Expressing herself through brands: the Arab woman’s perspective

Expressing herself through Brands: The Arab Woman’s Perspective Baker Ahmad Alserhan, PhD Associate Professor, Marketing College of Business, Qatar University P.O. Box 2713 Doha, Qatar E-mail: [email protected] Author 2 Daphne Halkias, PhD Fellow Institute of Coaching Harvard Medical School USA Senior Research Fellow Center for Young and Family Enterprise University of Bergamo Italy E-mail: [email protected] Author 3 Aisha Wood Boulanouar, PhD Assistant Professor, Department of Marketing Umm Al Qura University, Mecca Saudi Arabia E-mail: [email protected] Author 4 Mumin Dayan, PhD Associate Professor of Marketing, College of Business & Economics United Arab Emirates University PO Box 15551 Al Ain UAE Email: [email protected] Author 5 Omar Ahmad Alserhan, MBA Cardiff Metropolitan University Llandaff Campus, 200 Western Ave, Cardiff, South Glamorgan CF5 2YB, United Kingdom Email: [email protected] Abstract Purpose. This study extends Wallström et al.’s (2010) six-nation study on brand use and notions of self-expression to Arab women in the UAE. Additionally, it extends the scope of investigation to include an extensive qualitative data corpus to inform and explain the consumption practices of this large, very wealthy, and under-researched sector of the global marketplace. Design/methodology/approach. Mixed methodology emphasizing qualitative research as a means of building on the results of Wallström et al.’s (2010) quantitative study. Findings. Results reveal that Arab women are less committed to the idea that beauty care products are a locus of self-expression, and their purchase choices are based on perceived quality of care products, scene of use and their lack of value in the culture as vehicles of conspicuous consumption cues. Originality/value. The paper offers valuable insights to researchers and practitioners into the use of beauty care products as a means of self-expression, and emphasizes the value of word-of-mouth communication in enhancing reach in this category. The authors recommend the investigation of relationships between expressing self through brands and variables revealed in this study such as respondents’ relationships to religiosity and health concerns. An extension of this research is also recommended to produce a cross-cultural body of literature on women’s self-expression through brands and how the variable of self-expression can be an important driver of consumer preferences and choices in this population. Keywords: Luxury brands, Arab women, female consumers, self expression, beauty care Introduction The increasingly cross-cultural nature of the world economy presents both opportunities and demands. It also requires a fresh approach to research in the area of consumer behavior as marketers will require a better understanding of cultural influences in international markets and the related potential for growth (Vrontis & Thrassou, 2007). Globalization and international competition require firms to adapt to multicultural marketplaces and environments where consumers have different behaviors and wants (Luna and Gupta, 2011). Arab women living in countries of the Gulf Corporation Council (GCC) represent a population with a strongly embedded cultural foundation and for which family traditions and religious values reign supreme (Alserhan and Alserhan, 2012). This consumer group, well documented for its appreciation of luxury branded goods, also represents one of the world’s fastest growing and wealthiest consumer segments (Cervellon and Coudriet, 2013; Frazier, 2009). Much of the retail expansion in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), in particular, has centered around the establishing of very large and magnificent malls hosting any number of prominent global luxury brands (Cervellon and Coudriet, 2013; Madichie and Blythe, 2011). Geographically, Arab women stretch across Asia and North Africa and number over 120 million. In addition to the GCC Arab populations, middle classes are emerging and developing in other Arab countries and between just these two groups it is clear that Arab women represent a very large and lucrative consumer sector. Despite this, they are woefully under-researched. The little reporting on their lives and consumption habits has typically been communicated through mass media publications and only recently has a trickle of research been published that uses their own voices to give life to their realities (Al-Mutawa, 2013). While this study replicates the quantitative methodology used in Wallström et al. (2010) on women’s self-expression through beauty care brand consumption across six nations, it uses a mixed methodology to address Wallström et al.’s (2010) recommendation to “…extend this study to other nations and to combine it in each case with qualitative research that elicits more in-depth insights from respondents (p. 236)”. This paper is organized as follows: a) presentation of the theoretical foundation framing the study and the study’s rationale; b) a brief literature review focusing on brand consumption as a means of expression and specifically on the current cross-cultural knowledge on expression of self through brands among women consumers; c) a description of the study’s research methodology; d) presentation of data analysis and results; e) discussion of the conclusions, limitations, and theoretical and managerial implications of the study; and, f) recommendations for future research. Theoretical Framework and Study Rationale {{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}} Brief Literature