by, 262, 63, 63 l : 273- Lorenzo, Venetian ambassador, 484*. Lorenzo, Pere San, on S. Polycarp's 2 Levkas, untoward Blessing of Waters at, 384-5Liaskovik (Leskovik), Bektashi tekke at, 545; conversion to Islam of, 591 ; Hayati dervishes at, 539; Sadi tomb, 406, 411, 4*3> 419% 426 3 Loretto, circumambulation at, i84 levitation of Holy House of, 285; dervishes at, 538. Libation, in rain-charms, 211. Liberation, miraculous, 448*, Loryma, Kirklar (Saranda) near, 392, 663*, 666 .*, 667*- , 2 . by Black Virgin of, 667. Life-blood, in cures, 218'; potent relic, l 218-19, 2i8 Balukli inLife, Fountain (Well) of fluenced by, 246*; discovered, 48,3 1 9, 2 324, 332-3, 333 ; Joshua revived . dead Life in fish at, 248; Virgin Francis Caracciolo's incubation at, 689 2 . 1 Love-charms, 280 496, 727. Lovers of princess, 747-8, 747 2 4 6 Ludolf v. Suchem, date of, 57*. Luke, Mr. H. C., 50, 87*, 396*. Lule Christians Burgas, placate , ' 2i9 Liesse, miraculous liberation S. ~ 668 .. Licking ritual for cure, 216, Liege, S. Hubert from, 85. ; 401. 66^-8, 2 3 1 . as, 249 1 . grave, examples of, 250-1, 252-5, 252*, 437, 545 66 3> T^-* 6 ; hand -reliquaries and tales of, 252 1 ; of saints and sinners, 252-4, 253*. Light (miraculous), in buildings, 738, 1 738 ; on graves saint indicated by, 5 254, 352, 440, 453 > 456-7> 45 8 > 77> of Khidr, 327*; 729: Maaruf Cerchi's halo of, 446. Lighthouses, Palamedes invented, 347. Tendem Baba at, 8i 4 . . 2 Lupus, with S. George, 65o Luristan David's shop in, 224; Turko. t man tribes in, 48i 3 . Luschan, Prof. F. v., 124. Lusignans, Melusine fairy ancestress 3 632 Lusitano, Amato, silent about Terra 1 Lemnia, 679 Luxor, Coptic offerings to Abu-1Hajjaj at, 374'. Luzani, horseman relief venerated at, 6 190, 467 see Tekke Lycia, (Adalia). Lydda (Diospolis), 'ambiguous* cult 7 1 3 at, 44 , 46 , 32o ; Feast of, 320; S. George at, no dragon-legend of, of, . . . Index 830 Lydda 32 i with, 642; at mills, (contd.) 66o J Khidr l : , as, 320: martyred and buried at, 320% 321*. s Lyons, crocodile amulet at, 654 ; see Saints Nicetius. S. at, 394*; Forty in; of mirages, 367; Mohammedan, tians, 29 5 : defied Chris- by hostile to Christians and 6 Jews, 22 sought by Christians, 77: 80, see circumcision, frequentation, Maaruf Cerchi Abu Daher, conversion to Islam of, 445-6. 1* 6 idola; Maccabees, cult of, 311, trous charms of, 35; as seven-group, 3H 3", 3i* 309', 6 - Mace, gate-charm, 654*. Macedonia, Greek Bektashi tekkes in, 501, 525-3 1 Koniars in, 501, 528; Shahkuli's adherents in, 170; Vallahadhes in, 8 1 , 501. Macedonia, Serbian Bektashi tekkes ; in, 523-5- Maden, Turkoman tribes near, 480. Madenshehr, Bunarbashi near, 365. Madness, caused by demoniacal possession, 79 3 , 668, 668*, 670, 691*; cured by Bektashi saints of Juma, 3 '4 529: chains, 326% 669, 669 : hospital treatment plus incubation, 693: 1 '3 incubation, 529, 691*, 692, 692 Khidr-S. George, 326, 326*: obscure : saint, S. 691*: George, 67, 32 1 1 Anthony, 669*: S. 2 , 326, 326 , 669-70, 3 '4 669 , 692, 692*, 693: S. Michael, 66, 663 , 202 1 , 32I 1 , 692, 692^ 3 : S. Naum, S. Madytos, Maeander, a 267*, 403. a Euthymios from, 34# 70: wells, 52, 52 , nomad River, - Kizilbash near, 141. Magians, petrified for unbelief, 190. Magic, cakes and honey for white, 2 222; carpet, 231, 285, 286-7, 2 86 , 287'; Christian defied by Mohammedans, 29*: hostile to Mohammedans, 3 '6 6 a '3 , 22 , 23% 27, 29 , 14, 20-30, 2i 36, 37 : sought by Mohammedans, 35, 1 36, 63-74, 7i ~S 77> 78: see baptism, of Waters, cross, frequentaBlessing tion, gospel, reading over, Terra Lemnia, text relics, ; after circumcision, 131*; fish, 246, * 2 696-8; forty in prescriptions 10 of, 392, 392 , 727 ; inscriptions, 2023 s l 7, 203 , 2o6 , 207 , 210, 220; Jewish 246* , hostile to Christians, 22*, to medans, 22 6 , spoils, 262, 59 , sought by 77; looking back 41, Mohammedans, Moham- 2 273; medicine coupled reading over: sought by Jews, 77, see reading over; with nail parings, 131*; pagan feared by early Christians, 2O 1 ; rags from priest's garments in black, 222 ; l Seljuks suspected of, i68 ; talking forbidden during, 217; with (ex- Koran, tracted) teeth, 131-4. Magicians, 'Arabs as famuli of, 731*: dervishes are, 280-2, 28I 1 ; Solomon 1 10 prototype of, 283 , 749; water manipulated by, 283, 283, 366-8, 3 66. Magnesia ad Sipylum, see Manisa. Magnesia in Thessaly, see Agia. Mahalemi Kurds, converted Armenians, 155*. Mahmalenli, Turkoman tribe, 480. Mahmud Bey, of Valona, claimed by Bektashi, 540. Dede, Rifai saint, 356. Mahmud Mahmud Mahmud Saleh, Turkoman tribe, 48i 3 . I (1730-54), girding of, 612*; Janissaries put on throne, 614*. Mahmud II (1808-39), baronial families of Asia Minor and, 596, 596% 603; Bektashi and, 160, 538, 619-22, &c.; Christians and, 382, 619, 619*; girding of, 614, 615, 622; Haji Bektash given Nakshbandi sheikh by, 83*, 503; Janissaries destroyed by, 160, 619-22, &c.; Mevlevi and, 355, 533, 615, 619-20, 621-2; reformer, 136, 355, 613; Ulema and, 619, 619*, 621, 622; Yuruks and centralizing policy of, 136. Maiden, bewitched, 744, 746-7, 748; buried under column, 713, 713*; castle of, 741-50, 74I 1 2 , 742*, 744s , 5 2 "3 747 as 'Goat's Castle', 744, 744 ; death preferred to marriage by, ' : immured, 744~5> Minaret at Angora of, 713, 4 749, 749 ; Mount on Sinai of, 741*; Palace of, 74I 1 ; with rival lovers, 4 6 stone in Albania of, ; 747-8, 747 199-200; Stone at Constantinople of, 17, 729, 742, 742'; 745*, 748; " J 9?S 7*3*; strategic type 742* *, 742-4, of, 748; tarasque and, 657 4 , 66o3 ; Index Tower of, 710, 741, 744-5, unknown saint, 197, 197*. Maimonides, and S. Elias, 333. Makam 745*; safe in, Ghazi's tomb as, 708. Maksum Pak, Kizilbash pilgrimage to, 1 150, 150*, 5I2 ; tekke and identity of, l 511-12, 5i2 Mai Ahmedi, Turkoman tribe, 48 1 3 Mai Amir, Turkomans near, 48i 3 Malakastra, Bektashi tekkes in, 540, 5 42 73Malatia (Melitene), Forty Christian saints of, 394, 3942 ; S. George born . . . and martyred at, 32 1 1 335 1 Sidi Ghazi born at, 235-6, 710; Three ; 2 Martyrs of, 394 2 Malea, Moslem influence never at, 348 sailors' sanctuary on, 347 2 , 348*. Malik Ghazi, fell with Sidi Ghazi, 708. . ; Malpasso (Malapasson), and dragon of Rhodes, 646, 647, 649. Malta, El Bedawi delivers slaves from, 663; Knights of S. John at, 415, 652, 681-2; medicinal earth from S. Paul's cave in, 681-2, 682 2 , 683; Publius's church at Citta Vecchia in, 444*; reptiles in, 681; S. Polycarp's relics in, 415; Turkish siege of, 723Mal tepe, Sidi Battal's rock at, 710. Mamasun, ambiguous cult of Mama- sun Baba ' 6, 43 (S. Mamas) 575, 759-61 ; 6 > 44 43-5, 575derivation of name, at, 4 - Caliph, buried at Tarsus, 3013, 697, 698, 703, 714*; Christians s and, 64 ; died at Bozanti, 301-2, Mamun, 696-8, 703; magic fish and, 302, 302*, 303, 696-8. Manavli, Yuruk tribe, 476. Mandeville, sources of, u*. Mandolli, sub-tribe of Rishwan Turkomans, 481. Manisa (Magnesia ad Sipylum), Bektashi buried at, 508, 595*; Bektashi 513; book found in tomb at, 471*; Karaosmanoglu capital at, 595, 599; Mevlevi at, 513, 595; Murad III at, 9, 228, 603; S. Charalambos from, 84. tekke no longer Count, of dragon-fight Manzur Efendi, Ibrahim, French and property 237, 693-4, 693% 694*; Sidi ' Mansfeld, historical, 646*. (sanctuary), life , 83 i at, 508, Manisa vilayet (Sarukhan), Karaosmanoglu in, 597. Manlius, Cn., and Gauls, 171. rene- 3 gade, 77, 45o , 587*. Manzur-el-Halaj, Bektashi precursor, 1 527, 527 ; Fazil Yezdan's master, 57 8 - Maon, Jewish saint revealed by fallen wall at, 35i 5 2 Marabouts, defaitistes, 45 1 ; see hermit. Marash near Adrianople, mud-bath cure at, 66, 680*. . Marash, no Bektashi tekke at, 513, 2 5i3 ; capital of Zulkadr, 172; Yuruk tribes near, 478. Marcellus, incubation to obscure, 691*. March 9, festival of Forty Martyrs of Sebaste on, 401. Mardin, Telghiuran near, 669'. Marichan, Bektashi tekke at, 542, 544. Mark the monk, at S. Chari ton's, Konia, 3 8i. Marmoutier, Seven Sleepers at, 311*. Maronites, conversions to and from Catholicism of, 155^; Druses bapto tized conciliate, 33, 33*; Anthony among, 669*. Marriage, Armenian has kurban, S. 218*; Ashik Pasha and, 496; among Bektashi, 555, 559-60; of brother and sister, 159; cave cult for, 222; of Christian and Jew, 75 2 ; of Christian and Mohammedan, 36, 52-3, 53*, 95, 9 ~ 10 > 403, 57 2 > 59. 76~, 76 3 1 708, 709, 709 , 743, 743 ; circumcision confused with, 130, 130*; cubin, 2 36 ; death preferred to, 17, 729, 742, 2 742 ; of dervishes, see Bektashi 234 5 , 396 3 , (hierarchy) ; forty critical days after, 392; of Kizilbash laymen, 143, 151, and priests, 147, 152; 153-4, Mohammedans among with familiarized mixed, Christianity by second, among 36, Bektashi, Takhtaji, 153, 159; 421; 555; among Yuruks, 130. amulet at, 654*; Forty Saints at, 394*; S. Mary Magdalene invoked at, 350*; Seven Marseilles, crocodile Sleepers at, 3H 1 . Marsovan, 'ambiguous' cult of Bektashi Piri Baba (S. Barbara) at, 38-9, no, 512; arrested transference of church at, 20, 2o8 . Martanesh, Bektashi tekkes at, 551. Index 832 Martin, Thomas, not canonized, 255*. Martyrs, apostates from Islam as, 3 '5 453-4, 453 ; dogs reveal sainthood 1 of, 457 ; first saints were, 217*; Forty of Sebaste, see Sebaste; lifeblood of, 218-19, 218*; morbid, 454, 454* ; neo-martyrs, 452-9; orgies at festivals of Christian, I53 5 repentant renegades as, 453 456; in ; sevens, 309*. Mashaallah, in amulets, 204. Maslama, at Constantinople cup of, 266, 719: mosques of, 6, 719, 726-7: Sidi Battal with, 709, 709*: siege of, 709, 717, 719, 720, 726-7. Mass, among Kizilbash, 148-9, 151, Massacre, of Christians near Gangra, of Cretan crypto-Christians, 95* ; of Janissaries, 421-2, 421*; Mevlevi protected Christians from, 3 6 6i9 ; of Shias, 174, I74 Massage, Kenger skilled in, 128. 2 Massdlu, Turkoman tribe, i63 Masud, Seljuk sultan, 381-2. 474*; . . cult Material, 181-2. Matha, S. started by unusual, . Flagellation, 41'. in, 67 1 2 ; sacred well visited in, 529. Measles, baking cures, 78. 5 Measuring, for cure, 195-6, I95 , 2632 for foundations, 265, 265 ; of 5; 5 shrouds, I95 . Mecca, Abraham's foot-print at, 185; Abu Taleb buried at, 569 1 ; brick at Cairo from, 219; captive Moslem and Christian princess at, 73, 448, 743 1 ; as centre of religious ideas, 121-2, s 1 98 ; column in Cairo from, 198, 3 I98 , 623; column of ordeal between Arafat and, 625*; cooking forbidden in great mosque at, 8 2 ; crypto- Moslems transferred to cemetery at, 1 73, 447-8, 743 ; Haji Bektash at, 289; Kaaba, admission to, 273*; Black Stone of, 179, 181, 214: circumambulation of, 267, 273*; kissed by pilgrims, 181: sacred dust from, 263*: sacred pigeons of, 210*: visit obli- gatory to, 569^ on tree in pre-Islamic, 232; rag-tying in pre-Islamic, 175; and S. Sophia's dome, n; shoe amulet at, 230 1 ; sleeping and eating but not cooking allowed in great 2 mosque at, 8 ; Solomon's pilgrimage on magic carpet to, 285 10 ; stones 1 from, iSi , 198, 198*, 623; under- ground birthplaces of saints at, 225, 225 Yuruk pilgrimage to, 132. Medicine, incubation combined with, 1 693; Jews in, 679, 679", 725, 726 ; and magic in East, 642. Medicine-man, tribal hero as, 281. Medina, Forty Martyrs buried at, 395; game tabu at, 240; 1 ; Mohammed at father's tomb at, 728: hoof-print of mule at, 186: stone at, 181: tomb at, earth taken 1 from, 262-3, 685, 685 , mosque 3 separate from, 8 , sanctity of, 569*. Medinet-el-Fayum, curative column l at, 2i6 . . Maximilian of Bavaria, and Chapel of May, medicinal earth dug ostrich eggs Mediterranean, almost tideless, 288*. Medreseh, architecture of Konia, 94. 3 Meerschaum, origin of, 287 Jean de, and stag, 465*. 2 Mati, Sheikh, incubation to, 69i no Kizilbash pilgrimage to, 150; miraculous journeys to and from, 285, 292, 293; oaths at, 569* ; Mehemet Ali, see Mohammed AH. Mehemet Ali Baba, Bektashi sain t, 517 . Mehrned, Rifai Sheikh, 356. Meidan task, Bektashi 'base', 276-7. Mejid Euzu, Kizilbash in kaza of, 142. Mejid Tash, massacre of Christians at, 6 95 Seljuk turbe claimed as church ; Mamas at, 44*, 95, 95. Melamiyun, at Constantinople, of S. 517*. Melan, Bektashi tekke at, 542. Melasso, no Bektashi tekke now at, 513. Melchan, Bektashi tekke at, 546. Melek Baba, Bektashi saint, 510. Melemenji, Afshar sub-tribe, 482; Yuruk tribe, 478. Melik Ghazi, tekkes of, 7o8 5 Melik Mensur, girding of, 608. Melitene (Melite), see Malatia. . Melon, petrified, 223, 435. Melos, medicinal earth from, 671, 671*; pre-historic gems as milk-charms in, 182. Melusine, fairy ancestress of Lusignans, 6 3 23 . Memalia, Bektashi tekke at, 542. Index (Hierapolis), continuous holiness of sacred spring at, i 14*. Membij Memi Bey Sultan, Bektashi saint, 529. 3 Memiwand, Turkoman tribe, 48i Umm Haram's tomb Memlahah, . 73 at, 5 - 833 Chelebi (' General', Superior), 374, 606: as Caliph, 606, 6o6 8 , 612, 6i8a : as crypto-Bektashi, 6i68 : descent of, 374, 612, 613, 615; as Emir Sultan, 606: Jelal-ed-din first, 56, 86: as Mollah Hunkiar, 613, 6i82 sometimes named after Jelal-ed-din, 605, : Memory, recovered at Khidr's 'place* in S. Sophia, 12. Memphis, measure of Nile flood at, 64*. Menasik-el-Haj, date of, 72. Mene of Caesarea, Christian wife of Ahmed of Yasi, 52-3, 53*, 403, 403', 572; S. Menas and, Menemen, Bektashi 53*, 4O3 tekke 3 508; . by, 402 Frank 1 : recognized as saint by, 72: massacres 6 by, 6i9 propaganda among, 85-6, 87, 37i~4, 5 6 9'revenues at Konia given to, 6i9 8 : : 3 . of, monks converted see also S. Chariton, Sylata; tribe, 477. Menkub, mooring-rings near, 284 Mentesh (Mentish), Haji Bektash brother Christian(s), buried beside Jelal3 ed-din, 85-6, 86 , 87, 95, 375: Forty prevented . at, Turks transplanted from, 5i9 2 Menemen ji, Yuruk 606; 341, 489; tribal ancestor, geographical distribution of, see Canea, Constantinople, Karaman, Konia, Manisa, Ramleh, Tatar, at girding of Sultans, 604, 3 l , 613, 614, 607, 610, 612, 6i2 3 3 615*. , 616, 616'. , 617, 617', Tempe; 489. Mentesh tribe, in Lycia, 135*. Mentesh, village name, 341, 341". 2 Menzaleh, Forty Saints at, 395, 397 Merhum Baba, Bektashi saint, 360. Meron, ordeal at tombs of Hillel and . Shammai ; Pompeiopolis near, 745*. Mersinli, Yuruk tribe, 477. Merv, tribal name Odemish found in, 128. Baba buried 3 near, 489 . Meshed AH, see Nejef. Meshed Husain, see Kerbela. Mesopotamia, Bektashi tekke s 514; in, 165, sacred in, 245 3 ; Khidr Shias of, 326, 326", 327, 327*, fish among 335; Seven Sleepers' cave in, 319. Messene, haunted tree at, 175*. 2 Messiah, castle of, 707, 743, 743 miraculous Messiah, false, journey of, . channel from Messina, underground s Jordan to, 365 S. Eustace, 462'. on Metaphrastes, . Samson's church at, 278*. Metempsychosis, in Bektashism, 570, 2 57o , 585; and identifications of saints, 58, 72, 570. Meteora, dedicated to Transfiguration, Metzovo, Bektashi tekke near, 536. Mevlevi, Bektashi rivalry with, 612, 6i2 1 3 , 6i3 3 , 6i6a , 621-2; 3 Janissaries and, 490 , 493, 6i3 ; Jelal-ed-din founded, 56, 83, 85-6, 167, 371, 375, 605; at Konia, see Konia; Kuprulu and, 422; liberal and philosophic, 72, 167, 371, 619, 619'; in politics, 167, 422, 422*, 438, 610, 621-2; religious fusion desired by> 355> 37 r > 374> 43^; Suleiman Pasha and, 6i3 3 ; and Sultan Abdul Hamid, 606', 618: Abdul Mejid,6i6, 621, 622: Ala ed-din, 167, 371: Ibrahim, 422*, 610, 6io3 : Mahmud II, 355, 533, 614, 615, 620, 621, 622: Mohammed II, 621*: Mohammed hammed V, 6i9 285". Met apon turn, 6i8 2 , 622; Halid Efendi and, 62i 6 ; head-dress of, 49O3 , 613*, j 767*; Hurufi disguised as, i6o ; 3 at, 626*. Mersina, no Bektashi tekke now at, 513 Merzifun, Haji 605, 615, 618, 620, 8 : 1 MoIV, 610-11, 6I7 618: Murad IV, 422*, Osman, 610: Selim III, 621*; : Sunni, 72, 167 ; Thousand and One days' noviciate of, 393 ; Ulema and, 619, 621 ; Vani Efendi and, 423, 423*. Mexico, S. Marie d* Agreda's miraculous 3 journey to, 286 Mezur (Muzur), River, Kizilbash kurban at source of, 149; miraculous transportation of food by saint of, . 2 ; shepherd saint nature-cult at, 149*. perhaps 285, 293 and M'Gaouse, Seven Sleepers' cave at, 3 14. Mice, checked by earth from sacred ' graves, 263. Index Michael III Balbus, and Maslama, 720. Mihaloglu at Sidi Ghazi, 707. Mihrab columns curative, 219, 2i92 Milan, S. Victor at, 665; serpent talisman at, i93 3 . . Miletus, talismanic inscription at, 203. Military saint, S. Claude as, 322*; S. George as, 335! . Milk-charms, Bethlehem earth as, 682 ; blue objects as, 182*; prehistoric gems as, 182; white stones as, 182, 190-1, 205-6. Milking of deer, 290, 460, 460* , 461, 462. Mill, incubation at Haji Bekir's, 234, 5 268, 268 , 692*, 694*; jinns haunt, in, 203*; see water-mill, wind-mill. 1 Mill-stone, giants and, I83 ; perhaps 1 speech charm, J83 Millennium, Turkish fear of, 721-3, 75 J > 753Millingen, Prof, van, 40. Milosh, see Obilich. Mimi, Sheikh, and Ali Pasha, 548, 5495 5> 587 , 5^8, 590; Bektashi tekke built by, 549-50, 590 ; from Bokhara, 588; Topdan murdered, 540*, 550. . Mina, tomb Minaret, because of Christian magic, 20-2. 2 Mine, kurban to spirits of, 259, 26i Minyans, as magician-engineers, 366. Miracles, crypto-Moslems revealed by posthumous, 443 > f dervishes, 280. 2, 281*, 583; dreams confirm, 449; of neo-saints, 457; popular religion demands, 569; religious scruples overcome by healing, 58, 80, 566, 570, 580*; by saints, 278-97; saints revealed by posthumous, 227-8, 254-5> 2 5 8 > 2 5 8 S 282 > 35 1 * 443. 6 456-8, 45 7 , 691 ; stimulated by controversy of images, 462'; see iourney, liberation, light, milking, 1 riding, sea, stag. Mirage, magical, 367. Miriam (Virgin Mary), among Bek- tashi, 554. Chaush converted by, 517; Bektashi sympathies of, 1 5I7 ; Christian leanings of, 421; Khalveti, 421, 423; Vani Efendi banished, 423. Misri Efendi, Azbi Missis, Arab mosque of, 329 s . Mithridates, tomb of, 223. Mitre (taj), Confession of Faith on s Bektashi, 409*; of dervishes, 12 , 3 s of Eski Baba, 277, 409*, 490 , 6i3 ; l 578; of S. Polycarp, 407, 408, 4o8 , 574- Moabite stone, treasure -seekers and, 207*, 215*. 3 Moawiya, Caliph, as Abu Sufian, 727 ; besieged Constantinople, 727; con- quered Rhodes, 730, 73O 1 . Modon, Shahkuli's adherents in, 170. 3 Mogador, renegade Sidi Mogdul of, 97 Moghrebin, see Moors. 3 Mogui, Turkoman tribe, 48i Turks as, 139. Moguls, Mohammed Ali (Mehemet . . Ali), tashi claim, 515; Cairo gate Bek- unlucky for, 753*. Mohammed Mohammed Bakir, see Bakir. ibn Bekr, and Angus teum at Angora, 713-14. Mohammed Mohammed Bokhara, see Sari Saltik. Mehdi, Bektashi Imam, 554- of, 704*. falls tian communion and, 152; at Rome 1 (baths of Caracalla), in ; solar cult at, 6. Mithras, birth-caves and, 225; Chris- Mohammed, Mevlevi Dervish, 610-11, 6ro*. Mohammed the Prophet, Ali preferred i66 J , 554, 560; Argaeus made by Ali and, 102; Ascension into Heaven of, 629; ass of, 313**; Athens, Parthenon and, 14; beard of, 358; among Bektashi, 166*, 554, 1 560, 561; Cairo relics of, I86 **; camel of, 186; in Cave, 2233 ; Christo, 145, tian potentates and, 444; Companions of, 106, 283, 395 368 s , 6 ; Constantinople, its capture and, 6 608, 6o8 : relics at, 185, 185, 267, 8 358*, 609-10, 6o9 ; corpses forbidden in mosques by, 83 ; daughter (Fatima) invoked by Bektashi, 554, 560; descendants of, 631*; earth taken from tomb of, 1 262-3, 685, 685 ; Erzerum church 7 and, ii ; father of, 728; flying horse 6 of, 286* ; footprints of, 185-6, i85 , I86 1 , 187, i87 6 , 6o9 8 ; forty Com- panions of, 395*; forty traditions of, 393; Girding of Sultans with sword 5 2 of, 609, 6o9 , 6n , 616; in grace Index before and after food, 560; hand9 prints of, 186, i86 ; Heraclius and, 1 3 hermit's cell and, 626 ; 355 , 444; Jerusalem, ascension to Heaven from, 629: miraculous journey to, 2 relics at, 186, 187, 187*; 286, 286 khirka of, 267, 358 2 ; among Kizilbash, 145, 151; at Medina, stone of, : 181: tomb of, II and, mother of 14, 186, 186*, (Mina), 704*; mule of, 186; pigeon and, 210*; relics of, at Cairo, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Medina, Monastir, see 2 6 s.vv.; rode on lion, 289 , 46o ; S. Charalambos and, 84, 289 2 , 460*; S. Polycarp and, 413; S. Sophia and, u, 1 86; secretary of, 241, 1 17, I7 , 698, 702, stone brought to Cairo by, stone seat at Medina of, 181; 241*; sister of, of, i86 9 , 609, 6o9 5 , of, 232*; 6n 2 , 702 3 ; 198*; sword 616; uncle underground place of birth 225; wife (Kadije) of, Bektashi invoke, 554, 560. Mohammed Said, at Joshua's tomb, 306-7; at mosque of Leaded Store, of, Constantinople, 306. Shah, Bektashi saint, 513. Shah Dede, Bektashi Mohammed Mohammed saint, 511. Mohammed II (1451-81) the Conqueror, Christian amulets worn by, 6 35 ; Constantinople 'Friday* mosque built by, 7, 13,328; at Eyyub, baths of, in : horse of, 272: mosque of, 608: plane of, 178*; 608; and Girding of girded, 9 Sultans, i86 , 608, 610; hand-print in S. Sophia of, 186; and Mevlevi 6 lekke at Galata, 62 1 ; Prophet and 14, 186, i86 9 , 609-10; S. Sophia by, 6-7, 9-13; swords made mosque i86 9 , 229, 610. III (1595-1603), at Arab Jami, 719, 724. Mohammed IV (1648-87), dervish orders and, 410*; Mevlevi and girdof, Mohammed 1 ing of, 610-11, 6I7 . (1909-22), girding of, 618. Mohammed Teki, Bektashi Imam, 554. Mohammedans, animals kindly treated Mohammed V > 7*3> 73 1 1 l 743: churches and, 8 , 42, 44 , 45-6, 3 46 : cults and, see ambiguous, transference: magic and, see frequenta- tion, magic (Christian): married to, see marriage: prophylactics and, 33, 33% 36, 65: religion Jewish by, 75 2 : to preferred not unclean to, 75, converted to Christianity, see cona version; Jewish cult avoided by, 59 ; non-Islamic ideas adopted by, 9 3 Moharrem, among Bektashi, 559; among Kizilbash, 148. Moharrem Baba, see Nasibi. . 