Jaundice in the Newborn

1 Jaundice in the Newborn Ramesh Agarwal, Rajiv Aggarwal, Ashok Deorari, Vinod K Paul Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics All India Institute of Medical Sciences Ansari Nagar, New Delhi –110029 Address for correspondence: Dr Rajiv Aggarwal Assistant Professor Department of Pediatrics All India Institute of Medical Sciences Ansari Nagar, New Delhi 110029 Email: [email protected] 2 Abstract Hyperbilirubinemia is the commonest morbidity in the neonatal period and 5-10% of all newborns require intervention for pathological jaundice. Neonates on exclusive breastfeeding have a different pattern of physiological jaundice as compared to artificially fed babies. Guidelines from American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) for management of jaundice in a normal term newborn have been included in the protocol. Separate guidelines have been provided for the management of jaundice in sick term babies, preterm and low birth weight babies, for jaundice secondary to hemolysis and for prolonged hyperbilirubinemia. Although hour specific bilirubin charts are available, these have to be validated in Indian infants before they are accepted for widespread use. 3 Jaundice in the Newborn 1. Introduction Jaundice is an important problem in the first week of life. It is a cause of concern for the physician and a source of anxiety for the parents. High bilirubin levels may be toxic to the developing central nervous system and may cause neurological impairment even in term newborns. Over 60% of term newborns develop jaundice by 48-72 hours of age with 5-10% needing intervention for management of hyperbilirubinemia. 2. Physiological jaundice Jaundice attributable to physiological immaturity usually appears between 24-72 hours of age, peaks by 4-5 days in term and 7th day in preterm neonates and disappears by 10-14 days of life. It is predominantly unconjugated and levels usually do not exceed 15 mg/dl. This pattern of physiological jaundice has been described in predominantly artificially fed babies. Based on recent recommendations of AAP, bilirubin levels upto 17-18 mg/dl may be accepted as normal in term healthy newborns1. Safe bilirubin levels in preterms vary according to gestational age. 3. Pathological jaundice 4 Bilirubin levels that deviate from the normal range and requiring intervention would be defined as pathological jaundice. Appearance of jaundice within 24 hours, increase in serum bilirubin beyond 5 mg/dl/day, peak levels above the expected normal range, presence of clinical jaundice beyond 2 weeks and conjugated bilirubin (dark urine staining the clothes) would be categorized under pathological jaundice. 4. Breast-feeding and jaundice Exclusively breast-fed infants have a different pattern of physiological jaundice as compared to artificially fed babies2,3. Jaundice in breast-fed babies usually appears between 24-72 hours of age, peaks by 5-15 days of life and disappears by the third week of life. They have also been reported to have higher bilirubin levels. Schneider’s metaanalysis of 25 studies has shown that 13% of breast-fed babies had peak bilirubin levels of 12 mg/dL or higher as compared to 4% of artificially fed babies4. One third of all breast-fed babies are detected to have mild clinical jaundice in the third week of life, which may persist into the 2nd to 3rd month of life in a few babies. Authors have stated that this increased frequency is not related to characteristics of breast milk but rather to the pattern of breast-feeding. Decreased frequency of breast-feeding is associated with exaggeration of physiological jaundice. Encouraging a mother to breastfeed her baby at least 10-12 times per day would be helpful in the management of jaundice in a term healthy baby. 5. Breast milk jaundice Approximately 2-4% of exclusively breast-fed term babies them have jaundice in excess of 10 mg/dl in the third week of life5,6. These babies with serum bilirubin beyond 10 5 mg/dl in the third week of life should be investigated for prolonged jaundice. A diagnosis of breast milk jaundice should be considered if the serum bilirubin is predominantly unconjugated, other causes of prolonged jaundice have been excluded and the infant is in good health, vigorous and feeding well and gaining weight adequately. Mothers should be advised to continue breast-feeding at more frequent intervals and bilirubin levels usually subside over a period of time. Interruption of breast-feeding is not recommended unless levels exceed 20 mg/dl. 6. Clinical examination of jaundice Originally described by Kramer7, dermal staining of bilirubin may be used as a clinical guide to the level of jaundice. Dermal staining in newborn progresses in a cephalo-caudal direction. The newborn should be examined in good daylight. The skin should be blanched with digital pressure and the underlying color of skin and subcutaneous tissue should be noted. A rough guide for level of dermal staining with level of bilirubin is included in table 1. Newborns detected to have yellow discoloration of the skin beyond the thighs should have an urgent laboratory confirmation for levels of bilirubin. Clinical assessment is unreliable if a newborn has been receiving phototherapy and if the baby has dark skin. 7. Measurement of bilirubin levels 7.1. Biochemical: Laboratory estimation of total and conjugated bilirubin based on Vanden Bergh reaction remains the gold standard for bilirubin estimation. 