Review With the consumption of luxury brands largely determined by social function attitudes (in relation to self expression and self presentation), in western and eastern cultures alike consumers make purchasing decisions that set them apart and represent their social standing (Nueno and Quelch, 1998; Vigneron and Johnson, 2004; Wilcox et al., 2009). Along with their scarcity value, the distinctive image afforded by the purchase of luxury brands helps meet consumer needs for uniqueness (Vigneron and Johnson, 2004) and as such underlies a self-expression attitude (Katz, 1960). As luxury brands also symbolize social standing and group affiliations that strengthen social image, in this respect their purchase also underlies a self-presentation attitude (Park et al., 2008; Snyder and DeBono, 1985). Beyond cultural differentiations in the consumption of luxury brands, there are also cultural differences in the motivations to purchase a luxury brand. Members of collectivist societies, more connected through common values, norms, interests, and social practices (Etzioni, 1968), may perceive self in a depersonalized way (Turner et al., 1987). This ‘blurring’ of personalities underlies the observed tendency of collectivist consumers to engage in more self monitoring and to display a stronger self-presentation attitude. On the other hand, members of individualist societies have a stronger self-expression attitude (Hofstede, 1991). They are more given to emphasizing their uniqueness, emotional independence, and individual initiative (Hofstede, 1983), thereby meeting their need to stand out. In addition to the important social functions served by self-expression and self-presentation attitudes, affect — a powerful predictor of behavior — plays heavily in influencing luxury brand consumption (Batra et al., 2000) as the purchase of such goods offers pleasurable rewards and fulfillment of sensory needs (Vigneron and Johnson, 2004). This is an important consideration for marketers, managers, and researchers, as both self-expression and self-presentation attitudes influence affect, impacting purchase intentions either directly or indirectly. Arab women, defined as those who use Arabic as their primary language, make up a group totaling around 127 million. Of these women, a significant number are located in the so-called ‘petro dollar’ states located in the Middle East and Arabian Gulf — 21 million according to Reuters (2012). This study’s parameters neatly incorporate these consumers, given Wallström et al.’s (2010) specifications for the target respondents of the original study. There has been an increase in interest in the lifestyles of these mobile, wealthy consumers in marketing in recent years (Sobh et al., 2008; Mady et al., 2011; Vel, 2011). It is assumed that because these populations have wealth, they would be interested in brands, and the analysis of conspicuous displays would support this assumption (Riquelme et al., 2011). However, in the case of something more subtle, the often private use of preferred beauty products, would brands play any role in self expression? Although there is little research on this consumer group (Al-Mutawa, 2013; Raven and Welsh, 2004), more articles looking at Arab women’s consumption, and their role in consumption decisions (Yavas et al., 1994), have been appearing in recent years. A perennial favorite is clothing (Hamilton, 1987; Rabolt and Forney, 1989; Rugh, 1986; Yamani, 1996), which has more recently been joined by privacy (Belk and Sobh, 2011; Sobh and Belk, 2011), food (Al-Mazrooei et al., 2003), online shopping (Al-maghrabi and Dennis, 2010), and cosmetics (Alashban and Burney, 2003; Khraim, 2011). Much of this research has used the country/culture classifications of Hofstede (1983), who uses “nationality as a proxy for culture” (Wallström et al., 2010, p. 230). According to Hofstede (1983), the ‘Arab’ group (measured as an aggregate of Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, and Saudi Arabia) scored high on power distance (comfort with, and acceptance of, hierarchy) and also on uncertainty avoidance (a preference for rules and structures) (http://geert-hofstede.com). While there are variations within the classification ‘Arabs’ (Raven and Welsh, 2004; Al Khatib et al., 2005), “the Middle East can be considered a unique culture, as it has a unique pattern of life and it is generally uniform within the region compared to other parts of the globe” (Raven and Welsh, 2004, p. 9). In comparison with Wallström et al.’s (2010) target countries, this would place Arabs equal with China on power distance (80) and between Australia and Japan on uncertainty avoidance (68). Wallström et al. (2010) state that the first result indicates that brands could be expected to reflect self expression and “to emphasise inequality and hierarchy” (p. 235). However, with the second result being a 68% uncertainty avoidance rating, Arabs could also be expected to find that brands “play a lesser role in allowing individuals to express themselves” (p. 235). Raven and Welsh (2004) have also linked uncertainty avoidance to the concept of fatalism, which many authors attribute to the Arab world (a misunderstanding of the meaning of qadr) (Itani et al., 2011). Arabs are also classified by Hofstede (1984, 1990) as being a low individualism society (38 – i.e., collective) and also a masculine one (52 – i.e., competitive and focused on achievement and success). Hofstede describes societies with high uncertainty avoidance (which he classifies Arab countries as having) as societies that “maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas” (www.geert-hofstede.com). In contrast, other writers, such as Sulaiman and Willett (2003), represent Muslim countries as low on uncertainty avoidance, believing this to be consistent with Islamic teaching. The Arab cultural homogeneity is also disputed by Alajmi et al. (2011). When compared to Wallström et al.’s (2010) nation divisions, this paradox is also evident, as noted above. Hofstede’s work has been charged with inaccuracy outside of western cultures on other dimensions, and this may also be the case here (Milner, 2005). A particular characteristic of the majority of Arab women, especially those in the Gulf States, is their classification as Muslim. Few studies have addressed the impact of Islam on consumption directly, although the importance of this fact in how Muslim women spend their money was underlined by Briegel and Zivkovic (2008), who found 95% of respondents said Islam influenced their spending (p. 89). Given that these women are in possession of completely discretionary funds (Briegel and Zivkovic, 2008), they also challenge the perception of women as “consumers, juxtaposed to men as breadwinners, [which] have been central elements of western modernity” (Gokariksel and McLarney, 2010, p. 11). These women were also committed to Islam (Rice, 1999) and, as Islam is a comprehensive teaching (Kavoossi, 2000; Lawrence, 2000; Maududi, 1960; Qutb, 2001; Roald, 2001) and has shaped the culture of the region (Kalliny and Gentry, 2007; Rice and Al-Mossawi, 2002; Said, 1998), there is much to be gained by examining this ‘alternative’ perspective. Kalliny and Gentry (2007), in their study comparing advertisements in Arab countries to those in the United States of America (USA), expected to find “the focus on women’s beauty enhancement [would be] less in Arab advertising compared to their US counterparts” (p. 25); this was based on the question of whether “women who have to show more modesty in dress in public are still as interested in beauty enhancement as women who expect to be seen by men in addition to their fathers and husbands” (p. 19). Not only is the premise that beauty enhancement revolves around being ‘seen by men’ a western one, but their own results showed that “Arab countries had a higher score on this value than the United States” (p. 25). Further, their hypothesis that there would be significant differences regarding beauty enhancement between the Arab countries based on the size and ‘strictness’ of their ‘Islamic populations’ was similarly not upheld. Cherrier et al. (2009) found that “Muslim consumers express a strong interest in their physical appearance” (p. 91) and this finding is in keeping with the Islamic teaching on cleanliness and personal presentation. Supporting the work of Sprott et al. (2009) and the earlier work on branding and personality and self concept by Aaker (Aaker, 1997; Aaker and Schmitt, 2001), Vel et al. (2011) found owning luxury products amongst Emirati men and women did reflect one’s personality, social image, and their position in society. The authors note that an interest in extravagance and the display of luxury is present throughout Arab history, with a more recently developed perception that western products were superior in quality coming to the fore and being expressed through consumption of luxury brands after the discovery of oil in the area. Given that Arab cultures are collective and, it has been argued, therefore, conformist (Barakat, 1993), the consumption of luxury has become a norm in the Gulf States and, in this case, in the UAE (Vel et al., 2011). Of particular importance in terms of conspicuous consumption were cars and houses, and the Emiratis sampled did link their happiness and social status to their goods and were interested to do so. Another point emphasized in this study was that Emirati nationals who had a wider experience of other cultures were more interested in purchasing luxury brands. Given the number of students from the Gulf who travel abroad to extend their education, this is likely to have an increasing influence on purchasing and consumption. Mady et al. (2011), in a study examining sentiment towards advertising using materialism and vanity in the ‘global’ city of Dubai, found that while materialism could be ‘taught’ by advertising — brought into existence by advertising and also increased in importance through it — vanity was unaffected. Dubai was positioned in the study as a global city — fast moving, many nationalities, “where shopping is the national pastime” (Mady et al., 2011, p. 4) — so the study included only 15% UAE nationals and 33% other Arabs. Nonetheless, the outcomes are relevant here, because there is much advertising of beauty care brands, and the setting for the study is relevant and 42% of Mady et al.’s (2011) respondents were female. The combination of variables represented by Arab women (complex on Hofstede’s dimensions), committed to Islam, in many cases having large sums of disposable cash and with the view that money is meant to be spent (Briegel and Zivkovic, 2008), makes them an extremely appealing extension group to Wallström et al.’s (2010) initial research study. In addition, given the ‘positioning’ of women’s consumption in the literature in general, the consumption patterns and attitudes towards consumption, especially that of branded goods and goods relating to beauty, of Arab Muslim women potentially provide a complex and nuanced alternative model to what is currently understood in the area. Research Methodology Wallström et al. (2010) used a less commonly tested involvement scale developed