1 Mohimul, fish at, 244 Moipai, cave -cult of, 221-2. Moldavia, Sari Saltik's grave . 430, in, 432, 433. Mole on face, S. Simon and, 183'. Mollah Hunkiar, see Mevlevi Chelebi. Momoassos, Mamasun as, 44, 44*. Monastery, mosque in Christian, 56-7, 3 1 57 , 396 ; Saracens and foundation of Western, 381 ; transferred to Islam, see transference of rural sanctuaries. Monastir, Bektashi tekke at, 356, 524; Bunar Baba at, 357-8; burning bush a ^ 358-9* 359 l j Chetim Tess Baba at, 185, 359-60; crypto-Mussulman princess buried at, 73% 360, 448, 2 44 8 ; Emineh Baba 527-8, 528 at, 1 ; Greek inscription cures near, 207, 2 Hasan Baba buried at, 356-7; 2O7 Jigher Baba (Toinruk Baba) at, 255, ; 360; Khalil Baba buried at, 360; Khirka Baba tower cenotaph and at, of, 234, 358, 358*: khirka of, Kirhor Dede at, 358-9; magic at mill in, in; Mahmud Dede Rifai saint of, 356; Merhum Baba buried at > 360; Mohammed's hair at, 358; Nakshbandi turbe tekke at, 356-7; open 2 448, 448 rain-bringing stone near, 211 ; Rifai tekkes in, 356; at, ; saint cults at, 356-60. Monemvasia, secularized mosque at, 76*. Mongolian, pressure on learned Persians, 167; type in Turkomans, 138. Monks, dervishes and, 57; Jelal-ed-din by, 247; Christian(s), 798 78, 8 3 , 262-3, 569*, 685; Mohammed 609-10; 835 2 345 , 375> 570, buried beside, 95, and, 290, 372. 8 36 Index Gilles from, 660. Montfort, Simon de, canonization of, Mons, Sire 217*. Montpellier, church 'bound* at, 264*. Moon, fever cure and, 196. Mooring-rings inland, 284-5, 284' Moors, as 'Arabs', 731*; at Constan3 '4 1 3 4 , 725 , 726; tinople, 723-5, 724 to hostile Constantinople Jews, 725-6; Moghrebin (Magrebins) name 2 for, 724*, 732 ; Red Apple and, 739; sea-saint among, 343* ; treasure found 2 by, 732 see Morea, Peloponnese. . - * . Moro, Venetian ambassador to Turkey, 484". Moscow, Blessing of Waters at, 386*. Moses, Bektashi accept, 554, 560; horns' of, 462' ; Joshua, Khidr, fish, and, 248; Khidr and, 279, 334, 700; among Kizilbash, 145, 148, 149; law of, read over Turk's sick horse, 77, ' Pentateuch; oven hiding-place ox of, 3i3 5 ; rock on Sinai of, 187*; rod of, 149; S. Elias and, 332, s 332 ; Servant of God and, 331, 699, see of, 78*; 700; travels of, 248, 279, 319, 331, s 332, 332 , 334 > 699-700; Wandering 7 cursed by, n6 . Jew 2 Mosques, in Bektashi tekkes, 567, 567 ; no burials, corpses, or relics in, 8, 8s ; charitable building of, 228; in Christian monasteries, 56-7, 57*, 396*; churches combined with, 7 2 , 43-4, 1 1 44 , 45, 64 , 320'; after conquest, 6; Cordova type of, 728; falls because of Christian magic, 2i 2 ; jinn talismans of, 27 s ; none among Kizilbash, 143, 148; purposes of, 6, 9; sanctity of objects in, 220; spring associated with, 109; not superstitiously holy, 8 2 ; transformed into churches, see transference turbe attached to, 8-9, 8, ; 228; Yuruks have none, 137. Mosquito, saved David, 700, 700*. 2 Mosul, Ahmed Rifai buried near, 62o ; incubation at Sheikh Mati's tomb near, 691'; Khidr-S. George's tomb 3 at, 327, 327^ 334 , 335*; S. killed by king of, 335 1 . George Mother of the Gods (Cybele-Rhea), interpreted 6o 2 ; of God', 6o a , ioo l as Jasonian temple to, Mountains, agricultural importance of, in ; ambiguous' cults of, 103, 548; Apollo on, 329*; ascetics on, 99; 2 climbing dangerous, 548 ; dedications of, 329% 388; Forties haunt, 39 2 399; giants buried on, 99, 99", io2 6 , 304, 3042 , 305, 305 3 6 , 308, 3o83 , 3 351, 35 1 , see Bosporus, giant; gold 2 plant on, 645, 645 ; graves on, 102, 8 12 259 > 3o6, 351, 35 1 , see (mountains) giant, Joshua; Joshua's tomb on, 3 304-5, 35i named after saints, 103, . ' ' ; 134; Morocco, hermits as weather-saints in, 1 346, 346 ; sea-lore came to Turks from, 346. Moschylos, for Lemnian earth, 672. 329*; hill-goddess: 'Mother among primitive peoples, 98-9, 1 iu-12, 134; rain-prayer on, 102, I02 4 , 134, I34 3 99, 99 , 304, 324, 324'; 3 on, 102, IO4 : , saints' graves legends of, 282-3: names given to, 3 103, 134, 3 2 9 ; Shia festival at summer solstice 3 3 on, I34 ; survival on, 329 ; temples transference on, 98*; of, 98-104; weather-god or saint on, 99, 99*, 102, io2 4 , 134, I343 , 2ii 3 , 324; see also tumuli. ' ' (Nebi Mountjoy cairn at, 201 & Samwil), pilgrims' . Mourners, open turbes for, 273, 325*, 449. Mud-bath l cure, 66, 68o near, 466. . Mudania, Armudlu Muehlenbach (Schebesch), George Hungary captured of at, 494. 3 Mufti, sultans girded by, 607, 609, 6og , 6H 1 , 6i2 2 , 6i3 a 6I5 1 , 6i64 , 622. , Mughla, Gerinisli Yuruks near, 476. Muharrebe Baba, Bektashi dervish, 592; and tomb of Sersern Ali, 524, 592. Mujur near Kirshehr, Bektashi cult of sacred stone at, 506; forced conversions to Islam at, 84*. Mujur near Yuzgat, Bektashi tekke at, 54-5Mukhtar Pasha, Shia son of Ali Pasha, 58?'. Mulai Abdslam bel Meshish, ordeal at, 634Multiplication of food, 285, 285% 291. Multiplication of tombs, examples of, 3 4 16*, 47 , 6i , 88-9, 234-6, 298-303, 45 405, 526 2 , l ~3 > 4I3S 430, 433% 54, 55> 527, 547, 663, 663', 710-12, Index yio 7 head-carrying Munkar, 250 catechizes' dead by in- cubation at, 268*. Sari Muscovy, journey 43>43 I Saltik's to, 429, missionary 432, and tomb in, - Mustafa Baba, Bektashi saints, 522, 5 2 3> 5 2 4 532, 54i, 549- Mustafa-bey, Yuruk tribe, 478. Mustafa Ghazi, Bektashi saint, 536; 'refused' turbe, 228 1 Mustafa, Ghazi Shahid, buried with son at Arapli, 89, 575. Moslems, 2 . Murad, typical sultan's name, 602-3. Murad Bair, 'ambiguous* cult (as S. Simeon) of, 103, 103*. Murad I (1360-89), agricultural charms . at grave of, 106-7; buried at Brusa, 5 2 5 , 106-7, 230 234, 234 , and on Kossovo, 234, 234', 490, 491, 703"; Haji Bektash and, 491; Janissaries and, 484, 485, 485', 487, 49> 49 1 ; 'Martyr* Sultan, 106, 491; Pergamon vases and, 601, 603; planetree of, 1 78 ; relics on grave of, 230* 6 ; Serbians conquered by, 491 ; sterility cured at grave of, 106-7. Murad II (1421-51), dervish, 4922 ; dervishes and, 492 ; George of Hungary captured by, 494; Janissaries and, 484-5, 485'; Konia captured by, 606; kurban at S. Demetrius, Salonica, by, 29-30, 260. Murad III (1574-95), baptized as protection against epilepsy, 34; buried in Manisa, 9, 228, 603; at Eyyub, 608; superstitious, 722; and vases in 3 S. Sophia, 602, 6o2 ' . 5 Murad IV 837 tions at, 114; sterility cured legends and, 413'; 'stations' of saints and, 236*. Mummy, canonized, uf, 353-4, 3541 ; in caves of Seven Sleepers, 314, 3i5 a . Mumsunderen, Kizilbash called, 153. Al Munawi, date of, 285. Munir Baba, Bektashi saint, 517. : (1623-40), girding of, 6o9 ; heroic figure, 603, 603! ; Mevleviand, 6 1 422 , 6i9 ; pulpit for rain-prayer built by, 325 ; S. Panteleemon, Ismid, 7 and, 60; Sumela monastery and, 6o Murad V (1876), not girded, 617. Mustafa Pasha, Nakshbandi vizir, 728. Mustafa II (1695-1703), girding of, 6H 1 Mustafa III (i757~74)f girding of, 612'. Mustafa IV (1807-8), creature of Bektashi and Janissaries, 596', 613, 6i6 8 Mustawfi, date of, 168. . Muzan, Yuruk tribe, 477. Muzur, see Mezur. Mykonos, dragon-fight in, 648*. Mylasa, S. Xene from, 580; Turkish beys Myra, and Christians at, 596*. S. Nicolas's shrine at, 113*. Myrtle, on Syrian graves, 226*, 227'. 2 Mysia, Forty in, 392, 392 , 400. of cult in dead, 256-7; of Mysticism, dervishes, 58, 85", 247, 281-2, 291, 6I2 1 ; of 'forty', 309, 391-9; of hermits, 281-2; in incubation, 268; of Jelal-ed-din, 167, 371, 377; poets condemned by Vani Efendi for, 423; Seljuks, 281 ; of 'seven', 309, 3 736 ; of 'three', 272-4, 275-6; of 3 'twelve', 736 . Mystikon Deipnon, legends influenced among by paintings of, 289 1 . Murad zade Mohammed, Nakshbandi 'discoverer' of Arab graves, Galata, Mytilene (Lesbos), 'bleeding* tree at, 175; S. Loukas neo-martyr of, 453*; S. Simon and moles on face in, 183' 3 stones thrown on graves in, 4I3 . 306-7. Murderer, Naaman's bath, . and stones thrown on victim's grave, 413*. Murviedro, Trinitarian convent and Diana's temple 33*. Nablus, Khidr's spring ferred corpse at, 449. at, 326; trans- Nadir Shah of Persia, as Afshar, 128. at, 465*. Musa Baba, Bektashi saint, 542. Musa Beyikli, Turkoman tribe, 479. Musa Kiazim, Bektashi Imam, 514, Nail, driven in for cure, 80, 1 igS , 206, 262. 197-8, Nail-parings, disposal of, 131, 131*. de Naillac, Arab's Tower at Rhodes 554Musarlarli, Yuruk tribe, 477. Musa Tekke, Christian cult preserved 1 by Mohammedans at, 8 prosperity ; increased ; by improved communica- built by, 730. Nakib[el-Ashraf], Sultans girded by, 8 1 "2 607, 609, 611, 612, 6i2 , 613, 6I5 , 617,617*. Index 838 Nakir, Mohammedan dead catechized by, 250*. Nakoleia, Sidi Ghazi's tekke on site of, 75- . 225'. Bektashi Nakshbandi, replaced by, 2 at Haji Bektash tekke, 83', 503, 567, 572 ; at Joshua's tomb, 305; Kasr-el-Aini tekke and, 54 1 * 567* 567 ; 516, 567; in Kurshunlu Maghzen Jamisi, Constantinople, 728; Monastir tekke of, 356; saints, see Haji Bektash, Hasan Baba (of Tempe), Kaigusuz Sultan, Khirka Baba, Muradzade, Ramazan Baba; taj of, worn by Bektashi, 541. Nameless Turkish saints, 100, 132, 249*, 256, 282-3, 347-8, 348 285% 344-6, 345 6 , 2 . Names, Christian and Mohammedan of crypto-Christians, 473; functions of 7 saints decided by, 82 1 , 183^ , 193*, 6 l 280, 28o , 403', 666 ; immaterial in Turkish saints, 102, 256, 2893 , 347-8, a 348 496, 566; omens from, 696, 697, 3 697 ; prophylactic value of, 183% 2 i93 ; scribbled in holy places for cure by Jews, 267'; Yunuz among , Bektashi, 581. Naples, S. Elias and thunderbolt at, Napoleon, 40 sheikhs shot by, 395"; 1 Rhigas's conspiracy and, 594, 595 surname in Nar, Jewish Turkey, 739; . Yuruk tribe, 127*, Naxos, pierced stone cult in, 183, 183' passing between sacred columns at, 185, i85 3 Nazli, no Bektashi tekke at, 513; Nazareth, . Yuruks near, 136*, 476, 477Nazmi Efendi, Rifai Sheikh at Mona356. stir, Nebi Shaib, cult of sarcophagus at, 3 354 Nefes Baba, Bektashi saint, 520, 520 1 Nefes Keui (Tavium), Karaja Ahmedli - . near, 340, 4052. Nefes oglu, Haji Bektash as, I62 1 , 520'. 2 ~3 8 4 ; > 73i Negro, as 'Arab', 73o~5>. 73 as devil and evil spirit in West, 731*; as guardian, 36, 36**, 731-2, 732'. Negropont (Euboea), tides of, 288-9, 2882 , 289*. Nejef (Meshed Ali), Bektashi tekke at, ' 514; ostrich eggs at, 232'; sacred earth from, 685, 685 2 . Nejib Baba, Bektashi saint, 531. Nernrud, see Nimrod. Nemrud Kalesi, near Pergamon, 317*. Neo-martyrs, 452-9. Nepravishta, Bektashi tekke near, 542. 2 Nereids, bath peris as, no Nerses IV Klaietsi, bom and died at . Rumkale, 53 Neshri, date of, 484. Nestorians, Blessing of Waters among, 2 386 ; and Christian origin of Sheikh . 128, 476. Nasibi (Moharrem Baba), Sheikh, Bektashi saint, 548; prophecy to AH Pasha, 548, 587*. Nasr-ed-din Khoja, Bektashi claim, Adi, 444 572; and, crypto-Christians 4 . Neuralgia, cured by horseman relief, 4 190. - 5<?7 Nationalism, in Balkans, 539, 552, 553, 562. Nativity church, see Bethlehem. Natural cults, 175-225; of River Mezur, 149*; transferred to Islam, 4, 98-112; among Yuruks, 132; see also cave, mountain, spring, stone, tree. Nature, aetiological legends of, 282-5, 2 285 ; alive to orientals, 178-9, 179*; dervishes teach unity of, 58, 85 3 , 247, 5-6 282, 291, 460, 46o Nauplia, Delikli Baba at, 89", . mosques at, 76*. Nevniz, Bektashi observe, 561; Egyptian and Syrian commemorate rind2 ing of Solomon's ring, 247 ; Nosairi communion at, 148'; Persian New Year, 148'. Nevshehr, Bektashi tekke near, 506; conversion of Christians near, 47 1 2 ; foundation of, 137, 137*; Haji Bektash' s 'spittle' Mamasun near, near, 43. 287-8, 287*; Nevski, S. Alexander, dragon-slayer, 4 horseman, and Grand Duke, 646 New Julfa, 'flying' stone at, 198*; S. . 223; ; rival lovers in, 747*. 3 Persian for pomegranate, 738. Narinjali, Navarre, S. Peter's image threatened 1 in, 68 buried Navel-string, underground, George cures madness at, 692 2 . Index New Testament, accepted by Kizilbash, New undertakings, dangerous, 184, 20 3 8 j 259; kurban for, 224, 259-60, New Year 7 (Persian), at Nevruz, I48 3 3 divination News, for, 271, 2yi , 287 Niazi, Bektashi saint; 508. Niazi Baba, Bektashi saint, 508. . . 462'. Nicolas of Eski Baba, as S. Nicolas, 55*. 2 Nicolay, date of travels of, 485 Nicomedia, see Ismid. Nicosia, ambiguous cult of the Forty . ' of, 348*; Nihar, Yuruk tribe, 477. Nikopolis in Asia Minor, Schiltberger captured at, 486. Nikopolis near Preveza, rival lovers at, Niksar, Melik Ghazi's tekke near, 708*; S. Charalambos's church at, 61-2, S. Chrysostom's life at, 223; transference to Islam at, 6o3 Nikusses, P., and Vani Efendi, 422*. Nile, bread offered to, 343*; inunda. tion's ark. Nomads, see pasturage, Turkomans, Yuruks. Nomenclature, assimilations of saints due to, 18, 57, 88, 90*, 93*, 368, 368*, 581, 582 ; functions of saints decided 7 2 1 I93 , 280, 280', 403*, by, 82 , 183*. 6 with jinn associated 666 ; Genoese by, 603'; legends originated by, 303, 1 754*; 'survival* 3652, 658-9, 659 , theories and, 329^ Normans, Palermo taken from Arabs by, 17*. ' near, 50-1, 50*, 396, 396**, and of S. James, 42, 42 1 ; children's boots left in S. George at, 357 2 ; S. James of Persia's church at, 42-3, 71. ; name , Nicaea, see Isnik. Nicephorus, Patriarch, on S. Eustace, 1 and swallow in Ark with, 348*; see also ISO- 84 839 snake-bite effect on paganism, 64*; 2 Joseph's body and, 3<x> ; negro talisman of, 367, 732 1 ; Omar's letter to, 5 64 ; united prayer for good inundation of, 64. Nimrod (Nemrud), Abraham tortured and tower of Babel Nosairi, anthropologically like Kizilbash, 157; Chepni as, 133*; communion among, 148'; Forty Saints among, 395, 395'; hares among, 242'; incest and promiscuity of, 3 Khidr among, 320, 335, 570*; i53 ; Kizilbash, 140, 142, i42 religious ; mystic, 272-4, 275-6, 309, 391-9, 3 736 ; as place-names, 391-2, 391*, 2 Numen, at, 349 Nisibin, sacrilege to S. Persia's church at, 42-3. 5 . James of Nisyros, janissary disguised as woman 3 in, 742 Nivelles, ordeal in S. Gertrude's Benedictine abbey at, 632-3, 633 1 Noah, daughter of, cenotaph of, 325*; 1 gigantic tomb of, 306 ; Kizilbash . . prophet, 145; patron of shipping, 348, 348'; patron of travellers, 10, io8 , 258, 348, 348*; prayer for soul of, 3 10, 258; rain-charm of, 211, 21 1 ; 156, 157; Cilician goat, Liesse, Paris, Quimper. November 27th, evil spirits active between January 5th and, 392. Numbers, arbitrary meaning of, 391, 2 39i ; miraculously limited, 240; 39 2 . , ; 5 4 l with affinities Takhtaji of, 156, 159, 159". Notre Dame, churches of, 'bound', 2 264 ; images of, black, 667: found in 1 miraculous liberation bushes, 359 miraculous by, 667; transportation of church by, 285 10 see also Huel- built by, 194*, 317, 317*; catapult of, I94 , 3 1 ? ; city of, 316-17, 317'; among Mos1 lems, 278 Nine, as place-name, 391*. Nineveh, Jonah's cult North, Sir Dudley, 77. . dede as, 99% 134; at incuba- tion shrines, 689, 690, 69O 1 , 691, 693, 694. Nur-ecl-din Zenghi, Seljuk Islam and, 1 168, I68 , 370. Nuri Baba, Bektashi saint, 543. Nur, Jebel, Prophet in cave on, 223*. Nursing mothers, bath spirits pro2 pitiated by Jewish, no ; Maslama's cup helps, 266, 719. Nusr-ed-din Baba, Bektashi saint, 506. Nusr-ed-din Evliya, Bokhara saint, 50, 574as jtnns, 283*; of springs, 467*; 'survival' at Armudlu of, 467 Nymphaea in aqueducts, 428. Nymphi, nomad Kizilbash near, 140* Nymphs, Index 840 Oak-twigs on grave of Kelkele Sali Agha, 227*. Oaths, among Mohammedans, 548, 54.8', 569*. Obilich, Milosh, murdered Murad I, 234'. 3 Obruk, devil-haunted lake of, 365 Occult sciences, Daniel patron of, 298. October 26th, sacred to Kasim and S. Demetrius, i64 Odemish, Anatolian tribal name in . . Merv, 128. Odra, Bektashi tekke 3 Menas S. 52 7 ; and, 527'. Ogres, in forties, 392. at, Ali ousted by, 241* ; and of Rock, 30*; girding Dome of sultans with sword of, 6i64 ; at Jerusalem, 7 1 , 30*, 752 5 ; letter written to Nile by, 64*; Shias disown, 9 241 ; stone brought from Mecca to Cairo by, 198, 1983 , 623; transformations of, 241, 241*. Omens, from storks, 262; from mark1 ings of horses, 63 1 ; from names, a 696, 697, 697 ; prophecies corroborated by, 722 ; Turks believe, 722*, 2 739^ 740, 740 528; Vodhorina Oinurlu, Yuruk 7 101, IOI . (possibly) Bektashi saint, 521. . tribe, 477. Onion, boil cured with, 176. Open turbes, favourite form, 227, 254, 6 448; as kkidrliks, 325, 449, 449 ; for rain-prayers, 73', 325, 360; as shelters for mourners, 273, 325*, 449, 449*. Oil-presses, Cyprian monoliths 4 as, 192, 192*. Okhrai, Haji Bektash tekke at, 83*. Okhrida, arrested transference of S. Sophia at, 25, 25'; Bektashi designs on S. Clement's at, 583; Hayati tekke at, 539- Okhrida, Lake, S. Naum's monastery on, 547, 583 Sari Saltik's miraculous ; crossing of, 285, 583, 583*. Okugu, sub-tribe of Rihanli Turko- mans, 480. Olba, no 'survival' . Olyga, Mount, in Shahkuli's campaign, 171. Olympia, nymphaeum at, 428. 'Olympian' and 'Pelasgian' saints in West, 667*. Olympic victors, wall broken down to admit, 203 5 . Olympus, Mount, Bithynian, giant on, 308'; hermits on, 99; near, 138. Turkomans Olympus, Mount, Cyprian, rain-charm 1 3 . Olympus, Mount, Thessalian, Mount Olivet and dedication of, 329'; Zeus . : by 'sweating* column in S. Sophia's, io5 ; see also eye. Oracle, from ball, 271-2, 529, 530; cult ' of dead for, 269-72, 27i 2 4 ; embraca stones for, 271, 27i , 277; ining cubation for, 268, 690, 6903 ; from jinns in 'idols', 189; at madmen's 3 2 from , 267*, 269, 403 a 55, 271, 27i 277. Ordeal, by fire of Sari Saltik and 2 monk, 430, 434: at Sidi Ghazi, 43O , wells, 52, 52 ; , 498, 498*; of passage, carrying arms forbetween bidden during, 634: columns, 623, 624-5, 625-6, 625*, 3 630, 631, 633: through hole, 626 , and between tomb wall, 628, 634: 6 627, 627 , 632: between columns and wall, 628, 632*632-3; by water at Meron, 626*. Oreana, medicinal earth, 681. Organization important, for cults, 6970, 93-4, 112, 113, 117, 255, 255*, 280, 344; for legends, 122. 3 Orientals, columns among, 199, I99 , 3 1 l 4i6 , 74i ; Crusades influenced, 32I , 66o8 ; dreams among, 45, 55**, 6i 2 , 223, 414, 716; Frankish travellers cloud -gatherer on, 329'. Omar Abdul Aziz, Caliph, Arab Jami, 3 Constantinople, built by, 7i9 Omar Anli, sub-tribe of Rishwan . Turkomans, 481. Ophis, crypto-Christians of, 470, 470* Ophthalmia cured by blood of executed criminals, 217, of sheep, 2I8 1 stones, at, 116. 1 Olive, fumigation with leaves of, 3O5 Olivet, Mount, and hill dedications in Greece, 329'. on, 2 1 cross at at, 234, 527-8, Oguz, mythical Turkoman chieftain, Ohad Baba, Omar, Caliph, among, 641-5; inscriptions 3 and 3 writing magical to, 202-7, 203 , 2o6 , 1 207 , 2 1 o, 220; legends in West from, 3 10 282*, 283 , 291*, 632, 632 , 665, Index 1 3 667-8, 668 ; love for trees of, 85 , 2 for water, 179% 696; , 178-9, I79 ' other sex among, 2oo2 ; stratagems 3 against dragons of, 66o Orientalists, on population of Asia Minor, 125. Orkhan (1326-60), Abdal Murad's tekke founded by, 509; Brusa conquered by, 488, 488*; Haji Bektash 2 and, 341, 483, 488, 488 , 489, 49> 2 493, 52 ; Janissaries and, 483, 484, 485, 487, 490, 493; Jelal-ed-din and, 3 6i3 ; Pergamon captured by, 60 1, 603; revisits tomb, 229*, 5092; Sheikh Kill's tekke founded by, 509; Suleiman Pasha son of, 235 ; as Tatar khan at Haji Bektash, 502*. miraculous liberation at Orleans, church of Holy Cross at, 667. ' . Oropus, incubation for oracle at, 268. in Asia Minor 841 Osman Zeza, Bektashi tekke at, 543. Osmudum (Umudufn) Sultan, sacred 5 fish at, 245 . Ostrich eggs, as amulets, 232-3, 232'' s Otter, 364 1 Ottheinreich, Pfalzgraf, 64 7 8 . . . Ottoman, see Osman I. Ottomans, first appearance 370; of, Karamania conquered by, 605-6 as Turkomans, 139. Ouren (Ouran), Haji, see Haji Ouren. Ova Kachar, subdivision of Kachar ; Yuruks, Oven 127*, 475. 4 (or furnace), baking in, 78, 78 ; hiding-place, 78*, 147. Overlooking, see evil eye. Ovraiokastro (Chifut Kalesi), placename, 748, 748*. Ox(en), horns in turbes of, 232, 232*5 of Moses, 313*. Orthodox church, low before Seljuks, 377; revived in Albania in i8th century, 586. Osha (Hocha, Hosea), Nebi, gigantic tomb of, 306*5 wooden sword of, 23 4 ' Osman, Caliph, sword nople of, 6i6 4 at Constanti- . of Prophet, spring 3 368 Osman (Ottoman) I (1299-1326), Alaed-din sent sword to, 605, 617; buried in S. Elias, Brusa, 18, 235, at Sugut, 235; Edeb AH father-in-law of, 235; girded by Mevlevi Chelebi, 610; Janissaries and, 484, 484*5 Jelal-ed-din and, 605, 612, 613*; sword of, sultans girded with, 604, 4 1 4 trans; 615, 615*, 6i6 , 617, 6I7 ferred church at Karaja Hisar to Osman, Companion of, 106, 283, . * Islam, 6. Osman II (1617-21), horse of, buried at Skutari, 269*; Janissaries and, 4205 tree endowed by, 1 78-9. Osman III (1754-7)* girded by Nakib, 6l2 2 . 