Ekonomik Yaptırımlar

EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLAR YRD. DOÇ. DR. SERDAR ACAR • • • • • • Ambargo/boykot Deniz/hava taşıma yasakları Yatırım yasakları Varlık dondurma Finansman ve finansal hizmet yasakları Sigorta/reasürans yasakları III İÇİNDEKİLER ÖNSÖZ ................................................................................................................................. I KISALTMALAR............................................................................................................... IX KAYNAKÇA ..................................................................................................................... XI GİRİŞ ................................................................................................................................... 1 § 1. EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLARIN TARİHİ GELİŞİMİ ........................................... 3 A) ESKİ DÖNEMLER ................................................................................................................. 4 1. Megara Kararı ...................................................................................................................... 4 2. Kuşatmalar Dönemi ........................................................................................................... 5 3. Ablukalar Dönemi ............................................................................................................... 8 B) BİRİNCİ DÜNYA SAVAŞI ................................................................................................. 12 C) MİLLETLER CEMİYETİ .................................................................................................... 17 D) İKİNCİ DÜNYA SAVAŞI .................................................................................................... 22 E) BİRLEŞMİŞ MİLLETLER .................................................................................................. 24 1. Soğuk Savaş Dönemi ....................................................................................................... 25 2. Soğuk Savaş Sonrası........................................................................................................ 26 § 2. TANIM, TERMİNOLOJİ VE KONUNUN SINIRLANMASI .............................. 29 A) TANIM .................................................................................................................................... 29 B) TERMİNOLOJİ ..................................................................................................................... 30 C) KONUNUN SINIRLANMASI ............................................................................................ 32 1. Askeri Amaçlı ve/veya Savaş Dönemi Yaptırımlar ............................................ 32 2. Ekonomik Amaçlı Yaptırımlar .................................................................................... 33 3. Ekonomik Olmayan Yaptırımlar................................................................................ 35 4. Havuç ve Sopa Yaklaşımı .............................................................................................. 36 § 3. EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLARIN SINIFLANDIRILMASI .................................. 39 A) TARAFLARINA GÖRE....................................................................................................... 39 1. Uygulayıcılarına Göre .................................................................................................... 39 2. Hedeflerine Göre ............................................................................................................... 40 B) SEBEPLERİNE GÖRE ........................................................................................................ 41 1. BMGK Yaptırımlarında .................................................................................................. 41 (a) Barışın Tehdit Edilmesi ..................................................................................... 42 Uluslararası Krizler ................................................................................................ 43 Ulusal Krizler ............................................................................................................ 45 (b) Barışın İhlal Edilmesi ......................................................................................... 48 (c) Saldırganlık ............................................................................................................. 48 2. Ulusal Yaptırımlarda ...................................................................................................... 49 C) FONKSİYONLARINA GÖRE ............................................................................................ 49 D) AMAÇLARINA GÖRE ........................................................................................................ 50 1. BMGK Yaptırımlarında .................................................................................................. 50 IV ACAR Ι EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLAR 2. Ulusal Yaptırımlarda ...................................................................................................... 53 E) ARAÇLARINA GÖRE.......................................................................................................... 56 F) KONULARINA GÖRE ......................................................................................................... 58 G) KAPSAMLARINA GÖRE ................................................................................................... 59 1. Kapsamlı Yaptırımlar ..................................................................................................... 59 2. Akıllı/Hedef Gözeten Yaptırımlar ............................................................................. 61 § 4. EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLARIN ETKİLERİ VE ETKİLİLİĞİ .......................... 67 A) EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLARIN ETKİLERİ ................................................................. 68 1. Uygulayıcı Açısından....................................................................................................... 68 2. Hedef Açısından................................................................................................................. 69 3. Üçüncü Ülkeler Açısından ............................................................................................. 73 B) EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLARIN ETKİLİLİĞİ .............................................................. 76 1. İzleme ve Değerlendirme .............................................................................................. 76 2. Kalibrasyon ......................................................................................................................... 81 3. İşbirliği ve Koordinasyon .............................................................................................. 85 4. Takdir Yetkisi ..................................................................................................................... 87 § 5. EKONOMİK YAPTIRIM MEKANİZMALARI ................................................... 89 A) ULUSLARARASI YAPTIRIM MEKANİZMALARI .................................................... 89 1. Birleşmiş Milletler ............................................................................................................ 89 (a) Hukuki Yapı............................................................................................................. 89 (b) Teşkilat Yapısı ....................................................................................................... 