by Traylor and Joseph in 1984 and known as the Personal Involvement Scale Index (PISI). The PISI is composed of six items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). The scale items are shown in Table 2 (see Statistical Analysis section of this paper). The sample used was limited to employed women in the age groups 21–30 and 31–40 while employment was measured as office staff, middle/lower management, and professional/top management. “Respondents were recruited through an online consumer panel of a commercial marketing research company and a small financial reward was used as an incentive to respond” (Wallström et al., 2010, p. 232). Table 1 illustrates the characteristics of the sample population of the 2010 study. The study’s analysis shows that the PISI scale was unidimensional (one factor emerged accounting for 63% of the variance). The scale was also internally consistent (i.e., reliable) with a Cronbach alpha of 0.88. The differences between countries in terms of the PISI score were measured using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the significance of differences was measured using the Tukey-Kramer HSD test. ANOVA results indicated that the importance of brands for self expression differed significantly across the six countries. On average, women in China, India, and the Philippines perceived these brands to be more important for self expression than women in Australia, Japan, and Malaysia. However, Australian and Japanese women perceived brands as less important for self expression than Malaysian women. Finally, the analysis indicated that a strong negative correlation exists between brand expression and wealth. In summarizing, the researchers made several recommendations including, but not limited to, considering “other factors such as age, gender, education, and income level as categorical predictor variables of brand involvement, … to extend this study to other nations and to combine it in each case with qualitative research” (Wallström et al., 2010, p. 236). Research Objectives and Methodology Based on the discussion in the previous section, this study seeks to understand the importance of beauty care products as vehicles for self expression by Arab female consumers. Needless to say, since the population under consideration is Arab women, the PISI index was translated into the Arabic language. Female students in the Marketing Research class were asked to help in the distribution of an online questionnaire through their networks inside and outside of the university. Also, in addition to the online survey, paper and pencil copies were completed by a research assistant outside of the university. In total, 1,981 questionnaires were completed online and 150 by the research assistant. In addition to the structured questionnaire, respondents were asked to add their qualitative assessments (a more suitable approach for under-researched groups, according to Hogg and Banister, 2001, p. 75), which in turn provided significant insights into women’s perceptions of their favorite brands and the relationship to their self expression. Moreover, the research assistant was asked to form focus groups to discuss their beauty care brands. These groups were warmly supported by participants and yielded a wealth of details that structured questionnaires simply could not capture (Maxwell, 2005; Patton, 2002). These groups were female-only, held in the comfort of the participants’ homes, informal, neighborhood gatherings without any restrictions. Based on the feedback, participating women clearly enjoyed the discussions, each lasting for hours, literally. Findings from these informal gatherings were that Arab women were very forthcoming about the very personal aspects of their lifestyles, and welcomed the chance to ‘use their own voices’ (Al-Mutawa, 2013; Burton, 2009; Coates, 1996; Read and Bartowski, 2003) — provided that the right setting was available (Al-Mutawa, 2013; Nawal, 2009; Tuncalp, 1988). Thus, other researchers are strongly encouraged to explore this largely untapped research potential. Results Sample characteristics Table 1 shows the UAE sample characteristics and compares them with those of the other six nations in the original study. As can be seen in the table, the UAE sample size is almost double the size of the entire sample of the original study (1,981 vs. 1,067, or 186%). At a more detailed level, three new age groups and one new employment level were added to the levels in the original study. Moreover, additional details were collected, including education, income, and marital status. These additions, although they are in line with the recommendations of the original study additions, represent the subjects of a subsequent study that investigates their relationship with self expression through brands. Although the number of respondents in the age and occupation levels was small in terms of percentage in comparison to the original study, the number of respondents in any given level was at least twice the numbers in the former. For example, the occupation level of top management represented only 2.8% of the total sample size of 1,981 respondents in the current study. However, this seemingly small percentage corresponds to 56 responses, almost twice the size of the sample from the Philippines, which is the largest of all countries in the original study (29 responses only). The same applies to all other comparison points. Moreover, if all the additional sample characteristics that were added to the current study are excluded, the number of responses is 1,418 for the two age groups mentioned in study