'ambiguous' cult of Pambuk 8 Baba'(S. Gerasimos) at, 95-7, 95 , Osman jik, 512; in Kizilbash district, 96'. Osmanlis, Farsak one tribe of, 135; politically grouped tribes of, 135; warrior-saints of, 281. Osman Ouglou (Kara Osman), Karaosmanoglu founded by, 598; treasure trove of Pergamon and, 601-2. Padua, Antenor's tomb at, 306*5 magic 10 transportation of well at, 283 Pagan(ism), ambiguous meaning of word, 192*5 animal transformations of gods in, 464; Christianity and, 3, 4, 115, 208-9; conversion from, see conversion from paganism; devilish, 2 269*; as giaur or but-parast, 369 . ; magic, 20*5 Nile's importance for Egyptian, 64*; reliefs worshipped, 5 6 of Satok Bogra, ; 190, 467, 467 134*, 432*; of Seljuks, 1 68*, 370; Shia Islam bridge between Sunni Islam ' and, 125; survival of sanctity from, see survival, transference; Yuruks, 121, 132, 133, 175. u Paimpol, footprint of Christ at, i86 . Painters' Guide, Armudlu saints in, 466*; S. George in, 321*; S. Nicolas in, 388*. 8 Palace, columns in, 4i6 , 741*. Palaiologos, Cons tan tine/ Arab* killed and is buried beside, 2345 , 731; as 4 sleeping Saviour-king, 354*, 47 1 * 2 722, 722 ; tombs of, at Golden Gate, 1 Gul Jami, 40, 40% at 354, 354 ! Vefa Meidan, 2345 , 731. Palaiologos, John, buried at Golden ^ 1 Gate, 354 Palamedes, sailors' god and inventor of . lighthouses, 347. Palermo, 'ambiguous* cult Arabs and Normans at, 2i7 4 ; at, 17* 5 at, 17*5 decollaii fish-pond of Arab king at, Index 842 Palermo 3i3 (contd.) 249* ; transference to Islam of Cathedral at, 17*. Palestine, Crusaders' sites in, 326; memorials in, 269*; female saints in, 702 a ; Forty Mohammedan Saints in, 397*; gold plant in, 645*; Khidr-S. George in, see S. dogs' Arab makams in, 237*, 326; George; miraculous journeys to, 286*; prototypes from, 387-90, 389"; S. Chariton and, 380, 381 ; S. Gerasimos of, 97; transference of cult in, see trans- ference. Palm Sunday, Christ's entry into Jerusalem on, 754; Golden Gate of 8 Jerusalem on, 753-4, 753 Palmyra, conquered by Aurelian, - 329*. Palpitation of heart, sacred well in S. Sophia's cures, 10. Pambuk Baba of Damascus, life in grave of, 252*. Pambuk Baba of Osmanjik, 'am- 8 95-6, 95 , 512; as 8 as S. GeraKoyun Baba, 95 , 512; simos, 96-7. Panagia (Virgin Mary), 'ambiguous' cult of tomb of, 64 1 ; Dindymon and, 6o 2 , loo 1 , 3298 ; fish sacred to, 2443 ; as Fountain of Life or Siloam, 249 1 ; as general practitioner ', 691 ; images 1 of, 285, 359 Kryphia at Smyrna, biguous* cult of, 5 ; trial, Enoch and S. Elias in terres- 333*. Paralysis, cured by S. John's Gospel, 5 35*, and by S. Julian, 668 . 3 Paravadi, mooring-rings near, 284 . Paris, 'binding* at Notre Dame de, 2 2 64 ; incubation to bishop Marcellus 1 of, 691*; stinking stone at, iSo Parnassus, pierced stone cult on, 183. 5 Partridge, and healing spring, 686 Pasargadae, modern Passa, 177*. 1 Pashalar, Bektashi tekke at, 4O5 . Passa (Pasargadae), venerated cypress 3 at, 177, I77 . Passing through, cures by, 182-5, 5 3 6 1 , i83 192-3, I93 , 273, 273 , 359; evil gates, eye dangerous during, 6 203 ; ordeals of, see ordeal. Passover, kurban at Samaritan, 260'; . . ' S. Elias' s place at, 334. Pasturage, Yuruks migrate for, 137, 5 J 37 > 475-6> 479~ 82 Pasvanoglu of Vidin, Bektashi leanings - 593; Kirjali irregulars of, 593, 3 593* ; Rhigas and, 594-5* 595 Patmos, repentant renegades in, 455. Patras, S. Andrew's, incubation in, 1 691*; stinking stone at, iSo of, - . Armenian, at Rumkaleh, 3 53 see also Nerscs IV; Greek, Fethiyeh Jamisi former Patriarch, : ' ; 415*; mule of, hoof -print of, 187; 1 Myrtidiotissa, 359 ; Paregoritissa and rival lovers at Arta, 748; Parthenon dedicated to, i43 ; Pazario3 tissa, 244 ; S. Luke's images of, 66, 10 in S. Sophia's, Constantinople, 285 lo 1 ; Turkish sacrilege punished by, 14*; see Annunciation, Areopolis, Assumption, Athens, Athos, Con; stantinople, Konia (S. Chariton), Notre Dame, Virgin Mary. Panaret, Bektashi tekke at, 544. Panderma, Doghan Hisar near, 747*. Pantheism, among Bektashi, 585. Paphos, pierced monoliths in, 192-3, 1 I93 ; S. Paul scourged at column in, 6 195; Seven Maccabees in, 311, 311 ; Seven Martyrs in, 311-12; Seven Sleepers' cave in, 311-12. Parable, Jewish fondness for, 700; in 1 '2 legends, 285, 285', 290-1, 29I Paradise, animals admitted to, 313, . Cathedral of, see. 725: Gennadius, Gregory Procopius also Cyril VI, II, Nicephorus, ; Kizilbash, 147, 152. Patriotism, in Albanian Bektashism, 539> 549> 552, 553> 556, 562. Patron saints, Ahiwiran see Baba, Daniel, David, Haji Bektash, Khidr, Noah, S. Elias, S. George, S. Leonard, S. Michael, S. Nicolas, Sari Saltik, Seven Sleepers, Sidi Ghazi; of animals, armourers, fr^za-makers, childbirth, Crusaders, guilds, Janismadness, occult sciences, saries, pilgrims, prisoners, sailors, ships, soldiers, spring, tanners, travellers, v.\ transferences of churches arrested by, 21, 2i 3 , 36, 71. Patuk Sultan, Bektashi saint, 506. Pauladadum, see Maltese earth. 3 Pebbles, divination with, 271, 27i 275. war, qq. , Pegai, palace of, 249 1 . Pehlivan Baba, see Hasan Pehlivan Baba. Index Pehlivanli, Armenians converted to Islam, 155, 155* camel-men, 128; 843 404, 404% 566; Kizilbash and, 157-8, 169-74; kurban among, 260; Mithraism of, 152; Nevruz as Ahmed, ; Kizilbash, 155; Turkoman tribe, 138, New Year Pelusium, S. Isidore of, 389, 389'. Penance, chains of, 664, 664*, 668-9, 2 668% 689 ; stones carried as, 201-2, 2OI 1 3 5 , 2O2 l Pentateuch, buried with Jewish rabbis, 471*; of Esdras, 471*; Kizilbash accept, 150; rainfall determined by, 202 2 ; read over the sick, 77; Samaritans accept, 150*. from paganism and, 125-6; Turkish folk-lore and, 121 ; Yuruk tribes and, 128, 136: see also (Shah) Ismail. Personality of saint, unimportant, 100, 2 2 102, 132, 256, 289 , 347~ 8 34# > 3 8 9- " ' . > Petachia, Rabbi, date of, 301*. Petrified, horses of Imam Baghevi, 8r, 196, 292; Magians, 190; melon, 223, 435; saddle and pilaff -dish, 550*; shepherd, 182; spittle of Haji Bektash, 287-8, 287"; virtuous persons, 190; vizir revived by blood, 218*. Pentecost, influence of tongues of fire at, 456. Pera, Genoese children in Capitulations of, 487. Perekop, S. John the Russian and, 1 Petrocochino, Mr. D. P., xxiv Petty, William, 418. Pezzunijah, Sari Saltik's tomb at, 430. Pharan, cave-church at, 380. Pharaoh, bath of in children's blood, 2I8 1 : on Sinai, 393*. Pharasa, Afshar chiefs in Greek, 156. Pharsala, Rini near, 531. . 3 440 . Perfection, saints die on attaining, 292, 292 1 . 3 of, 428 ; arrested transference of S. John (Kizil Avli) 2 at, 21, 2i , of S. Sophia, 22; brigandage at, 599* ; crypto- Jews near, 4734 ; Karaosmanoglu at, 474, 598, 599; Kirk Agach near, 398; Kirklar Pergamon, agora Pheneos, Herakles at, 366. Phenician tombs in Cyprus, 704 2 Philadelphia, see Alashehr. Phileremo, Malpasso near, 647; Rhodian Knight captured, 646** ,64 7% 743. Philiatra, hoof -print at, 187. 5 ancient Philippi, hoof-print at, 2O5 monument as milk-charm at, 205-6. Philippopolis, 'Arab* at capture of, . village near, 392*; Orkhan's capture of, 601; Plato's, not Galen's, house site of Antipas's grave at, 15* ; 2 at, 116*, 4ii at, 115; transference changed ; no 'survival' of S. Deme- ; 2 3 trius, 2 1 : of S.Sophia, 41 1 ; treasure in marble owl at, 642-3; vases of, " 1 1 4 600-2, 6OO , 6O2 603. haunted baths Peris, by, 109-10, 109% no2 , 268; in forties, 392 as Nereids, 731; Turks transplanted to, 519*. Philoktetes, animal found cure for, 5 462 ; Lemnian earth cured, 672, 686, , ; no 2 2 687, 687 ; leprous prince like, 686. Philosophers, Greek, among Turks, 15, 5' water and, 366-8, 366*. ; r5 Phinehas, S. Elias and, 333, 334. Phison, sec Fees. Phorbas, and legend of de Gozon, 64 9^. Phorkan the book, and thieves, 202-. 3 Phrygia, Saltik village-name in, 576 5 rival lovers at, 747 Phyle, . Perseus, and dragon, 32 3 George and, 321, 66o 66o 1 1 , 3 ; S. fl . Persia(ns), in Asia Minor, 140; astro5 logical fears of ambassador of, 2O3 ; Bektashi and, 160, 565, 566; Bless2 ing of Waters in, 386 ; Byzantine 3 type of Seven Sleepers in, 3i3 ; Christian communion and Mithraism, . . Pierced stones, venerated, 89 5 , 182-5, 1 2 -3> I 21 9> 565; Ferhad ; gold plant 8 hare in, 645*; Haidar, 52, 403, 4O4 tabu among, 243, 243 1 Karaja 152; Fadlullah, and 160, 2 Shirin, 747, 747 7 in, I48 ; propaganda against Turks by, 169-72; Ramazan l among nomads of, i32 ; as 'Red Caps', 169*; Safavi dynasty and Kizilbash of, ^9-40; Seijuks and, 167-8, 363, 370; Shia Islam orthodox in, 125; Turkish conversion . Pelasgian and Olympian saints in s West, 667 . Peloponnese (Morea), crypto-Christian Albanians in, 4742 ; Shahkuli's adherents in, 170. 4 .*9 93. Piety, qualifies for canonization, 21 7*, 257, 278, 280,351. ; ; I 1 2 Index 844 Pig, remedy indicated by, 686. 1 Pigeon, sacred, aio . Pilgrimages, of Bektashi, 436, 436*, 549, 584, 584**; Christian to mosques, f requentation ; examples of, see Daniel, Haji Bektash, Jerusalem, Kerbela, Konia, Mecca, Medina, Seven Sleepers; influence shrines en see route, 113, 113*, 117, 316, 350, 705, 7O5 2 Kizilbash, among ; 150% 151, 5I2 1 ; Mohammedan 143, 150, knrban after, 259; see churches, to by new gate 5 from, 2O3 ; to tomb or cenotaph, 1 250, 569 ; among Yuruks, 132. taken from sacred spots earth Pilgrims, f requentation; return Bektash 1 Haji , 496; legends influenced by, 122, T983 390, 624; ostrich eggs of, 233 stones of, 201-2, 2oi 3 5 , 202 1 transferences promoted 3 by financial contributions from, i6 , 263 262-3, by, patron of, 488, ; 488 4 , ; ; Xerxes, 179. Plato (Eflatun), 'ambiguous* cult at Konia of S. Amphilochius as, 17, 57, 364-5> 3o8, 368*, 373, 570; at Athens, 5 15-16, I5 ; 'divine* to Arabs, 363, to Turks, 15, 364, 364*; at Karaman, 363; at Konia, see Konia; lakes of Beyshehr and Egerdir formed by, 283, 366; as magician-philosopherengineer, 366-7, 373; observatories of, 15-16, 364-5; at Pergamon, 15'; 5 72, 72 ; pre-Christian Christian, river of, 365; Seljuks adopted, 17, a 3 I > 7 373; talisman against 5^ gnats made by, 193; tomb at Konia of, 17, 364, 365* 373Platonists at Karaman, 363. Pleshnik, Bektashi tekke at, 543. Pliny the Younger, conversion to ~ Christianity of, 444*. 1 Plouaret, Seven Sleepers at, 31 1 2 as Plough, fertility charm, 106, 23o . Ploughing, ritual, for rain, 64*. Podandus, see Bozanti. . S3Pillar, in Bektashi worship, 197, 274-7, 4 5J9 Pine, sacred, 239. Pir, meaning of word, 177, 279, 337, 1 338, 554 - - Pir-evi, see Haji Bektash tekkc. Piri Baba, Bektashi saints, 512, 528. Piri Baba (Dede), 'ambiguous' cult of Bektashi saint, 39, no, 512. Pir Merizat, Bektashi saint, 513. Piroglu, Yuruk tribe, 477. 2 Pittard, Prof. E., 265 . cult Placation, by, 220, 233, 233% 342, 347- Place-names, numbers in, 391-2, 39i 4 , 392*. 1 1 Placenta, birth-places and, 225 , 236 ; 2 importance of, 131, i3i Placidus, historical person, 464*; as S. Eustace, 462-4. Plague, averted by Armenian bole, . 2 2 Black 67 , 674: 'binding', 264 Stone of Susa, 215: Breslau earth, 681: Christian intercessions, 64, 643 1 Brothers, 3982 ; at Plato's springs, 365*; talisman at Brusa, 178; of : : kurban, 259: Lemnian earth, 672, 674, 677: martyrdom of neo-saint, 2 457: S. Charalambos, 84: 84 , 194: talismans, 194; united prayer, 64; in European Turkey, Plane-tree, for births, I78 Poisoned garments, death from, 713. 2 Poitiers, processional dragon at, 659 ; 1 stinking stone at, iSo Poland, Sari Saltik's journey to, 429, 3 s 429 , 432 , 577, 583', tomb in, 430. Polena, Bektashi turbe at, 548. Politics, in Albanian religion, 438, 439, . 586, 588-9; by Bektashi, 377, 438, 55 2 > 568-9, 5^6-96, 611-13, 619-22; burials for reasons of, 714*; churches desecrated for, 7, 7 3 , 53; dervish orders in, 15, 410, 410*, 419539* 23, 429, 438-9, 611-13, 619-22; 'discoveries' motived by, 714-16, 4 "5 7i4 > Janissaries in, 420, 611-13, 619-22; Mevlevi in, 167, 422, 422*, 610, 621-2; of Seljuks, 167, 439; transferences aided by, from Christianity to Islam, 7, 53, 586-96, from Islam to Christianity, 90, 585; tribal groupings for reasons of, 135; see Greek revolution. Amykos and, 304. 2 Polycrates, fish found ring of, 247 . Kizilbash, 143, 151, Polygamy, among Pollux, 54, 520. 178, Poison, dragon-stones, 653, 653*, and medicinal earths good against, 672, 676*, 678, 681, 682. 6 ; cenotaph with, 178; on graves, 178, 238; as Kirk Agach or Seven 153- Index Pomegranate (nar), and prophecy of 8 Red Apple, 738-40, 738 Pompeiopolis, Jewish maiden immured . on Kizilbash bread Pontus, cross Andrew; S. in, Andrew 30; Kirklar in, 392; S. Theodore in, in, see S. Theodore; stags* miracle in, 241; stones in churches in, 27; transference of cults in, go 1 ; wry mouths cured with saint's slipper in, 357 2 Pope of Rome, canonization and, 255*. . Poplar, sacred, 239. 2 Popular, canonization, I92 , 217*, 218', 457-8, 459; cults and dervishes, 531, 9 S3 1 *, 535; thought, i5o Population, anthropological character . Asia Minor in T 57~&j 'survivals' and changes in, 113-14, U42 , 115, 117, 118;2 transplanted, 6 r 7 2 -4> 44i , 136-7, i5 8 > X 7o, i7 2 1 50I , 519, 5i9 Pork tabu, 132, 153, 243*. Poseidon, Athena's competition with, 59 ;S. Nicolas as, 349. of, 124-5, < . Position, 113-14, 75 2 , for soul, 9, 10, a , 258; tides of war > 4 22 *' Euripus and, 288-9; watches invented at, 745*- see S. 845 and prosperity of H3 78; shrines, 2 117, 118,316,350, 705, and sailors' cults, 324*, , 2 347-8, 348 , 350, 389 ; sanctity due to, 2 27*, 29% 176, I90-I, 192, 209, 2I0 , 220, 227, 247, 249, 266, 276, 684. Possession by demon, madness as, 79*, 4 668, 668 , 670, 691*. Postin Push, buried at Baba Sultan Pouque ville, and ; m 1 289 Praying-places, of Arabs in Constan7 tinople, ii of Khidr, 326-7, 326 1 for mourners, 273, 325*, 328, 33I ; 35 2 449for, . . ; > Preachers, canonization of, 278. 2 Pre-Christian Christians, 6o 2 , 72, , n 72 4 "5 , 444*. 2 of, Predestination, 63i ; analysis column ordeals test, 624, 6242 , 625, 2 626, 627, 630, 631, 63i , 633, 633*, 2 634; legitimacy and, 63 1 ; Moslem theories of, 446-7; SS. Augustine and Paul's theories of, 445, 445 1 Pregnancy, Maslama's cup and, 719; S. Simon's day and, 183'. . Pre-historic monuments, see ancient. Pre-Islamic Moslems, 72, 72 s , 445. ostrich Pre-Islamic Semites, egg charms among, 232; rag-tying by, J752 3 Premet, Bektashi at, 93 , 544-5, 544 ; conversion to Islam of, 591 S. Elias ; and AH at, 93*. 5 Presba, conversion to Islam near, I55 ; hoof-print at, 187*. Preveza, Nikopolis near, 748; port of Sheikh Brusalu Yannina, 592; buried at, 588 8 ; stone-cult of, and incubation to, the Apostles near, 212-14; talisman crosses over gate at, tekke, 103. 3 1 gether, 63-5, 63 , 64 3 228, 228 , 251, 251*' 654 4 . at Yedi Kule, Priebsch, Prof. K., 674'. Priest, chiefs of early Turks as, 134-5, Prayer-mats, in miraculous journeys, 2 10 231, 285 , 286-7, 2 86 , 287', 461, skins as relics, 231; as, 461, 583; 1 46I 7 Prayers, during ablutions, 668 ; of best in mornBektashi, 165, 559-60; 3 338-9; exorcism with stole of, 34 ; magic by, 80, 222; married among mummy 353- . ing, 694; even Christian's effica3 cious, 30 ; church turned into 1 1 mosque after, 7 ; after conquests, 7 ; 1 3 , 258; fever 251, 25I 1 cured only by, 2O6 ; five daily, 132, 153, 165; for founders' souls, 9, 228, 228 s ; Friday, gates closed during, 2 3 721, 72i , 751-4, 75 J S 754 ; at of saints, 9, 9*, 404, 569*; graves among Kizilbash, 149, 153; for Noah's soul, 10, 258; for rain, see rain-prayer; by several religions to- for dead, ' Kizilbash, 147, 152; none among nomads or primitive Turks, 134, 1 I34 ; see Kizilbash, Yuruks. Primitive features of religion, among Christians and Mohammedans, 125, 132, 133; not necessarily old, 122. Prince in dragon-legends, 32 1 1 1 bePrincess, at Angora, 713, 7I3 witched, 744, 746-7, 748; Christian, buried beside Moslem, 5 s 95> 2 34 , 78, 709 713, 743: converted to Islam, 74 1 , 360, 702*: . ; married to Moslem, 706, 7o6" 10 , 708, 1 743, 743 ; 4 immured, 744-5, 745*' , 748; with rival lovers, 747-8, 74 7" 4"5 ; in S. Index 846 Princess (contd.) s George's dragon-story, 321*, 66o ; in Sari Saltik's dragon-story, 435. Prinkipo, incubation and mad-house in, 693; S. George's cape at, 350*. 3 Printing-press, of Spanish Jews, 679 Bektashi tekke Suka Prishta, at, 544; . dependency of, 543, 544. Prison, cave as, 223% 416, 416*; of Christ, 628. Prisoners, miraculous liberation of, ' 2 3 l 663-8, 663, 666 >', 667 , 668 2 4 ; S. Leonard patron of, 666 6 ; Sheikh Selim as God's, 6646 Prizrend, Bektashi tekke at, 525, 525*, 448% - . 537* ; transference and secularization to Christianity of, 525. Procopius, Greek patriarch Selim III 3 and, 77 . 5 Prodromes, Theodores, 686 . Profession of Faith, Christian, 445-6; Mohammedan, 446, 446*, 448. Progti, Hayati tekke at, 539. 3 5 Promiscuity, alleged, 148, 153, i53 , 2 165, I7o Prophecy, of Ali Pasha's future, 548, 587, 587, 592; of Christian attack . on Jerusalem, 751-4, 752 3 ; of Constantine (Saviour or Yellow King), 1 4 353-4, 354 , 47* > 7 22 7 22 *; Daniel's book of, 298^ 471*; of maiden's early death, 745; of millennium, 721; omens corroborate, 722; of Red > 2 2 '4 2 Apple, 722, 736-40, 736 , 737 738 5 Prophet, false, in Albania, 438% 58i ; Jewish adopted by Moslems, 278, 1 278 among Kizilbash, 145 ; Moham. > ; see . Protesilaos, sea-saint, 346*, 348 2 . Prototypes, of appearance after death, 527"; in Bible, see biblical history; of Blessing Waters, 387-8: caves as birth-places, 225, or homes, 223-*: circumambulation, 267 : Christian 1 151, 152: El Cid, 7O5 : of ordeal, 632-3, 635: con- communion, 445, 463*: Digenes and Regina, 747*: edifying legends, 464: exorcized demons, 42*: fairy ancesversion, tresses, 10 miracu283 lous journeys, 285-6: mountain dedications, 329*, 388: oracular emwells, 52*: magicians, : bracing of columns, 277: relics as defence against sacrilege, 37 : reptiles being harmless in Malta, 681: re3 vival after death, 248, 248 : round churches, 389: S. Elias on hill-tops, 329% 388: S. George and dragon, 3 a seven saints, 309: stag 65o , 66o : (sacred) stones, 180, J 98* i8i l , 185-6, 186-7, J 95; 'sweating' column in S. stories, 464*: 181, i98 : Sophia's, 389: talking animals, 463*: Three Unjust Deeds, 331-2, 334, 699-700: (sacred) trees, 237: water produced from a rock, 380. Provence, S. Gilles of, 462. Publius of Malta, crypto-Christian , 4 444 2 Puns, omens from, 697, 697 ; saints' functions from, 82 1 , 183*' 7 , 193*, 6 3 280, 28oS 403 , 666 Puran, Yuruk tribe, 478. Purgatory, incubation for relief from, 2 689 Pursos, S. Luke's miraculous image of 10 Virgin at, 28s Pyla, Cape, Forty Saints at, 401. . . . . Pylos, transference of Delikli Baba at, 8 9 5 , 192*. Pyrgi, no Bektashi at, 513. Pyrgi in Chios, medicinal earth from, 67i 2 . Python, Apollo's fight with, 59. Mohammed. Prophylactics, Mohammedan Albanians use Christian, 33, 33% 36, 65; names as, 183% I93 2 Prostitution, in hospitality, 151. columns stables, 42-3: leprosy cured 33': licking rituals, 219, 219*: life in grave, 252*: madmen's by baptism, 3 Procession, for rain, 64, 64*. med, haunted 63 2 a : forty saints, 309: Quarantania, Mount, Christ kept Ramazan Quimper, 'bound* on, 289'. church of at, 264 Notre Dame a . Rabia, Bektashi tekke at, 544. Rachel, life in grave of, 252*. 6 Rafidhites, hare tabu among, 242 . Rag-tying, by Christians and Mohammedans, 80; for cure, 45, 105, 132, 175, 183, 183*, i88S 192, 197-8, 198', 206, 220, 262, 272, 274, 305, 357, 407, 535; knot in, 265-6; in magic, 222; by pre-Islamic Semites, 175; theory of, 262, 262*, 265-6; among Yuruks, 132, 175. Index Ragusa, crocodile amulet at, 654*. 3 Rain, charms for, 210-11, 2ii Blessing of Waters not, 385, 387, 388; : 1 mountain-tops and, 99, 99 , 102, 8 7 102*, 134, i34 , 3<>4> 3 2 4, 3 2 4 ; Pentateuch and, 2O2 a ; prayer for by Catholics, 64, 64*: at khidrliks, 324-5, 331: at open tmrbes, 73% 325, 360: pulpits for, 324% 325, 360: of several religions together, 63-4, 64* . -2 ; ritual ploughing for, 64* ; saints of, 2 s I7 , 211, 2ii , 304, 304*, 324-5, 329% 331, 388, 434; Tanri invoked for, 3 134, 134 ; tribal chief tains make, 134. Rakhman, Yuruk tribe, 477. Rakkah (Herakleia, Irakla), Caliph Mamun died near, 697, 697*. Ram, Ishmael's in Paradise, 3i3 5 ; prophylactic horns of, 232. Ram Hormuz, Turkomans near, 48 1 3 Rama, 'ambiguous' cult of S. George . 3 at, 46 dragon ; Ramadan 32 George, princess, and 1 32 1 the Turkoman baptized, S. at, . 1 . Ramadanli, tribal origin of, 'Refusal', exhumation, 228*; 1 turbe, 228, 228 , 234, 305, 627*. and Regina Digenes, Ferhad of and Shirin prototypes of, 747*. Reincarnation, of Christ as Ali, 335; of Devil, 145; of Franks who die travelling, 641 ; of S. Elias as Khidr, see S. Elias. 2 Reins, snakes as, 289, 289 Rejeb, Bektashi tekke at, 510. Relics, under altars, 36; amulets be5 come, 229-30; boots as, 203 , 229-30, . 23S 654*; Christian among Mohammedans, 35~7> 55; curative, 44, So, 90, 91, 91*, a 262-7, 266*, 357, 357 , 358, 529; demons banished by, 466a ; ex-votos 1 become, 23 1 , 232-3; of Forty Saints of Sebaste, 400; human remains, 8 3 , 4 a 4i5 > 466 , 580, 580'; khirka, 234, 358; martyr's life-blood, 1 1 218-19, 21 8 ; Mohammedan, 8, 235 ; staff and shoes, 90; popular pilgrim's religion demands, 569; sacrilege prevented by Christian, 37; saints be235*, 266*, 415. gotten by, 654*; secondary, 266-7; 3 4 '5 , 229 , 230^ 231, 511, 527, 528; weapons, 229-30, 4 "5 , 654*. 23 Relief, ancient, venerated, 190-1, 467, 6 46 7 in turbes, 8, 229-30, 135. Ramazan, among Bektashi, 559; Christ 1 kept, 289 ; among Persian nomads, 1 ; I32 among Yuruks, 132. Ramazan Baba of Brusa, Bektashi or Nakshbandi saint, 509, 567. Ramazanoglu, and Selim I, 173. Ramleh, Christian magic to Mevlevi at, 5 29 ; Forty Saints at, 395, 397. 