91 Güvenlik Konseyi ..................................................................................................... 91 Yaptırım Komiteleri ............................................................................................... 91 Özel Komisyon ve Çalışma Grupları ................................................................. 96 Uzman Grupları ....................................................................................................... 97 İzleme Grupları ........................................................................................................ 97 2. Diğer Devlet Toplulukları ............................................................................................. 97 (a) NATO .......................................................................................................................... 97 (b) G-7 ve P5+1 ............................................................................................................. 98 (c) OAS .............................................................................................................................. 98 (d) Arap Birliği .............................................................................................................. 99 (e) OPEC........................................................................................................................... 99 (f) ECOWAS ................................................................................................................. 100 3. Uluslararası Örgütler ................................................................................................... 100 (a) IMF ve Dünya Bankası ..................................................................................... 100 (b) WTO ........................................................................................................................ 101 (c) IMO........................................................................................................................... 103 (d) FATF ........................................................................................................................ 104 (e) IAEA ......................................................................................................................... 105 (f) Wassenaar Düzenlemesi ................................................................................. 105 (g) INTERPOL ............................................................................................................. 106 (h) WCO ........................................................................................................................ 106 (i) ICAO ve IATA ........................................................................................................ 107 İÇİNDEKİLER V B) ULUSAL YAPTIRIM MEKANİZMALARI .................................................................. 107 1. Amerika .............................................................................................................................. 107 (a) Hukuki Yapı.......................................................................................................... 108 BMGK yaptırımları .............................................................................................. 108 Ulusal yaptırımlar ............................................................................................... 109 (b) Teşkilat Yapısı .................................................................................................... 114 2. Avrupa Birliği................................................................................................................... 117 (a) Hukuki Yapı.......................................................................................................... 118 (b) Teşkilat Yapısı .................................................................................................... 123 3. İngiltere .............................................................................................................................. 124 4. Fransa ................................................................................................................................. 127 5. Almanya ............................................................................................................................. 130 6. İsviçre .................................................................................................................................. 137 (a) Hukuki Yapı.......................................................................................................... 138 (b) Teşkilat Yapısı .................................................................................................... 143 7. Japonya ............................................................................................................................... 145 8. Türkiye ................................................................................................................................ 147 (a) Hukuki Yapı.......................................................................................................... 147 (b) Teşkilat Yapısı .................................................................................................... 156 § 6. TİCARİ YAPTIRIM ARAÇLARI ........................................................................ 159 A) AMBARGO/BOYKOT ..................................................................................................... 159 1. Genel Ambargo/Boykot ............................................................................................... 160 2. Silah Ambargosu/Boykotu ......................................................................................... 165 3. Petrol Ambargosu/Boykotu....................................................................................... 170 4. Diğer Ambargo/Boykot Türleri ............................................................................... 173 B) TAŞIMA YAPTIRIMLARI .............................................................................................. 175 1. Taşıma Yasakları ............................................................................................................ 176 2. Hedefin Gemicilik ve Havacılık Faaliyetlerinin Engellenmesi .................... 178 3. Hedef ile Hava ve/veya Deniz Trafiğininin Durdurulması ........................... 181 C) DİĞER DESTEKLEYİCİ YAPTIRIMLAR ................................................................... 183 1. Yatırım Yasakları ........................................................................................................... 183 2. Teknoloji Transferi Sınırlamaları ........................................................................... 185 3. Diğer Yasaklama ve Sınırlamalar ........................................................................... 186 D) İZLEME, UYGULAMA, DENETLEME VE CEZALANDIRMA ............................. 190 1. Gümrük Denetimleri ..................................................................................................... 190 2. Gemilerin ve Uçakların Hakimiyet Alanlarında Denetlenmesi .................. 191 3. Abluka, Uçuşa Yasak Bölge ve Açık Denizde Denetim .................................... 194 4. Gemilerin ve Uçakların Bayrak ve Malik Değişiklikleri ................................. 199 5. Cezalar ................................................................................................................................ 200 E) ENDÜSTRİNİN RİSKLERİ VE ÇÖZÜMLERİ ........................................................... 