one. For the occupation item, the total number of responses was 483 divided between three employment levels as shown in the table. Both figures of 1,418 and 483 responses are much larger than the largest figures for any country in the former study, i.e., the Philippines with only 198 responses only. However, it should be noted here that the difference in the sample size between age (1,418) and occupation (483) is related to the additional levels that were added to both of them. For example, the additional age groups represent 563 responses while the additional occupation levels represent 1,482 responses. Table 1. Response rates and demographic profile (Wallström et al., 2010)   Respondents Age Occupation   Responses Response Rate Age 21–30 Age 31–40 Prof./Top Mgmt Mid./Lower Mgmt Office Staff Country (%) % (Res)* % (Res)* % (Res)* % (Res)* % (Res)* UAE** 1,981   58.8 (1,165) 12.8 (253) 2.8 (56) 5.1 (102) 16.6 (325) India 160 16 66 (105) 34 (55) 26 (42) 58 (93) 16 (25) China 185 18 65 (120) 35 (65) 24 (45) 51 (94) 25 (46) Philippines 198 20 65 (129) 35 69) 29 (58) 45 (98) 26 (52) Malaysia 188 19 67 (126) 33 (62) 28 (53) 47 (88) 25 (47) Japan 186 19 66 (123) 34 (63) 27 (50) 47 (87) 26 (48) Australia 150 15 65 (98) 35 (52) 28 (42) 48 (72) 24 36) *All figures in brackets for India, China, Philippines, Malaysia, Japan, and Australia are based on calculations by the authors of the current study based on the percentages and responses provided by the authors of the original study. Therefore, due to approximations there is a margin of error of +/- 1 response in the number of responses. ** This country is an extension of Walstrom’s 2010 research. Statistical Analysis Table 2 summarizes the mean responses and the standard deviation for each of the six items. Table 2. Descriptive statistics Item Mean Std. dev. 1. When other people see me using my favorite brand of beauty care products, they will have a positive opinion of me. 3.09 1.405 2. You can tell a lot about a person by seeing that they use my favorite brand of beauty care products. 2.65 1.354 3. My favorite brand of beauty care products helps me express who I am. 2.97 1.405 4. My favorite brand of beauty care products is really me! 2.76 1.412 5. Seeing somebody else using my favorite brand of beauty care products tells me a lot about that person. 2.50 1.327 6. When I use my favorite brand of beauty care products, others see me the way I want them to see me. 2.95 1.428 A principle component factor analysis, using varimax rotation, was performed to test the dimensionality of the scale. As seen in Table 3, the results showed that only one factor emerged, accounting for 63.197% of the variance, which implies that the scale can be regarded as unidimensional. Table 3. Total variance explained Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %   1 3.792 63.197 63.197 3.792 63.197 63.197 2 .669 11.157 74.354       3 .593 9.891 84.245       4 .436 7.263 91.508       5 .270 4.495 96.003       6 .240 3.997 100.000       The Cronbach alpha score was calculated to assess internal consistency of the scale. The alpha was 0.88, which is above the general accepted level of 0.70 (Hair et al., 2008 and in line with the alphas (0.92 and 0.88) achieved in the original study (Wallström et al., 2010). Figure 1 shows the mean score for each country. As proven in the study by Wallström et al. (2010), the importance of brands as vehicles of self expression differs significantly across the first six countries belonging to three groups, namely China, India, and the Philippines; Japan and Australia; and Malaysia and UAE by themselves. Consumers in China, India, and the Philippines, on average, perceived that brands were more important for self expression than consumers in Australia, Japan, and Malaysia did. The same study also showed that consumers, on average, in Australia and Japan perceived brands as less important as vehicles for self expression than consumers in Malaysia did. The study’s results show that GCC perceived brands as less important as vehicles for self expression than all other countries with the mean score of 2.81. Figure 1. Mean Scores Discussion of Results Although the fact that this is an extension study, based on the foundations and recommendations of an earlier study, it must also be mentioned that Arab female consumers represent one of the largest, wealthiest, and fastest growing female consumer segments in the world (Frazier, 2009). However, despite their importance as a significant consumer group, there is a dearth of studies targeting this aspect of their lifestyle. While the absence of studies in this field could be partially attributed to cultural reasons restricting Arab females from discussing certain parts of their lives, it is not enough to justify the clear avoidance observed by researchers. Such a lack of attention towards this important consumer group will certainly leave both the academic and business worlds speculating, in light of the lack of any evidence beyond mass media newspaper articles. In addition to that, there are several advantages to the extension of this study to include Arab women. First, Arab women are racially and culturally different from the six groups that were studied originally. Applying this study to them will provide further evidence on the effect of different cultures on self expression. Second, nearly half of the Arab population lives in north western Asia and the other half lives in North Africa (Raven and Welsh, 2004). This study delves into this highly uncharted, very sensitive, and personal terrain with the aim of providing a better understanding