6 7.2. Bilimeter: It is based on spectro-photometry and estimates total serum bilirubin. It is useful in neonates, as bilirubin is predominantly unconjugated. 7.3. Transcutaneous bilirubinometer: This method is non invasive and based on the principle of multi-wavelength spectral reflectance from the bilirubin staining in the skin8. Variations due to skin thickness and pigmentation may interfere with the accuracy of the instrument. 8. Clinical approach to jaundice The initial step in evaluation of any newborn presenting with jaundice is to differentiate between physiological and pathological jaundice. A helpful algorithm as adapted from AAP is as follows1. 8.1 Is the newborn term or preterm? Values for intervention vary in preterms according to the degree of prematurity and birth weight. For approach to jaundice in a preterm infant see section 10. 8.2 Is there evidence of hemolysis? Onset of jaundice within 24 hours, presence of pallor and hydrops, presence of hepatosplenomegaly, presence of hemolysis on the peripheral blood smear, raised reticulocyte count (>8%), rapid rise of bilirubin (>5 mg/dl in 24 hours or >0.5 mg/dl/hr) or a suggestive family history of significant jaundice should raise a suspicion of hemolytic jaundice. 8.3 Does the infant have an underlying serious disease? (sepsis, galactosemia) Presence of lethargy, poor feeding, failure to thrive, hepato-splenomegaly, temperature instability or apnea may be a marker of an underlying serious disease. 7 8.4 Does the infant have cholestatic jaundice? Presence of jaundice (>10 mg/dl) beyond 2 weeks, presence of dark urine (staining the clothes) or pale colored stools would suggest cholestatic jaundice. 9. Jaundice in a term healthy baby 9.1. Advise for physiological jaundice: The parents should be explained about the benign nature of jaundice. The mother should be encouraged to breast-feed frequently. The newborn should be exclusively breast-fed with no top feeds or glucose water whatsoever. Mother should be told to bring the baby to the hospital if the color on the legs looks as yellow as the face. Any newborn discharged prior to 48 hours of life should be evaluated again in the next 48 hours for adequacy of breast-feeding and progression of jaundice1. 9.2 Management of pathological Jaundice Any term newborn noted to have yellow staining of the skin beyond the thighs should have a confirmatory serum bilirubin level. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)3 has laid down criteria for managing babies with bilirubin in the pathological range (Table2). A healthy term baby has been defined as one born at term with absence of any hemolysis or significant illness. Jaundice appearing within 24 hours should be managed as hemolytic jaundice. All infants with bilirubin levels in the phototherapy range should have the following investigations: baby’s blood group, Rh typing and DCT (if mother is Rh negative or O group); packed cell volume (PCV); peripheral blood smear (PBS) for hemolysis and red 8 blood cell morphology; reticulocyte count and G6PD estimation (if indicated). These investigations are done to exclude any hemolytic cause of jaundice. Failure of phototherapy has been defined as an inability to observe a decline in bilirubin of 1-2 mg/dl after 4-6 hours and/ or to keep the bilirubin below the exchange transfusion level. The recommended levels for exchange transfusion have been given in Table 2. However, an exchange transfusion (ET) may be performed at the slightest suspicion of bilirubin encephalopathy irrespective of the bilirubin value. 10. Hemolytic jaundice The common causes of hemolytic jaundice include Rh hemolytic disease, ABO incompatibility, G-6-PD deficiency and minor blood group incompatibility. 10.1 Rh hemolytic disease9: A baby born to an Rh-negative mother (and Rh-positive father) should have Rh typing and a Direct Coomb’s test (DCT) on cord blood. Newborns suspected to have Rh isoimmunization should have a blood group and Rh typing, DCT, PCV and serum bilirubin on cord blood to facilitate early treatment. A reticulocyte count should be sent prior to the first exchange transfusion (ET). Intensive phototherapy (section 13.1) should be started at birth and continued till a level, which is 5 mg/dl less than that for exchange blood transfusion. Indications for exchange transfusion soon after at birth and subsequently at a later age are mentioned in Table 3. Intervention for Rh hemolytic disease in preterm babies is indicated at lower values. A level greater than 0.5% and 1% birth weight (kg) can be used as a rough guide for phototherapy and exchange blood transfusion respectively. 