205 1. Araştırma Görevi ve İmkanları ................................................................................ 206 2. Standart Sözleşme Klozları ........................................................................................ 207 3. Açılan Çeşitli Davalar ................................................................................................... 213 VI ACAR Ι EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLAR (a) Devletlere Karşı Davalar ................................................................................ 213 (b) Taraflar Arasındaki Davalar ......................................................................... 217 § 7. FİNANSAL YAPTIRIM ARAÇLARI .................................................................. 221 A) VARLIK DONDURMA .................................................................................................... 222 1. Model Hükümler ............................................................................................................. 222 2. Fonlar, Diğer Finansal Varlıklar ve Ekonomik Kaynaklar ........................... 228 3. Dondurma ve Müsadere .............................................................................................. 230 4. İstisnalar ve Dondurulmuş Varlıklar Üzerindeki Tasarruflar .................... 236 B) TRANSFERLER VE TRANSFER SINIRLAMALARI .............................................. 242 1. Elektronik Transferler ................................................................................................. 242 2. Alternatif Transfer Yöntemleri................................................................................. 243 3. Kuryeler .............................................................................................................................. 245 4. Ticaret Esaslı Transfer Yöntemleri......................................................................... 246 5. Kambiyo Senetleri ve Diğer Finansal Güvenceler ............................................ 251 6. Kar Amacı Gütmeyen Kuruluşlar............................................................................. 252 C) FİNANSMAN VE FİNANSAL HİZMETLER SAĞLAMA YASAKLARI .............. 255 D) SİGORTA/REASÜRANS YASAKLARI ...................................................................... 257 E) İZLEME, UYGULAMA, DENETLEME VE CEZALANDIRMA ............................. 259 1. Ulusal ve Uluslararası Uygulama ve İşbirliği ..................................................... 260 2. Müşteri Araştırması ...................................................................................................... 265 (a) Standart Araştırma ve Risk Temelli Yaklaşım ...................................... 265 (b) Müşteri Risk Faktörleri................................................................................... 267 (c) Ülke veya Coğrafi Risk Faktörleri ............................................................... 269 (d) Ürün, Hizmet veya İşlem Temelli Risk Faktörleri ............................... 271 (e) Yabancı Şubelerin ve Bağlı Şirketlerin İç Denetimi ............................ 272 (f) Muhabir Bankacılık ........................................................................................... 273 (g) Üçüncü Kişilere Güven .................................................................................... 274 (h) Finans Dışı Belirli İşler ve Meslekler ........................................................ 275 3. Kayıt Tutulması ............................................................................................................... 276 4. Şüpheli İşlemlerin Raporlanması ............................................................................ 277 5. Cezalar ................................................................................................................................ 277 F) ENDÜSTRİNİN RİSKLERİ VE ÇÖZÜMLERİ ........................................................... 283 1. Araştırma Görevi ve İmkanları ................................................................................ 283 2. Standart Sözleşme Klozları ........................................................................................ 284 (a) Bankacılık Klozları ............................................................................................ 285 (b) Sigortacılık Klozları .......................................................................................... 287 3. Açılan Çeşitli Davalar ................................................................................................... 296 § 8. LİSTELEME TARTIŞMASI VE EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLAR ...................... 301 A) LİSTELEME VE ÇIKARMA PROSEDÜRÜ................................................................ 301 1. BMGK Yaptırımlarında ................................................................................................ 301 (a) Listeye Alma Prosedürü ................................................................................. 301 (b) Listeden Çıkarma Prosedürü ....................................................................... 306 Odak Nokta (Focal Point) ................................................................................. 309 İÇİNDEKİLER VII Ombudsperson ...................................................................................................... 312 (c) Terörizmle Mücadele Komitesi’nin Pozisyonu ..................................... 319 2. Ulusal Yaptırımlarda .................................................................................................... 321 B) LİSTELEME ÜZERİNE YAŞANAN TARTIŞMALAR ............................................. 321 1. BMGK’nin Hukukla Bağlı Olup Olmadığı ............................................................. 322 (a) BM Organlarının Gözünden .......................................................................... 323 (b) BM Şartı’ndaki Sınırlamalar ......................................................................... 324 (c) Ius Cogens/Emredici Normlar ..................................................................... 325 (d) Hukukun Temel Prensipleri ......................................................................... 326 2. BMGK’nin Mahkeme Denetimine Tabi Olup Olmadığı ................................... 331 (a) Mahkeme Denetiminin Gerekliliği ............................................................. 331 (b) Uluslararası Adalet Divanı ............................................................................ 333 (c) Ulusal ve Bölgesel Mahkemeler ................................................................... 334 3. Yeni Kararlar ve Gelişmeler ....................................................................................... 339 (a) Avrupa Adalet Divanı Kararları ................................................................... 340 Halkın Mücahitleri Örgütü davası ................................................................. 340 Yasin el Kadı davası ............................................................................................ 343 (b) Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi Kararları.......................................... 349 Jedda davası ........................................................................................................... 349 Nada davası............................................................................................................ 350 Dulimi davası ......................................................................................................... 353 (c) Danıştay Kararları ............................................................................................. 