of Arab women and thus contributing towards understanding the less familiar female consumer world, not only in Arabia but in the entire world. The fact that Arab women living in the GCC region perceived brands as less important vehicles for self expression than women in all other countries is interesting indeed when considering how much they spend on brands and the sheer size of the market, which is expected to reach a value of nearly 2.9 billion USD in the year 2015 in the UAE alone (Euromonitor International, 2010). Moreover, and according to the same report from Euromonitor International, the GCC market is characterized as a “label me” one, where the person becomes the sum of the brands possessed (Alserhan et al., 2014). Therefore, if respondents reported that brands are less important for self expression, how come they spend so much to acquire them? Why do they converse so much about the brands they own and the places they acquired them from (Alserhan et al., 2014)? Did respondents report the ideal, not the factual? Obviously, they were not affected by the Interview Evaluation since the study was completely anonymous and the only details that were collected about respondents were the IP addresses of their computers, which was done automatically through SurveyMonkey and which is not useful to identify respondents. Moreover, no rewards were offered for the ‘right’ answers and no stigmatization of any sort was implied or at all possible. In order to try and resolve the apparent discrepancy between deeds and words, the focus turned to the qualitative part of the study. Many of the respondents provided lengthy comments in explanation of the answers they provided. An overwhelming response was that one’s personality and self perception is not related to the brand of the beauty care product being used and that women buy brands not for self expression but for the perception that branded beauty care products provide better care of their skin (Alashban and Burney, 2003). For example, Mona explains that “the beauty care products and especially makeup is sometimes harmful and could cause many symptoms and diseases to the skin”. Therefore, according to Mona and many others, women buy not only the beauty advertised in the products but also the less advertised but equally important care associated with the brand. One more important response was that while other products such as bags can be easily recognized as Cartier, Chanel, Dior, DOLCE&GABANA, FENDI, Gucci, Hermes, Jimmy Choo, or Juicy Couture, for example, it is almost impossible to guess what brand of lipstick or eye liner a woman is using. Given that the public application of cosmetics or hand/lip creams is not commonplace within the culture/group, the opportunity for the compact or packaging of the item to be used for conspicuous display is very limited. In a small focus group discussing the results of the survey and composed of several women from different age groups, 17-year–old Sukaina said that when putting her makeup on, if the brand was imprinted somehow on her lips, cheeks, or eye lashes she would not think twice about buying a branded product. She explained that she would do that because her friends and others could see and recognize the brand imprinted on her lips. She in fact wondered why producers of cosmetics do not do that. All others in the group agreed. Samia, who is a respondent and not part of this focus group also supports this opinion: “If I don’t see the makeup bag I cannot tell the brand. The same also applies for perfumes if I am not familiar with the scent I would not be able to tell … it is not like bags and clothes, for instance.” Other respondents explained that due to the Arab culture and the teaching of Islam, which prohibit women from using makeup outside of their close family or female circles, they refrain from using makeup except at special gatherings and therefore these products do not become as important in their daily lives as they might be in other women’s lives. This explanation is further strengthened by the fact that Malaysian women in the original study and who might be majority Muslims, although this cannot be confirmed since this detail is not provided in the original study, also perceived cosmetics to be of less importance to self expression than it is to most other groups in the Wallström et al. (2010) study (Alashban and Burney, 2003). In addition to culture, religion, health concerns, and brand recognition, some respondents argued that price is an important factor affecting their purchase decision. For example, Latifa explains that when she buys a beauty care product her decision will be affected more by the objective properties of the product, such as price. In her opinion, price is related to ability and has nothing to do with personality. She argues that her decision is also affected by the actual results she gets from using certain brands. In her opinion, if a lady’s personality is associated with beauty brands then women not using these brands will be facing social problems. Her colleague Layla agrees on her notion about the price, but adds that the price of the makeup does indicate which social class the women belong to, assuming of course that the price can be proven. However, Layla adds that looks associated with brands are very important and that whether a branded beauty product turns a woman into “princess or monster” is a key purchase factor. Intsar, on the other hand, disagrees with the notion on prices and contends that “the high prices of these brands don’t add more beauty features on the face. From my side, makeup brands