6 Ramsay, Prof. Sir W. M., 3, 44 1 733% , . Religion, few new ideas in, 390 1 ; folk- lore akin to, 122, 256. Religious, association of Turkomans, by Akbar, 377, by Bektashi, 377-8, 433~4> 438,' 568, by fusion, 596*; Mevlevi, 355, 371, 374, 438; motives 7341 Rapsani, dragon-fight in, 648 Rapunzel, immured princess, 744. Ravenna, S. Romuald converted in S. . 2 Apollinare at, 689 Razgrad, Bektashi tekke at, 186, 295-6, a 5 22 > 593. 593 Reading of Koran endowed, 258. . - 3 Reading over, for 3 cure, 77-8, 77 , 78 , 79, 80, 206; to exorcize witchcraft, Reception, in transferences of cult, 58, 2 59-60, 564, 56s 3 Red, chicken-pox and, i82 Red Apple (Kizil Elma), mountains 3 called, 738 ; prophecy of, 722, 736a 2 '4 40, 736 , 737S 738 Red Caps, Persians nicknamed, 169*. . . - Refuge 8 47 of in caves, 169, 223, 415. in transferences to Islam, 53, 90. Remedies suggested by animals, 462% 3 686, 686 5 . Rene, King, 65 7*. 7 Renegades, as abdals, 449 ; Ali Pasha of Beyrut, 23% 450; better them6 selves, 440, 441 ; fanaticism of, 23% 450; Franciscan, 454'; as hermits, 3 7 6 97 > 449 ; from Islam, I55 , 449% 3 Manzur Efendi, 453; 77, 450 , 587*; a as neo -saints, 441, Mihaloglu, 707 ; 449 7 ; 3 prestige of marabout, 97 , 441', 45> 45 8 ; psychology of, 453~4, 8 1 repentant, 455~ 6 > 455 > 45^ ; Russians as, 97, 97 2 , 44i> 44*'; saints, 442-51; Shahzeli dervishes, s 7 449 ; Sidi Mogdul, 97 ; slave at 8 454*. ; Tatar Bazarjik, 206, 2o6a , 443*; in Index Renegades tashi saint, 510. Resurrection, aloe and, Moslems at, 447*. Rethymo, Bektashi bad 226 1 ; at Kainarja baths, 109; mud-bath at Marash, 66, 6801 . Rhigas, conspiracy against Turks of, 1 3 1 594-5, 594 , 595 Rhodanthe, bear suggests remedy for, ' - 6 686 Rhodes, Arab's Tower at, John's at, 20; bones prophylactic at, 6 203 , 306*; crosses at conquest of, 7 dervish neo-martyrs at, 42 1 8 3o s 453 ; Digenes' bones at, 306*, 654*; dragon at, cave of, 651: dervish 6 de Gozon killed, see de killed, 203 , ; : 5 of, 203 , 650% 654, 654*, 8 655: origin of legend of, 231, 23i : rib of, 654"; Forty Christian Saints in, 400, 400*; Friday prayer, attack during, 8 72 1 ; gate blocked at, 751, 752, 753; de Gozon at, see de Gozon; Helios, Zeus Atabyrios, and Mount S. Elias 8 in, 329 ; Knights of S. John at, 203, 646; as Red Apple, 739-40; S. Catherine's gate at, 654*; vS. Mark's made bath at, 38; S. Poly carp's head at, 415*; Saracen capture 1 730, of, Turks of, 730 ; sieges by 739; Suleiman I's boots at, 2301 ; synagogue made bath at, 41; Trianda place-name at, 391*; Turkish fanaticism at, 4oo5 whales' bones at, ; 1 306 Rhodope, Bektashi propaganda among . Yuruks Rifai, Ahmed, see Ahmed. Rifai Order of dervishes, Abdul Hamid and, 620*; saints of, sec Ahmed, Ebul Huda, Mahmud, Mehmed, 1 Nazmi; tekkes of, 356, ,535, 536 , 549; walk over sick children, 80; Young Turks and, 62o3 * Rihanli, Turkoman tribe, 138, 340, 479, 48o. Ring, of Ali Pasha, 587 ; of Polycrates, 2 a 247 ; of Solomon, 247, 247 . Ringworm, after Pambuk Baba's curse, 9 6. Rini, 'ambiguous* cult of Turbe Ali (S. George) at, 93, 437, 521, 531-2, 582, 582*, 766-8. Rishwans, Yuruk Turkoman 138; tribe, tribe, 477. 3 , 535, 654*. Ritual purposes, tabu ignored for, 240, 1 2 240 Rival lovers, aqueduct and, 747-8, 2 4 5 , 747 749, 750; of the princess, ' . ' ' 2 ' 4 "5 747-8, 747 Rivers, anthropomorphism of, 149*, 2 659*; dragons and, 657, 659 ; gods of, 7 245 ; kurban at sources of, 149; . - tombs under, 298-9, 300, 300*, 301, 303Riza, Imam, buried near Tus, 462*. Riza Pasha, Bektashi at Kalkandelen and, 93, 524, 592; hereditary pasha perhaps, 593. s Rizeh, crypto-Christians of, 469, 469 , 47Rizos, Archbishop Cyril and, 441*. Robbers, in forties, 392. Roberts, David at Bulak, 22*. 8 Robigalia, date of, 66o of Roc, symbolism egg of, 233*. Rock, water from, 380. Rock-cut, churches, 43, 43% 56, 576; mosque, 56, 373. Rock tombs, David's shop in, 224; hermits live in, 223, 223*. Rogations, dragon-processions at, 656. 66o2 8 1 Roland, not canonized, 306 ; talisman sword of, 230, 306*, 654*. Romantic stories of Maiden's Castle - a 501; Erghne in, i7o Ride, miraculous, on deer, 241, 286, 1 287 , 460, 460*, 461, 462; on devil, 2 2 292 ; on lions, 84, 289, 289 , 460, of, . 1 730, 730 , transference of S. Gozon: head 84, 289, 289**, 8 489 Rifaat Baba, Bektashi saint, 543. Risk Baba, Bektashi saint, 53 1 . arrested snakes for reins, on wall, 289, 289*; . in, 534, 535. Revival after death, 2I8 1 , 248, 3 1 32I , 334, 334 ; Rheims, processional dragon at, 659*. Rheumatism cured by columns in Sidi Okba's mosque, 633 ; incubation 733; with 461, 461"; (contd.) Turkish society, 421; of western 8 -1 * 45 > 45 1 ** see origin, 441% 45 also Manzur. Reptiles, Lemnian, 672, 673, and Maltese earth good against, 681, 68 2 a ; see snake. Resul Ali Sultan (Resul Baba), Bek- 7, 656', . Index 742-4, 743 5 1' 747 -'- 3 1 744 , 745 744-8, , 1>4 > 11 . pre-Christians at, 6o2 ; birds of S. Philip and S. James 2 at, 384 ; Forty Christian saints in, 394; Forty Martyrs of Sebaste in S. Maria Antiqua at, 393*; George of Hungary buried S. ifl Maria sopra 1 ; pilgrims' penitential stories at S. Peter's in, 201; as Red 3 Apple, 737, 738, 738 -*; Robigalia and Rogations in, 660 1 3 S. Maria dell' Inferno and S. Silvester's 3 dragon at, 668 , 670* ; S.Peter's chains 2 knee-marks in, i87 2 ; S. in, 668 ' ; : Peter's at, Red Apple 389Ruins, 'Arabs' haunt, 69, 351, 402; Solomon and large, 749; treasure in, 5 3 3 i94 , i99 , 207 , 642, 734. Rum, abdals of, 5o63 ; Ala-ed-din and Caliph in, 607 brotherhood of, 506, 3 3 5o6 ; ghazis of, 5o6 Bektashi tekkes in, 523. Rumania, Rumeli, Sari Saltik Bektashi apostle ; . to, 236, 340. Saatji ,(Sachi) Karali, branch of Karali 2 Yuruks, I27 , 477. Sacrament, Jewish child and, 78*. Sacred, accursed akin to, 242, 253, 3 2 53 45^. Sacred Lance, found by Crusaders before Antioch, 7i4 5 ; see cave, deer, > stone, tree. fish, Sacrifice, see kurban, victim. 1 Sacrilege, arrested, 8 , 37, 71; punished by various instruments, 20, 21, 24, 27, 27 Bektashi 9 36, , if offered to Christian 5'6 6 1 churches, 8 , 14, i4 , 23% 27 , 29: Sacrament, 78*: sacred deer, 240-1, 4 5 sheep, 240, 240 , trees, 175, I75 , 213, 238, 239, 240; ritual necessities save from punishment for, 240, 240 1 " 2 ; transference of churches arrested by punishment for, see transference. 530: tekkes, ' 3 Sa'dan, giant, 3o8 Sadi dervishes at Liaskovik, 538. Sadik, Jafer, see Jafer. Sadr-ed-din, ancestor of Shah Ismail, i68 3 Sadr-ed-din, Sheikh, saved Tekke from 3 Timur, 168, i68 Safavi dynasty, Ismail founded, 139, 169, 403; Persian Kizilbash and, 139-40; Shia propaganda in Asia . . Rumeli Hisar, see Constantinople. Rumkale, Armenian patriarchs at, 3 53 Armenians frequent transferred ; 3> 4 church of S. Nerses, 53, 53 , 58, 574; Kizilbash Kurds round, 574; 3 Nerses IV Klaietsi born at, 53 Rumli (Urumli), Yurtik tribe, 127, 477. Rural sanctuaries transferred to Islam, . see transferences. . Minor by, 167, 168-72. makam Safed, daughters at, of 3I0 Jacob's seven 1 . 1 Sagalassus, Belkis and, 749 Sahib Ata, buried at Konia, 263 3 Said, Kizilbash priest, 147-8, 152. . Russia(ns), birds at Annunciation in, 2 a 384 ; Blessing of Waters in, 386 ; fanaticism and forced conversions to 2 47 l2 S 474 J 2 25i ; 'Galatians' in incubation to, 439*, 471, funeral feasts in, 2 6 and, 441 ; 97 , Saad-ed-din, date of, 509. 4 on, 738, 738 ; in, 329'; Turks Syrian threatened in i6th century, 737. Rosaries in turbes, 229, 229**, 273. Rouen, dragon -procession at, 659*. Round churches, models of Templar, solar-cult Islam due Rustchuk, Bektashi tekkes near, 295, 4 8 295 > 523> 544, 593 593 Rustem Baba, Bektashi saint, 520. - Rome, Ara Coeli and Minerva, 494 8 49 ' Sepulchre church by, 268, 689% 694; prophecy of Yellow King and, 471*; renegades in Asia Minor from, 97, 2 8 97 , 441, 441 ; S. Gerasimos among, 97; S. John the Russian, see S. John; Nicolas in, 431*; S. Paul neo2 martyr from, 455 ; Sari Saltik in, S. 3 429, 432 , see Crimea; Tripoli fish fought against, 246*. . Said Said Ahmed, AH see El Bedawi. Sultan, Bektashi saint, 522, 7 593, 593 Said-el-Ghazi, see Sidi Ghazi. Said Jemal Sultan, Bektashi saint, 510, 510*. Said Mahmud Kheirani, 3 buried at Akshehr, 505 . Said Omar, deer-horns on grave of, 1 232 Saida, united prayer for rain at, 64*. Sailors, Blessing of Waters and Turkish, 3 32*, 384} patrons of, 279, 279 , 342. Index 850 Sailors (contd.) 5, 343 350. 35 a 453 344 , 1 '2 ' 4 , Saint, Amazons s 346 1 '2 1'4 348 , 349 4 6 388-9, 388 , 389"' , 5 "7 , , - among Mohammedans, 1 'ambiguous' cults of, see f requentation animal form taken by, 6 241, 243 , 462% 464, 464*; Bektashi 702*, 742 ; ; doctrine of, 72, 537, 554, 558, 559, 560, lists of, see Bektashi; bones start legends of, 43, 44, 39- 10 , 3*4, 1 399-400, 654* ; border, 335 , 702-4; born underground, 225, 225 1 ; caves of, 220-5, an d see > e S- Forty, Sari Seven Sleepers; children Saltik, cured by, 82, 183% 272, 357, 3573, ' and sold to, 81, 8i 2 3 ; Christian, - names of, see S. Addai, ff., below; communion with, 256-7, 268-9; continence not required of Moslem, 450; cults of buried Mohammedan, 2 5~77; of, departmentalization 279-80, 691-2; dervish becomes, 278, and see Bektashi, Khalveti, Mevlevi; dies on attaining perfection, 292, 292*; 'disappears', 234, 2 2 7. 5 2 8 l ; 'discovery' of, , 358, 5 333 see bones, dog, dream, fall of a wall, funeral feasts, light, miracles, sarcophagus, shepherd, undecayed ; earth from grave 3 of, 262-4, 263 267, 275-6, 404, 467, 467', 684-5, 684*, 2 1 '2 eikonography of, 49 685 etymology, see name; fall of wall , ; ; 729; female Mohammedan, 17, 196-7, 11 4 2 1 I97 , 282, 325*, 395 , 580, 58o , 702 , reveals, 237, see 704*, med's 253, 351, 351*, Amazon, Mina, MohamUmm Haram; finders, sister, 3 183', 403 ; in forties, see forty; funeral feast reveals, 254; at gates, 3 231, 53 1 , 535, 654*; ghazi as, see 1 ghazi; gigantic, 306 , 351, 406; God 1 punishes insults to, 308, 308 ; headsee head-carrying; hermits carrying, 2 as, 74, 74 , 278, 281, 282, 461, 574; Jewish saints discovered by fall of wall, 351: groups 3 396 1 257 propitiated : of, 309*, 311, by own 3ii 6 , writings, , 45^-7, 458, 707, martyrs as saint, 569*; 729; 217*; miracles, of Mohammedan, 27897, 285*: reveal sainthood after first, death, 227-8, 254-5, 258, 258*, 282, 1 35*, 443> 45 6-8, 457 , 6 9 l8 Mohammedan names of those belonging to dervish orders, see ,' * Bairami, Bektashi, Hayati, Hurufi, Khalveti, Melamiyun, Mevlevi, Rifai, Sadi: names of others, Jelali, ABRAHAM,* Abu-1-Hajjaj, Abu see Abu Ishak, Abu Zeitun, Abu Zenneh, ADAM, Ahmed, Akchi, Hanifa, Ak Shems-ed-din, AH, ARAB, Ashik, Brusalu, Bula, Bunar, Burhan-ed-din, Evliya, Buyuk DANIEL, Delikli, Divani, Doghlu, Emir, EYYUB, FORTY, Fudeil, GHAZI, Goivelmir tchin, Haj Alian, Haji, Hasan, IMAM, Ismail Milk, JACOB, Balaam, JONAH, JOSEPH, JOSHUA, Kara, KHIDR, Kilij Ali, Kirhor, Laleli, Mati, NOAH, Osha, PLATO, Postin, Sadr-ed-din, Sahib Ata, Said Mahmud, Said Omar, Sari Kiz, Seth, SEVEN, Shami, Sidi, Szaleh, Tendem, Toklu, Yaghmur, Yusuf, Zem-Zem, Zumbullu ; mountains named after, 103; mummy a, 3 thought ii? , 353-4, 1 354 ; name, and function of, 82 l 183*' 7 , 2 6 1 I93 280, 280 , 403^ 666 generally , : , 2 unimportant, 102, 256, 289 , 347-8, 2 348 , 496, 566; oaths by, 548 2 , 569 1 organization ; of cults of, 112, 117, 255, 255*, 344, except by dervishes, 69-70, 93-4, 1 13, 255, 280; Ottomans and warrior, 281, 501; popular nature of cult of, 112, 150% 255-7, 344; prayer at tomb of, 9, 9 , 569 ; prosperity from 2 buried, 300, 3oo ; of sailors and sea, l 2 1 3 2 a 343 , 344-5, 344 , 34^ , 5 -7 4 1 '2 4 , 350 , 349 , 3883 5 ; sarcophagus and cult 9, 388*, 389 3 4 of, 6i , 352, 354-5, 354 , 7 2 9; selling 342-4, 342 , 347-5, 348 1 - ' ' ; liberate captives, 663-8, 663, s 667 ; life in grave of, 250-1, 1 252-5, 252 , 437, 545, 663, 715-16; 666 1 5 * light 6 , reveals, 254, 352, 440, 446, The names of sick children to, 81, 8i 2 3 ; Sheikli as title of, 177; springs and, see spring; stags and, see stag; suppres- sion of cult of, 255 s ; in Syria, 114; tombs of, see tomb; sacred trees of, of important saints are in capitals. Index a 3 io5 , 176-7, I76 , 227, 239, 407, 413, 1 41 7 , 550-1 ; triads of Christian, 466, 2 466 ; undecayed body thought, 253*, 6 un314, 352, 399. 456, 729* 7 2 9 1 known, 72,95-7, 196-7, 197 227, 279, 3 '8 282, 282 , 291, 292, 293, 352, 691*. ; , S. Addai (? Addaeus), 144', 302 S. Athanasius, S. 572. S. Barbaros, S.Basil, on ; , converted Arab', 88 1 , 734. AH Dagh, 102; see also Sinai. Alphege, canonization of, 255*. (Amphilotheos), bishop, 364; as Plato, 57, 368, 368*, l 373, 570; cotton, live coal, and, 29o Amphilochius ; see also ; ' slayer, 646*. S. of Barbara, bath at Marsovan of, 38, uo-ii; gate at Constantinople of, 5 as immured princess, 744; 2O3 tombs of, 38*, i77 l 235 1 see also Bey rut. Alexander Nevski, historical dragon - S. (i) S. Auxentios, impostor, 459. S. Bacchus, and S. George, 693. S. Aegidius, see S. Gilles. S. Aimilianos, pun on name of, 183'; sea-saint, 349'. S. Alexander, neo-martyr, 453*. S. neo-martyr I Adalia, 457*; (2) of Greece, 452*. S. Augustine, on conversion, 445, 445*. 6 , 85 Konia.* SS. Anargyri, see Athens, Cosmas and Damian, Vrosdan. S. Benedict, 329^ 691 4 S. Bracchion, stag and, . 6 462 S.Catherine, bath of, 39; dragons' bones at gate of, 654*; sacred grove of, 240; sea-saint, 350*; tomb of, 704; see also Candia, Cyprus, Sinai. S. Charalambos, among Bektashi, 83 6 ; 4 6 Haji Bektash and, 83, 83 , 84, 84', 2 289 , 438, 571-2; Mohammed and, 84, 2892, 460; plague averted by, 3 2 84, 84 194; S. Roch and, 84 ; see also Niksar. cave-church S. Chariton, of, 380; saved Jelal-ed-din's son, 56, 373-4, 2 46o struck water from rock, 380; see also Konia. . ' S. Anastasios, neo-martyr cumcised when mad, 455 2 3 Vlasios, 454 cir- (i) ; (2) of S. . S.Andrew, incubation judge of, fishermen's saint, 343* ; stinking stone of see also Constanti- to, 691*; i So 1 ; nople, Patras. S. S. S. ^ Anna, Anne, see Constantinople. ; see Jerusalem. Anne d'Auray, changes age in pilgrim- to, 7052. incubation to, 691*; leather-curer and, 282*; lunatics and, 669*; Turk and, 67-8; see also Constantinople. S.Anthony, u6 . S. Antipas, tombs of, , 411'-. S. Apollinare, S. Romuald and, 689 2 . SS. Apostles, see Constantinople, Prel S. Christopher, edifying legend of, 464, 464'S. Chrysostorn, cave-life of. 223; see also Bezirieh. S. cult of, 87, 88, 734-5; Archangels, 'ambiguous* healing cult 692**; festival of, 21 1 ; see ulso , , SS. 881 , of, 5 5 5^7, 5*7 589-9Cosmas and Damian (Anargyri), aho and 'survivals', 6&c 455 1 in Cyreneia, 401. S. Constantino, see Constantine. S. Cosmas, neo-martyr, Ali Pasha and, veza, Smyrna. S.Arab, 'ambiguous Chrysostomos S. Claude, horseman saint, 322-*. S. Clement, see Angora, Okhrida. Vrosdan. S. Yannina. Damaskenos, repentant leiiegade, 153*- S. Argyrios, neo-martyr, 45^. S. Asterios, Yildiz and, 39-40, 101. S. Damian, see SS. Athanasius of Alexandria, as Akya2 zili Baba, 90*, 91-2, 523, 580, 58o festivals of, 91-2; tree on supposed grave of, 177*. S. Athanasius of Athos, and Greek prayer for sleeplessness, 312*. S. S. S. ; Cosmas and Damian. l David, stone of, i8o Demetrius, ancient relief as, 190, 467"; Bektashi tekkes as monasteries see f> 53> 53 2 'Bombardier', 3 Athens; as Bulgarian, 344 buried . J ; Salonica, q.v. ; horseman saint, l 3 2 49 190, 322 , 467^; us Kasim, 8 , in , * As references indicate, churches are indexed under the names in which they are situated. of the towns Index 852 Demetrius S. Elmo, Pierre Gonzalez as, 346*. Ephraem, ordeal of passage (contd.) i64 ; October 26th sacred to, i64 ; red horse of, 322*; sailors' saint, 3443 , 350*; S. George and, 49*, 322 3 , 632. Ethelbert, 2I 7 4 693; tumulus sacred to, IO41 ; see Pergamon, Salonica, Smyrna, Vinyani. S. Demetrius, neo-martyr of Alashehr, 2 8 6 453 > 456 of Chios, 455 Tornaras, 6 454 S. Domitius, 68 1 Euplous, 'ambiguous' cult S. Eadmund, canonization Eusebia (Xene), 'ambiguous* sanc4 '5 tuary of, 580, 58o Eusebius, 107. Eustace (Eustathius, Placidus), converted by stag, 85, 85 s , 291', . . 217*; of, fishermen's saint, 349'. Edward Confessor, Seven Sleepers 1 and, 3H . 4 S.Edward, canonization of, 2i7 S. Edward II, canonization of, 217*. S. 9 2 S. Elasippus, Cappadocian, 466 2 S. Elias, Abbas Ali and, 93 , 548, . and, 93, 93*, 437, 548 2 548 2 ; 582; in , ambiguous' 582, cults, 93, 437, 530, 548, and see Khidr (below); Bektashi tekkes as monasteries . . . , ground in the Temple, 333*; S. George 2 4 and, 49 , 334, 334 sea-saint, 323-4; Sersem Ali and, 93, 437, 582; in solar ; 3 329 ; stone with print of body i86 7 ; 'survivals' of, 3292 3 , 388; cults, S. Gabriel, neo-martyr, 4543 . S. Gabriel Sandalges, neo-martyr, 458. S. Galenicius, at Gangra, 95 7 . vS. George, 8 on Taygetos, 329 ; 2 Paradise, 333 ; thunder sent by, travellers' 329% 434; patron, 323-4, 1 IO4 ; 334; tumulus sacred to, wanders eternally, 334; Zeus rainin making predecessor of, Baghje, Brusa, Juma. terrestrial 329*; see also among Albanian Moham2 l 7 1 ; at Alessio, 436, 43 6 Ali as, 57o2 ; in 'ambiguous' cults at Bektashi tekkes, 44 1 , 54, 93, 437, medans, ; 520-1, 530, 582, and see Khidr (below); among Armenians, 335*, 2 5 7 1 ; Bagdad tomb of, 326, 326**; at 3 l Bibbeh, 45 ; born at Melitene, 32i 8 1 335 ; buried at Bagdad, 326, 326 , at Lydda, 32o 7 , 32 1 1 , and at Mosul, 1 1 327, 327 , 334?, 335 ; in Byzantine 1 Painters' Guide, 32 j ; Christian slave and, 323 2 ; column of, I95 3 , , 32 1 ' of, . . ; - sailors' 2 saint, ; , Madytos, 348 Evlavios in Cyprus, 7042 Felix of Valois, stag and, 465 1 7 Fort, cures thin children, i83 of Sultan Francis, Egypt and, 443, 444; see also Constantinople. Francis Caracciolo, incubation of, of, 4 , of Euthymius 530, 582; Biblical history and rain2 3 making of, 329 , 388; in Bosnia, 93 , 434; cenotaph-tomb of, 325 chariot of fire of, 3293 333 2 dragon-killer, 43S 434, 434" ; Enoch and, 333, 333 2 334; false claim in Bulgarian legend 1 of, 430 , 434; festival on 19 July of, 3 2 ; 3 9 grove sacred to, 239; Helios 3 and, 329 388; on hill-tops, 329, 329% 388; immortal, 3332, 334, 334; Khidr and, 11-12, 72, 320, 320, 3222 3 4 , 4, 3*3S 326, 326 , 328, 329, 3 2 9 l 2 , 33 , 334, 334% 335* 49$, 49$ 57*5 learning and, 333, 333*; lepers healed 4 by incubation to, 69 1 ; Maimonides and, 333; memory and, 12; Moses s and, 332, 332 ; in mountain names, 3 at Pass*over feast, 334; Phine329 ; has and, 333, 334; rain-maker, 324, 329, 329, 388, 434; sacrifices under- 1 . 1 548*, 6'7 46i , 462-4, 462 , 464 , 465*; as Haji Bektash, 84, 84', 85, 572; at Konia, 84; relics in Belgium of, 464; Roman, not Anatolian, 84, 84*; S. Paul and, 463*; Syrian origin 7 possibly of, 462 7 Eustratios, children's saint, i83 . AH of, 520*, 581. . Donatus, and dragon, 435 1 of, Etienne de Grandmont, 68 l . Euphemia, see Chalcedon. - S. canonization King, . ; ; in, 335 1 ; among , 692 1 1 a Copts, 32 1 , 326 , 334", Crusaders' patron, 32 1 1 ; 2 ; Damascus tomb of, 7 326 ; Crusades and, dragon-legend 3 1 distribution of, 32 i l 32 1 , 66o 3 2 de 434~5> 434S 435S 6 5? > 66o Gozon and, 650*: Khidr and, 48, 321: meaning of, 59, 670: prince in, 1 32 1 princess in western type, 3211 of, : , : : Index 66o 3 : survival of Perseus, 650*, 66o8 , 3 of Rogations, 66o ; in Egypt, 321*, graphy of, 321*, 3 1 column 334*; eikono323*; festival on frontier saint, 335* ; 2 grey or white hors<!, 49 , 322*; Horus l i and, 32 ; immortal, 334 incubation to, 67, 694; Karaja Ahmed and, 276, 582; ; Khidr S. Guthlac, and wild animals, 462, 462*. S. Helen, and S. Thomas's house, 27*; and Sophia, 2i 3 ; and petrified shepherd, 182 ; see also Jerusalem. S. Henry II, Emperor, incubation of, 691*. S. 3 conHubert, in Belgium, 85, 632 verted by stag, 85, 291% 461% 464-5, ; 464% 465*. of Lincoln, canonization of, identified with, in general, 48, 320-1, 334, and in particular in S. Albania, S. Ignatius, martyrdom of, 454. S. Irene, see Constantinople. 320% 335, Mesopotamia, 326, 326 327,111 Palestine and Syria, 8 , 2 8 326, 326 , 335, in 3 Turkey, 320", 322, 322 323, 325-6, 328, 335, 519*, 570-1; kurban by Greeks to, 8o3 , 26i 2 ; 46, 46", 32o , , 7 Lydda tomb of, 32o 32I madness cured by, 67, 32 1 1 326, 326 2 669-70, 3 4 692, 692*, 693; martyrdom in 669 1 3 at Lydda, 334* 334 Egypt, 3 2 * 1 1 at Melitene, 32 1 , at 320% 32I 3 1 1 Mosul, 327 , 334 , 335 military 1 saint, 335 among Mohammedan a Albanians, yi patron of Crusaders, l 32 i , and of travellers, 323, 323'*; resuscitations of, 321', 334, 334 3 sailors' saint, 3443 , 348 2 350*, 389, 389*; S. Bacchus and, 693; S. Demetrius and, 492, 32 2 3 693 ; S. Elias and, a 4 49 , 334, 334 ; S. James of CompoS. Michael and, stella and, 57o 2 2 1 32I S. Sergius and, 335^ 57i 693; Kastriotes) Skanderbeg (George and, 436* ; sudden need helped by, 2 350; Thracian horseman 323, 323 3 1 as, 190, 467; tortures of, I95 , 32 1 ; 2 at travellers' ; patron, 323, 323 1 Villeneuve, 68 ; see also Adrianople, Cairo, Horns, JeruBujak, Beyrut, Nicosia, salem, Lydda, Juma, Prinkipo. S. George the Arian of Alexandria, 1 335 2 S. George, of Grevena, 457 ; the Porter, 5 326% 692 ; of Scala Nova, 455, 457, 1 , ; , , ' , ' , ; ; ; , , . - children's of, 107. saint, 183'; 3 sailors' saint, 389, 3S9 S. Israel of Limoges, canonization of, 8 69 1 S. Jacob, neo-rnartyr, 453*. S. James, see Batron, Jerusalem; of Compostella (Galicia), as Ali and S. George, 57o2 revived dead 3 fowls, 248 ; traveller's patron, 350*; . . : of Persia, see Nicosia, Nisibin. SS. Jason and Sosi pater, 3O9 2 . S. Jean, du Doigt, birds and, 384 3 ; de Matha, stag and, 465*. S. Joachim de Flor, canonization of, 255'S. Joan of Arc, canonization of, 255*. S. Joannis, 5 454 ; a 455 Koulikas, neo-martyr, Navkleros of Kos, neo-martyr, - John the Abbot, 669. S. John Baptist, animals incubate to, 67, 269, 692*; Damascus church of, 3 409 ; Kizilbash and scrip of, 149; 3 among Mussulmans, 409, 4<x) ; 2 prayer obtained relic of, 689 ; see S. also Caesarea, Constantinople. John the Bulgarian, neo-martyr, 455S. John Chrysostom, tomb of, 9, 9*. S. John of the Column in Athens, see S. John Evangelist. S. John Damascenus, on S. Eustace, S. 1 457 ; of Yannina, 452 3 Gerasimos, of Crete, 456 ; of Osmanjik, 96-7; of Palestine, 97; of Zante, 'ambiguous' cult S.Isidore, , , . S. Isaac, ; ; Hugh 2I 7 4 ' ; 4 in S. Sophia, 10-11, io 5 , 632. 