9 Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) may be used in a dose of 500 mg/kg 12 hourly x 2 doses after the first ET. Phenobarbitone 5 mg/kg/day x 5 days may be started after the first ET 10.2 ABO Incompatibility: Babies born to women with O blood group should be closely monitored for jaundice and discharged after 72 hours. Routine cord blood screening of newborns born to O group mothers is not recommended. Jaundice due to ABO incompatibility usually appears in the first 24 hours. In the presence of significant jaundice or jaundice appearing within 24 hours, the work up for pathological jaundice as given in section 9.2 should be done Intensive phototherapy is indicated at SB 12-17 mg/dl (see Table 2 “consider phototherapy”) depending upon postnatal age of baby9. Exchange blood transfusion is indicated at TSB ≥ 20. Birth weight criteria for phototherapy and ET may be used for preterm babies (see Rh hemolytic disease). 10.3 Other hemolytic states: G6PD deficiency, hereditary spherocytosis, minor group incompatibilities should be managed similar to ABO incompatibility. Investigations for G-6-PD deficiency should be considered in infants with severe jaundice, with a family history of significant jaundice or a geographic origin associated with G-6-PD deficiency. 11. Jaundice in preterm babies 11.1 Approach to management in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants10. The blood groups of the mother and baby should be known to exclude blood group incompatibility. Serum bilirubin should be measured at 24 hours of age with follow up 10 estimations every 12-24 hours until the levels stabilize. Recommendations for starting phototherapy in VLBW infants have been mentioned in Table 3. Bilirubin should be repeated within 24-48 hours of stopping phototherapy or sooner if clinical jaundice reappears. Direct bilirubin should be measured weekly in infants on parentral nutrition. As a rough guide, phototherapy should be started at a bilirubin level of 1% of the birth weight (in grams) in healthy low birth weight infants10. For e.g. a baby weighing 1000 grams should have phototherapy if the bilirubin levels exceed 10 mg/dl. An exchange transfusion should be considered at a value of 5mg/dl higher than that for phototherapy (1% of birth weight + 5 mg/dl). A sick VLBW baby requires intervention at lower levels. 11.2 Small for gestational age (SGA) babies: Bilirubin handling in newborn is related to maturity of liver, which is dependent upon gestational age. Gestational age and corresponding appropriate weight may be a better guide for intervention as compared to actual birth weight in SGA infants. 12. Jaundice in a sick newborn Intervention for jaundice in this group should start 2-3 mg/dl earlier as compared to term healthy babies (see section 7.2, Table 2 “consider phototherapy”). Additional investigations in a sick newborn include direct bilirubin, septic screen, blood and urine culture and urine for reducing substances 13. Prolonged jaundice beyond 2 weeks: This is defined as persistence of significant jaundice (10 mg/dl) beyond two weeks in a term baby. The common causes include breast milk jaundice, extravasated blood 11 (cephalhematoma), ongoing hemolytic disease, G-6PD deficiency and hypothyroidism. One should rule out cholestasis by noting the urine color and checking the level of direct bilirubin. The diagnostic work up in such a newborn includes: • Investigations to rule out cholestasis (stool color, urine color, direct and indirect bilirubin levels) • Investigations to rule out ongoing hemolysis, G-6PD screen • Investigations to rule out hypothyroidism • Investigations to rule out urinary tract infection. 13. Treatment options: 13.1 Phototherapy The efficacy of phototherapy depends upon (a) Surface area exposed to phototherapy. Double surface phototherapy may be more effective than single surface phototherapy. (b) Spectrum of light source: Special blue tubes with the mark F20T12/BB should be used rather than F20T12/B lights. (c) Irradiance or energy output may be increased in a phototherapy unit by decreasing the distance to within 15-20 cm of the infant. Continuous phototherapy is better than intermittent phototherapy. Phototherapy should be interrupted in a newborn only during breast-feeding and nappy changes. Conventional phototherapy: If jaundice is non-hemolytic or rate of rise of jaundice is slow then one can use either conventional or fibre-optic phototherapy units. Intensive phototherapy: In case of hemolytic or rapidly rising bilirubin or when a conventional unit is not effective, use of intensive phototherapy is warranted. This can be achieved