don’t attract me as much as the high quality of products and the level of colors which are suitable with my skin” (Alashban and Burney, 2003). Fatima and many others contended that personality is not shallow so as to be expressed through a brand of cosmetics. Women might use different types of makeup. Intsar explains that “beauty care products don’t help me express myself. They are just products that I use only on special occasions and certain places. My values​​, own thoughts, and morals are the criteria which can express my personality”. Finally, other respondents said that they did not buy the brands advertised but rather bought what their friends recommended ining an emotioma connection to the brand. The Arab culture strongly encourages socialization and especially same-sex gatherings. During these gatherings women speak freely about their interests and lifestyles, including the exchange of ideas about products and brands. These gatherings are very powerful marketing tools where word of mouth (WOM) becomes potent for brands. As a result of building an emotional relationship with their customers, luxury brand companies will make their customers positively talk about their brands. If this is attained, the number of customers using the luxury brand could probably be increased and in turn the company may report a jump in profits. Implications for Theory Drawing on the functional theory of attitude and the cognitive–affective model as the framework, {{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}} This study expands on previous research by examining the formation of purchase intentions for luxury brands and comparing purchase intention formation across cultures. This study examines the impact of social-function attitudes toward luxury brands on consumers’ affective attitude and purchase intentions, and shows that emotions are linked to central attitudes, suggesting that consumers tend to respond favorably to brands that are perceived to be consistent with their values and goals (e.g., Bian and Forsythe, 2012; Snyder and DeBono, 1985). The marginally positive relationship between social-function attitudes and purchase intention suggest that consumers have a greater intent to purchase their favorite luxury brands when the luxury brands are consistent with their intrinsic beliefs and social image. Extending the findings of other researchers (e.g., Bearden & Etzel, 1982; Grubb & Grathwohl, 1967) that people consume luxury brands for social-function reasons, these findings show that social-function attitudes toward luxury brands is related to purchase intention for luxury brands both directly and indirectly through their impact on affect. Furthermore, affect has a dominant and powerful influence on consumers' purchase intention as it plays a mediating role between social-function attitudes and purchase intentions, thereby supporting the cognitive–affective model given that both social-function attitudes (cognition) and affective attitude (affect) impact purchase intention for luxury brands (Bain & Forsythe, 2012). Extending the findings of other researchers (e.g., Bearden and Etzel, 1982; Grubb and Grathwohl, 1967) that people consume luxury brands for social-function reasons, these findings show that social-function attitudes toward luxury brands play an important role impacting purchase intention for luxury brands both directly and indirectly through their impact on affect (Bian and Forsythe, 2012; Wilcox et al., 2009). Furthermore, affect has a dominant and powerful influence on consumers’ purchase intentions as it plays a mediating role between social-function attitudes and purchase intentions, thereby supporting the cognitive–affective model given that both social-function attitudes (cognition) and affective attitude (affect) impact purchase intention for luxury brands (Ko and Megehee, 2012; Zhang and Kim, 2012). Further, the findings show that emotions are linked to central attitudes, and play an important role in purchase intention formation. This study expands previous research by examining the formation of purchase intentions for luxury brands and comparing purchase intention formation within an Arabic cultural context. These findings align previous conclusions that individuals in a collective society could adopt and display individualistic elements without changing its collectivist culture (Bian & Forsythe, 2012; Brewer & Chen, 2007). Finally, a result worth discussing is that the insignificant influence of brand image on WOM. This relationship need to be replicated and further studied in future marketing research. Although the significant impact seems to be negligible, it can be argued that the effect of brand image on the WOM is mediated by “lovin”g the brand. This is logically valid from a practical point of view, when theprojected brand image fit with the image customer wants others to hold about him/her, it will make him positively talk about the brand. Future research could also examine this framework on different categories of luxury brands. Limitations, and Implications for Managerial Practice As in all research initiatives, this study has a number of limitations. The study did not test for non-response bias. Based on self reports in response to Likert scales, the results of the survey offer a general picture of the attitudes of women in the UAE studied towards brands as a means of self expression. Unlike previous studies, this research does incorporate a qualitative research component, in the form of focus groups/in-depth interviews. As a result, the information {{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}} Another