23 April of, 66o ; grove sacred to, 239 ; horseman saint, 462'. . S. 853 S.Gregory, and 'sweating S. 3 John Evangelist, Apollo and, 329 column at Athens of, 195-6, I95 3 ; , 2 97S. Gertrude, see Nivelles. S. Gilles (Aegidius) .of Provence, deer and, 462, 462. 197, 2i6 265; deathless sleep of, at 5 1 Ephesus, 310, 3io -', 354 , 408, 416, and at Golden Gate of Constanti, nople, 354 1 ; Gospel of, as charm, 34, Index 854 S. John Evangelist Maria Antiqua, see Rome. Maria dell* Inferno, see Rome. S. Maria sopra Minerva, see Rome. S. Marie d'Agreda, miraculous journey 3 of, 286 S. (contd.) 3 35> 35* ; Knights of, see Knights; Mussulman, 72'; S. pre-Islamic 34 , Paul's hand and, 195; S. Poly carp 6 and, 73, 408-9, 4i6 , 418 ; at Smyrna, see Smyrna; solar survivals and, S. . S. Marina, see Cyprus. 329'; see Akhisar, Angora, Athens, S. Bey rut, Brusa, Ephesus, Pergamon, S. Mark, see Rhodes. Markos of Smylna, neo-martyr, 455 Rhodes, Sebaste, Smyrna, Yannina. S. John of Konitza, neo-martyr, 449', 5 454S 536 S. John Poly carp, see S. Poly carp. S. John 'the Russian', Athos relic of, 2 3 441; history of, 65, 44-i, 44o S. " ; miraculous transportation of food 3 10 by, 285 , 2 93 , 440. S. John of Sphakia, neo-martyr, 457 1 S. John of Yannina, early martyr, 4543 S. Jordanis of Trebizond, neo-martyr, 5 454 S. Julian, edifying legend of, 464, 464% 5 1 465 ; paralytic cured by, 668 S. Karalovos, see S. Charalambos. S. Ken elm, canonization of, 217*. . . - . Maximus of Turin, deer and, 462, 2 462 S. Menas, as Emineh Baba, 528; finder, Mene 53 Menodora, 466-7. . Mesippus, Cappadocian, 466*. Mctrodora, 466-7. cures of Michael, 'ambiguous' madness by, 66, 663 , 91*; Coptic, 32 1 ; of 3 1 107, of Horus, 32I ; unjust deeds of, S. . . Naum, apostle to Slavs, 70; Sari Saltik as, 70, 436, 578, 583, 583 1 4 Sunnis and, 70. 7ol ; tekkc of AH ; tamed by, 461, 46i 10 early ; 6i 5 ; cult of, 3 44 ; festival of, 760*; at Mejid Tash, 2 8 44 95, 95 ; sanctuary in a cellar of, , see Constantinople. of Cyprus, sacred sheep of, 240*. S. sec ' as, painted Virgin, 66, 285*. Makrina, incubation to, 269, 691*, 692*; ordeal of passage at, 632. S. Mamas of Cappadocia, 'ambiguous' cult of, 43-5, 575-6, 575 8 ; birth and death of, 44, 95'; deer and lions Mamas S. Mytilene, neo-martyr, S. S. 2 water and, 368^368*; ; Yannina. Michael Mavroudis, 454 5 Mitre of Aix, 68 1 701, 7oi also S. S.Luke, ancient lerra-cotta ; , 2 saint, 344 , 348 , 389; and S. George 1 in Egypt, 32I 1 ; 'survival of Apollo, 443, 445. - in 6 1 ' see Jerusalem. Loukas, 1 453 1 , 652, 670; 32 ; leprosy cured madness cured by, 66, 66\ 1 saint, , . S. dragon-killer, 32 1 5 . , ; by, 692 l l 1 3 ; pilgrims' 32i 692, 692 91*, 202 stones offered to, 201, 2O2 1 ; sailors' . 4 1 horseman ; 442, 442* . S. 2 Mohammedan, and 3 . ; Longinus, Louis of France, Bu Said and, 442; Christian canonization of, 217*, and 329; idols, Mary, Cape, see Lectum. Mary of Egypt, as S. Pelagia, 62 7*. S. Mary Magdalene of Marseilles, travel4 lers' patron, 35o S. Mary of the Swoon, see Jerusalem. patron of animals, childbirth, 6 prisoners, servants, 666 'refused' S. Leontius, exhumation, 228 1 S. Lid wine, miraculous journey of, 286 3 S. and Martin, prisoners, 665, 667 , S. . 657, ; . 669 1 ' Kyprianos, neo-martyr, 454 S Lazaros, at Larnaka, 283 sec Larnaka. S. Leonard of Limoges, miraculous 2 6 liberation and, 665-6, 665', 666 . of, Martial, prisoners and, 666. 3 S. Martha, dragon-legend 2 4 tombs of, 656*. 657 3 Mamert, and Rogations, 660, 66o . Pasha at, 591: 'ambiguous' cult at, 1&> 583: Bektashi at, 70, 43^, 547> 583, 586, 591 : madness cured at 7 , 70: transference arrested at, 56', 70. S. Nerses, see Rumkale. S. Nicetas, hoof-print of winged horse of, 187. S. Nicetius of 665. S. Nicolas, in cults, see Lyons, and prisoners, ' ' ambiguous Bektashi Bunar Hisar, Eski Baba, Kilgra; at Beyrut, 350*; in Bulgaria, 1 43 1 ; buried at Eski Baba, 54-5, Index 24; among Mohammedan by, 2 Albanians, yi ; at Myra, 113*; Poseidon as, 349; in Russia, 43 1 1 ; sailors' saint, 349, 35? 35^' S 388-9; as Sari Saltik, 51, 336, 429, 429s , 1 4 , 430, 431, 43I 433-4, 436, 577, 4 6 : killed, 429, 429", 43<>, 578, 5?8 ' ' 583 1 ; no sea miracles in Byzantine 389; see Rome. S. Peter Gonzalez, 346 S. Phaneromene near . Larnaka, 704, 2 704 . S. Phanourios, finder, 183'. S. Philip, see Trebizond. SS. Philip and James, birds of, 384*. S. Philothea, forgotten martyr, 452 2 . S. Phocas, sea-saint, 349-50, 349*, 389, 2 389 ; Turkish bey and, 71. S. Photine, see Smyrna. S. Pionius, at Smyrna, 4i9 7 S. Plato of Alessio, Athens, Canea, Emirghian, Vrondiza. S. Polycarp, friend of Mohammed, 413 ; relics in Malta, 415, and Rhodes, . merchant and neo- 7 martyr, 4552. S. Nicolas of Karaman, neo-martyr, 1 4S5 S. Nicolas of Trikkala, neo-martyr, 5 454 S. Nymphodora, 466-7. S. Onouphrios, children's saint, 183'. S. Oswald, canonization of, 2 17*. S. Oswine, canonization of, 217*. . - - 7 Pachomios, as S. Pachys, i83 7 Pachys, children's saint, 183, i83 S. Panteleemon, Dr. Hogarth as, 6i 2 ; healing saint, 457; see also Ephesus, Nicomedia. S. . S. . S. Pantokrator, see Constantinople. Pardoux, incubation to, 69i 3 . S. Patricius, 107, io7 S. Patrick's Purgatory, 689 2 . S. Paul, conversion of, 445, 445 1 , 415*; see also Smyrna. medans, S. of, 463 1 ; as, 145, 335, I77 1 ; also Constantinople, Jerusalem. Paul the Russian, 455 2 nople, 203 S. S. 3 84 . gate-saint of Constanti3 5 ; neo-martyr, 454 . Romanus, dragon-slayer, 6592 Romuald, conversion of, 6892 . 690*. , Sabbas, see Konia. S. Secundus, and Younger Pliny, 444*. S. Sergius, among Armenians, 335*, 2 1 57 1 ; frontier saint, 335 ; as Khidr 1 among Kizilbash, 145, 335, 335 2 S. 570-1; George and, 335*, 57T , 693 ; see also Urfa. 3 S. Silvester, dragon -legend of, 668 S. ' 2 . S. Sirneoji, Murad Bair as, also Kapu Dagh, Uskub. 103; see Simeon the hermit, stag and, 461 6 Simeon Stylites see (Shimun), Antioch of Syria, Damascus. S. Simeon the wonder-worker, sailors' S. . S. saint, 350*. S. Simon, pun on name of, 183'. 3 344 see also Athens (Parthenon), Constantinople, Okhrida, Pergamon, Sofia, Tarsus, S. Sophia, sailors' saint, ; S. Speusippus, Cappadocian, 4662 S. Spyridon, Bektashi and, 436, 436% . at Buclrum of, see chains of, 668, 6682 , 669; castle Budrum; . Trebizond. . S. Paula, 326*. S. Pelagia, see Jerusalem. S. Peter, among Bosnian Moham1 , 571; 'passing through' at 'place' of, 184-5; print of hand of, 195; scourged at column, 1 195; S. Eustace and, 463 ; not seasaint, 349, 389; vipers and, 681; see tree 1 Romanes, 67o at Damascus, 184-5; earth (Pauladadum) from cave in Malta of, 681-2, 682 2 , 683; Husain 7 S. Rieul, deer and, 462. vS. Roch, as S. Charalambos, . Katirli Ancyra, 368*. S. Procopius, 2 S. 1 Painters' Guide, 388*; no 'survival* of Artemis, 388; travellers' patron, 1 350*; at Vrondiza, 8 ; see also S. Nicolas, general S. 855 liberation by, 667 3 ; S. Martin and, 667'; and S. Paul, see Preveza; and S. Sophia, see Tarsus; not sea-saint, and at Kaliakra, 224, 431; at Danzig, 429, 429% 430, 583*; in a 1 France, 35o ; Jew beat image of, 68 ; at Kishova Bektashi saint replaced 55*\ founder of churches, 603 1 Hasan as, 145, 335, 57 1; age of, threatened, 681 ; knee-marks of, i87 2 ; miraculous ; 584, 584*, 586; sailors' saint, 340; Sari Saltik as, 435, 436, 436*, 4394 449 ,.578, 583-4, 59 1 certain 584'. of mummy "2 of, ; sex ur - 449, 449* Index 856 children's S. Stamatios, saint, 183', 2 I93 S. Stephen, apocryphal tomb of, 224, 1 224 ; sec also Batron. 2 S.Stylianos, children's saint, 183% I93 S. Swithin, incubation to, 69I 1 S. Telo, stag and, 462. S. Thekla, Sarpedon and, 59; see also Constantinople. - . . S.Theodore Stratelates, 'ambiguous* cult at Benderegli of, 88-9, 575, and at Elwan Chelebi, 47-9, 75 1 , 88-9, 571; buried at Amasia, 88, at Benderegli, 47', 88-9, 575, and at Elwan Chelebi, 47, 47 3 , 88; dragonlegend of, 48, 88, 263", 328; Gaghni Demetrius (Kasimyeh), 'am- S. 1 biguous* cult at, 1 6, 75 , 263-6: called 'Bulgarian', 344': Murad IPs kurban at, 29-30, 260: ritual at tomb in, 195% 263-6, 684: transferred to Islam, 16, i64 . Salt, legends of marshes of, 3 283, 366 ; offered to Linguetta, 343. 10 Saltik, meaningless word, 340, 34i , s 3 576 ; village name, 576 Saltiklu, village name, 340, 3 43 2 S 5?6 . 340% 34i 10 , Saltuk Baba, at Baba Dagh, 432-3; 6 3 as ^diviner', 134-5* 34o , 43?, 57 Sari Saltik, 340, 432; tribal saint, his son, and, 88-9, 575; horseman saint, 49; S. George and, 693; stolen 134, 340, 432, 433. 3 Saltuklu, village name, 576 Salvation, from burial in holy graveyard, 447; from death in battle 3 property and, 689*, 690 ; Yarro and, 3 S9 575> 575 S. Theodore Tiron, buried at Bende- against infidel, 278; narrow passage typifies difficulty of, 625, 625*. 3 Sam, sacred fish at, 245 and, 575 4 Ghazi Shahid Mustafa, ; - 3 . . and at Euchaita, Samaden, vanishing and reappearing Theodore Stratelates and, 3 2 47 , 49 , 88. S. Theodosia, see Constantinople. S. Theophilus, neo-martyr, 455 1 amS. Therapon (S. Arab, Turabi) biguous' cult of, 87-8, 734-5. S. Thomas, see Jerusalem. S. Trypemene, pierced monolith, 192, 2 I92 stream at, 365 s Samara, Bektashi tekke at, 514. 2 Samaria, S. Photine as woman of, 409 stone at S. Sophia's from well of, 10. regli, 47 , 88, 88*, 47*; S. . . ; ' . S. Veneranda, see Norwich, canonization of, S. Xene, see S. Eusebia. 2 Sakhr, at building of Temple, 28o 5 Saladin, and Ascension church, 626 3 Seven cave Salahie, at, 3i4 Sleepers' Salamanca, Jewish connexion with, . . . . 5 - Sali, Maksum Pak, Sali Baba, Bektashi Sallaki, 150, 150*, 512. saint, 530-1. Yuruks near, 140*, 475, 476. 3 Turkomans, 48i . Salonica, 'Arab' slain at, 731 ; Bektashi tekke at, 525; crypto- Jews at, 153, 474 1 ; 512. Samos, medicinal earth from, 671, 67 1 Samson, buried at Sara, 278; Christian 1 legends of, 278 Jewish cult at Bethshemesh of, 592 Mohammedans ; ; accept, 278*. Samsun (Amisus), consular remedy for fever at, 64 1 2 ; seven martyrs of, 2 3 o9 Samuel, as Eyyub, 82. 'Samwil', Nebi, see Mountjoy. . Sanctity, accursedness akin to, 242, 2 53> 2 533 > 456; of churches and 2 726*. 3 Salchin, sacred fish at, 245 Salech's camel admitted to Paradise, Salikli, . . 217*. 3 I3 ; books of, i5o 2 Samarkand, Behlul of Barugunde from, 2 Smyrna. S. Veronica, see Jerusalem. S. Victor of Milan, and prisoners, 665. S.Vlasios, Bektashi tekke at, 534; S. Anastasios of, 4543 . S. William of Samaritans, attempted conversion of, 2 3 sacred i5<D ; kurban among, 26o mosques, 8; from danger, 34 7 ; generated at any time, 13, 82-3, 115, a 211, 215-16; lost, 113, ii3 , 115, 116, 7 3 u6 , 117-18, 222, 279 , 357 1 , 452 2 , 533> 78; position occasions, 27', 2io2 , 220, 227, 247, 249, 266, 276, 684; promoted by Franks' interest, 208, 29*, 176, 190-1, 192, 209, miracles, 58, organization, 69-70, 93-4, 112, 113, 117, and unfamiliarity, 208; survives, see survival ; Index also see (Eyyub, Constantinople S. Sophia), site. Sanctuaries, see frequentation, trans- ference. 10 . . 592, 592*. Santi Quaranta (Saranda), Bektashi designs on monastery of, 437, 437**; port of Yannina, 592 ; village name, 7 394 , 400*. Santo Domingo de la Calzada, revival 3 after death at, 248 tomb Samson's at, 278. Sara, Saracen(s), Arabs to Cretans, 731*; 5 baptism, 33 embassy to Constantinople, 720; monks driven from . ; Palestine by, 381 ; Rhodes conquered 1 by,' 730, 730 ; sacrilege prevented, 5 6 . 27 Sarach, Yuruk tribe, 476. Sarajalar, Turkoman tribe, 480. Sarajevo, Kurshunlu Jami (N. D. du Plomb), 'ambiguous' cult of eikon tombs a ; of, tomb of, 430; Polish journey 3 3 42 9 , 432 , 577, 583! princess in dragon-legend of, 435; Russian 3 journey of, 429, 432 , see Crimea; 7 io'. zunijah ciborium as, 383*; Sarcophagus, a 4 haunted, 2o8 ; saint's cult at, 6i , 3 352, 354-5, 354 , 7 2 9Sar Dasht, Turkomans near, 48 1 3 Sarepta, see Zarephath. Sari Ismail Sultan, Bektashi saint, 507. Sari Kechili, branch of Kechili Yuruks, of, 429, Naum 431, 43I 4 4 6 1 * 4 , 433-4, 436, 577, 57 8 > S. Spyridon as, 435, 436, 439* 578 4 449 , 57 8 > 583~4> 59 1 2 ? as Saltuk Baba, 340, 432 ; Santi Quaranta and, 5 437, 437 ; seven tombs of, 236, 430, 5 1 43 1 , 433, 433 577, 577 ; spring at sacred Tatars and, to, 435; Kruya 3 340, 340, 429, 432, 432 ; tombs of, see (Sari S.) forty, Khass, seven; 3 tribal ancestor, 340, 576, 576 127, 477. Sari Kiz, aetiological legend of, 100, 132, 282-3; Yuruks reverence, 100, 132. Sarimsaklik, Kale Dagh near, 708; in Shahkuli's campaign, 172. Sarin, 'ambiguous* cult of Forty at, 5, 396, 399> 402. Sari Saltik (Mohammed Bokhara), Ahmed of Yasi and, 340, 429; in Albania, 434~7> 549, 57 8 5 iu 'am- 5S > ; ; wooden sword of, 430, 435. Sari Tekkeli, branch of Tekkeli Yuruks, 127, 1272, 476. Sarkanteli-oglu, Yuruk tribe, 478. ' biguous sanctuaries, see SS. ; as 70, 436, 578, 583, 583*. ; S. Nicolas as, 51, 336, 429, 429?, 430, S. . 3*95-* Bektashi 70, ; place-name, 391, 401. gigantic at Bazaar , in, 66. (forty), ; 549; 4 526. Sarandapechys, 8 5?6 436, 436 , 439> 578, 5 8 3-4, 5 8 4 ; in Crimea, 340, 340*, 429, 431, 576", 10 577; crossed Lake Okhrida, 285 , 4 5 8 3, 5 8 3 > at Danzig, 429, 429", 430, 1 577? 5&3 ; as dervish, 432*; dragonl 2 legend of, 48 , 308, 429-30, 43 , 434, s 1 435, 436 , 57S, 660 ; at Durazzo, 435, 549; at Eski Baba, 55, 423*, 43, 1 3 431-2, 431*, 432 , 519, 576 , 577, 1 578-9, 579 ; false claim in legend of, 430, 434, 435; foot-prints of, 186, 2 435> 435 ; fort Y coffins of, 437, 577; general account of, 429-39; giantkiller, 308; gigantic, 433, 433*; Haji Bektash and, 429; at Kaliakra, 51, 223, 224, 429-3 1 , 434, 523, 578; Khass tomb of, 55o3 ; Kilgra Sultan as, 51 ; at Kirk Kilise, 437 ; at Kruya, 1 a 48*, 1 86, 223, 434 435, 435 , 55> 55S 57 8 5 among Kurds, 432*; life in grave of, 437; literary character of legend of, 60, 295, 296; meaning of name of, 5763 Okhrida Lake crossed 10 by, 285 , 583, 583*; ordeal by fire of, 430, 434; patron of buza-makers, 3 melon, 223, 435, 43 2 petrified saddle and pilaff-dish of, 550*; Pez- saint, San jar, Sultan, and Daniel's coffin, s 300; and gazelle, 462, 686 Santa Mavra, AH Pasha coveted, 591, Saranda Baba Dagh, at 236, 340, 43 8 -9, 576-8; Bivanjah tomb of, 430; caves of, 51, 7 5 1 , 223, 308, 435; Christian saints' struggle with, 60, 660* ; at Corfu, 435, Sanctuary, right of, 665. Sandal, sacred grove at, 238. Sandalges, Gabriel, neo-martyr, 458. Sandikli, Bektashli near, 341**; Saltiklu near, 34O Sanjakdar AH Baba, Bektashi 857 Nicolas, Spyridon; 430, 432, 433, 523, Shiakh, 186, 435, saint and apostle, 433-4, 436, 436S Naum, , Index 858 Sarpedon, S. Thekla and, 59. Sarukhan (Magnesia) sanjak, Diercanli perhaps in, 135*; Karaosmanoglu held, 597; Yuruks in, 475, 476, 477Satan, madness caused by, 668, 668*. Satok Bogra, conversion to Islam of, 1 I34 , 432*. 2 Saturday, propitious day, i82 , 529, Sayada, port of Yannina, 592. Scala Nova (New Ephesus), S. George 4 of, 455', 457, 457 8 Scapegoats, gipsies, 259 Schaedeli (sic), oath by buried, 569'. Schebesch, see Muhlenbach. Schenisis, see Shems-ed-din of Konia. - . dragon -fight at Rhodes Schiller, in, 646. Secret believers, in Christianity, 74, 87, 1 3 *5 , 376, 444, 469-73. 469', 47Q 2 7 1 '2 474 ; in Islam, 58, 73-4, 73'. , 74 , 8 89 > 3559 355S 3<5o, 360', 442, 444, 445-6, 570, 574. Secular and religious beliefs and practice interact, 122. 1 Secularized, churches, 23**, 25% 38, 38 , 4 1 > 40, 41, 4iS * 39> 39 ; 42~3> 7 no-n mosques, 76*; synagogue, 41; tekke, 525. Schiltberger, on Janissaries, 486; at Nikopolis, 376. Schumas, see Shamas. Scourging, columns io5 , 195, 195*, of, Scylla, sea-demon, 343-4Sea, casts up sacred objects, 69*; Christian saints of, 323-4, 342-4, 8 2 2' 4 2 1 342 , 344 , 346 , 348 349% 35 3 6 581; demons of, 388-9, 388*, 3 8 9 3 2 342-50; inland, 284-5, 2 4 > 2 &5 > 3 366, 366 ; Khidr patron of, 323-4, 3 2 324 of Konia, 366, 366 ; Mohammedan saints of, 323-4, 324*, 343*, 6 2 1 "4 344-8, 346 , 348 , 349 > 5^i; S. Elias patron of, 323-4; S. Euplous and, 581 Turkish folklore of, 346, a superstitions about, 32 , 384, 387; walked on by Deniz Abdal, 581*; 2 Xerxes' marriage to, I79 ; Yunuz 5 (Jonas)and, 349 , 581Sealed earth (terra sigillata), not , ' ; ; Lemnian, necessarily 683, 683', ' 68 4-5 685 1 2 Sebaste (Sivas), Forty Martyrs of, at 3 3 Adrianople, 51, 5i , 394, 394 , 397; ' cult of, 49-50* 5S 396, ambiguous* 574; among Armenians, 393, 393% 1 399*; baths and, in , 393, 393'; 1 at buried Sarin, 50, 50 , 396, 399, . at 402; 1 ; Caesarea, 399-400, festival of, 401; on lake 399*, sites, 2 399> 399 ; kgend at 5 7 ; 309, 393, 393 near Sivas of, 393*; at monastery Ramleh, 397 ; relics of, 400 ; at Rome, 393% 393> Sebaste 8 - Secundus, name, 444*. Seideler, sacred willow at, 239*. 2 Seilun, Forty at, 39 7 . from near, 129, I72 3 Kachar, branch of Kachar 2 Yuruks, 127, i27 , 475, 475*. Selefke, Farsaks . Selge 198** 635-, 393 Gate of Jerusalem, 754*. Second Coming, of AH, 144; of Christ, 2 754 ; of Twelfth Imam, 145, 151. ' 694'. 400 Sebaste in Palestine, 'ambiguous* cult in S. John's at, 44*, 46'. Sebastopol, Tripoli fish went to, 246*. Sechinah (glory of God), and Golden of, ' Selim, Ali Pasha' s^son, 589*. Selim Baba, Bektashi abbot, 541. 5 Selim, Sheikh, God's prisoner, 664 sailors' saint, 343 2 . Selim I (1512-20), Christians ; 1 and, 57 , ; Girding with sword of, 6o9 5 ; Greek wife of, 3 396 ; Ich-ili reduced by, 173; 1 3 mosques built by, 57, 57 , 39 6 , 6if; Shias massacred by, 174, 1748; at 64> 174, i74 3 , 396, 39<> 3 , 6i7 3 Sumela monastery, 60; Zulkadr and, 172. Selim III (1788-1807), army reforms of, 613 ; and Greek patriarch of Jeru3 salem, 77 ; and Janissaries, 613; and Mevlevi tekke in Galata, 621; and Pasvanoglu, 593. 3 Selimeh, Seven at, 312, 3i2 Seljuk(s), architecture, 13, 94; building churches allowed by, 382; Christianity and, 370-8, 382, 439; fire1 worshippers, I68 ; Konia capital of, . 167; mystic saints, 281; orthodoxy 1 suspected, 168, I68 , 370; Persian culture, 167-8, 363, 370; Plato as ' S. Amphilochius f or, 17, i7 2 8 , 364-5, 364% 373; Shia culture and doctrines fostered by, 167-8; tribes grouped around, 135. Selling of sick children to saint, 81, Index Selman, see Solomon. Selvi, Bektashi at, 523. near Ephesus, 310', 1 311, 3U , 312: near Tarsus, 267-8, 2 4 elsewhere, 3i4> 3i5- 18 3 I 5 > 3 I 7 a 314-15, 3i5 318-19; Selymbria, 'ambiguous' cult of Cadid 4 '5 (S. Eusebia) at, 580, 58o ; Cape , among Christians and Mohammedans, 309: general account of, 9 8 , 309-19: Katmir dog of, 313, 3I3 in names as Koran, 278, 312: 319*: 2 charms, 204, 313, 3i3 patrons of George at, 350*; sick children sold to saint at, 8i 3 Semiramis (Shah Mir;mi), in Armenian . . ; 1 'ritual meal 175; pre-Islamic, among, 151; stone-cults among, i 79-80. Senussi, in Tripolitauia, 536*. Septemcastrensis (von Siebenbiirgen), George of Hungary. see - 1 750 Semites, Easter rites and, 261; folklore of Turks and, 121 forty among, 3 393 ; images among, 69*, 190,^471*; kurban among, 30% 258 ; rag- tying by : 1 313: ship of, 120: in 3H 1 2 , 314. Seven hundred dervishes of Haji 2 Bektash, 135, 488, 5oi Seventy virgin missionaries to Armenia, shipping, 204 West, 311, , . 399 4 - l amulet at, 23 i , 564'. Sex, in head-carrying stories, 196-200, 200 a Shabakh, Afshar sub- tribe, 482. Shabin Kara Hisar, Barugunde near, Seville, crocodile . Seraijik, Bektashi tekke at, 511. Serai Keui, Kabagach near, 508*. 5 Serapis, temple at Damascus of, 25 in Bektashi tekkes Serbia, Macedonian, 512. . 523-5; Murad I against, 491; Old, Kossovo. see Serbs, at Balum Sultan, 551; conversion to Islam of, 441*. Serfije (Servia), assailants disguised as goats at, 744; 'Fair One' at, 748. Shah, see Abbas, Ismail, Nadir. Shahsavand Kurds, artificial tribe, 135. Shahin Baba, Bektashi saint, 533. Mustafa, Ghazi, buried at Benderegli, 89, 575. Shahkuli, Ghazi, Bektashi saint, 517. Shahkuli (alias Karabeyik, SheitanvShahid Serpent, anthropomorphism of, 246; 3 as guardian spirit, columns, I93 kuli, Tekkeli), I ; 3 644; King of, 246, 246 3 750 talismans against, I93 27*, , 749, 1 . ; campaign of, 169-72, 3 72 . Shah Meran Kalesi (Vilan Kales i), Daniel at, 298 3 King of Serpents at, ; Sersem AH, 'ambiguous' cult of, 93, elate of, 281*, 524, 5242, 582, 592; 438, 524; as S. Elias, 93, 437, 582; wooden sword : ' S. folk-lore, 859 cave of of, 281*. Servant of God, Khidr as, 319, 331-2, 700; travelled with Moses, 331, 699, 700; unjust deeds of, 331, 699, 700. Servia, see Serfije. 