355 § 9. SINIR AŞAN YETKİ KULLANIMI VE EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLAR .......... 363 A) ULUSLARARASI POLİTİK EKONOMİ ...................................................................... 363 B) ULUSLARARASI HUKUK PRENSİPLERİ ................................................................ 368 1. Uluslararası Hukukta Ekonomik Yaptırımlar ................................................... 368 2. Uluslararası Hukukta Yetki Prensipleri................................................................ 370 (a) Uluslararası Örf ve Adette ............................................................................. 370 (b) BMGK Kararlarında .......................................................................................... 372 C) AMERİKAN SINIR AŞAN YETKİ KULLANIMI ....................................................... 374 1. Etki Doktrini ..................................................................................................................... 375 2. İhracat Kontrolü ............................................................................................................. 376 3. Çok Uluslu Şirketler ....................................................................................................... 383 (a) Kontrol Sorumluluğu ....................................................................................... 386 (b) İşletme Sorumluluğu ....................................................................................... 392 (c) İştirak Sorumluluğu .......................................................................................... 393 4. Parasal Hakimiyet ......................................................................................................... 398 (a) Eurodollar Hesapları........................................................................................ 399 (b) Muhabir Hesaplar ............................................................................................. 402 5. Yabancılara Karşı Dava Hakkı ................................................................................. 408 D) SINIR AŞAN YETKİ KULLANIMINI BLOKE GİRİŞİMLERİ............................... 411 1. Kanuni Düzenlemeler ................................................................................................... 411 (a) Amerikan Antiboykot Kanunu ..................................................................... 412 VIII ACAR Ι EKONOMİK YAPTIRIMLAR (b) İngiliz Bloke Kanunu........................................................................................ 414 (c) Kanada Bloke Kanunu ..................................................................................... 418 (d) AB Bloke Düzenlemesi .................................................................................... 421 2. Yabancı Kanun Savunması......................................................................................... 423 3. WTO, OAS-BM Süreci ve G-7 Uzlaşması ................................................................ 425 § 10. TÜRKİYE’DE UYGULAMA ÖRNEKLERİ...................................................... 429 A) SURİYE ................................................................................................................................ 429 1. Mülkiyet Uyuşmazlıkları ............................................................................................. 429 (a) Bakanlar Kurulu Kararları ............................................................................. 431 (b) Suriyelilerin Varlıklarına El Konması Hakkında Yönetmelik ......... 432 (c) El Konan Varlıkların İdaresi Hakkında Yönetmelik ............................ 434 (d) Emlak Komisyonu ve Şam Andlaşması .................................................... 435 (e) Mukabelei Bilmisil Kanunun Diğer Örnekleri ....................................... 437 (f) Konuyla İlgili Mahkeme Kararları ............................................................... 438 2. BMGK Yaptırımları ........................................................................................................ 440 B) KIBRIS ................................................................................................................................. 441 C) ERMENİSTAN ................................................................................................................... 447 1. Sınır Kapısı Dolayısıyla Ermenistan’a Ambargo .............................................. 448 2. Soykırım İnkarı Kanunu Dolayısıyla Fransa’ya Boykot................................. 449 D) İRAN .................................................................................................................................... 451 1. BMGK Yaptırımları ........................................................................................................ 453 2. ABD ve AB Yaptırımları ............................................................................................... 455 3. Çin’in Durumu .................................................................................................................. 457 4. Türkiye’nin Durumu ...................................................................................................... 459 (a) Bankacılık Endüstrisinin Durumu.............................................................. 459 (b) Tüpraş ve Halkbank’ın Durumu ................................................................. 461 5. Yumuşama Dönemi ....................................................................................................... 468 E) LİBYA ................................................................................................................................... 470 1. Lockerbie ve UTA Bombalamaları .......................................................................... 470 2. Yolun Sonu: İç Savaş ..................................................................................................... 471 3. Türkiye’nin İlişkileri ve Ekonomik Yaptırımların Etkileri ............................ 474 F) TERÖRİZM FİNANSMANI ............................................................................................ 481 1. New York Konvansiyonu ............................................................................................. 482 (a) Konvansiyon Hükümleri ................................................................................ 482 (b) FATF Nezdindeki Problemler ...................................................................... 486 2. Terörizm Finansmanı Kanunu ................................................................................. 487 3. PKK ve DHKP/C Örnekleri .......................................................................................... 499 SONUÇLAR VE TÜRKİYE İÇİN ÖNERİLER ........................................................... 503 BMGK Yaptırımları ............................................................................................................. 503 ABD ve AB Yaptırımları .................................................................................................... 505 Türkiye’nin Durumu .......................................................................................................... 506 KAVRAM İNDEKSİ ..................................................................................................... 511 XI KAYNAKÇA Mahkeme Kararları (*) Al-Aqsa v Council of the European Union, (T-327/03) (11.07.2007). Al-Aqsa v Council of the European Union, (T-348/07) (09.09.2010). Al-Dulimi and Montana Management v Switzerland, ECHR, (5809/08) (26.11.2013). 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