limitation is that this study focuses on just the UAE region. This does not allow for generalizations concerning conclusions related to the influence of culture or income on the use of brands as a vehicle for self expression. In this context, the same observations may not apply if income and cultural dimensions are compared in other nations. Finally, the study focused on female consumers of a specific age group and income segment. As such, results of the research do not offer any information about the possible perceptions of females in other age groups or income groups, or of male consumers in general. The knowledge generated in this study has implications for decision making and action in international market environments. An awareness of national differences and the importance of brands as a means of self expression, different for consumers in different countries, will facilitate the development of branding and marketing communication in country-specific contexts. By better understanding differences, practitioners can better evolve those brand personality dimensions that appeal to consumers in different countries. For example, they can adjust promotional messages based on the importance that consumers attach to brands for self expression. In countries where consumers view brands as important for self expression, more attention may be given to promoting symbolic values, while functional values might be more emphasized in countries where the use of brands for self expression is not an important factor. Research results open up a number of avenues for future research. As the study did not distinguish between ‘luxury’ and ‘non-luxury’ brands, focusing only on beauty care products, these variables may be included in subsequent research to determine if differences exist in levels of brand expression. Additional value could be added by also considering such factors as gender, age, education, and income level as variables predicting brand involvement. This study could also be extended to include other nations and, in combination with qualitative research, each case could thus provide more in-depth examination of survey responses. Also, regular tracking studies could be conducted to give this type of research a long-term perspective so as to determine whether the importance attached to brands as a means of self-expression changes as the economy changes. Such an approach would offer more information on the economic and cultural perspectives that this study highlights. Finally, the outcomes of this study open up opportunities for combining a study of brands as means for self-expression with other constructs that academics and practitioners view as important. Good results have been reported in the original development of this scale, and the current study supports the use of PISI as a valuable tool for measuring the importance attached to opportunities for self expression. Because consumers worldwide use luxury brands to display status, their purchase intention toward luxury brands is aroused when they feel compelled to own a luxury brand to convey their esteem or wealth. Luxury retailers' marketing strategies may either attempt to convince consumers of the brand's upscale social image or use their distinctive image and product scarcity to appeal to those who have high social-function attitudes. Affect is the most important consideration in global marketing strategies and must penetrate every marketing channel because affect attached to luxury brands creates resonance between consumers and brands (Keller, 2003). Consumers with strong affect toward a luxury brand reported they “love” the brand and the tendency for them to purchase the brand is high. Affective-appealing messages can be delivered in a variety of ways. Luxury retailers can convey feelings of pleasure and deliver a luxury experience by offering a well-organized assortment of high-quality products and upscale ambience or through exceptional store service that generates an enjoyable experience with the brand, thereby generating positive affect. {{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{{}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}}} Recommendations for Future Research The fact that Arab women in the GCC perceived brands to be less important for self expression, coupled with the explanations provided by respondents themselves for this perception, prompt us to suggest that marketers hear the voice of the Arab female consumers when targeting them. Off the shelf marketing campaigns — which might be very successful elsewhere — will only undermine the power of the brands those marketers are trying to promote. Factors such as product application, religiosity, culture, health concerns associated with the brand, and the physical differences this group of consumers believes characterize them (i.e., skin difference in terms of color and sensitivity), should be key campaign factors, side by side with the beauty aspect, which usually takes front seat in these campaigns. For researchers, an extension of this research into more world regions with the aim of producing a global map of women, self expression, and brands is recommended. Such a map would be similar to Hofstede’s and would be of great academic significance, in addition to its obvious business relevance. Further recommendations include the investigation of the relationships between variables revealed in this study such as religiosity, health concerns, and demographics with expressing self through brands. References Aaker, J. and Schmitt, B. 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