75O as Semiramis (Kalesi), 750*. Shahruf, buried at Gemerek, 173. 3 Shaluh, Turkoman tribe, 48 1 1 ; . Shamakh, Armenian Blessing Waters at, 385-6; Bektashi tekke of at, 513. Shamas (Schumas), meaning of word, 8 573 Sidi Battal and, 95, 573, 711, 7"*. Bektashi Shamaspur, 'ambiguous* 4 tekke, 94-5* 94 , 55> 573> 710-1* 1 (sacred) fish of, 244, 244 , 246-7 ; Sessana, medicinal earth, 68 1. Sestos, see Ak Bashi. 1 Seth, gigantic size of, 306 Seven, Apostles to Slavs, 70; Brothers at Constantinople, 3982 ; Christian l 2 3 , saints, 309, 309% 3io 311-12, 3i2 see also Seven Sleepers; ghazis of 1 Candia, 742 ; Jewish saints, 309*, 2 311% 396 ; Mohammedan 311, 3 1 saints, 106, 3IO , 3I2 , 314, 547, see also Seven Sleepers; mystic number, s 309, 736 ; Sari Saltik's tombs, 236, 5 430, 431,433, 433 , 577; Sleepers, Byzantine to Persians, 313" . healing miracles at, 266, 267, 573* Husain Ghazi buried in, 95, 234*, 55? 573? 7*i ; Shamas buried in, 95, - , 234 5 Sham > 573-. Biadli, Turkoman tribe, 479. Shami Sheikh, made soring, io5 2 Shammai, see Hiliel. Shape, changed by dervishes, . 281, 281 1 . Shaur, River, Daniel's tomb on, 299- K k 2 300. 86o Index Shazeli dervishes of Syria, 449'. Sheba, Queen of, see Belkis. 1 68, Sheep, Christ, Abraham, and, 317*; kurban with, 26o3 , 275; sacred to Fudeil Baba, 240, to S. Mamas, 240. 1 Sheepskins, fever cured by, 2I8 ; as prayer-mats, 276, 277. Yuruk tribe, 476. Sheikh, Beduin buried on mountain3 receives offerings, 338 1 ; tops, io4 Shehidli, : of fishes, 246, 246*; in meaning of Bektashi abbot, 162, 164, saint, 177, tribal chief, 164, 338. Sheikh Adi, Yezidi shrine at, I44 1 , 572 coins in cistern at, 3O2 5 sacred earth ; ; from, 684, 684*; Sunnis and, 572. Sheikh Arab Gueul, 'infidel dervish' at, 283, 369. Sheikh Baba, in George of Hungary, 2 496; at Egerdir, i68 , 339'; spring of, 3 tribal ancestor, 33T 339; 337, 337*, 3 339, 496 Sheikh Bokhara, see Emir Sultan. Sheikhli, Sheikh Baba tribal ancestor ' - 337. 33 f 9 339* 49^ ; Yuruk tribe, 127, 476. Sheikhli Baba Zade, surname of Sheikhli chief, 127. Sheikh Zade, and sacred fish of Shi rax, 3 f s 3 249, 249 Sheitankuli, see Shahkuli. SheitanMuracl, restored Haji Bekt ash's 245 . , tomb, 502 2 among Albanian Bek- tashi, 567*; 'ambiguous' cult of, 86- 7 376, 376*; crypto-Christian, 74, 3 l and Jclal-ed-din, 87, 88 , 376, 443 from Tabriz, 87. 167, 371; Shemsi Baba, sec Kosum Baba. Shent Mrain, see Shirnirden. 9 ; Shepherd, 'discovers' sacred sites, 704, 5 4 707, 7i4 , 715, 716, 7i6 ; saint of River Mezur, 149. Sherefli, Turkoman tribe, 480. Sherm, buried sheikh Shia(s), Caliph 174*; metempsychosis, 570; Mevlevi not, 167; orthodox in Persia, heterodox in Turkey, 125; in Asia Minor, 167-74; 3 massacred, 174, i74 Seljuks sick children to sell favoured, 167-8; a saints, 81 Sunnis hostile to, 83 , 125, propaganda Selim I ; ; 3 74 ; in Turkey, 130*, 140, 168, *73-4> 574, 581; Turkomans are, 1 I30 , 172, 174; see also Bektashi, Haidari, Kizilbash, Nosairi, Rafidhites, Takhtaji, Yezidi. Shifei, Imam, miracle of, 235'. Shimirden (Shent Mrain), Bektabhi 1 174, tekke at, 548-9, 549*. Shimr, salt marsh caused by, 283*. Shimun, Hazret, see S. Simeon Stylitcs. Ships, asperged with Epiphany water, 387; Jordan water unlucky on board, 387"; Noah patron of, 348, 348* ; Seven Sleepers patrons of, 204, 2<MS 3*3.3 i3 a - Shiraz, sacred fish at, 245% 249, 249*. Shirin, and Ferhad, Persian story of, 2' 4 747, 747 Shmcrrin, text over door - Shoehman, memorial Shoes, as amulets, curative to in, 625. mare of, 229-30, 23o relics, 90, 91, 91*, 269 l ; 5 . as 266, 357, 2 357 Shops, corn-plait in, 233; ostrich eggs 6 in, 232, 232 Shroud, from Kerbela, 388*; measured on Stone of Unction, I95 5 ; wetted Christian in Jordan, 388, 3881 , - . . Shems-ed-din, massacred by Sunnis, 173*, 335; 174, 1 338 not recognized at, Omar . by, 241; Christian affinities, 335-6; conversion to Sunni Islam, 154; festival at summer solstice, 134*; geographical distribution, 125, 130*, 140, 168, 173-4, 335 5M, 574, 5^i; hare tabu, 242, 242**; heterodox in Turkey but orthodox in Persia, 125; holy places, 514; Khidr among, 320, 329, 335; kurban,' 261 ; Kurds are, Mohammedan in Zem-Zem, 388*. Shuster, bridge of, and Black Stone of 3 Susa, 215; Turkomans near, 48 1 . Siah 9 meaning of word, 733*. Sicily, S. Euplous in, 581. Side, nymphaeum at, 428, 428*. Sidi Bu Said, S. Louis and, 442. Sidi Ghazi el was Abd Allah Antaki, 709; Abd- Battal, Abu-'l Husain el el-Wahab in cycle of, 711, 711'; at Akroenos (Afiun Kara Hisar), 708; on Ali Dagh, io2 3 710; Arab, 510, , 573; Bektashi usurped tomb of, 510, 2 2 born at Malatia, 573, 573 , 78 235-6, 710; buried near Eskishehr, 2 1 l 494, 495 * 5 IO > 75~ 10 , 7 Q 5 > 76 > a 708% 743 , and at other places, 710; at Caesarea, 710; castle at Erdek of, 710; Christian wives of, 95, 234*, 573, ; Index 706, 706', 708, 709, 7098, 743; as el Cid, 705*; Digenes and, 709; Forty Saints, and, 710; in George of Hun- gary, 494, 495; gigantic, 306*; ~2 history of real, 709, 709* ; Husain father of, 95, 573, 709, 711; invio- tomb of, 495; Jafer as, 711; at Kadi Keu1, 710; at Karaja Dagh, 710; at Leander's Tower, 710, 744; at Mai Tepe, 710; with Maslability of 861 668 668, 447 6 5 ; punishment remission ; Sinai, 626 1 625-6, for, before 365*, ascending column burden of, after ; ordeals, 624; stones as 201; tested by ordeals, 623, 625, 626*, 627, 628, 633, 634; typical, 460, 3 461, 461', 462, 465, 465 ; unbelief greatest, 190, 631. Beduin Mount, Sinai, lama at Constantinople, bathe in Pharaoh's bath on, 393*; confession of sins before ascending, 625-6, 626 1 new myth dragon-stone 3 7i4 of, ; 709, 709'*; in S. Sophia, n; and, 573 2 , 707; 3 573, 711, 71 1 ; shepherd 'discovered' tomb of, 707, 708; sites associated with, 710; princess Seljuk Shamas and, 95, soldiers' patron, 279, 495, 708, tekke of, 2 7o8 Bektashi 'ambiguous' ; 2 sanctuary, 510, 573, 705-10, 7o8 2 Haji Bektash at, 186, 573 heredisheikh Hurufi MS. at, 162*: of, tary 1 5I0 Nakoleia on site of, 705: ordeal 2 2 by fire of monks of, 43O , 498, 498 Suleiman the Magnificent at, 706, 3 707, 7O7 waning prosperity of, 113, : : : ' ' : : 117, 510, 705. Sidi Mogdul, renegade marabout, 97 3 . Sidim Sultan, Bektashi saint, 504. Sidi Okba, forty volunteers of, 395; mosque at Kairuan of, 633. Yakub, madness cured by Sidi obscure, 691*. Sidnaya, miraculous image of Virgin 4 at, 27*, 462% 47 1 ; Moslems die at, 22 6 2 Sidon, Goat Castle near, 744 Siebenbiirgen (Septem Castra), George of Hungary born at, 494 1 3 Siena, crocodile amulet at, 654 ; Samson at, 278 1 Sigean inscription, cures by, 206-7. a Silakhir, Turkomans near, 48 i of at Sultans, 607, Silihdar, Girding 609, 611. Silistria, Bektashi tekke near, 523. . . . . . Siloam, Virgin 1 249 Mary as Fountain of, Jebel, Karabash Yezidi on, I43~4? I44 1 on, 144; - Simav, Ahmedli Yuruks near, 475; Bedr-ed-din from, 377. Sin, carrying corpse to burial expiates, 10 392 ; chains of, 664, 664*, 668-9, 668 7 ; confession of, 148-9, 159, 625 1 6, 626 627, 630; illness caused by, , Abu Zenneh 653 ; buried on, 269*; Jews of, 626; Maiden's 1 74I ; Moses' rock on, cannot pass gate Mount on, 3 187*; Moslem graves on, io4 ; S. Basil's chapel on, 57*; S. Catherine invoked 350*; off, S. Catherine's monastery on, mosque inside, 57, 3 3 1 57 , 396 ; S. Klias on, 329 ; and rite at S. Pelagia's, 627; Selim I at, 57 1 , 3 1 396, 396 ; Szowaleha tribe on, 338 . 4 Sindbad, and huge negro, 73 1 . Sinjar, Jebel, coins offered to sacred water at, 302 5 . Sinkings on tomb-stories, charitable reasons for, 209-10, 2I01 , 226, 251-2, 263; miraculous water from, 210, 2io 2 , 263. Sinner, life in grave indicates, 252-4; undecayed corpse saint or, 253, 314, 2 2 2 .35 > 399. 456, 7 9 7 9\ 3 Sinope, Armenian bole from, 67 1 ; Bilal Ethiopian buried at, 235, 712; hare eaten by Moslems at, 242 6 ; medicinal earth from, 671, 67 1 2 ; S. Andrew fishermen's saint at, 3432 ; Phocas sea-saint 389,38^. S. at, 349, Sionalas, Bektashi tekke at, 545. Sipan Dere, madmen's well at, 26y 349% 52% 6 . Sipylus, Mount, I40 . Siman, ; 1 Forty Christian saints of, 394, 396; holiness continuous on, ii42 ; hoof -print of Prophet's camel on, 186; horse of at, nomad Kizilbash on, 4 . Sirkentili, Yuruk tribe, 477. Mevlevi converted forty Christian monks at, 402 1 Sis, . Mohammed, see Mohammed. of Rum, Bektashi subdivision, Sister of Sisters 3 5 o6 . Sites of holy places changed, 411,411*. 1 16*, I98 6 , Index 862 Sivas (Sebaste), Abd-el-Wahab buried at, 711; Forty Martyrs of, see Sebaste; Haji Bektash and Mentish at, 489; Kaloyanni architect of Blue Medreseh near, Dagh 599J 372*; 'Khedernale' castle 328-9, 328"; Maksum Pak mosque at, buried at, 150, 150, 511-12, 51 1 6 , 1 3 5I2 ; Suhayb buried at, 7i2 ; Yildiz near, 101. vilayet of, at gate, 419: 2 4i6 417, 417*: 1 411, 418, 406, 40 7 hill, , , 3 423-8, 423*; a Cathedral of S. Photine at, 4O9 3 Christ's eikon in medieval, 4i5 cross defaced at, 30% 205; Diana's , ; 3 Turkomans in, 138, 155, 479. Bektashli near, 34i 14 Sixtus III, built S. Peter ad Vincula, . Sivriji, 2 Rome, 668 ruins on 4i8 bust of inside, 416, ; Bektashi in, 500, 511-13; Kizilbash in, 141, 141, 142; Sivas, - ducts of, 427-8, 427 4 6 ; bath of S. Catherine at, 39; Bektashi at, 409, 409*, 507, 574; caravan routes to, . Skanderbeg (George Kastriotes), and S. George, 436 1 ; Turks wore his bones as charms, 24, 35. Skopelos, dragon-fight in, 648 1 . temple at, 4i8 ; Dunmedes of, 474, 1 474 ; excavations at, 424, 424*; Franciscans at, 406, 409, 4i64 Prankish occupation of, 415, 417; " Goat (Maiden's) Castle near, 7442 3 Golden Street of ancient, 4283 'Homereion' at, 416% 418, 4i83 3 2 4 2 5 ; Janus temple at, 418, 4i8 1 Jews at, 474, 474 ; Judicatorium 2 7 2 at, 418, 424-8, 424 , 425 , 426 Kadife at, 284-5, 4*9 Kara Tekkeli Yuruks near, 475; Knights of S. John's castle at, 415; Maiden's ; ; ; , ; ' ' Skorpil, Professor, 51'. Skutari of Albania, Ali Pasha and, 439, 590-1 ; an ti-Bektashi, 550, 551, 590; S. Nicolas 2 7i ; among Mohammedans of, Virgin's picture flew to Genaz- zano from, 285. Skutari of Constantinople, see Constantinople. 6 Sky-god of primitive Turks, 133, I33 , 134. Slaves, black, as confidential servants, 732. Slavs, S. Naum apostle to, 70, 583. Slayer and slain buried together, 95, 3 6 234 , 79> 7<>9 > 73i. 743of Epimenides, 310; deathless, Sleep, of S. John, 310, 3io5 6 , 31 1 3 , 354 1 , 1 408, 416; of Saviour King, 354 in allowed churches, 694, Sleeping, 2 694*, in mosques, 8 ; incubation and, . 695- 4 . Sleeve of Haji Bektash, Janissary head-dress like, 483, 490, 4903 , 491, 3 492, 6i3 Smallpox, Maltese earth good for, 68 1. . 3 Smell, baptism purges, 32-3, 32', 33 ; dogs of Halicarnassus and, 33', s washing of Moslems and, 32 Smyrna, Alexander the Great and Kadife at, 284-5 J Alexander's palace at, 416* ; 'ambiguous' cults at, see SS. Photine and Polycarp; aque659 " 2 3 (Goat) Castle near, 744 ; Panagia's 5 underground chapel at, 41 5 ; SS. 2 Apostles at, 4i6 , 417; S. Catherine's bath at, 39; S. Demetrius at, 41 62 ; Cathedral church of, S. John at 5~8 7 410, 411, 417, 4i7 > 424, 424 , 427: cave of, 415, 4i5 5 , 416: grave of, 408-9, 416: mosque inside castle as church of, 416, 417: patron of oldest Greek church, 409: S. Polycarp confused with, 73, 408-9, 4i65 , 418: sites connected with, 415-16; Markos neo-martyr S. 1 of, 455 ; Cathedral dedicated to, 2 well of, 66, 4O9 S. Pionius at, S. Photine, 2 409 ; 7 4i9 ; ; Sleeping Beauty in Turkish tale, 745. Sleeplessness cured, by eikons of Seven Sleepers, 312, 312*; by official prayer, 3I2 ; J 1 ; . S. Polycarp Bektashi tomb- at, stones in cemetery of, 409, 409*, 507, 574: chapel of, 410, 412. 412*, 424, 6 4252, 426, 42 7 : cypresses on grave of, 407: Evangelist of God for Turks, 57-8, 73, 407, 409: martyrdom of, 3 no medieval cult at 406, 4o6 Smyrna of, 415: mitre of, 407, 408, 1 408 : mosque inside castle as church 2 2 of, 4i6 , 417, 41 7 : patron of Latin : parish at, 409, 413: prison of, 223', 8 416, 4i6 S. John confused with, 73, 6 408-9, 4i6 , 418: sites connected : with, 416-17: tomb scription, 406-7, 4Q9 of, 4 '6 , 406-28 (de- history, 57-8, Index 407-15, 409*, 574, ; days' lingering by grave, 250, 254; funeral feast for, 251, 25i 8-8 , 254; Gabriel defends from Devil, 250; of 2 1 images, i89 ; of Just, no , 270'; ' Yusuf Dede, head-carrying saint, 413: and tomb of S. Polycarp, 409*, 4i3~i4; Zeus Akraios Smyrna metamorphosis 427. (Aidin), vilayet of, Bektashi in, s 36 immured princesses and, 745; Noah's name charm 2 against, 348*; as reins, 289, 289 ; Sidi Ghazi and, 710. ; Snake-stone, see dragon-stone. ' Social side of religion, 693, 693 3 5 . Socrates, 'divine', 364*; in 'Tower of Winds' at Athens, I3 1 . arrested transference of S. Sophia at, 21 ; secularized mosque at, 7 6>. Turkoman tribe, 479; village, 529* of S. cults, John Mithras, S. Elias, and 3 329 Soldiers, patrons of, 279, 495, 708, 2 3 7o8 ; Yuruks as, i36 Solomon (Selman), ant of, 3i3 5 ; armies of birds, demons, and men, 28o2 ; 4 Baalbek built for, 194% 2oo , 28oa ; in, . . among Bektashi, 560; Belkis 2wife of, 749; death concealed, 28o ; fish1 ponds of, 249 , 283; jinns obeyed, 4 190, 2oo , 280, 280*, 413*; among 10 Kizilbash, 145 ; arch-magician, 283 , 749; magic journey to Mecca of, a 10 285 ; ring of, 247, 247 ; ruins and, in S. 749; Sophia, n; treasures of, I94 saints in Tripoli fish, 246*; transmigration of, and dervishes, 247; well at Eyyub of, 82, 270, at 3 1 Jerusalem, no , 27o on Khidr's day, 324. Sowing, begun Spain (el Andalus), at Constantinople, 3 6 ; 723, 723 Jews expelled from, 1 725-6, 726 ; Moors expelled from, 3 4 1 8 "4 Red Apple , ; 723-5, 724 725 4 1 saints sailors' and, 739; in, 346 ,35o Sparrow-hawk (Doghan), and bewitched princess, 746-7, 747 1 ; Rhodian Knight attacks Castle of, 646*. 1 Sparta, female Arab at, 733 1 stone of, 182-3, I83 Speech, Spetza, martyrs of, 458; S. Aimilianos - ' , 6 - summer, Shia festival at, I34 survival from paganism, 3293 Soma, Yuruks near, 475, 476. Solstice, 3 ; . Sophia, daughter of SS. Cons tan tine and Helen, 2i 3 . Sortan, Yuruk tribe, 478, Souls (Mohammedan), catechism after ' ' . . sea-saint at, 349'. Sphakia, S. John neo-martyr Spider, saved David, 700. Spies, Twelve, in Spirits, Solar * : Sofia, Sofular, of, 242*; prayer for founders', 9, 228, 228s at grave for, 9, 9 1 , 251, 25I 1 8 , 258, 404; for Noah's, 10, 258: . at, 507-8. Snakes, as earth-gods, 245; as guardian spirits, 36, 863 death of, 250, 250*; commune with God on Fridays, 274; drink from l sinkings on tombstones, 2io forty 406, 419% transference of, 58, 411, 423, 574), tree as staff of, 176*, 417, 41 7 1 ; S, Veneranda, S. John's cave near, 6 6 415, 4i5 , 4i6 : S. Polycarp's prison 8 near, 416, 4i6 ; Sanjak Kale, and judicatorium' stones, 424, 424%- Timur sacked, 414, 415; transference of cult at, 39, 2 58, 411, 416, 4i6 , 417* 4I7S 423, Venetians 574; sacked, 415; well in S. Photine, 66,4092; site, of, 45 7 l . Koran, 303. catechism of Mohammedan 2^ dead by, 250, ; among Christians, during forty days after 27th November, 392; of earth, primitive Turks worshipped, 134; guardian, 27, 27 5'6 , 63, 71, 261* ; Mohammedans and 2 Christian, 63; in statues, i8o, ; in 4> 2 5 I75 , I76 ; see also jinn. Sporades, Cretan Moslems in, 534. Springs (sacred), agricultural imporAli's in Bosnia, 197*; tance of, 'ambiguous' cults of, 107, 357; animal finds curative, 686, 6866 trees, 175, m; anthropomorphism of, 105-6; arabs* haunt, 351 ; of Artemis, 108; coin thrown into, 696, 698; cult of, ' 105, 108, in, 114; dragons haunt, 3 1 656, 657 ; fish tabu at, 244-6, 244^ , 2 "3 ' 6 4'5 4 246 , 249 ; healing at, 107*, 114, 269-70, 273, 339, 686, 686*; of 8 Hercules, io8 ; of Hippocrates, 15; 6 1 6865 ; of io8 , 328, 686, hot, I07 , Khidr, 326, 328 of Khidr's horse, 48 ; 245 > ; miracles of saints at, 283, see , Index 864 Springs (contd.) (springs) healing; mosque conjoined 4 with, 109; nymphs of, 467, 467 ; oracle at, 269; Plato's in S. Amphilochius, Konia, 363, 364, 365, 365*, 366, 367, 374% 380; among primitive peoples, 98; saints associated with, iio-n, 182, 525, see also Bunar Baba, Demir Baba, Ali, Elisha, Emir Sultan, Khidr, Osman, 105, 105*, Plato, Sari Saltik, Shami, Sheikh Baba, Zem-Zem Baba; S. Helena's Seven Sleepers and, in Taurus, 182; 315, 315*; transference to Islam of, 2 105-12; tree conjoined with, IO5 ; see also among Yuruks, 98, 105, 132; Armudlu, Avjilar, Bakmaja, Elbassan, Monastir, Tekke Keui (Alexandrovo), Tiflis. Spring season, Khidr patron of, 320, 8 320 , 324, 331. Hierapolis, Ivriz, Stable, haunted, 41*, 42, 43, 44. Staff of saint becomes tree, io5 2 , 176, 176% 417, 417*. Stag(s), Buddhist origin of legends of, 3 s 85 , 464'; as Christ, 85, 8 5 , 462', s 463; in conversions of saints, 85, 85 , 6 1 '2 , 285 290-1, 29I , 460, 461', 462, 8 ~7 1 462 , 464-5, 465 ; cross between horns of, 85, 462, 462', 464, 465*; dervishes and, 85, 85, 96, 231*, 2408 1 i, 24I , 282, 285 , 290-1, 290% 460, 460*, 461, 461, 462'; Haji Bektash 2 and, 85, 460, 461*, 572 ; hermits 5 6 10 horns 46i 461-2, ; and, 460, 46o , 8 7 of, in houses and tekkes, 231, 23i , ' 1 241, 461; hunting of, typical sin, 461 ; kurban with, 231, 231% 461, 1 461*; miracles of, 96, 286-7, 287 see also conversion; remedy dis- 232 , covered by, 6866 ; ridden on, 241, 1 6 286, 287 , 460, 46o , 461, 462 sacred, 1 skins 1 240-1, 24 ; of, as prayer-mats, 1 231, 241, 460-1, 46I ; talking, 85, 1 Trinitarian order 462; and, 465 ; unicorn confused with, 462'. ; Stambul, see Constantinople. Standard-bearer (sanjakdar) Baba of Kastoria, 526; 35Ali Statistics, of Bektashi, Ethiopian, 367*, 730*; forbidden, 188-90, 189*; jinns (arabs, devils) in, 189-90, 189*, 192, 351; of Leo the 1 Wise, 738 ; as talismans, 189, 189*, 5 191, i9i . Stavra, Stavriotae at, 470. Stavriotae, crypto-Christians, 470, * 470*. Stenimachos, inscription venerated at, 1 207 'ambiguous' cults, Sterility helped by 1 bath at Brusa, 106-7: El 69 Bedawi, 663': belt of Khirka Baba's wife, 358: blood of men killed by 2 2 a violence, 216-19, 2i7 , 2i8 , 2i9 hot . : : springs in Syria and their veils, I07 1 : Imam Baghevi, 82: incubation, 268, 268 5 , 316, 69 i a inscribed ring at 1 a Cairo, 202 licking ritual, 216, 2I6 , 219, 219*: Mohammed's stone at : : Medina, 181 Murad I's : 'passing through', grave, 106-7 183, 183*, : 192, : Seven Sleepers, 268, ^316: Sufian's grave, 727: well at Juma, 1 529: Zumbul Efendi, 294 . 3 of maiden of and 66o Stole, , bishop, subdues dragons, 657*, 66o 8 ; of 359 priest in Western exorcisms, 34'. Stolen property recovered, by Akyazili Baba, 91, 91*; by incubation, 2 2 689 , 690'; by Phorkan, 202 . 5 Stones, 'ambiguous' cults of, 183, i83 , 2 6 185, i85 , 187, i87 , 206-7, 212; 5 anthropomorphism of, 89 , 179, 1922 ; 3 'burning', 13-14, 29, 67, 67 , 181, 5 i8i ; carried for pious reasons, 1961 7, I97 ; in cemeteries, 209, 220; of Christ and Virgin in S. Sophia, lo 1 ; Christians and Moslems venerate, 6 179-80; in churches, 27 ; colour 3 ~4 important for cult of, 182, i82 , 206; cults of, 179-220 (columns, 192-202, 219, naturally marked, 185-7, pierced, 182-5, 219, statues and reliefs, 188-92, 219, unusual, 181-2, written, 202-7, 220); divina' saints, Joshua's, 161, i6i tion with, 271, 27i 2 8 , 275; dropped by bearers, 196-202; 'fly', 198, 3 6 4 I98 , 277; foot-prints, 185-7, l8 5 ^ 6 a thrown on ; 435> 435 > graves, 8 2 4i3 ; haunted, 208, 2o8 , 211; material important for cult of, 181, 182 from Mecca, iSi 1 , 198, 198 3 , 623 ; ' 69 2 ; of Kizilbash, 141-2. 1 Statues, of 'Arab' at Candia, 188, 188 , Arabian in 190, 734; Nights, 189-90, 189*; cult of, 188-92, 219-20; of ; modern cults oracles from, of, 212-14, 215-16; 55% 271, 271*, 277, see Index 1 '8 ' 5 , pebbles; penitential, 201-2, 2OI 202 l ; as petrified animals and men, 81, 182, 188-90, 191-2, 196; pierced, 6 5 , ' ; survival and development of cults 207-20; suspended, 395; treasure of, connected with, see treasure; in 1 trees, 2O2 , 213; unusual markings start cults of, 181-2, 220; see also column, inscription, relief, statue. Stork, and epidemics, 262. 6 Stratagem, against castles, 646 , 647, 1 64 f; against dragons, 655, 655 , 660*. medicinal Strigonium (Gran), 3 from, 681, 68i earth . Struggle in transferences of cult, 53, 3 58, 59, 60, 6o , 411-12, 564. Struniija (Strumnitza), Bektashi tekke at, 5 2 5> 5 2 5"' Stylite 4 - hermit, of Olympieum at Athens, 636-40; see also S. Simeon Stylites. Suadyeh, Khidr sea-saint at, 3242. Sudak, Baba Saltuk town near, 432. 