by placing the infant on bili-blanket and using additional overhead phototherapy 12 units with special blue lights and lowering the phototherapy units to within a distance of 15-20 cm. 13.2 Exchange transfusion Rh isoimmunization: Blood used for exchange transfusion in neonates with Rh isoimmunization should always have Rh negative blood group. The best choice would be O (Rh) negative packed cells suspended in AB plasma. O (Rh) negative whole blood or cross-matched baby’s blood group (Rh negative) may also be used in an emergency. ABO incompatibility: Only O group blood should be used for exchange transfusion in neonates with ABO incompatibility. The best choice would be O group (Rh compatible) packed cells suspended in AB plasma or O group whole blood (Rh compatible with baby). Other situations: Cross-matched with baby’s blood group. Blood volume used: • Partial exchange done at birth in Rh hemolytic disease: 50-ml/ kg of packed cells • Double volume exchange: 2 x (80-100 ml/kg) x birth weight (kg) 13.3 Pharmacological treatment: Phenobarbitone: It improves hepatic uptake, conjugation and excretion of bilirubin thus helps in lowering of bilirubin. However its effect takes time. When used prophylactically in a dose of 5 mg/kg for 3-5 days after birth, it has shown to effective in babies with hemolytic disease, extravasated blood and in preterms without any significant side effects. 13 Intravenous Immunoglobulins (IVIG): High dose IVIG (0.5-1 gm/kg) has been shown to be effective in decreasing the needs of exchange transfusion and phototherapy in babies with Rh hemolytic disease. Metalloporphyrins: These compounds are still experimental but showing promise in various hemolytic and non-hemolytic settings without significant side effects. 14. Follow-up: Babies with serum bilirubin ≥20 mg/dl and those who require exchange transfusion should kept under follow-up in the high- risk clinic for neuro-developmental outcome. Hearing assessment (BERA) should be done at 3 months of corrected age. 15. Recent advances Hour-specific bilirubin nomograms have been made based on routine pre-discharge bilirubin assessment11. These charts are useful in predicting hyperbilirubinemia based on a bilirubin level done after 24 hours of age. However these charts are based on infants born in the West and need to be validated on Indian infants before they can be used for routine newborn care. References: 1. American Academy of Pediatrics Practice Parameter: Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the healthy term newborn. Pediatrics 1994;94:558-65 2. Gartner LM, Herschel M. Jaundice and breast-feeding. Pediatr Clin North Am 2001;48:389-99 14 3. Gartner LM, Lee KS. Jaundice in the breast-fed infant. Clin Perinatol 1999;26:431-45 4. Schneider AP 2nd. Breast milk jaundice in the newborn: A real entity. JAMA 1986;255:3270-4 5. Clarkson JE, Cowan JO, Herbison GP. Jaundice in full term healthy neonates: A population study. Aust Pediatr J 1984;20:303-8 6. Winfield CR, MacFaul R. Clinical study of prolonged jaundice in breast and bottlefed babies. Arch Dis Child 1978;53:506-7 7. Kramer LI. Advancement of dermal icterus in jaundiced newborn. Am J Dis Child 1969;118:454-8 8. Dennery PA, Seidman DS, Stevenson DK. Neonatal hyperbilirubinemia. N Engl J Med 2001;344:581-90 9. Maisels MJ. Jaundice. In Avery’s Diseases of the Newborn. Eds: Taeush HW, Ballard RA. 7th edn; WB Saunders. pp 801-12. 10. Cashore WJ. Bilirubin and jaundice in the micropremie. Clin Perinatol 2000;27:171-9 11. Johnson L, Bhutani VK. Guidelines for management of the jaundiced term and nearterm infant. Clin Perinatol 1998;25:555-74 15 Table 1. Guide to dermal staining with level of bilirubin Area of body Level of bilirubin Face Chest, upper abdomen Lower abdomen, thighs Arms, lower legs Palms, soles 4-6 mg/ dl 8-10 mg/dl 12-14 mg/dl 15-18 mg/dl 15-20 mg/dl Table.2 Management of hyperbilirubinemia in the healthy term newborn SB (mg/dl) Age (Hours) Consider phototherapy 25 – 48 49 – 72 ≥ 72 SB: total serum Phototherapy Exchange transfusion if intensive phototherapy Fails ≥ 12 ≥ 15 ≥ 20 ≥ 15 ≥ 18 ≥ 25 ≥ 17 ≥ 20 ≥ 25 bilirubin (mg/dl) (Adapted from AAP practice guidelines1) Table 3. Indications for exchange transfusion in Rh Isoimmunization. An exchange transfusion soon after birth is indicated if6: Cord bilirubin is ≥ 5mg/dl Cord Hb is ≤10 mg/dl, PCV <30 Previous sibling history and positive DCT. Subsequent exchange transfusions are indicated if: 1. 2. 3. 4. Bilirubin ≥ 10 mg/dl within 24 hours of age Bilirubin ≥ 15 mg/dl between 25-48 hours of age Bilirubin ≥ 20 mg/dl after 48 hours of age. Rate of rise of bilirubin is ≥ 0.5 mg/dl/hr. 16 Table4. Management of neonatal hyperbilirubinemia in low birth weight babies based on bilirubin levels (mg/dl)10 Weight (gm) Phototherapy Consider exchange transfusion 500-750 5-8 12-15 750-1000 6-10 >15 1000-1250 8-10 15-18 1250-1500 10-12 17-20 1500-2500 15-18 20-25