2 Sudan, gold plant in, 64 5 negro ; S^?, 331, 33I 1 , of Khidr, 323% tekke, 706, 707, 707 ; synagogue desecrated at Rhodes by, 41. Suleiman Pasha, horse of, buried at Bulair with, 269; Janissary cap and, 3 ; Orkhan's son, 235; tombs of, 235, 269; college at Yenishehr of, 235Suleiman II (1687-91), at Akyazili 6i3 Baba's tekke, 90*; 90, Girding of, 2 607, 6o7 Sultan, of fishes, 246-7. . Sultans other than Turkish, see Ismail, Mohammed Masud, Kotube, Ali, Sanjar. Sultans of Turkey, and booty of war, 486, 486*, 487; and Chian earth, 3 2 em67i ; and Chian mastic, 676 and of dead, balming transportation ; 235 1 janissaries ; 484% 486-7, 486 5 , body-guard of, 493; kurban at coronation of, 260; Lemnian earth " sent to, 676, 6762 3 ; martyred Murad treasure and -trove, 600; see I, 106; also Abdul Aziz, Abclul Hamid, Abdul Mejid, Ahmed I and III, Alaed-din I and II, Bayezid I and II, Ibrahim, Kaikhosru, Kilij Arslan and Mahmud II, I and II, I Moham- II-V, Murad I-V, Mustafa IIIV, Orkhan, Osman I-III, Selim I and 351 320, 323, 323 ; S. George in, 323, 323", 350, 350*; sea-saints and helpers in, 350, 350*. Suez, forty sheikhs shot at, 395*. Sufiaii (alias Abu Sufian), Arab warrior in, tomb Ertoghrul's at, 114; Osman's capital and grave at, 235. Suhayb, Arab born at Daonus, 235, 3 712; buried at Sivas, 7i2 3 Suhuni, Turkoman tribe, 48 1 Sultanzade . Suja-ed-din, Bektashi saint, 510. Suka, Bektashi tekke at, 543-4. first Ghaibi, see Kaigusuz Sumela monastery, Murad IV S. I at, Luke at, 6o 7 ; 60; Virgin's picture by at, 66. Sun, stayed by Imam Abu Taleb, 303', by Joshua, 303; worshipped by by Yezidi, 149*. at, 749. 2 Sunnis, Bektashi and, 83 , 288, 493% Christians and, 502, 540, 544, 549; 288; dervishes heretical to, 422 ; Haji Bektash among, 503; hare allowed 3 3 Janissaries at, 489 Suklun Shah Veli, led tekke, Sultan. Sunium, Belkis's palace . Su Kenar, Haji Bektash and Baba Sultan 103. Kizilbash, 149, . s Suicide, efrits cause, 21 7 Suleiman I-II. III, Sultan, Baba, in Selim 266-7, 7 2 7-8- Sugut, 3 med soldiers from, 730. Sudden appearances, Sudden need, Khidr ; 1 89 , 182-5, 183'' 192-3, I93 , 219; pregnant at Baalbek, 200, 200* ; as 3 rain-charms, 211, 2ii ; S. David's, I801 ; Semitic cults of, 179-80; sin's burden symbolized by, 201; of l speech, 182-3, 183*;' stinking', i8o ' 865 Bagdad captured by, 707*, 716; boots at Rhodes of, 2301 churches made mosques by, 7; at Sidi Ghazi's 243 ; Khidr among, 320, 335, 570; propaganda among Yuruks by, 132, 133; religious duties of, 132; Shia hostility to, 832 , 125. to, . Turkoman re- volt in Ich-ili, 174. Suleiman Baba, Bektashi saints, 524, 544, 545Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-66), Sunusa, Shia, 168. Surafend, Khidr' s cenotaph at, 3272. Index 866 of sanctity, anthropomorphism impedes, 179; apparent only, Survival 61-2; conditions affecting, 114*, evidence 118, 117, 115, for, 59, 81, 414; 93-4; 3 of examples, of alleged, 663 2 false, 19, 47 , 61-2, 108, 115, 191, 2 2 3 192, 192*, 209, 209 , 2i6 , 329 , 385of improbable, 3, 972, 239, 90, 388: 6 2 1 249, 329 414, 44i , 46s , 705-6, 734: : , of possible, 89*, 107-8, 112, 2OI 1 , 239, 2 2 3 240, 304, 321, 336, 348 , 65o , 66o , 2 of : probable, 3, 47-62, 107, 689 2 1 2 io? > 399> 4i4 ? 467: of real, 8 , 179, 181, 187, 214, 233, 238, 239, 1 1 245, 245 , 249, 32 1 , 3293, 396-7, 1 2 397 , 414, 467, 47 2 -3 ? 474 ; H4 and Eyyub, 115; negligible , from 220 > 390; at rural sanctuaries, 47-62; in paganism, 115-16, 4, H4 Syria, 114, 2 ; 208-9, see also sanctity. Susa, Daniel's tomb at, 214-15, 2982 1 2 Black Stone ^03, 299, 30I , 694 2 sacred fish at, 245, at, 214-15, 2i5 249: sins tested at, 626*. ' : : Susan, Turkomans near, 48i 3 Suspended, coffin, 17% 300-1, 301% 626* ; stone, 395 6 4 Swallow, in Noah's Ark, 348 . 76; ioo 3 ; Balukii story in, 248; Bektashi not in, 514; calendar of, ioo; dragon3 1 legend in, 32I , 66o ; 'Fair One', 1 3 748; fish sacred in, 244-6, 245 , 4 s Bekir 268 246 248; Haji in, ; heterodoxies irk, see Nosairi, Yezidi; 3 3 inscriptions as charms in, 203 , 2o6 ; Khidr in, 320', 325-7, 326 1 , 335; Kizilbash of Hermus perhaps from, date Assumption 4, 9, 113, 390, cults in, Syria(ns), 'ambiguous* first in, " , 144; lettering in inscription, 519*; 3 in, 237 ; myrtle on graves 1 1 22 226 Nevruz and Solomon's in, , 7 ; 2 ring in, 247 ; renegade Shazelis in, 7 449 ; S. Anthony heals in, 691*; S. Elias hill-saint in, 329^ S. Eustace's legend perhaps from, 462 7 ; makams S. George and Khidr in, see S. George ; sick children sold to saints in, 8i 2 ; solar cults from, 3293 ; stones thrown on graves in, 4i3 8 ; survivals of 2 transference 114, ; sanctity to Islam in, 9O 1 ; trees sacred in, 239; H4 in, Turkomans in, 480. 1 Szaleh, Sheikh, 338 . Szowaleha tribe on Sinai, 338 1 . . . Sweden, Sari Saltik's tomb in, 430, 577; Yellow King from, 471*. 3 4 Sword, of Caliphs, 6i5 , 616, 6i6 ; of dervish warriors, 281, 281*; at Girding of Sultans, see Girding; Nebi Hocha's, 230*; Kilij Ali's, 230; Mohammed the Prophet's, i86 9 , 609, 2 609*, 6 1 1 , 616; Mohammed IPs, 186*, 229, 610; Osman's, 604, 615, 4 1 1 4 Roland's, 6I5 , 6i6 , 617, 6I7 4 Sari Saltik's, 430, 230, 3o6\, 654 ; 435; Selim I's, 609; Sersem Ali's, 28i 4 ; Seven Sleepers' name amulet 4 4 for, 313; wooden, 23O , 28i , 430, * ; 435^ 3 Sykes, Sir Mark, kurban for, 260, 26o Syki, madness cured by S. Michael at, s 4 66, 66 , 9i Sylata, church at, Ala-ed-din and, 60, 1 1 374 , Mevlevi and, 374 ; secularized . . 1 chapel at, 4I Symi (Cape Volpo), disguised janissary 3 3 on, 742 ; sailors' saints on, 344 , 389. 1 Synagogue, ambiguous' cult in, 69O s of hares in, 243 ; representations transferred to Islam, 41. . ' ; Table let down from Heaven, 2891 , 296. Tabor, Mount, and hill dedications in Greece, 329^ Tabriz, Shems-ed-din from, 87; talismanic inscription at, 2O33 Tabus, on birds, 240: fish, 244-9, . 3 3 30i , 663 game, 240-1: hares, 241-3: trees and groves, 29*, 1 ~2 238-40: sometimes lifted, 240, 24O 2 sailors' Taenarum, sanctuary on, 347 . Tahir Baba, Bektashi saint, 544. Tajerlu (Tegir), Af shar sub-tribe, 482 ; 300-1, : . Jerid Turkoman Yuruk tribe, 478. sub-tribe, 481; Takhtaji, as Alevi, 142, 158; Bektashi among, 142, 158, 500, 507; (sacred) book of, 150, 159; confession of sins among, 159; Elmali centre for, 507; geographical distribution of, 128, u 142, 158-9, i59 , 507; Kizilbash and, 140, 142, 158-9; marriage of brother and sister among, 153, 159; meaning of term, 126, 158; metempsychosis among, 242; Nosairi and, 156, 159, u i59 ; Shia, 132, 159, 168; Yezidi and, 156, 159; Yuruks on Ida are, 128. Index Takhtali, Turkish praying-place on Ali 3 Dagh, io2 . Talib Baba, Bektashi saint, 544. Talisman(s), balls as, 271*; Black Stone of Susa as, 214, 215; columns as, 3 4 3 '4 1 193-4, IQ3 , I94 , 368, 368 ; of 6 Constantinople, 191, i9i , 193-4, 8 '4 3 5 4 4 , 31*, 654 , 736-7 ; 193 , I94 , 203 cross as, 2ol , 22, 194; eagle as, i895 ; over gateways, 654, 6544 ; against 3 gnats, I93 ; inscriptions as, 194, 3 4 4 I94 , 202-5, 203 , 654 ; jinns and, 202; Justinian's 'apple' as, 736-7; legends generated by, 203*, 231, 306, 4 at Constantinople as, 654 ; 1 353~4; negro as, 732 ; of Nile, 367, 1 732 ; against plague, 194; plane at Brusa, 178; serpent at Milan, 193"; Solomon's ring, 247, 24 7 2 ; statues as, ' > mummy 5 189, 189*, 191, i9i ; of water, 283 10 , 5 367-8, 368*; weapons as, 203 231, 2 4 23i , 2322, 654 Talking, animals, 85, 85*, 294, 294*, 1 forbidden during 462, 462', 463 magic cure, 217; pierced stone as charm for, 182-3, 183*; S. Aimilianos , . ; 3 7 867 transferred mosque Friday 4 7i4 Mohammed's ; sister buried at, s 1 702 ; Seven Sleepers' cave at, 267-8, 314, 315-18, 2 3 I 5* 3 1 ? ; Ulu Jami and SS. Peter I7 17, , 698, and Sophia 702, at, 299, 299*, tribes round, 478. Tascia, in Shahkuli's 171. Tash-evli, Yuruk 698; Yuruk campaign, 170, tribe, 127, 1272, 477. his- Tash-Kupru-Zade, early Turkish torian, 490. Tashna, grove sacred at, 239. Tatar, tekke at, 532-3, 532% 533*. Tatars, Baba Dagh colonized with, 3 432-3, 576 ; Baba Saltuk tribal chief of, 134-5* 43 2 "-3 ? 5?63 ; Bektashi propaganda among Dobruja, 3 501; buza made by gipsy, 432 ; 6 girding of Khans among, 6o8 ; at 2 Haji Bektash, 502 ; Sari Saltik and, 3 6 340, 340 , 432, 432 ; Turkomans are, 138. Tatar Bazarjik, curative inscription of slave of, 206, 2o62 , 443 Tatarinof, incest and promiscuity <J i83 ; tree, 85, 85 , 291. story of Three Unjust Deeds, 33 1 2 * 334Tamar, footprint of Queen, 187. for, Talmud Tamerlane, see Timur. . among, 153*. Tatien, see Dacian. 3 Tatta, Lake, salt, 366 . Tattoo, crosses in Mohammedan, 30-1, Tangier, gate shut during Friday 3 prayer at, 72 1 , 751. Tanners, Ahiwiran Baba patron of, 3o Taurus mountains, Afshars 505, 505*. Tanri, rain-saint, 156; stone cults in, 182. 1 Taushanli, Mohimul near, 244 3 134, i34 ; Turkish 5 worship of, 133, I33 3 kutb at, 664 ;'Sheikh El Bedawi Tanta, . 663-7. Tapanli, Yuruk tribe, 477. Tarakli (Dablae), Karaja Ahmed's tekke at, 405*; khidrlik near, 328. Tarascon, Arlesians and tarasque of, 4 657'; dragon-legend at, 657, 6572. ; 1 S. Martha buried at, 656 at, . 2 3 659 ; in Tarasque, in general, 656 2 4 1 at Tarascon, 65 7, 65 7 Spain, 656 ; at Toledo, 656*. , ' ; Yuruk tribe, 477. Tarsus, in Armenian kingdom, 301 no Bektashi at, 513; Dakiyanus buried Tarazli, ; at, 3 IS 4 ; Daniel's mosque 301: tomb 298-9, 299 3 at, in SS. Peter 4 , to Christianity at, 301, 698; Mamun's tomb at, 301-3, 302% 697, 698, 703, 298-9, 299 , and Sophia, 301-3, 303^ 4 . Tavium, see of, 129, . Nefes Keui. Tax-farmers, Jews as Turkish, 725. Taygetos, Mount, S. Elias on, 329*. 2 4 Tearus, River, Darius at, I79 , 5i9 ancient in MS. Tedif, synagogue at, . 4 47 i Teeth, disposal of extracted, 131, 131*; 2 yellowed by gold plant, 645 Gul Hisar near, Tefeni, 507. . . Tegir (Tajerlu, Tejerli), sub- tribe of Jerid Turkomans, 481. Teire, Bektashi tekkes at, 507, 513. Tekke (monastery), church combined 6 with, 54-6, 55 ; description of Bektashi, 165, 274-7, 538; horns and skins of stags in, 231, 231', 241, 461 ; relics in, see relics. Tekke (Adalia), Bektashi in, 161, 500; Kizilbash Takhtaji in, 140, 142, 168; Index 868 Tekke Tepelen, Ali Pasha born at, 542, 587 ; no Bektashi tekke at, 542; earth- (contd.) province of Lycia called Adalia or, *35> ^o? Sadr-ed-din saved from at, 542; Hayati tekke at, 539; Khalveti tekkes at, 542*; sacred trees quake Timur, 168; Shah Ismail* s intrigues in, 169-72; Shia Islam at, 239; Turan near, 542. Tephrike, see Divriji. in, 168. Tekke Balim Sultan, transference from Christianity of, i63 3 Yuruk tribe, 477. Terjian, Kizilbash in kaza of, 142. Terkiani, Yuruk tribe, 477. Teraji, . Tekke near Elmali, village name, 507. Tekke in Epirus, fort, 592*. Tekke near Mamasun, village name, 45. Tekke near Zile, village name, 49. Tekke Keui near Amasia, see Elwan digging of Keui near Bektashler and Kebsud, 510. Tekke Keui near Uskub, Alexandrovo Karaja Ahmed 274; ambiguous' (S. George) 525, 582; column 92, 274-7, ordeal at, 635; corn-plait as charm at, 233*; divination with pebbles at, 271% 2 75; incubation at, 267, 275-6; Karaja Ahmed's stone at, 197-8, 2 -3 199, 277, 519*, 635, tomb at, 2 405; oracle at, 271, 27i , 277; ritual I97 , 274-7; secondary relics cure at, 2 267 ; spring sacred at, 274-5; stones 2 at, from Bosnia, I97 , 199, 277, from Khorasan, 277, from Mecca, 198. Tekkeli, see Shahkuli. at, Tekkeli, Yuruk tribe, 127, 127% 135-6, 136', 477> 478. Tekke -oglu, derebeys, 136. Tekrit, Forty Saints at, 395, 396-7, 397/ madmen's chains at, 669^. Tempe, Hasan Baba's cenotaph and Telghiuran, tekke at, 118, 357*, 533; Mevlevi perhaps at, 533. 2 Templars, doubtful orthodoxy of, 57 ; for models Round Churches of, 389; and Saracen emir in El Aksa mosque, 57- Temples, rarely on mountain-tops, 98*; transferred to Christianity, 61 , 20I 1 , 32 9 3 67 1 2 . Terra sigillata, see Terra Lemnia. Teslim Sultan, Bektashi saint, 508. Tetuan, ordeal of passage near, 634. Texts, as amulets at Budrum, 203, 3 654* among Mohammedans, 34, 34 , 3 4 35> 35 ; prototypes, 381, 387 , 624, 2 1 3 624 , 625, 625 , 625-6, 629-30. Thasian stele 9 krater on, 6o2 2 6 Thaurus, Jews cannot live at, 22 Theodore, date of, 326*. : ^ ' . . Theodosia, see Kaffa. Theodota, water drunk from skull of, 266*. Thessaly, Ali propaganda Pasha and Bektashi 531-4, 53&; Bektashi tekkes in, 531-4; Herakles in, 366-7; Koniars of, 501, 528; maiden defender of castle in, 742*. in, 439, s Thevet, visit to Lemnos of, 678 2 Thief, detected by Phorkan, 202 cured Thinness, by pierced stone, 183, . . by S. Fort, 183'. Thirty (Trianda), as place-name, 39i 1 Thomas, Dr. H. 494 4 . . Thoroglu, Yuruk tribe, 478. Thousand and One, days in Mevlevi noviciate, 393; meaning and use of 2 number, 391, 39i . 'ambiguous' cult of Arch5 angels in, 692 ; Bektashi in, 578-9, 580-1; Forty Christian saints in, 3 394; kurban by Christians in, So , 26i 2 ; S. Michael cures madness in, Thrace, . Temptation of and, 685 Christ, Mount Athos 5 . Tendem Baba, Christians placate, 8i 4 . Tenos, Annunciation church frequented by Turks, 67; anonymous martyr of, 452*; sick children walked over at, Si 1 . Tepejik, S. Michael cures madness at, 66, 66 Lemnian earth Saracenica, 673; Sinopic earth called, called, for, at, , 683*. Terra * name at, , Tekke tekke of 671-88; (sigillata), kurban 259, 675: Turkish respect for, 32 2 66 6 675-6. Terra Lemnia sigillata, from baobab, Chelebi. another Lemnia Terra 3 . 692*. Thracian horseman, as S. George, 190, 467. Three, auspicious 275-6. number, 272-4, Index 2 Three Children, of Langres, 466 in Nimrod's story, 317*. Three Hundred Saints, in Cyprus, 401*. Three Martyrs of Malatia, 394*. Three Unjust Deeds, examples of, 331; 2, 699-701. Threpel, Bektashi tekke at, 544. Thunder, S. Elias sends, 434; S. John's 3 ; 275-6, 404, 467, 467S 684-5, 684*, ' 1 2 food on, 251, 25I 2 3 254; 685 3 1 gigantic, 99, 90 , 102% 305-6, 3O5 , " Gospel averts, 34 Thursday, animals incubate on, 327*, . ; , 2 l 1 ; of horses, , 308, 308*, 406, 51 4 '5 269, 209 , 272-4; incubation at, 91, 3o6 694'. Thyatira, see Akhisar. Tides of Chalkis, time of day from, 288-9. 2 Tiflis, 'binding' at, 264 ; stag and hot 5 at S. stone-cult 686 ; springs at, David's ar, iSo1 . miraculously determined by bats, 289*: by Joseph, 289*: by tides of Chalkis, 288-9. Timur (Tamerlane), Bayczid I and, a 171 at Brusa, 293; at Egerdir, i68 Time, , ; 4 Eskiji Koja and, 292-3; Ilurufi l and, 160, i6o ; at Smyrna, 41 j., 415; 339 869 3 spicuousness desired for, 104, io4 ~ cures at, 269, 2 69* 5 ; cypress on, 1761 7, 178% 226-7, 226 . 238, 407; where death occurred, 235*; description of 406; divination Mohammedan, 226, 3 '4 at, 269-72, 2 7 1 ; as dwelling-place, 223; earth from, 262-4, 263*, 267, ; Tekke. 168; Turk, 139. 2 Tinghizlu, Turkish tribe. 285 Tirana, Bektashi at, 549, 550*; Hasan in . Decle buried near, 228* ; Rifai at, 549; Topdans at, 540, 550. Tirnovo, Bektashi tekke at, 523. Titus, Younger Pliny converted by, 4 444 - Tlemcen, Rabbi Ephraem Angaua at, 289% 461"; vSidi Yakub at, 691*. Tmolus, Mount, nomad Kizilbash near, 4 J40 Toccaresc, medicinal earth, 681. 5 Toghrul Beg, girding of, 6o8 Tokat, talking wolf at, 293 -4. Toklu (Doghiu) Decle, see Constanti. . 3 457; inviolable, 237-41, 237 , 245, 4 4 5 3 5 246-7, 246 249 245 495; khidrlik as, 325, 325 3 4 449*; Koran read at, 250, 251, 25 1 1 258; life in, 5 see life; light at, 254, 352, 440, 453 and, 456-7, 458, 707, 729; mosque 3 8-9, 228; on mountain-tops, 99, 99 , 5 4 2 3 ia JO2, TO2 io4 , 259 103-4, io3 3 306, 308*, 35i multiplied, see multiplication; ordeal between wall and, 627, 627*, 632; pilgrimage to, 250, 1 569 popular worship demands, 236, 2 5 6 569, 5 6 9*; P^yer at, 9, 9 l 251, ' ' , , , ' , , , , , , ; ; < , 3 J rag-tying near, 262; under rivers, 298-9, 300, 3ooa , 301, 303; near roads, 251; of saints, 22736* 275, 278, 406; soul detained forty days near, 250, 254; stones 25i , 404; thrown on, 4T3 3 ; trees at, 99, 99*, " 1 2 178, 226-7, 22 6'< 227 , 176-7, 177 407, 413; on tumuli, 103-4, 103'*, 2 2 3 io4 ; water from, cures, 210, 2io 1 , , 263. Tomb-stone, ancient stone , 548, 548 2 ; August panegyris on, 548, 3 Martha buried at, 656'; Seven Sleepers near, 314; tarasquc at, 6s6 Tomarza, Burunguz near, 156*. l . Tomb, ancient, in modern cults, 392, 401; of animals, 269, 269*^, 272-4; of Arabs in Asia Minor, 235-6, 70216; bogus, see cenotaph; book found 4 candles on, 82, 258, 275, 47i 359-60; in caves, 51, 51% 223-5, 3 8 ; charity at, 210, 210*, 226, 251-2, 3 Christian not always trans25 1 ferred with its church, 9; communion with saints at, 256-7; con- in, ; ; Bektashi tekke on, i63 548; 548 3 gold plant on, 645 oath by, 548'-. 8 Tomoritza, hoof-print at, i86 Tomruk Baba, see Jigher Baba. Tonus, Kizilbash in kaza of, 142. , ; Toledo, S. ; " 2 nople. 2o63 as, sinkings lor charity and cure on, 1 2 226, 251-2, 263. 209-10, 2io Toinor, Mount, Abbas AH haunts, 93*, ; . Toothache cured, by extracted teeth, 4 i3i ; lighting candle in ruined by church, 69. Topdan, Essad Pasha, and Bektashi, 540, 54o l , 550; Kaplan Pasha, and Bektashi, 550, 55 o1 - Topjilar, Baghje near, 529; 52 9 '.. Tortoise-herb, see gold plant. Sunm, , Index 8 ;o Torun, sub-tribe of Afshars, 482, of Rihanli Turkomans, 480. Tosk Albanians, conversion to Islam mainly Shia, 581. Tournay, church 'bound' at, 264*. Tower, of Leander, 744~5> 745 1 7495 of Maiden, 710, 741, 744-5* 745 1 of Winds, see Athens. 3 Town-planning, at Kirk Kilise, 397 Yuruk tribes disintegrated by, 1363 7; at Yuzgat, 137, I37 Trachalla, crypto- Jews of, 473-4of, 591 ; * ; ; . Tradition, character of, 75, 81, 94, 399, 420, 537S 586, 597; name and personality of saint in, 256, 289*, 347-8, 348* ; transference of, 3, 5, 9-13, 47, 59, 414; see survival, transference. Trajan, salvation of, 72*. Tramway, kiirban.ai inauguration of, 3 '5 : ticism, 724-6, 724*, 725 frequen8 tation, 66: money, i6 , 53, 80, 412, 585-6: politics, 7, 53, 90, 586-96: 1 prayer, 7 : religion or superstition, 53 ; secularization after, see secularization; 'survivals' due to, 47-62; in Syria, 90*. Transference from Islam to Christi1 anity: arrested, 20 ; examples of f, 76*, 89*, 90-3, 90*, 301, 411, 412, 423, 524, 525, 565, 580, 580% 582, 698; falsely alleged, 70, 4 7i7 effectual, f methods of, identification of Christian and Mohammedan saints, 83-4, 89, 585: struggle, 4 IT, 423; motives of, conquest, 6 l : healing 5 miracles, 89 , 585: money, 585: politics, 90, 585: tradition, 585; rare Transcaucasia, Anatolian tribal names l in, 128; Maiden's Castle in, 74i Transference from Christianity to Islam . : agents of, dervishes, 47, 53*, 57, 69-70, see also Bektashi (usurp): dreams, 61 : healing miracles, 65-70, 89, 113: nomenclature, 18, 57, 528; arrested, see arrested; Christians frequent sanctuaries after, 75-97; conditions affecting, 3, 47*, 60-1 ; 1 examples, falsely alleged, 19, I9 , 2i 2 , 44 2 82-5, 89-97, 95, 95 6 115, , , ' 524, 528: in natural* sanctuaries, 4, 98-TI2: partial, in rural sanctuaries, 586, in urban, f, 20, 23-5, 25% 320': in rural (suburban) sanctuaries, 4, 5 1 ~ 43-5 47-62, 88-9, 89 90 , 94, 43 1 2 > l 519, 5i9 574-6, 578, 586: uncertain, 3 i63 , 416;, 432-4, 5 2 9> 530* in urban , > , sanctuaries, 4, 6-46, 7 5 3 2 2 I7 , 2 , 2o3 , 23, l 25 > 6o 73, 74, 74 , 75 , 298-9, 409", 574, 584, 584*, 717*, 718, 725, 725'-*; , methods Bektashi propaganda, 433> 5 6 4-5 5 6 9-.7; 57 6 5 8 4' identiof, > fication medan of Christian and Moham- saints, 57-9, 330-1, 336, 374, 433-4, 5 6 4, 570-1? 576, 5 8 4~5 la Y figures, 50, 57, 570: peaceful intrusion, 58-9, 564, 576: 'reception', 58, 2 59-60, 564, 565 re-occupatiori of abandoned sites, 60-2, 6I 1 struggle, 3 53> 58, 59> 6o > 6o , 411-12, 564; motives of, conquest, 6-7, 61 , 9-18, 24: conversion of village, 7-8: fana: : : among Orthodox, 76, 76*; secularization after, 76 1 , 525. Transference from paganism to Christianity: agents of, apostles and 3 1 1 saints, 6 , 32o, ; in churches, 2OI ; conditions of, 3, 4, 115; methods 'reception', 58, 59-60, 565*: of, struggle, 59. Transfiguration, see August 6th. Transformations, of gods and men into animal form, 241, 241, 24 2 6 , 243*, 462% 464, 24J 464*: into women, 241, 9 . Transmigration of souls, among der- vishes, 247. Transplantation of population, 136-7, 8 2 158, 170, i7o , 173-4, 44i , 5 OI S 5 1 9> Travel, abnormal and dangerous, 323. Travellers, hare unlucky for, 242, 242; kurban by, 259, 259"; oriental opinions of, 641-5; patrons of, see Khidr, Noah, S. Eli as, S. George, sea-saints; at S. Sophia's, 258. Treasure, 'Arabs' find, 732% guard, 5 1 637, 642, 731-4, 732 , 733 ; archaeologists seek, 642-3; at Baalbek, 5 194 ; blood-offering from finders ol, 5 5 732 ; under columns, 194, I94 , 199% 3 368*; 'flies', 207 ; Franks' interest in, 367, 642-3, 642*, 644-5; of giants, 5 3 3 I94 , I99 ; inscriptions and, 2O3 3 4 , 207, 207 215, 642, 643; jinn talisman of, 202, 637; in Leander's , 1 Tower, 744, 745 , 749; at Olympieum Athens, 637; among orientals, 601 , ; Index 3 in ruins, 194*, IQ9 , 20 f, 642, 734; S. John's Gospel finds, 34*'; Sultans* share of finds of, 600. 2 Trebizond, bath haunted at, no ; no Bektashi lekke at, 513; and Christian attack during Friday prayer, 72i 3 ; Comnenoi of, 38,5; conversion to Islam at, 469; Crypto-Christians of, 3 ~5 2 David's , 469-73, 470*. 47i ; history of, 470*; Digenes buried near, 710'; in Lazistan, 470*; Russian 1 2 S. Jordanis of, agents at, 47 ; Shia Turkomans near, I30 1 , Sumela near, 66; transference Philip and S. Sophia at, 471. 454 ; 174; of S. " near church, 29**; cults of, 175-9, 220, 238-40; graves and, 99, 99*, 6 1 -2 1 176-7, I77 , 178, I78 226-7, 226 , 1 227 , 407, 413; haunted, 175-6, 4 5 I 75 * 176*, 213; healing demons in, 175, 176, 176*; historical events and, 1 178; images in, 359 ; Kizilbash have , ' sacred, 238-9, 2392 ; oriental feeling 3 for, 85 , 178-9; ostrich eggs on, 232; 398 2 ; saints and, 1052, 176-7, 176", 227, 238-40, 407, 413, 417*, 550-1; staff of saint 2 becomes, io5 , 176, 176*, 417, 417*5 htones in, 202*, 213; tabu on, 29 6 , 2 1 '2 238-40, 239 >*, 24o ; talking, 85, 3 have Yezidi sacred, 239; 85 , 291; Yuruks have sacred, 132, 175; see also cedar, cypress, plane. 2 Triads, of children, 317*, 466 ; of 2 nymphs, 467 ; of saints, 466, 466 . Trianda (thirty), in place-names, artificial groupings, 135 ; Tribal, heroes, 39i 4 . titles of, 164, 337, 338: see Akyazili Baba, Haidar, Haji Bektash, Karaja Ahmed, Mentish, Saltuk Baba, Sari Saltik, Sheikhli, Tinghizlu, Tur Hasan Veli, Turk, Yatagan Baba, Yildiz; 2 lists, of Turkomans, 138-9, i63 , 48 1 3 of Yuruks, 134-5, 478-482, 475-8; names, notes on, 126, 127-8, 128*, 6 3 340 , 57& ; saints, 337-41; sanctuand Bektashi, 565-6, 565*; aries, 1 Zulkadr, I73 : . 465 1 . Moslems dislike doctrine of, 24*. Tripoli on Black Sea, Kheder Elles near, 328. Tripoli of Syria, Kl Bedawi buried at, 663 4 3 ; sacred fish at, 245, 24^, 246', 248, 663". Tripolitania, Crete and, 534, 535, 536, 1 1 536 ; Rifai and Senussi in, 536 . in Arabic, 24, 24*. Trisagion, called Trismegistus, see Hermogenes. Troad, Kirk Agach in, 398; tumuli sacred in, 104*; see also Ida. 3 Trojan War, in Greek chronology, 6o3 Trophonios, incubation to, 690-1, 695. 3 Troubadours, legends and, 63 2 on Yuruks, 126-7, Tsakyroglous, Dr., . . 126*. and Smyrna Jews, 471*. Turkoman tribe, 480. Tsevi, Sabatai, Tuchtamarli, and tekke Bektashi sacred grove at, 103, 239, 508, 711. Turnuli, sacred to Christian saints, 1 I04 ; miraculous origin at Ak Bashi Tulumbunar, 2 -a of, 283; as tombs, 103-4, 103*, xo4 Tunis, Arabs venerate S. Louis in, 442, 2 1 442 ; El Bedawi born at, 663 ; cross . in Mohammedan tattooing in, 30-1. Turabi Baba, Bektashi saint, 536. Turabi, Kadri at Constantinople, 735'. Turabi (S. 'Arab', S. Therapon), am1 biguous' cult of, 87-8, 87*, 88 734-5. Turan near Koritza, Bektashi tekke at, ' , 546. among Bektashi, 164: canonized, 278: functions of, 134, 281: mountains named after, 103, 134: stags, Trinity, B Trees, for birth, 178, 178*; 'bleeding', 4 5 J 75> r 75 > 2I 35 in cemeteries, 176; in place-names, 391, 398, Athanasius buried at, 177*. Trikkala, Bektashi tekkes near, 533, 590; S. Nicolas neo-martyr of, 454*. Trinitarian Order, connected with Triglia, S. Turan near Tepelen, Bektashi tekke tit, 4 537 > 542. Turbali (Turbe Ali), ' ambiguous cult 437? 5 2I > 53 1 2 * 5$ 2 > 5 82 S 766-8; S. George as, 93, 437, 532, 582; transference to Christianity of, of, 93* 93- Turbe (mausoleum), for burials, 8; de1 scription of, 18, 47 , 226-8; furni2 4 5 3 ture in, 8, 229-33, 229 , 23o , 6 3 , , 528; 527, 511, 233 231% 232* horns in, 232, 232*; mosque and, 8-9, 1 228; refused', 228, 228 ' ' - ' . Turbe Aii, see Turbali. Tur Hasanlu, tribe of Tur Hasan 339- Veli, Index 872 Tur Hasan Veli, birds sacred to, 240; as dervish, 134; food miraculously multiplied by, 285' ; on Hasan Dagh, 1 loo-i, loi , 134, 339; mevlud of, ioo4 ; priest-chief of Cappadocia, l 339; Tur (Dur) Hasan lu and, ioi , , 339- Maximus of, 462, 462 2 Turk, eponymous ancestor of Turks, Turin, S. 21 1 . rain-charm ; of, 211. Turkoman(s), baptism charm among, 1 'brotherhood 506, 5o6 a 31-2, 32 1 596* geographical distribution, I30 , 3 in Greek 138, 174, 479-81, 48i ; villages of Cilicia, 156*; Koji Baba 1 ; , , ; among, 511; language, 48i Turkeys (fowls), bad souls as, 242 Turkey in Asia, see Asia Minor. Turkey in Europe, Bektashi saints rebellions, i63,-i63 a i74;Shias, 130*, , from, distinguished in, 501, tekkes in, 518-22; Christian element in, 3; Khidr-S. George in, see S. George. 1 Turk(s), as Agerini, 33 ; ancestor worship among, 134, 337; animism among primitive, 133-4; astrology 139, ; al-Rashid's at, 6. mosque Ujek Tepe, tumulus sacred to omens among, pork among, I04 Ukraine, hare 243*; priest-chiefs primitive, 338-9; no priestly among caste among primitive, 134; sacrilege to Christian churches punished, 14, 1 41, 4I , 42, 43 ; no seamen, 346 ; Shah Ismail's intrigues against, 169-72; from, 5 as, 139; Tanri among, distinguished Turkomans 2 no 139, I39 133, I33 ; primitive, ; veil among 'White Caps', of, 80; Young, 137'; as 1 I69 ; witchcraft Bektashi and, 595, 6202 , Rifai*and, 620*; Yuruks and, 136-7; Turkhal, Haji Baba buried near, 489'. Turkish conquest of Albania, 24, 439 of Constantinople, 3-4, 608, 6o8 6 in chronology, 39, 53 1 1 , 6o2 l crosses defaced at, 30': Durmish Dede at, ; : : 2 346 Eyyub's tomb at, 82, 714-16, 5 Genoese children after, 487: 7i4 S. Sophia and, n: superstitions after, 9; transference of churches : : after, 6-7, 9-13, 38, 39, 39*, 40; in general, churches made mos7 . in, 243 5 . 3 Turkoman tribe, 48 1 Ulaki, Ulcer, Lemniaii earth for, 673. . Ulema, and Janissaries, Mahrnud II and Mevlevi, 619, 619*, 621, 622. Uluborlu, Sheikh Baba and Sheikhli near, 33 f, 339, 476; Yuruks near, 476. Umbilical cord, disposal of, 131. Umm 703 Haram, tomb 3 of, 702, 704!. Umudum, sec Osmudum. , Unbelief, greatest .of Mohammedan i68 A , 190. Unbelievers, see giaur. sins, Undecayed body, 253 3 , 314, 352, 399, 456, 729, 729*. Underground, birthplaces, 225, 225*; 5 chapel at Smyrna, 4i5 ; water- 3 channels, 365, 365^ 366, 367, 368 1 Unfaithfulness, tests of, 631, 63 1 Unfamiliarity, sanctity from, 208. Uniate Bulgarians, 'ambiguous* cures . . among, 78-9. 1 prayer follows, 7 see also Albania, Brusa, Buda-Pest, Candia, Chios, Crete, Cyprus. Unknown saint, see saint. Ur of Chaldees, as Urfa, 317*. 3 Urak, Turkoman tribe, 48 1 by, 128; 703-4, 5 Unicorn, stag Turkmen, carpet- weaving Yuruk tribe, 477. S. Elias, 1 ques after, 6-7: crosses after, 3o , 205: heroes of, become saints, 278: : ; ; ambiguous, fanaticism, frequentation, transference; as Moguls, 139; 722*, 739, 740, 740"; a . Tyrnandos, see Yasi Euren. Tzesme, see Cheshme. ; i39 Yuruks, 138. 5 Tus, Imam Riza buried near, 462 Twelve, Apostles and Imams, 335; 2 Jewish saints, 396 mystic number, 736; spies, 303. HarunTyana, Apollonius from, 283 Blessing of Waters among, 32% 384; Christians and, see Tamerlane mean- Tatar origin of, 138; tribal a 138-9, i63 , 478-82; Turks lists, . I6 1 ; 172, 174; 8 interests, 3 ing of term, 126, 139, 139*; Oguz and six sons, 101; Ottomans called, 139; as, 462'. Unjust deeds, three, 331-2, 699-701. . Urfa (Edessa), Abgarus at, Christ's letter to 37; columns at, 194, Index 5 I94 , 317*; 368, 368*; fish sacred at, 1 245, 245 ; S. Addaeus in legend of, 572; S. Ephraem's crypt under S. Sergius at, 632; survival of sacred fish at, 245, 249; Telghiuran near, 3 669 ; Turkoman tribes round, 479, Ur 480; of Chaldees as, 317*. Urgub, Russian renegades at, 97*, 441 S. John Russian at, 65, 440-1. Urian Baba, Bektashi saint, 510. Urumli, see Rumli. l Usbek, 'Green Caps i69 Ushak, Bektashi saints buried near, 2 437, 510; tribal and 405, 405 village name, 128; Yuruks near, 476. Uskub, Bektashi tekkes at, 524; deerhorns in Khalveti tekke at, 231'; Ghazi Baba's kurban arrangements at, 261 ; Hasan Baba's cenotaph at, ; 1 . , , 873 Veiling of women, 136*, 137', 143, 153, 154, 165, 555. Veles, see Kuprulu. Velestino, Rini near, 531. Veli Khalife, Persian leader of revolt near Adana, 174. Velikiot, Bektashi tekke at, 542. Veils, chains of, 664. Venetians, Lemnian earth and, 674, 2 678, 679, 679 ; in popular Turkish chronology, 679 ; Smyrna sacked by, 4*5* Venus, and Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, 89*. Verona, crocodile amulet at, 654*. Vibius, C., monument of, hoof-print 5 milk-charm, 205-6. on, 2O5 Victims, Forty Mohammedan, 394; in foundations, 27, 36, 265, 265% 732, 4 5 732 Victory, incubation for, 689*. Vidin, Pasvanoglu Pasha of, 593. Vienna, Vani Efendi' s prayers before, : ' 357; hereditary pashas at, 593; Ibrahimovc'e near, 210-11 Janissary recruiting centre, 485; magical inscription near, 205; pebble divina; tion at, 271, 2 7 1 3 ; Tekke Keui near, 92; transference of S. Simeon's church . 4 422 Vienne, S. Mamert's Rogations at, 660. 3 6 Vigil, incubation on, 694, 694 tekke Bektashi at, Vilabisht, 549. 1 Villeneuve, image of S. George at, 68 . de Villeneuve, and de Gozon, 649. . . at, 19. Uzun Hasan, Shah Ismail's grand- father, 168-9. Murad I slain by, 491. Vinyani, S. Demetrius' s church preserved at, 8 1 , 474 2 Vipers, in Malta, 68 1. Valenciennes, bound to avert plague, Vilvo, 264". Vallahadhes, Bektashi among, 526-8; Christian customs of, 8 1 474 2 ; conversion to Islam of, I55 5 , 474 2 , 526, 1 526'; Greek-speaking Moslems, 8 . , as magician-philosopher-en6 gineer, 366 ; as pre-Christian Christian, 72. Virgin births, 146, 155, 162, 162*. Virgin Martyrs, Forty at Caesarea, Virgil, . Valois, S. Felix of. 465*. Valona (Avlona), Bektashism at, 540, strongly Sunni, 543. Valour, canonization for, 278, 351; see 543> 5 861 9 , ghazi. 2 Vambe'ry, 125, I27 4 Van, Vani Efendi from, 42 2 . Vani Efendi, Christian . 422-3. at, no 2 ; Hafiz Khalil's tekke near, 267; Kaliakra near, 51; S. George and dragon at, 434 , 1 - Varro, buried with S. Theodore Strate- Miriam, Notre Dame, Panagia. Virgin Missionaries to Armenia, 399*. Virginity, canonization for, 217*; and curative properties of blood, 2i8 l ; 3 dragon subdued by, 657*, 66o ; of lates, 89, 575, 575*. Varsamis, A., Christian but Bektashi, 3 1 66, i66 Turkish Vatopedi, sacrilege at, 14*. Vault, dangerous, 203*. . 3295.2 . : 'idols' and, 75*, 422*; dervish orders and, 55, 410, Varna, bath haunted 1 4 399-400, 399 400 Virgin Mary, Bektashi accept, 554; 1 images of, in bushes, 359 : levitation of, 285 10 Mohammed II's, 35 9 : painted by S. Luke, 66, 285; at Sidnaya, 27*, 462', 471*; Jewish child's vision of, 78*; among Kizilbash, 146; rain-making 2 saint, 64, 64 ; sea-saint, 345, 348, 1 stones dropped by, 200; 348 350*; transformed into butterfly, 464*; 3 pro Vitibus in Syria, ioo ; see also i Index 874 Virginity (contd.) head-carrying saints, 197-200, 197*, 200* ; power of, 29 1 , 200, 200*, 2i8 l ; maiden. Visions, church revealed by, 213; conversion after, 689*; during incuba1 tion, 91; sacrilege prevented by, 8 , see also 27, 27', 42, 71; of Virgin Jewish child, 78*. 259; Sidi Ghazi patron of, 708, 708*; tribal hero led in, 281. Warriors, canonization of Christian 1 3O6 Turkish, see ghazi. Washing, of linen, 465'; of the person, : see ablution. Wasp, David saved by, 700*. 1 to Watches, Joseph invented, 289 Water, during Bektashi Moharrem, Viza, haunted inscription near, 208. Vizir Kupru, Abaza Hasan's palace at, 559; blessing at Epiphany of, see Blessing; coin offered to, 302, 302*, 696, 698; conduits, haunted, 365*: Roman system of, 638: Turkish system of, 638-9; consecrated by Kizilbash priest at Mary 136*. Vodhorina, Bektashi tekke at, 526-8, s 527 Volpo, Cape, biscuit offered to demon 2 of, 342 ; Cynossema on, 344; 'survival* at, 344s . Voyage by sea, Blessing of Waters awaited by Turks before, 32 a 384; , s Khair-ed-din, 279, 279 , an(^ Noah invoked before, 10, 348, 348*. Vrachori (Agrinion), S. John of Konitza martyred at, 449% 536*; three anonymous martyrs of, 453, 1 453 1 Vrepska, Khalveti pilgrimage to, 548 Vrioni, Omer, Bektashi claim, 515, - . 1 540, 586 ; soldiered in Egypt, 515. Vrondiza, S. Nicolas' s church preserved at, 8 1 , 4742 Vrosdan, church of Anargyri preserved a 1 at, 8 , 474 . - Wahabi, Arab buried in Constanti- nople, 727, 728. Walking helped by circumambula- 2 tion of saints' tombs, 272, 357, 357 : 7 on : riding punning saints, i83 Baghevi's horses, 82. 1 Walking over for cure, 80-1, Si make to down Wall, broken special entry, 203*; falls and reveals saint, . 2 37> 2 53> 35 1 * 35 l5 > 7 2 95 ordeal of passage between columns and, 628, 632, 632-3, between tomb and, 627, 627*, 632; ridden on, 84, 289, 289*, 489 3 . Wandering Jew, associated with Chimera flame and Moses, n6 7 ; see also Khidr. in, mass, 148-9; cures when from graves, 210, 2I02 , 263: from relics, 266, 266*, 267, 2 358, 358 from sacred springs, 273: from sacred stones, 209: mixed with : sacred earth, 263 ; dragons connected with, 656, 657, 3 2 1 657 659 , 66o ; f inns' power over, 10 283 , 367-8; from Jordan, 387, 387*; of Life, see life magicians and philo10 sophers and, 283, 283 , 284-5, 366-8, , ; 366; ordeal at Meron with, 626*; orientals delight in, 179% 696; Plato and, 363-9; from rock, 380; S. Michael and, 368, 368*; spirits Sultans' in, 281*, share of, 490; 486, 486*; death fighting against infidels secures sainthood, 278; Haji Bektash patron of, 279; kurban before, of, worshipped by primitive Turks, 134 talismans of, 283 10 , 367-8, 368 1 ; 3 underground channels for, 365, 365 , 8 366, 367, 368 ; see also river, spring, ; well. Water-mill, haunted, Weapons, forbidden in. at ordeals of passage, 634; as gate-charms, 203*, 2 231, 23i , 232% 654*; as relics, 2294 '6 30, 23o , 654*; saints evolved from, 2 654*; as vault-charms, 232 and hermits' dervishes Weather, power . over, 345, 346-7, 346* ~2 mountain- ; 1 tops important for, 99, 99 , 102, io2 4 , 134, i34s , 21 1 3 , 324; saints of, 304, 304*; 'Word was made flesh* as charm for, 35*; see rain-prayer. Wednesday, propitious day, 529. Weeping columns, War, Bektashi dervishes booty . 22, 27*. Wells, 'ambiguous' cults of, 66, 529, ' 530 ; Arabs guard, 732 ; eye diseases cured by S. Pho tine's, 66, 4O92 ; 3 1 haunted, no , 27o , 351*; at Horse's ' tomb, Skutari, 272, 272 3 , 273; Index Joseph and, 270, 270'; in lekano9 madmen's oramancy, 364, 364 5 3 cular, 52, 52*, 267 403 ; magic of, 283; and Nile transportation flood's height, 64 5 ; palpitation of heart cured by S. Sophia's, 10; ; , sacred, in Constantinople, see Eyyub, S. Sophia: of Ha}i Bairam, 102*; 1 Sidi Battal in, 710; of souls, 82, , 3 270, 2 7o ; sterility cured at Juma by, no 529; see also Zem-Zem. Were-wolf. black man, 731*. Whale, bones as of, amulets, 2 '8 231, or 654, 654*: as dragons' 1 giants', 231: as relics, 3O6 ; 5 in Paradise, 3i3 Jonah's, 23 1 , 875 742* ; transformations of men into, 241, 241*; among Yuruks, 137, 137'; see also polygamy, saint (female Mohammedan), veiling. Wood-cutters, see Takhtaji. Wood-cutting, sometimes sin in men, 465". ' Word was made flesh charm against ', foul weather, 35*. ' Wounds, healed by passing through ', 359a Writing, among orientals, 202-7, 2O2 , 3 3 1 203 , 206 , 207 , 210, 220. Wry mouth, cured by saint's slipper, 357 2 - . 1 Wharton, Mr. L., 494 Wheat, as agricultural charm, io6 8 see Athos. Xerxes, plane-tree and, 179; sea and, 2 I79 Xeropotamou, . 106, . . 'White Caps', Turks, I69 1 White-Sheep dynasty, see Ak Koyunlu. White stones as milk-charms, 182, 206. Widow's oracles at husband's grave, . Wife's unfaithfulness, religious tests l and, 631, 63i Willow, sacred at Seideler, 239*. . Wilson, Sir Chas., 173. Winchester, incubation to S. Swithin 1 at, 69I 1 demons Wind, cause, 342, 342 ; der. vish's devils, in 3 1 1 1 ; invented by among Mohammedans, 132, 3 i43> i53i l6 5> 4233 5 Winged horses, 187, i87 , 2O5 . i33 > Wishing oracles, 271, 529-30. 1 Wishing rock, 33 1 Witchcraft, ambiguous* exorcisms of, 2 77, 78, 78 , 79; baptism of Mohammedans against, 33 Turkish miracles . ' ; by, 80; see also evil eye. Witches, on August i5th in Georgia, ioo3 ; offerings by Greek, 221; repentant renegade visited by Turkish, 3 453 Wolf, Mohammedan Albanians baptised against, 33, 33 6 ; talking, 293-4, - 294*. Women, in Yakut, date Akal brotherhood, 702*; 4 'ambiguous' cults by, 81-2, 8i ; Bektashi ideal for, 555, 558; charitable shelters for mourners built by, a 273. 325S 35 2 > 449; as ghazis, 702 , Bendir), saint, of, 3O2 1 , 712; Haji Khalfa used, 364. Yalova, see Kuri Yalova. Yaman Ali Baba, Bektashi saint, 507. Yangji Bendir, see Yaghji Bendirli. 4 Yanko-ibn-Madyan, 686, 686 . Yannina, Ali Pasha buried at, 71; Pasha and arrested at, 536, S. John's transference 1 at, 21, 2I of Bektashi in, 439, 536, 588-9; Cathedral dedicated perhaps to Archangels, 2I 1 ; dervishes at, 588, 588 3 ; gate-charm 8 at, 654*; Manzur Efendi at, 450 ; Cathedral . (Yangji - 536*, 588'; Ali power over, 347. Wind-mill, haunted, Bendirli Yuruk tribe, 476. Yaghmur Baba, rain -making 344 271*. Wine, Yaghji ; 1 ports of, 592; S. George of, 452 ; S. 3 2i l ; Michael's S. at, of, ; 454 John scapegoat gipsies at, 259 8 . Yanobasa, tomb and venerated plane at, 178. Yarput (Jebel-Bereket), Bektashi propaganda at, 513*. Yarpuz, Seven Sleepers' cave near, 318. Yasi, Haidar from, 403; Khoja Ahmed from, 566. Yasi Euren (Tymandos), no 'survival' at, 108. Yatagan, Bektashi tekke at, 508, 508*, 566. Yatagan Baba (Dede), Bektashi and tribal saint, 340, 566-7; Abdal Musa, 340, 508* master of Index Yataganli, Yuruk tribe, 340, 477, 566-7. Yedi Kule, see Constantinople. Yel Aldi, Yuruk tribe, 127*, 477. Yellow cures, jaundice, 182, i82 2 3 , a 8 2i9 ; malaria, i82 Yunuz the Prophet (Jonas), sea and, 5 349 , 581. Yuruks, account of, 126-37; ancestor worship among, 134, 337-8 ; animism ' . Yellow Race, prophecy 471*, 722, 722 of, 353-4, 354 1 , 2 . Yemen, gold plant in, 645*. Yenije Vardar, Evrenos buried at, 356*. Yenishehr, Baba Sultan tekke near, 10 3t Sigean inscription cures at, 206-7; Suleiman Pasha's tomb and Yezid, Caliph, and Husain's death, 8 241; soul of, 241, 24i Yezidi, anthropologically like Kizilbash, 157; Christian elements in religion of, 144; coin thrown into cistern by, 302*; founded by Sheikh Adi, 572; geographical distribution . l Karabash among, 143Khidr 4, 144* among, 320, 320**, 335 ; S. Addai and Sheikh Adi among, 572; Seven Sleepers' cave and, 319; i44 ; ; at Sheikh Adi, I44 1 , 3O2 6 , 572 ; Shias, 140; sun worshipped by, 149; Takhtaji and, 156, 159; (sacred) trees among, 239. 1 Yffiniac, Seven Sleepers at, 3H Yilan Kalesi (Shah Meran Kalesi), l King of Serpents at, 75o S. Asterios 101: see also Yildiz, and, Yildiz Dede. Yildiz Dagh, Christian and Mohammedan sanctuaries on, 101. Yildiz Dede, bath of, 39-40, 39*, 228 3 ; 5. Asterios and, 39-40, 395 Yildizili, Yildiz Dagh in, 101; Kizil. . . bash in kaza of, 142. Yoghurtlu Dede, see Doghlu Baba. Mohammedan Forty Yoros-Keui, Saints at, 395. Young Turks, see Turks. Youth, canonization for, 217*. a Youths, fathers gird, 6o9 . Ypocras, see Hippocrates. Yunuz (Jonas), Bektashi name, 581. Yunuz Baba, 'ambiguous' tekke of, 2 520 , 581, 581*; Deniz Abdal of 3 Constantinople is, 58i ; S. Euplous and, 581. Yunuz Imre, see Emrem Yunuz Sultan. Yunuz Pasha, Ainos conquered by, 581*. brated by, ioo* 132; Bektashi propaganda in Rhodope among, 501; Chimera flame among, 116, n6 7 ; Christianity among, 133 circumcision of, l 130, i3i 132 ; Corycian cave among, ; , geographical distribution 116; of, 100, 126-7, 129, 132, 136, 136*, I37 college at, 235. of, 144, among, 105, 132; anthropomorphism among, 132; antipathy between Turks and, 137; Assumption cele- 5 , 282-3, 339>.475~ 8 ; hospitality of, 137; initiation ceremony of, 132; Kurds imported to disintegrate, 136, languages of, 129; marriage among, 130; meaning of term, 126, 2 I26 , I39 2 ; no mosques among, 137; names of, 127-8, 133*, 475-8; occupations of, 128; paganism of, 121, 132, 133, 175; Persian affinities with, 128, intrigues with, 136; pilgrimages 173; of, 132; no priests among, 134*; rag- tying among, 132, 175; Ramazan among, 132; religion of, 129-35; sale of sick children to saints by, 8i 2 ; Sari Kiz among, 100, 132, 282-3; as 3 ; springs among, 98, 105, 132; stones thrown on graves I36 soldiers, 3 by, 4i3 ; Sunni propaganda among, 132, 133; trees sacred for, 132, 175; tribes of, 134-5, 475-8; Turkish government and, 136-7; Turkomans are, 138 ; no veiling of women among, I37 7 ; wine among, 132, 133 s ; wood- cutters, 128. Yusuf Baba, Bektashi saint, 551. Yusuf Dede, head-carrying saint, 4i3~ I 4- 409*, Yuzgat, Battal buried near, 714'; Bektashi tekke near, 504-5 ; Chapanoglu capital at, 137, 596; decay of, 137*; foundation of, 137 I37 3 ; Goat Castle near, 744 2 ; nomad Kurds near, Russian renegades 2 at, 97, 97 , 137*; 441. Zachariah, see Aleppo. Zade, see Sheikh. Zallaki, Turkoman tribe, 481*. Zante, cross and column as talismans in, 194; S. Gerasimos favourite in, 97- Zardah Kuh, Turkomans near, 481*. Index 877 Zarephath (Sarepta), Khidr-S. Elias at, 326, 326*. Zaza, Western Kurds speak, 140. Zeynel Abidin Baba, Bektashi tekke Zebek, origin Zile (Zela), of, 127*. 1 Yuruk tribe, I27 , 477. Zeinab, burial, death, and miracles of, 17-18, 267, 729; daughter of Husain, Zeibekli, Zein-el-Abidin, Bektashi Imam, 554. Zela, see Zile. Zem-Zem, locusts and water from, dome and water shrouds wetted in, 388 1 ; underground channel from well in Cairo to, 365 3 203*; S. Sophia's ; . spring made at Kruya by, 105*; tree from staff of, 176*. 2 Zerati, Kizilbash, 153, I53 Elias at Zeus, and S. Naples, 329; 6 Akraios, 427 ; Atabyrios, 329"; 3 cloud-gatherer, 329 ; Ourios, 348*; 6 Stratios, 6i , 239, 329*. Zem-Zem Baba, . Mamasun of, tekke. 'ambiguous* cult of Forty at, 49-5 7SS 396> 574; divination with pebbles at, 27i 8 ; Kizilbash in kaza of, 142; Sarin as, 50, 5ol 396; , Shia, 574; 17. from, ii 54i. Ziaret Kilise, see Zili Yuruks, Tekke village near, 49. carpet-weaving by, 128. Zitza, fish-pond at, 249 1 . Zor, Rihanli Turkomans near, 479. Zuleika and Joseph, in Bosnia, I97 3 . Zulkadr, Caesarea and Kirshehr once 1 Durcadurli in, i35 8 ; history in, I73 of principality of, 172-3; Marash capital of, 172; Selim I absorbed, 172; Shahkuli's campaign in, 171-2, s 1 7 2 ; Shia in i6th century, 172; turbulent and tribal, 173-4. Zumbullu Efendi, near Constantinople, 1 294 ; of Tokat, 293-4. 5 Zwemer, Rev. Dr., 447 ; . PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, OXFORD BY JOHN JOHNSON, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY