HCNA-HNTD Entry Training Guide v2.

re Mo ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n ea rn in g. hu HCNA – HNTD ENTRY aw ei .c om /e Huawei Certification Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht tp :/ /l Huawei Networking Technology and Device Huawei Technologies Co.,Ltd n aw ei .c om /e Copyright © Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. 2014. All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written consent of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. Trademarks and Permissions in g. hu and other Huawei trademarks are trademarks of Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All other trademarks and trade names mentioned in this document are the property of their respective holders. Notice ht tp :/ /l ea rn The information in this document is subject to change without notice. Every effort has been made in the preparation of this document to ensure accuracy of the contents, but all statements, information, and recommendations in this document do not constitute the warranty of any kind, express or implied. s: Huawei Certification ce HCNA-HNTD Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur Huawei Networking Technology and Device Entry Version 2.1 n aw ei .c om /e Version Control Date Changes 2.0 Mar 12th 2014 Initial Release 2.1 Jul 28th 2014 Content Updates & Security Declaration Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht tp :/ /l ea rn in g. hu Version n aw ei .c om /e Table of Contents Huawei Certification System ................................................................................ Page 6 Foreword ................................................................................................................ Page 7 in g. hu Outline ......................................................................................................... Page 7 Content ........................................................................................................ Page 7 Scope .......................................................................................................... Page 8 Prerequisites................................................................................................ Page 8 Security Declaration ................................................................................. ...Page 8 rn Huawei Certification Portfolio ............................................................................ Page 11 ea Icons Used in this Book ...................................................................................... Page 12 /l Introduction- The Basic Enterprise Network Architecture .............................. Page 13 Basic Enterprise Network Architectures .................................................... Page 15 :/ Module 1- Building Basic IP Networks .............................................................. Page 23 tp Enterprise Network Constructs .................................................................. Page 25 ht Ethernet Framing ....................................................................................... Page 38 IP Addressing ............................................................................................ Page 58 s: Internet Control Message Protocol ............................................................ Page 85 Address Resolution Protocol ................................................................ ...Page 100 ce Transport Layer Protocols .................................................................... ...Page 115 ur Data Forwarding Scenario .................................................................... ...Page 132 so Module 2- Huawei Device Navigation & Configuration .................................. Page 149 Expanding the Huawei Enterprise Network ............................................. Page 151 Re Navigating The CLI .................................................................................. Page 166 File System Navigation and Management ............................................... Page 184 ng VRP Operating System Image Management .......................................... Page 203 ni Module 3- Supporting and Maintaining Enterprise Local Area Networks .... Page 217 Establishing a Single Switched Network ................................................. Page 219 Mo re Le ar Spanning Tree Protocol ........................................................................... Page 231 Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol ................................................................ Page 263 n aw ei .c om /e Module 4- Establishing Internetwork Communication................................... Page 289 Segmenting The IP Network.................................................................... Page 291 in g. hu IP Static Routes ....................................................................................... Page 304 Distance Vector Routing with RIP ........................................................... Page 320 Link State Routing with OSPF ................................................................. Page 347 Module 5- Implementing Network Application Services ................................ Page 377 DHCP Protocol Principles ........................................................................ Page 379 rn FTP Protocol Principles ........................................................................... Page 397 Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht tp :/ /l ea Telnet Protocol Principles ........................................................................ Page 408 n aw ei .c om /e Huawei Certification System in g. hu Relying on its strong technical and professional training and certification system and in accordance with customers of different ICT technology levels, Huawei certification is committed to providing customers with authentic, professional certification, and addresses the need for the development of quality engineers that are capable of supporting Enterprise networks in the face of an ever changing ICT industry. The Huawei certification portfolio for routing and switching (R&S) is comprised of three levels to support and validate the growth and value of customer skills and knowledge in routing and switching technologies. rn The Huawei Certified Network Associate (HCNA) certification level validates the :/ /l ea skills and knowledge of IP network engineers to implement and support small to medium-sized enterprise networks. The HCNA certification provides a rich foundation of skills and knowledge for the establishment of such enterprise networks, along with the capability to implement services and features within existing enterprise networks, to effectively support true industry operations. s: ht tp HCNA certification covers fundamentals skills for TCP/IP, routing, switching and related IP network technologies, together with Huawei data communications products, and skills for versatile routing platform (VRP) operation and management. so ur ce The Huawei Certified Network Professional (HCNP-R&S (HCDP)) certification is aimed at enterprise network engineers involved in design and maintenance, as well as professionals who wish to develop an in depth knowledge of routing, switching, network efficiency and optimization technologies. HCNP-R&S consists of three units including Implement Enterprise Switch Network (IESN), Implement ng Re Enterprise Routing Network (IERN), and Improving Enterprise Network Performance (IENP), which includes advanced IPv4 routing and switching technology principles, network security, high availability and QoS, as well as application of the covered technologies in Huawei products. Mo re Le ar ni The Huawei Certified Internet Expert (HCIE-R&S) certification is designed to imbue engineers with a variety of IP network technologies and proficiency in maintenance, for the diagnosis and troubleshooting of Huawei products, to equip engineers with in-depth competency in the planning, design and optimization of large-scale IP networks. n aw ei .c om /e Foreword Outline in g. hu The HNTD guide contains content relating to the HCDA certification, for development of engineers who wish to prepare for the HCNA-HNTD examination or familiarize with TCP/IP technologies and protocols, as well as LAN, WAN technologies and products, including VRP. Content rn The book contains a total of five modules, starting from the basic knowledge of /l ea data communications; this guide introduces the fields of switching, routing, WAN, IP security and other basic knowledge, as well as configuration and implementation of covered technologies using the VRP platform. :/ Module 1 systematically introduces the IP network infrastructure, TCP/IP models aid in the establishment of a firm technical foundation on which data ht tp communications technologies can be applied. In highlighting functions and roles of the network layer, transport layer and application layer, this module enables engineers to master the function and roles of communication networks in a variety of products. ce s: Module 2 describes the basics for navigation and operation of the Huawei versatile routing platform (VRP), to enhance the skills for navigation and management of Huawei VRP supported products. Re so ur Module 3 introduces link layer technologies, and demonstrates how Ethernet based local area network (LAN) products are used together with technologies such as STP and RSTP, in order to improve the ability of engineers in establishing and maintaining local networks. ng Module 4 describes the basics of routing technologies, as well as static routing and dynamic routing protocols. This module builds an understanding the ni principles of routing along with skills and knowledge for basic implementation and support of RIP and OSPF protocols. Le ar Module 5 introduces common application services for IP networks in the form of DHCP, FTP and Telnet for the enterprise network, to build competency of engineers and administrators in supporting application layer services within Mo re Huawei products. n aw ei .c om /e Scope The HNTD guide focuses on providing a naturally progressive path of learning in g. hu towards developing expertise in the implementation and maintenance of Huawei enterprise networks. The step-by-step training establishes a firm foundational knowledge of data communications, and establishment of fundamental networks, with gradual implementation of switching, routing, WAN, security technologies and services to establish industry relevant enterprise networks. The modularity of the guide allows for selective reading to accommodate for each stage of personal development. rn Prerequisites As an associate level course for Huawei certification, the reader is expected to /l ea have a working knowledge of networks and IT technologies. :/ Security Declaration System/Patch Software Usage Declaration s: ht tp When upgrading the device software or installing a patch, the MD5 hash value can be checked to confirm software validity. In order to prevent the software from being modified or replaced, and so prevent potential security risks, you are advised to perform this operation. ce Password Configuration Declaration Re so ur A password configured as plain text is saved in the configuration file in plain text. Plain text passwords represent a high security risk and so the use of cipher text passwords is recommended. To ensure device security, do not disable the password complexity check feature where supported, and change the password periodically. ng When configuring the password in cipher text, do not start with or end with the following characters. If the password starts with or ends with the following ni characters, the password will be displayed in the configuration file. ar For versions earlier than V200R005C00: The password cannot start with or end with %$%$......%$%$. Le For version V200R005C00: Mo re with %@%@......%@%@. The password cannot start with or end n aw ei .c om /e For V200R005C10 and later versions: The password cannot start with or end with %@%@......%@%@ or @%@%......@%@%. Encryption Algorithm Declaration used to ensure security defense requirements are met. in g. hu VRP currently supports the following encryption algorithms: DES, 3DES, AES, RSA, SHA1, SHA-2, and MD5. The encryption algorithm applied will depend on the applicable scenario. It is recommended the following encryption algorithms be For symmetrical encryption, use AES with a key of 128 bits or higher. rn For asymmetrical encryption, use RSA with the key of 2048 bits or higher. For hash algorithms, use SHA2 with a key of 256 bits or higher. /l ea For HMAC algorithms, use HMAC-SHA2. :/ Personal Data Declaration ht tp Some personal data may be obtained or used during operation or fault location of purchased products, services and features for which you are obligated to make privacy policies and take measures according to the applicable laws of the country to protect personal data. s: Feature Usage Declaration ur ce Devices can transfer files through FTP, TFTP, and SFTP using SSHv1.99 or SSHv2. Using FTP, TFTP, or SFTP with SSHv1.99 has potential security risks, therefore SFTP with SSHv2.0 is recommended. so Telnet and STelnet can be used to log in to the device. Using Telnet or STelnet Re with SSHv1.99 has potential security risks, therefore use of STelnet with SSHv2.0 is recommended. HTTP and HTTPS can be used to log in to the web NMS. Using HTTP has ng potential security risks, therefore HTTPS is recommended. Mo re Le ar ni SNMPv1, SNMPv2c and SNMPv3 can be used to manage network elements. Using SNMPv1 and SNMPv2c has potential security risks. SNMPv3 is therefore recommended. n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu Devices support a mirroring function that is used for network detection and fault management, and may involve personal communication information. Huawei cannot collect or store user communication information without permission. It is recommended that relevant functions used to collect or store user communication information be enabled under applicable laws and regulations. During user communication, information usage and storage, measures must be taken to protect user communication information. rn Devices support NetStream which collects statistics and analyzes service traffic. During service provisioning, personal data may be involved for which you are obligated to make privacy policies and take measures according to the applicable laws of the country to protect personal data. Devices support the packet capture function. This function is mainly used to tp :/ /l ea detect transmission faults and errors. Huawei cannot collect or store user communication information without permission. It is recommended that relevant functions used to collect or store user communication information be enabled under applicable laws and regulations. During user communication information collection and storage, measures must be taken to protect user communication information. s: ht Devices support IPS and URL filtering that involves personal communication, information collection or storage. Huawei will not collect or save user communication information independently. You must use the features in ur ce compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Ensure that your customers' privacy is protected when you are collecting or saving communication information. Command Usage Declaration so This documentation describes commands used on Huawei devices for network Re deployment and maintenance. The commands (system, interface etc.) for production, manufacturing, or repair for returned products, are not described here. Mo re Le ar ni ng If some advanced commands for engineering or fault location are incorrectly used, exceptions may occur or services may be interrupted. It is recommended that the advanced commands be used by engineers with relevant rights. If necessary, an application for support from Huawei should be made. re Mo ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu Icons Used in this Book Convergence switch Access switch Hub Host Terminal Portable computer Access server Telephone Firewall RADIUS Server Mail Server Access Point IP telephone Storage server App Server Dome Camera PTZ Camera ht tp :/ /l ea rn Router Tablet computer s: Smartphone ur ce NMS Access Controller Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so IPTV DSLAM n in g. hu Introduction aw ei .c om /e Huawei Certification Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht tp :/ /l ea rn The Basic Enterprise Network Architecture Huawei Technologies Co.,Ltd re Mo ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 15 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 16 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 17 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht The enterprise network originally represents the interconnection of systems belonging to a given functional group or organization to primarily enable the sharing of resources such as printers and file servers, communication support through means such as email, and the evolution towards applications that enable collaboration between users. Enterprise networks can be found today present within various industries from office environments to larger energy, finance and government based industries, which often comprise of enterprise networks that span multiple physical locations. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The introduction of the Internet as a public network domain allowed for an extension of the existing enterprise network to occur, through which geographically dispersed networks belonging to a single organization or entity could be connected, bringing with it a set of new challenges to establish interconnectivity between geographically dispersed enterprise networks, whilst maintaining the privacy and security of data belonging to an individual enterprise. Page 18 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Various challenges impact today’s industries in providing solutions for establishment of interconnectivity between remote locations, which often take the form of regional branch and head offices, as well as employees that represent a non fixed entity within the enterprise network, often being present in locations beyond the conventional boundaries of the existing enterprise. Challenges for industries have created a demand for ubiquitous networks that allow the enterprise network to be available from any location and at any time, to ensure access to resources and tools that allow for the effective delivery of support and services to industry partners and customers. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so The evolution in enterprise solutions has enabled for public and third party IP networks to provide this anywhere anytime connectivity, along with the development of technologies that establish private network connections over this public network infrastructure, to extend the remote capabilities of the enterprise network beyond the physical boundaries of the enterprise, allowing remote office and users alike to establish a single enterprise domain that spans over a large geographic expanse. Page 19 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Enterprise network architecture solutions vary significantly depending on the requirement of the industry and the organization. Smaller enterprise businesses may often have a very limited requirement in terms of complexity and demand, opting to implement a flat form of network, mainly due to the size of the organization that is often restricted to a single geographical location or within a few sites, supporting access to common resources, while enabling flexibility within the organization to support a smaller number of users. The cost to implement and maintain such networks is significantly reduced, however the network is often susceptible to failure due to lack of redundancy, and performance may vary based on daily operations and network demand. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Larger enterprise networks implement solutions to ensure minimal network failure, controlled access and provision for a variety of services to support the day-to-day operations of the organization. A multi layered architecture is defined to optimize traffic flow, apply policies for traffic management and controlled access to resources, as well as maintain network availability and stable operation through effective network redundancy. The multi layer design also enables easy expansion, and together with a modular design that provides for effective isolation and maintenance should problems in the network occur, without impacting the entire network. Page 20 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht 1. Small enterprise networks that implement a flat network architecture may limit the capability to scale the network in the event of growth in the number of users. Where it is expected that a larger number of users will need to be supported, a hierarchical approach to enterprise networks should be considered. Medium-sized networks will generally support a greater number of users, and therefore will typically implement a hierarchical network infrastructure to allow the network to grow and support the required user base. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur 2. Small and medium sized enterprise networks must take into account the performance of the network as well as providing redundancy in the event of network failure in order to maintain service availability to all users. As the network grows, the threat to the security of the network also increases which may also hinder services. Page 21 re Mo Page 22 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e Module 1 in g. hu Huawei Certification Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht tp :/ /l ea rn Building Basic IP Networks Huawei Technologies Co.,Ltd re Mo ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 25 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 26 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 27 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht A network can be understood to be the capability of two or more entities to communicate over a given medium. The development of any network relies on this same principle for establishing communication. Commonly the entities within a network that are responsible for the transmission and reception of communication are known as end stations, while the means by which communication is enabled is understood to be the medium. Within an enterprise network, the medium exists in a variety of forms from a physical cable to radio waves. Page 28 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The coaxial cable represents a more historic form of transmission medium that may today be limited in usage within the enterprise network. As a transmission medium, the coaxial cable comprises generally of two standards, the 10Base2 and 10Base5 forms, that are known as Thinnet or Thinwire, and Thicknet or Thickwire respectively. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The standards both support a transmission capacity of 10Mbps transmitted as baseband signals for respective distances of 185 and 500 meters. In today’s enterprise networks, the transmission capacity is extremely limited to be of any significant application. The Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector is the common form of connector used for thin 10Base2 coaxial cables, while a type N connector was applied to the thicker 10Base5 transmission medium. Page 29 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Ethernet cabling has become the standard for many enterprise networks providing a transmission medium that supports a much higher transmission capacity. The medium supports a four copper wire pair contained within a sheath which may or may not be shielded against external electrical interference. The transmission capacity is determined mainly based on the category of cable with category 5 (CAT5) supporting Fast Ethernet transmission capacity of up to 100Mbps, while a higher Gigabit Ethernet transmission capacity is supported from Category 5 extended (CAT5e) standards and higher. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so The transmission over Ethernet as a physical medium is also susceptible to attenuation, causing the transmission range to be limited to 100 meters. The RJ-45 connector is used to provide connectivity with wire pair cabling requiring specific pin ordering within the RJ-45 connector, to ensure correct transmission and reception by end stations over the transmission medium. Page 30 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Optical media uses light as a means of signal transmission as opposed to electrical signals found within both Ethernet and coaxial media types. The optical fiber medium supports a range of standards of 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps and also 10Gbps (10GBASE) transmission. Single or multi-mode fiber defines the use of an optical transmission medium for propagating of light, where single mode refers to a single mode of optical transmission being propagated, and is used commonly for high speed transmission over long distances. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur Multi mode supports propagation of multiple modes of optical transmission that are susceptible to attenuation as a result of dispersion of light along the optical medium, and therefore is not capable of supporting transmission over longer distances. This mode is often applied to local area networks which encompass a much smaller transmission range. There are an extensive number of fiber connector standards with some of the more common forms being recognized as the ST connector, LC connector and SC, or snap connector. Page 31 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp so ur ce s: ht Serial represents a standard initially developed over 50 years ago to support reliable transmission between devices, during which time many evolutions of the standard have taken place. The serial connection is designed to support the transmission of data as a serial stream of bits. The common standard implemented is referred to as (Recommended Standard) RS-232 but it is limited somewhat by both distance and speed. Original RS-232 standards define that communication speeds supported be no greater that 20Kbps, based on a cable length of 50ft (15 meters), however transmission speeds for serial is unlikely to be lower than 115 Kbps. The general behavior for serial means that as the length of the cable increases, the supported bit rate will decrease, with an approximation that a cable of around 150 meters, or 10 times the original standards, the supported bit rate will be halved. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re Other serial standards have the capability to achieve much greater transmission ranges, such as is the case with the RS-422 and RS-485 standards that span distances of up to 4900ft (1200 meters) and are often supported by V.35 connectors that were made obsolete during the late 1980’s but are still often found and maintained today in support of technologies such as Frame Relay and ATM, where implemented. RS-232 itself does not define connector standards, however two common forms of connector that support the RS-232 standard include the DB-9 and DB-25 connectors. Newer serial standards have been developed to replace much of the existing RS-232 serial technology, including both FireWire and the universal serial bus (USB) standards, that latter of which is becoming common place in many newer products and devices. Page 32 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht In order to enable communication over physical links, signals must be transmitted between the transmitting and receiving stations. This signal will vary depending on the medium that is being used, as in the case of optical and wireless transmission. The main purpose of the signal is to ensure that synchronization (or clocking) between the sender and receiver over a physical medium is maintained, as well as support transmission of the data signal in a form that can be interpreted by both the sender and receiver. Re so ur A waveform is commonly recognized as a property of line encoding where the voltage is translated into a binary representation of 0 and 1 values that can be translated by the receiving station. Various line coding standards exist, with 10Base Ethernet standards supporting a line encoding standard known as Manchester encoding. Fast Ethernet with a frequency range of 100MHz invokes a higher frequency than can be supported when using Manchester encoding. Mo re Le ar ni ng An alternative form of line encoding is therefore used known as NZRI, which in itself contains variations dependant on the physical media, thus supporting MLT-3 for 100Base-TX and 100Base-FX together with extended line encoding known as 4B/5B encoding to deal with potential clocking issues. 100Base-T4 for example uses another form known as 8B/6T extended line encoding. Gigabit Ethernet supports 8B/10B line encoding with the exception of 1000Base-T which relies on a complex block encoding referred to as 4DPAM5. Page 33 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Ethernet represents what is understood to be a multi-access network, in which two or more end stations share a common transmission medium for the forwarding of data. The shared network is however susceptible to transmission collisions where data is forwarded by end stations simultaneously over a common medium. A segment where such occurrences are possible is referred to as a shared collision domain. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce End stations within such a collision domain rely on contention for the transmission of data to an intended destination. This contentious behavior requires each end station monitor for incoming data on the segment before making any attempt to transmit, in a process referred to as Carrier Sense Multiple-Access Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). However, even after taking such precautions the potential for the occurrence of collisions as a result of simultaneous transmission by two end stations remains highly probable. Page 34 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht Transmission modes are defined in the form of half and full duplex, to determine the behavior involved with the transmission of data over the physical medium. so ur ce s: Half duplex refers to the communication of two or more devices over a shared physical medium in which a collision domain exists, and with it CSMA/CD is required to detect for such collisions. This begins with the station listening for reception of traffic on its own interface, and where it is quiet for a given period, will proceed to transmit its data. If a collision were to occur, transmission would cease, followed by initiation of a backoff algorithm to prevent further transmissions until a random value timer expires, following which retransmission can be reattempted. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re Full duplex defines the simultaneous bidirectional communication over dedicated point to point wire pairs, ensuring that there is no potential for collisions to occur, and thus there is no requirement for CSMA/CD. Page 35 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht 1. Gigabit Ethernet transmission is supported by CAT 5e cabling and higher, and also any form of 1000Base Fiber Optic cabling or greater. ur ce s: 2. A collision domain is a network segment for which the same physical medium is used for bi-directional communication. Data simultaneously transmitted between hosts on the same shared network medium is susceptible to a collision of signals before those signals reach the intended destination. This generally results in malformed signals either larger or smaller than the acceptable size for transmission (64 bytes – 1500 bytes), also know as runts and giants, being received by the recipient. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so 3. CSMA/CD is a mechanism for detecting and minimizing the possibility of collision events that are likely to occur in a shared network. CSMA requires that the transmitting host first listen for signals on the shared medium prior to transmission. In the event that no transmissions are detected, transmission can proceed. In the unfortunate circumstance that signals are transmitted simultaneously and a collision occurs, collision detection processes are applied to cease transmission for a locally generated period of time, to allow collision events to clear and to avoid further collisions from occurring between transmitting hosts. Page 36 re Mo Page 37 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 38 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 39 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 40 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Communication over networks relies on the application of rules that govern how data is transmitted and processed in a manner that is understood by both the sending and receiving entities. As a result, multiple standards have been developed over the course of time with some standards becoming widely adopted. There exists however a clear distinction between the standards that manage physical data flow and the standards responsible for logical forwarding and delivery of traffic. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The IEEE 802 standards represent a universal standard for managing the physical transmission of data across the physical network and comprises of standards including the Ethernet standard 802.3 for physical transmission over local area networks. Alternative standards exist for transmission over wide area networks operating over serial based media, including Frame Relay, HDLC and more legacy standards such as ATM. TCP/IP has been widely adopted as the protocol suite defining the upper layer standards, regulating the rules (protocols) and behavior involved in managing the logical forwarding and delivery between end stations. Page 41 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The TCP/IP reference model primarily concerns with the core principles of the protocol suite, which can be understood as the logical transmission and delivery of traffic between end stations. As such the TCP/IP protocol reference model provides a four layer representation of the network, summarizing physical forwarding behavior under the network interface layer, since lower layer operation is not the concern of the TCP/IP protocol suite. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce Primary focus remains on the network (or Internet) layer which deals with how traffic is logically forwarded between networks, and the transport (sometimes referred to as host-to-host) layer that manages the end-to-end delivery of traffic, ensuring reliability of transportation between the source and destination end stations. The application layer represents an interface through a variety of protocols that enable services to be applied to end user application processes. Page 42 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht Although the TCP/IP reference model is primarily supported as the standard model based on TCP/IP protocol suite, the focus of the TCP/IP reference model does not clearly separate and distinguish the functionality when referring lower layer physical transmission. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: In light of this, the open systems interconnection, or OSI reference model is often recognized as the model for reference to IEEE 802 standards due to the clear distinction and representation of the behavior of lower layers which closely matches the LAN/MAN reference model standards that are defined as part of the documented IEEE 802-1990 standards for local and metropolitan area networks. In addition the model, that is generally in reference to the ISO protocol suite, provides an extended breakdown of upper layer processing. Page 43 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht As upper layer application data is determined for transmission over a network from an end system, a series of processes and instructions must be applied to the data before transmission can be successfully achieved. This process of appending and pre-pending instructions to data is referred to as encapsulation and for which each layer of the reference model is designed to represent. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce As instructions are applied to the data, the general size of the data increases. The additional instructions represent overhead to the existing data and are recognized as instructions to the layer at which the instructions were applied. To other layers, the encapsulated instructions are not distinguished from the original data. The final appending of instructions is performed as part of the lower layer protocol standards (such as the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard) before being carried as an encoded signal over a physical medium. Page 44 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht As part of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard, data is encapsulated with instructions in the form of a header and a trailer before it can be propagated over physical media on which Ethernet is supported. Each stage of encapsulation is referred to by a protocol data unit or PDU, which at the data link layer is known as a frame. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce Ethernet frames contain instructions that govern how and whether data can be transmitted over the medium between two or more points. Ethernet frames come in two general formats, the selection of which is highly dependant on the protocols that have been defined prior to the framing encapsulation. Page 45 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp so ur ce s: ht Two frame formats are recognized as standard for Ethernet based networks. The DIX version 2 frame type standard was originally developed during the early 1980’s, where today it is recognized as the Ethernet II frame type. Ethernet II was eventually accepted and integrated into the IEEE 802 standards, highlighted as part of section 3.2.6 of the IEEE 802.3x-1997 standards documentation. The IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard was originally developed in 1983, with key differences between the frame formats including a change to the type field that is designed to identify the protocol to which the data should be forwarded to once the frame instructions have been processed. In the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet format, this is represented as a length field which relies on an extended set of instructions referred to as 802.2 LLC to identify the forwarding protocol. ni ng Re Ethernet II and IEEE 802.3 associate with upper layer protocols that are distinguished by a type value range, where protocols supporting a value less than or equal to 1500 (or 05DC in Hexadecimal) will employ the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet frame type at the data link layer. Protocols represented by a type value greater than or equal to 1536 (or 0600 in Hexadecimal) will employ the Ethernet II standard, and which represents the majority of all frames within Ethernet based networks. Mo re Le ar Other fields found within the frame include the destination and source MAC address fields that identify the sender and the intended recipient(s), as well as the frame check sequence field that is used to confirm the integrity of the frame during transmission. Page 46 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The Ethernet II frame references a hexadecimal type value which identifies the upper layer protocol. One common example of this is the Internet Protocol (IP) which is represented by a hexadecimal value of 0x0800. Since this value for IP represents a value greater than 0x0600 , it is determined that the Ethernet II frame type should be applied during encapsulation. Another common protocol that relies on the Ethernet II frame type at the data link layer is ARP, and is represented by the hexadecimal value of 0x0806. Page 47 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht For the IEEE 802.3 frame type, the type field is contained as part of the SNAP extension header and is not so commonly applied the protocols in today’s networks, partially due to the requirement for additional instructions which results in additional overhead per frame. Some older protocols that have existed for many years but that are still applied in support of Ethernet networks are likely to apply the IEEE 802.3 frame type. One clear example of this is found in the case of the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) that is represented by a value of 0x03 within the type field of the SNAP header. Page 48 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht Ethernet based networks achieve communication between two end stations on a local area network using Media Access Control (MAC) addressing that allows end systems within a multi access network to be distinguished. The MAC address is a physical address that is burned into the network interface card to which the physical medium is connected. This same MAC address is retrieved and used as the destination MAC address of the intended receiver by the sender, before the frame is transferred to the physical layer for forwarding over the connected medium. Page 49 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht Each MAC address is a 48 bit value commonly represented in a hexadecimal (base 16) format and comprised of two parts that attempt to ensure that every MAC address is globally unique. This is achieved by the defining of an organizationally unique identifier that is vendor specific, based on which it is possible to trace the origin of a product back to its vendor based on the first 24 bits of the MAC address. The remaining 24 bits of the MAC address is a value that is incrementally and uniquely assigned to each product (e.g. a Network Interface Card or similar product supporting port interfaces for which a MAC is required). Page 50 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht The transmission of frames within a local network is achieved using one of three forwarding methods, the first of these is unicast and refers to the transmission from a single source location to a single destination. Each host interface is represented by a unique MAC address, containing an organizationally unique identifier, for which the 8th bit of the most significant octet (or first byte) in the MAC address field identifies the type of address. This 8th bit is always set to 0 where the MAC address is a host MAC address, and signifies that any frame containing this MAC address in the destination MAC address field is intended for a single destination only. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Where hosts exist within a shared collision domain, all connected hosts will receive the unicast transmission but the frame will be generally ignored by all hosts where the MAC address in the destination MAC field of the frame does not match the MAC value of the receiving host on a given interface, leaving only the intended host to accept and process the received data. Unicast transmissions are only forwarded from a single physical interface to the intended destination, even in cases where multiple interfaces may exist. Page 51 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Broadcast transmission represents a forwarding method that allows frames to be flooded from a single source received by all destinations within a local area network. In order to allow traffic to be broadcasted to all hosts within a local area network, the destination MAC address field of the frame is populated with a value that is defined in hexadecimal as FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF, and which specifies that all recipients of a frame with this address defined should accept receipt of this frame and process the frame header and trailer. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur Broadcasts are used by protocols to facilitate a number of important network processes including discovery and maintenance of network operation, however also generate excessive traffic that often causes interrupts to end systems and utilization of bandwidth that tend to reduce the overall performance of the network. Page 52 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht A more efficient alternative to broadcast that has begun to replace the use of broadcasts in many newer technologies is the multicast frame type. Multicast forwarding can be understood as a form of selective broadcast that allows select hosts to listen for a specific multicast MAC address in addition to the unicast MAC address that is associated with the host, and process any frames containing the multicast MAC address in the destination MAC field of the frame. so ur Since there is no relative distinction between unicast MAC addresses and multicast MAC address formats, the multicast address is differentiated using the 8th bit of the first octet. Where this bit value represents a value of 1, it identifies that the address is part of the multicast MAC address range, as opposed to unicast MAC addresses where this value is always 0. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re In a local area network, the true capability of multicast behavior at the data link layer is limited since forwarding remains similar to that of a broadcast frame in which interrupts are still prevalent throughout the network. The only clear difference with broadcast technology is in the selective processing by receiving end stations. As networks expand to support multiple local area networks, the true capability of multicast technology as an efficient means of transmission becomes more apparent. Page 53 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht As traffic is prepared to be forwarded over the physical network, it is necessary for hosts in shared collision domains to determine whether any traffic is currently occupying the transmission medium. Transmission media such as in the case of 10Base2 provides a shared medium over which CSMA/CD must be applied to ensure collisions are handled should they occur. If the transmission of a frame is detected on the link, the host will delay the forwarding of its own frames until such time as the line becomes available, following which the host will begin to forward frames from the physical interface towards the intended destination. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Where two hosts are connected over a medium capable of supporting full duplex transmission as in the case of media such as 10BaseT, it is considered not possible for transmitted frames to suffer collisions since transmission and receipt of frames occurs over separate wires and therefore there is no requirement for CSMA/CD to be implemented. Page 54 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Once a frame is forwarded from the physical interface of the host, it is carried over the medium to its intended destination. In the case of a shared network, the frame may be received by multiple hosts who will assess whether the frame is intended for their interface by analyzing the destination MAC address in the frame header. If the destination MAC address and the MAC address of the host are not the same, or the destination MAC address is not a MAC broadcast or multicast address to which the host is listening for, the frame will be ignored and discarded. Re so ur For the intended destination, the frame will be received and processed, initially by confirming that the frame is intended for the hosts physical interface. The host must also confirm that the integrity of the frame has been maintained during transmission by taking the value of the frame check sequence (FCS) field and comparing this value with a value determined by the receiving host. If the values do not match, the frame will be considered as corrupted and will be subsequently discarded. Mo re Le ar ni ng For valid frames, the host will then need to determine the next stage of processing by analyzing the type field of the frame header and identify the protocol to which this frame is intended. In this example the frame type field contains a hexadecimal value of 0x0800 that identifies that the data taken from the frame should be forwarded to the Internet Protocol, prior to which, the frame header and trailer are discarded. Page 55 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht 1. Data link layer frames contain a Type field that references the next protocol to which data contained within the frame should be forwarded. Common examples of forwarding protocols include IP (0x0800) and ARP (0x0806). Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: 2. The destination MAC address contained within the frame header is analyzed by the receiving end station and compared to the MAC address associated with the interface on which the frame was received. If the destination MAC address and interface MAC address do not match, the frame is discarded. Page 56 re Mo Page 57 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 58 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 59 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 60 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Prior to discarding the frame header and trailer, it is necessary for the next set of instructions to be processed to be determined from the frame header. As highlighted, this is identified by determining the field value in the type field, which in the this instance represents a frame that is destined for the IP protocol following completion of the frame process. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The key function of the frame is to determine whether the intended physical destination has been reached, that the integrity of the frame has remained in tact. The focus of this section will identify how data is processed following the discarding of the frame headers and propagation of the remaining data to the Internet Protocol. Page 61 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The IP header is used to support two key operations, routing and fragmentation. Routing is the mechanism that allows traffic from a given network to be forwarded to other networks, since the data link layer represents a single network for which network boundaries exist. Fragmentation refers to the breaking down of data into manageable blocks that can be transmitted over the network. ng Re so ur ce The IP header is carried as part of the data and represents an overhead of at least 20 bytes that references how traffic can be forwarded between networks, where the intended destination exists within a network different from the network on which the data was originally transmitted. The version field identifies the version of IP that is currently being supported, in this case the version is known as version four or IPv4. The DS field was originally referred to as the type of service field however now operates as a field for supporting differentiated services, primarily used as a mechanism for applying quality of service (QoS) for network traffic optimization, and is considered to be outside of the scope of this training. Mo re Le ar ni The source and destination IP addressing are logical addresses assigned to hosts and used to reference the sender and the intended receiver at the network layer. IP addressing allows for assessment as to whether an intended destination exists within the same network or a different network as a means of aiding the routing process between networks in order to reach destinations beyond the local area network. Page 62 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Each IPv4 address represents a 32 bit value that is often displayed in a dotted decimal format but for detailed understanding of the underlying behavior is also represented in a binary (Base 2) format. IP addresses act as identifiers for end systems as well as other devices within the network, as a means of allowing such devices to be reachable both locally and by sources that are located remotely, beyond the boundaries of the current network. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The IP address consists of two fields of information that are used to clearly specify the network to which an IP address belongs as well as a host identifier within the network range, that is for the most part unique within the given network. Page 63 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Each network range contains two important addresses that are excluded from the assignable network range to hosts or other devices. The first of these excluded addresses is the network address that represents a given network as opposed to a specific host within the network. The network address is identifiable by referring to the host field of the network address, in which the binary values within this range are all set to 0, for which it should also be noted that an all 0 binary value may not always represent a 0 value in the dotted decimal notation. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The second excluded address is the broadcast address that is used by the network layer to refer to any transmission that is expected to be sent to all destinations within a given network. The broadcast address is represented within the host field of the IP address where the binary values within this range are all set to 1. Host addresses make up the range that exists between the network and broadcast addresses. Page 64 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The use of binary, decimal and hexadecimal notations are commonly applied throughout IP networks to represent addressing schemes, protocols and parameters, and therefore knowledge of the fundamental construction of these base forms is important to understanding the behavior and application of values within IP networks. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce Each numbering system is represented by a different base value that highlights the number of values used as part of the base notations range. In the case of binary, only two values are ever used, 0 and 1, which in combination can provide for an increasing number of values, often represented as 2 to the power of x, where x denotes the number of binary values. Hexadecimal represents a base 16 notation with values ranging from 0 to F, (0-9 and A-F) where A represents the next value following 9 and F thus represents a value equivalent to 15 in decimal, or 1111 in binary. Page 65 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht A byte is understood to contain 8 bits and acts as a common notation within IP networks, thus a byte represents a bit value of 256, ranging from 0 through to 255. This information is clearly represented through translation of decimal notation to binary, and application of the base power to each binary value, to achieve the 256 bit value range. A translation of the numbering system for binary can be seen given in the example to allow familiarization with the numbering patterns associated with binary. The example also clearly demonstrates how broadcast address values in decimal, binary and hexadecimal are represented to allow for broadcasts to be achieved in both IP and MAC addressing at the network and data link layers. Page 66 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The combination of 32 bits within an IP address correlates to four octets or bytes for which each can represent a value range of 256, giving a theoretical number of 4’294’967’296 possible IP addresses, however in truth only a fraction of the total number of addresses are able to be assigned to hosts. Each bit within a byte represents a base power and as such each octet can represent a specific network class, with each network class being based on either a single octet or a combination of octets. Three octets have been used as part of this example to represent the network with the fourth octet representing the host range that is supported by the network. Page 67 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht The number of octets supported by a network address is determined by address classes that break down the address scope of IPv4. Classes A, B and C are assignable address ranges, each of which supports a varied number of networks, and a number of hosts that are assignable to a given network. Class A for instance consist of 126 potential networks, each of which can support 224, or 16’777’216 potential host addresses, bearing in mind that network and broadcast addresses of a class range are not assignable to hosts. Re so ur In truth, a single Ethernet network could never support such a large number of hosts since Ethernet does not scale well, due in part to broadcasts that generate excessive network traffic within a single local area network. Class C address ranges allow for a much more balanced network that scales well to Ethernet networks, supplying just over 2 million potential networks, with each network capable of supporting around 256 addresses, of which 254 are assignable to hosts. Mo re Le ar ni ng Class D is a range reserved for multicast, to allow hosts to listen for a specific address within this range, and should the destination address of a packet contain a multicast address for which the host is listening, the packet shall be processed in the same way as a packet destined for the hosts assigned IP address. Each class is easily distinguishable in binary by observing the bit value within the first octet, where a class A address for instance will always begin with a 0 for the high order bit, whereas in a Class B the first two high order bits are always set as 1 and 0, allowing all classes to be easily determined in binary. Page 68 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Within IPv4, specific addresses and address ranges have been reserved for special purposes. Private address ranges exist within the class A, B and C address ranges to prolong the rapid decline in the number of available IP addresses. The number of actual end systems and devices that require IP addressing in the world today exceeds the 4’294’967’296 addresses of the 32 bit IPv4 address range, and therefore a solution to this escalating problem was to allocate private address ranges that could be assigned to private networks, to allow for conservation of public network addresses that facilitate communication over public network infrastructures such as the Internet. Re so Private networks have become common throughout the enterprise network but hosts are unable to interact with the public network, meaning that address ranges can be reused in many disparate enterprise networks. Traffic bound for public networks however must undergo a translation of addresses before data can reach the intended destination. Mo re Le ar ni ng Other special addresses include a diagnostic range denoted by the 127.0.0.0 network address, as well as the first and last addresses within the IPv4 address range, for which 0.0.0.0 represents any network and for which its application shall be introduced in more detail along with principles of routing. The address 255.255.255.255 represents a broadcast address for the IPv4 (0.0.0.0) network, however the scope of any broadcast in IP is restricted to the boundaries of the local area network from which the broadcast is generated. Page 69 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht In order for a host to forward traffic to a destination, it is necessary for a host to have knowledge of the destination network. A host is naturally aware of the network to which it belongs but is not generally aware of other networks, even when those networks may be considered part of the same physical network. As such hosts will not forward data intended for a given destination until the host learns of the network and thus with it the interface via which the destination can be reached. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur For a host to forward traffic to another host, it must firstly determine whether the destination is part of the same IP network. This is achieved through comparison of the destination network to the source network (host IP address) from which the data is originating. Where the network ranges match, the packet can be forwarded to the lower layers where Ethernet framing presides, for processing. In the case where the intended destination network varies from the originating network, the host is expected to have knowledge of the intended network and the interface via which a packet/frame should be forwarded before the packet can be processed by the lower layers. Without this information, the host will proceed to drop the packet before it even reaches the data link layer. Page 70 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The identification of a unique network segment is governed by the implementation of a mask value that is used to distinguish the number of bits that represent the network segment, for which the remaining bits are understood as representing the number of hosts supported within a given network segment. A network administrator can divide a network address into sub-networks so that broadcast packets are transmitted within the boundaries of a single subnet. The subnet mask consists of a string of continuous and unbroken 1 values followed by an similar unbroken string of 0 values. The 1 values correspond to the network ID field whereas the 0 values correspond to the host ID field. Page 71 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht For each class of network address, a corresponding subnet mask is applied to specify the default size of the network segment. Any network considered to be part of the class A address range is fixed with a default subnet mask pertaining to 8 leftmost bits which comprise of the first octet of the IP address, with the remaining three octets remaining available for host ID assignment. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce In a similar manner, the class B network reflects a default subnet mask of 16 bits, allowing a greater number of networks within the class B range at the cost of the number of hosts that can be assigned per default network. The class C network defaults to a 24 bit mask that provides a large number of potential networks but limits greatly the number of hosts that can be assigned within the default network. The default networks provide a common boundary to address ranges, however in the case of class A and class B address ranges, do not provide a practical scale for address allocation for Ethernet based networks. Page 72 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Application of the subnet mask to a given IP address enables identification of the network to which the host belongs. The subnet mask will also identify the broadcast address for the network as well as the number of hosts that can be supported as part of the network range. Such information provides the basis for effective network address planning. In the example given, a host has been identified with the address of 192.168.1.7 as part of a network with a 24 bit default (class C) subnet mask applied. In distinguishing which part of the IP address constitutes the network and host segments, the default network address can be determined for the segment. Re so This is understood as the address where all host bit values are set to 0, in this case generating a default network address of 192.168.1.0. Where the host values are represented by a continuous string of 1 values, the broadcast address for the network can be determined. Where the last octet contains a string of 1 values, it represents a decimal value of 255, for which a broadcast address of 192.168.1.255 can be derived. Mo re Le ar ni ng Possible host addresses are calculated based on a formula of 2n where n represents the number of host bits defined by the subnet mask. In this instance n represents a value of 8 host bits, where 28 gives a resulting value of 256. The number of usable host addresses however requires that the network and broadcast addresses be deducted from this result to give a number of valid host addresses of 254. Page 73 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The case scenario provides a common class B address range to which it is necessary to determine the network to which the specified host belongs, along with the broadcast address and the number of valid hosts that are supported by the given network. Applying the same principles as with the class C address range, it is possible for the network address of the host to be determined, along with the range of hosts within the given network. Page 74 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht One of the main constraints of the default subnet mask occurs when multiple network address ranges are applied to a given enterprise in order to generate logical boundaries between the hosts within the physical enterprise network. The application of a basic addressing scheme may require a limited number of hosts to be associated with a given network, for which multiple networks are applied to provide the logical segmentation of the network. In doing so however, a great deal of address space remains unused, displaying the inefficiency of default subnet mask application. Page 75 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht As a means of resolving the limitations of default subnet masks, the concept of variable length subnet masks are introduced, which enable a default subnet mask to be broken down into multiple sub-networks, which may be of a fixed length (a.k.a. fixed length subnet masks or FLSM) or of a variable length known commonly by the term VLSM. The implementation of such subnet masks consists of taking a default class based network and dividing the network through manipulation of the subnet mask. so ur In the example given, a simple variation has been made to the default class C network which by default is governed by a 24 bit mask. The variation comes in the form of a borrowed bit from the host ID which has been applied as part of the network address. Where the deviation of bits occurs in comparison to the default network, the additional bits represent what is known as the subnet ID. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re In this case a single bit has been taken to represent the sub-network for which two sub-networks can be derived, since a single bit value can only represent two states of either 1 or 0. Where the bit is set to 0 it represents a value of 0, where is it is set to 1 it represents a value of 128. In setting the host bits to 0, the sub-network address can be found for each sub-network, by setting the host bits to 1, the broadcast address for each sub-network is identifiable. The number of supported hosts in this case represents a value of 27 minus the sub-network address and broadcast address for each sub-network, resulting in each sub-network supporting a total of 126 valid host addresses. Page 76 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht In relation to problem of address limitations in which default networks resulted in excessive address wastage, the concept of variable length subnet masks can be applied to reduce the address wastage and provide a more effective addressing scheme to the enterprise network. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: A single default class C address range has been defined, for which variable length subnet masks are required to accommodate each of the logical networks within a single default address range. Effective subnet mask assignment requires that the number of host bits necessary to accommodate the required number of hosts be determined, for which the remaining host bits can be applied as part of the subnet ID, that represents the variation in the network ID from the default network address. Page 77 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp so ur ce s: ht Classless inter-domain routing was initially introduced as a solution to handle problems that were occurring as a result of the rapid growth of what is now known as the Internet. The primary concerns were to the imminent exhaustion of the class B address space that was commonly adopted by mid-sized organizations as the most suited address range, where class C was inadequate and where class A was too vast, and management of the 65534 host addresses could be achieved through VLSM. Additionally, the continued growth meant that gateway devices such as routers were beginning to struggle to keep up with the growing number of networks that such devices were expected to handle. The solution given involves transitioning to a classless addressing system in which classful boundaries were replaced with address prefixes. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re This notation works on the principle that classful address ranges such as that of class C can be understood to have a 24 bit prefix that represents the subnet or major network boundary, and for which it is possible to summarize multiple network prefixes into a single larger network address prefix that represents the same networks but as a single address prefix. This has helped to alleviate the number of routes that are contained particularly within large scale routing devices that operate on a global scale, and has provided a more effective means of address management. The result of CIDR has had far reaching effects and is understood to have effectively slowed the overall exhaustion rate of the IPv4 address space. Page 78 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The forwarding of packets requires that the packet first determine a forwarding path to a given network, and the interface via which a packet should be forwarded from, before being encapsulated as a frame and forwarded from the physical interface. In the case where the intended network is different from the originating network, the packet must be forwarded to a gateway via which the packet is able to reach it’s intended destination. Re so ur ce In all networks, the gateway is a device that is capable of handling packets and making decisions as to how packets should be routed, in order to reach their intended destination. The device in question however must be aware of a route to the intended destination IP network before the routing of packets can take place. Where networks are divided by a physical gateway, the interface IP address (in the same network or sub-network) via which that gateway can be reached is considered to be the gateway address. Mo re Le ar ni ng In the case of hosts that belong to different networks that are not divided by a physical gateway, it is the responsibility of the host to function as the gateway, for which the host must firstly be aware of the route for the network to which packets are to be forwarded, and should specify the hosts own interface IP address as the gateway IP address, via which the intended destination network can be reached. Page 79 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The data of forwarded packets exists in many formats and consists of varying sizes, often the size of data to be transmitted exceeds the size that is supported for transmission. Where this occurs it is necessary for the data block to be broken down into smaller blocks of data before transmission can occur. The process of breaking down this data into manageable blocks is known as fragmentation. Re so ur ce The identification, flags and fragment offset fields are used to manage reassembly of fragments of data once they are received at their final intended destination. Identification distinguishes between data blocks of traffic flows which may originate from the same host or different hosts. The flags field determines which of a number of fragments represents the last fragment at which time initiation of a timer is started prior to reassembly, and to notify that reassembly of the packet should commence. Mo re Le ar ni ng Finally the fragment offset labels the bit value for each fragment as part of a number of fragments, the first fragment is set with a value of 0 and subsequent fragments specify the value of first bit following the previous fragment, for example where the initial fragment contains data bits 0 through to 1259, the following fragment will be assigned an offset value of 1260. Page 80 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht As packets are forwarded between networks, it is possible for packets to fall into loops where routes to IP networks have not been correctly defined within devices responsible for the routing of traffic between multiple networks. This can result in packets becoming lost within a cycle of packet forwarding that does not allow a packet to reach its intended destination. Where this occurs, congestion on the network will ensue as more and more packets intended for the same destination become subject to the same fate, until such time as the network becomes flooded with erroneous packets. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur In order to prevent such congestion occurring in the event of such loops, a time to live (TTL) field is defined as part of the IP header, that decrements by a value of 1 each time a packet traverses a layer 3 device in order to reach a given network. The starting TTL value may vary depending on the originating source, however should the TTL value decrement to a value of 0, the packet will be discarded and an (ICMP) error message is returned to the source, based on the source IP address that can be found in the IP header of the wandering packet. Page 81 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Upon verification that the packet has reached it’s intended destination, the network layer must determine the next set of instructions that are to be processed. This is determined by analyzing the protocol field of the IP header. As with the type field of the frame header, a hexadecimal value is used to specify the next set of instructions to be processed. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce It should be understood that the protocol field may refer to protocols at either the network layer, such as in the case of the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), but may also refer to upper layer protocols such as the Transmission Control Protocol (06/0x06) or User Datagram Protocol (17/0x11), both of which exist as part of the transport layer within both the TCP/IP and OSI reference models. Page 82 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht 1. The IP subnet mask is a 32 bit value that describes the logical division between the bit values of an IP address. The IP address is as such divided into two parts for which bit values represent either a network or sub-network, and the host within a given network or sub-network. so ur ce s: 2. IP packets that are unable to reach the intended network are susceptible to being indefinitely forwarded between networks in an attempt to discover their ultimate destination. The Time To Live (TTL) feature is used to ensure that a lifetime is applied to all IP packets, so as to ensure that in the event that an IP packet is unable to reach it’s destination, it will eventually be terminated. The TTL value may vary depending on the original source. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re 3. Gateways represent points of access between IP networks to which traffic can be redirected, or routed in the event that the intended destination network varies from the network on which the packet originated. Page 83 re Mo Page 84 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 85 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 86 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 87 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The Internet Control Message Protocol is an integral part of IP designed to facilitate the transmission of notification messages between gateways and source hosts where requests for diagnostic information, support of routing, and as a means of reporting errors in datagram processing are needed. The purpose of these control messages is to provide feedback about problems in the communication environment, and does not guarantee that a datagram will be delivered, or that a control message will be returned. Page 88 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht ICMP Redirect messages represent a common scenario where ICMP is used as a means of facilitating routing functions. In the example, a packet is forwarded to the gateway by host A based on the gateway address of host A. The gateway identifies that the packet received is destined to be forwarded to the address of the next gateway which happens to be part of the same network as the host that originated the packet, highlighting a non optimal forwarding behavior between the host and the gateways. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur In order to resolve this, a redirect message is sent to the host. The redirect message advises the host to send its traffic for the intended destination directly to the gateway to with which the destination network is associated, since this represents a shorter path to the destination. The gateway proceeds however to forward the data of the original packet to its intended destination. Page 89 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht ICMP echo messages represent a means of diagnosis for determining primarily connectivity between a given source and destination, but also provides additional information such as the round trip time for transmission as a diagnostic for measuring delay. Data that is received in the echo message is returned as a separate echo reply message. Page 90 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht ICMP provides various error reporting messages that often determine reachability issues and generate specific error reports that allow a clearer understanding from the perspective of the host as to why transmission to the intended destination failed. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: Typical examples include cases where loops may have occurred in the network, and consequentially caused the time to live parameter in the IP header to expire, resulting in a “ttl exceeded in transit” error message being generated. Other examples include an intended destination being unreachable, which could relate to a more specific issue of the intended network not being known by the receiving gateway, or that the intended host within the destination network not being discovered. In all events an ICMP message is generated with a destination based on the source IP address found in the IP header, to ensure the message notifies the sending host. Page 91 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht ICMP messages are sent using the basic IP header, which functions together as an integral part of the ICMP message, such is the case with the TTL parameter that is used to provide support for determining whether a destination is reachable. The format of the ICMP message relies on two fields for message identification in the form of a type/code format, where the type field provides a general description of the message type, and the code and a more specific parameter for the message type. Re so ur A checksum provides a means of validating the integrity of the ICMP message. An additional 32 bits are included to provide variable parameters, often unused and thus set as 0 when the ICMP message is sent, however in cases such as an ICMP redirect, the field contains the gateway IP address to which a host should redirect packets. The parameter field in the case of echo requests will contain an identifier and a sequence number, used to help the source associate sent echo requests with received echo replies, especially in the event multiple requests are forwarded to a given destination. Mo re Le ar ni ng As a final means of tracing data to a specific process, the ICMP message may carry the IP header and a portion of the data that contains upper layer information that enables the source to identify the process for which an error occurred, such as cases where the ICMP TTL expires in transit. Page 92 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht A wide number of ICMP type values exist to define clearly the different applications of the ICMP control protocol. In some cases the code field is not required to provide a more specific entry to the type field, as is found with echo requests that have a type field of 8 and the corresponding reply, which is generated and sent as a separate ICMP message to the source address of the sender, and defined using a type field of 0. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce Alternatively, certain type fields define a very general type for which the variance is understood through the code field, as in the case of the type 3 parameter. A type field of 3 specifies that a given destination is unreachable, while the code field reflects the specific absence of either the network, host, protocol, port (TCP/UDP), ability to perform fragmentation (code 4), or source route (code 5) in which a packet, for which a forwarding path through the network is strictly or partially defined, fails to reach it’s destination. Page 93 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The application of ICMP can be understood through the use of tools such as Ping. The Ping application may be used as a tool in order to determine whether a destination is reachable as well as collect other related information. The parameters of the Ping application allow an end user to specify the behavior of the end system in generating ICMP messages, with consideration of the size of the ICMP datagram, the number of ICMP messages generated by the host, and also the duration in which it is expected a reply is received before a timeout occurs. This is important where a large delay occurs since a timeout may be reported by the Ping application before the ICMP message has had the opportunity to return to the source. Page 94 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The general output of an ICMP response to a Ping generated ICMP request details the destination to which the datagram was sent and the size of the datagram generated. In addition the sequence number of the sequence field that is carried as part of the echo reply (type 0) is displayed along with the TTL value that is taken from the IP header, as well as the round trip time which again is carried as part of the IP options field in the IP header. Page 95 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht Another common application to ICMP is traceroute, which provides a means of measuring the forwarding path and delay on a hop by hop basis between multiple networks, through association with the TTL value within the IP header. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: For a given destination, the reachability to each hop along the path is measured by initially defining a TTL value in the IP header of 1, causing the TTL value to expire before the receiving gateway is able to propagate the ICMP message any further, thus generating a TTL expired in transit message together with timestamp information, allowing for a hop by hop assessment of the path taken through the network by the datagram to the destination, and a measurement of the round trip time. This provides an effective means of identifying the point of any packet loss or delay that may be incurred in the network and also aids in the discovery of routing loops. Page 96 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht The implementation of traceroute in Huawei ARG3 series routers adopts the use of the UDP transport layer protocol to define a service port as the destination. Each hop sends three probe packets, for which the TTL value is initially set to a value of 1 and incremented after every three packets. In addition, a UDP destination port of 33434 is specified for the first packet and incremented for every successive probe packet sent. A hop by hop result is generated, allowing for the path to be determined, as well as for any general delay that may occur to be discovered. ng Re so ur This is achieved by measuring the duration between when the ICMP message was sent and when the corresponding TTL expired in transit ICMP error is received. When receiving a packet, the ultimate destination is unable to discover the port specified in the packet, and thus returns an ICMP Type 3, Code 3 (Port Unreachable) packet, and after three attempts the traceroute test ends. The test result of each probe is displayed by the source, in accordance with the path taken from the source to the destination. If a fault occurs when the trace route command is used, the following information may be displayed: ni !H: The host is unreachable. ar !N: The network is unreachable. !: The port is unreachable. Le !P: The protocol type is incorrect. Mo re !F: The packet is incorrectly fragmented. !S: The source route is incorrect. Page 97 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht 1. The Ping application uses the echo request message of type 8 to attempt to discover the destination. A separate echo reply message, defined by a type field of 0, is returned to the original source based on the source IP address in the IP header field. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: 2. In the event that the TTL value of an IP datagram reaches 0 before the datagram is able to reach the intended destination, the gateway device receiving the datagram will proceed to discard it and return an ICMP message to the source to notify that the datagram in question was unable to reach the intended destination. The specific reason will be defined by the code value to reflect for example whether the failure was due to a failure to discover the host, a port on the host or whether the service for a given protocol was not supported etc. Page 98 re Mo Page 99 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 100 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 101 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 102 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht As data is encapsulated, the IP protocol at the network layer is able to specify the target IP address to which the data is ultimately destined, as well as the interface via which the data is to be transmitted, however before transmission can occur, the source must be aware of the target Ethernet (MAC) address to which data should be transmitted. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) represents a critical part of the TCP/IP protocol suite that enables discovery of MAC forwarding addresses to facilitate IP reachability. The Ethernet next hop must be discovered before data encapsulation can be completed. Page 103 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht The ARP packet is generated as part of the physical target address discovery process. Initial discovery will contain partial information since the destination hardware address or MAC address is to be discovered. The hardware type refers to Ethernet with the protocol type referring to IP, defining the technologies associated with the ARP discovery. The hardware and protocol length identifies the address length for both the Ethernet MAC address and the IP address, and is defined in bytes. Re so ur The operation code specifies one of two states, where the ARP discovery is set as REQUEST for which reception of the ARP transmission by the destination will identify that a response should be generated. The response will generate REPLY for which no further operation is necessary by the receiving host of this packet, and following which the ARP packet will be discarded. The source hardware address refers to the MAC address of the sender on the physical segment to which ARP is generated. The source protocol address refers to the IP address of the sender. Mo re Le ar ni ng The destination hardware address specifies the physical (Ethernet) address to which data can be forwarded by the Ethernet protocol standards, however this information is not present in an ARP request, instead replaced by a value of 0. The destination protocol address identifies the intended IP destination for which reachability over Ethernet is to be established. Page 104 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The network layer represents a logical path between a source and a destination. Reaching an intended IP destination relies on firstly being able to establish a physical path to the intended destination, and in order to do that, an association must be made between the intended IP destination and the physical next hop interface to which traffic can be forwarded. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce For a given destination the host will determine the IP address to which data is to be forwarded, however before encapsulation of the data can commence, the host must determine whether a physical forwarding path is known. If the forwarding path is known encapsulation to the destination can proceed, however quite often the destination is not known and ARP must be implemented before data encapsulation can be performed. Page 105 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The ARP cache (pronounced as [kash]) is a table for association of host destination IP addresses and associated physical (MAC) addresses. Any host that is engaged in communication with a local or remote destination will first need to learn of the destination MAC via which communication can be established. so ur ce Learned addresses will populate the ARP cache table and remain active for a fixed period of time, during which the intended destination can be discovered without the need for addition ARP discovery processes. Following a fixed period, the ARP cache table will remove ARP entries to maintain the ARP cache table’s integrity, since any change in the physical location of a destination host may result in the sending host inadvertently addressing data to a destination at which the destination host no longer resides. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re The ARP cache lookup is the first operation that an end system will perform before determining whether it is necessary to generate an ARP request. For destinations beyond the boundaries of the hosts own network, an ARP cache lookup is performed to discover the physical destination address of the gateway, via which the intended destination network can be reached. Page 106 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Where an ARP cache entry is unable to be determined, the ARP request process is performed. This process involves generation of an ARP request packet, and population of the fields with the source and destination protocol addresses, as well as the source hardware address. The destination hardware address is unknown. As such the destination hardware address is populated with a value equivalent to 0. The ARP request is encapsulated in an Ethernet frame header and trailer as part of the forwarding process. The source MAC address of the frame header is set as the source address of the sending host. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The host is currently unaware of the location of the destination and therefore must send the ARP request as a broadcast to all destinations within the same local network boundary. This means that a broadcast address is used as the destination MAC address. Once the frame is populated, it is forwarded to the physical layer where it is propagated along the physical medium to which the host is connected. The broadcasted ARP packet will be flooded throughout the network to all destinations including any gateway that may be present, however the gateway will prevent this broadcast from being forwarded to any network beyond the current network. Page 107 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht If the intended network destination exists, the frame will arrive at the physical interface of the destination at which point lower layer processing will ensue. ARP broadcasts mean that all destinations within the network boundary will receive the flooded frame, but will cease to process the ARP request, since the destination protocol address does not match to the IP address of those destinations. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce Where the destination IP address does match to the receiving host, the ARP packet will be processed. The receiving host will firstly process the frame header and then process the ARP request. The destination host will use the information from the source hardware address field in the ARP header to populate it’s own ARP cache table, thus allowing for a unicast frame to be generated for any frame forwarding that may be required, to the source from which the ARP request was received. Page 108 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht The destination will determine that the ARP packet received is an ARP request and will proceed to generate an ARP reply that will be returned to the source, based on the information found in the ARP header. A separate ARP packet is generated for the reply, for which the source and destination protocol address fields will be populated. However, the destination protocol address in the ARP request packet now represents the source protocol address in the ARP reply packet, and similarly the source protocol address of the ARP request becomes the destination protocol address in the ARP reply. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The destination hardware address field is populated with the MAC of the source, discovered as a result of receiving the ARP request. For the required destination hardware address of the ARP request, it is included as the source hardware address of the ARP reply, and the operation code is set to reply, to inform the destination of the purpose of the received ARP packet, following which the destination is able to discard the ARP packet without any further communication. The ARP reply is encapsulated in the Ethernet frame header and trailer, with the destination MAC address of the Ethernet frame containing the MAC entry in the ARP cache table, allowing the frame to be forwarded as a unicast frame back to the host that originated the ARP request. Page 109 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Upon receiving the ARP reply, the originating host will validate that the intended destination is correct based on the frame header, identify that the packet header is ARP from the type field and discard the frame headers. The ARP reply will then be processed, with the source hardware address of the ARP reply being used to populate the ARP cache table of the originating host (Host A). Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce Following the processing of the ARP reply, the packet is discarded and the destination MAC information is used to facilitate the encapsulation process of the initial application or protocol that originally requested discovery of the destination at the data link layer. Page 110 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht The ARP protocol is also applied to other cases such as where transparent subnet gateways are to be implemented to facilitate communication across physical networks, where hosts are considered to be part of the same subnetwork. This is referred to as Proxy ARP since the gateway operates as a proxy for the two physical networks. When an ARP request is generated for a destination that is considered to be part of the same subnet, the request will eventually be received by the gateway. The gateway is able to determine that the intended destination exists beyond the physical network on which the ARP request was generated. ng Re so Since ARP requests cannot be forwarded beyond the boundaries of the broadcast domain, the gateway will proceed to generate its own ARP request to determine the reachability to the intended destination, using its own protocol and hardware addresses as the source addresses for the generated ARP request. If the intended destination exists, an ARP reply shall be received by the gateway for which the destinations source hardware address will be used to populate the ARP cache table of the gateway. Mo re Le ar ni The gateway upon confirming the reachability to the intended destination will then generate an ARP reply to the original source (Host A) using the hardware address of the interface on which the ARP reply was forwarded. The gateway will as a result operate as an agent between the two physical networks to facilitate data link layer communication, with both hosts forwarding traffic intended for destinations in different physical networks to the relevant physical address of the “Proxy” gateway. Page 111 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht In the event that new hardware is introduced to a network, it is imperative that the host determine whether or not the protocol address to which it has been assigned is unique within the network, so as to prevent duplicate address conflicts. An ARP request is generated as a means of determining whether the protocol address is unique, by setting the destination address in the ARP request to be equal to the host’s own IP address. Re so ur ce The ARP request is flooded throughout the network to all link layer destinations by setting the destination MAC as broadcast, to ensure all end stations and gateways receive the flooded frame. All destinations will process the frame, and should any destination discover that the destination IP address within the ARP request match the address of a receiving end station or gateway, an ARP reply will be generated and returned to the host that generated the ARP request. Mo re Le ar ni ng Through this method the originating host is able to identify duplication of the IP address within the network, and flag an IP address conflict so to request that a unique address be assigned. This means of generating a request based on the hosts own IP address defines the basic principles of gratuitous ARP. Page 112 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht 1. The host is required to initially determine whether it is already aware of a link layer forwarding address within its own ARP cache (MAC address table). If an entry is discovered the end system is capable of creating the frame for forwarding without the assistance of the address resolution protocol. If an entry cannot be found however, the ARP process will initiate, and an ARP request will be broadcasted on the local network. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce 2. Gratuitous ARP messages are commonly generated at the point in which an IP address is configured or changed for a device connected to the network, and at any time that a device is physically connected to the network. In both cases the gratuitous ARP process must ensure that the IP address that is used remains unique. Page 113 re Mo Page 114 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 115 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 116 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 117 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht TCP is a connection-oriented, end-to-end protocol that exists as part of the transport layer of the TCP/IP protocol stack, in order to support applications that span over multi-network environments. The transmission control protocol provides a means of reliable inter-process communication between pairs of processes in host computers that are attached to distinct but interconnected computer communication networks. TCP relies on lower layer protocols to provide the reachability between process supporting hosts, over which a reliable connection service is established between pairs of processes. The connection-oriented behavior of TCP involves prior exchanges between the source and destination, through which a connection is established before transport layer segments are communicated. Page 118 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht As a means for allowing for many processes within a single host to use TCP communication facilities simultaneously, TCP provides a set of logical ports within each host. The port value together with the network layer address is referred to as a socket, for which a pair of sockets provide a unique identifier for each connection, in particular where a socket is used simultaneously in multiple connections. That is to say, a process may need to distinguish among several communication streams between itself and another process (or processes), for which each process may have a number of ports through which it communicates with the port or ports of other processes. ng Re so Certain processes may own ports and these processes may initiate connections on the ports that they own. These ports are understood as IANA assigned system ports or well known ports and exist in the port value range of 0 – 1023. A range of IANA assigned user or registered ports also exist in the range of 1024 – 49151, with dynamic ports, also known as private or ephemeral ports in the range of 49152 – 65535, which are not restricted to any specific application. Hosts will generally be assigned a user port value for which a socket is generated to a given application. Mo re Le ar ni Common examples of TCP based applications for which well known port numbers have been assigned include FTP, HTTP, TELNET, and SMTP, which often will work alongside other well known mail protocols such as POP3 (port 110) and IMAP4 (port 143). Page 119 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The TCP header allows TCP based applications to establish connectionoriented data streams that are delivered reliability, and to which flow control is applied. A source port number is generated where a host intends to establish a connection with a TCP based application, for which the destination port will relate to a well known/registered port to which a well known/registered application is associated. Re so ur ce Code bits represent functions in TCP, and include an urgent bit (URG) used together the urgent pointer field for user directed urgent data notifications, acknowledgment of received octets in association with the acknowledgement field (ACK), the push function for data forwarding (PSH), connection reset operations (RST), synchronization of sequence numbers (SYN) and indication that no more data is to be received from the sender (FIN). Additional code bits were introduced in the form of ECN-Echo (ECE) and Congestion Window Reduced (CWR) flags, as a means of supporting congestion notification for delay sensitive TCP applications. Mo re Le ar ni ng The explicit congestion notification (ECN) nonce sum (NS) was introduced as a follow-up alteration to eliminate the potential abuse of ECN where devices along the transmission path may remove ECN congestion marks. The Options field contains parameters that may be included as part of the TCP header, often used during the initial connection establishment, as in the case of the maximum segment size (MSS) value, that may be used to define the size of the segment that the receiver should use. TCP header size must be a sum of 32 bits, and where this is not the case, padding of 0 values will be performed. Page 120 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht When two processes wish to communicate, each TCP must first establish a connection (initialize the synchronization of communication on each side). When communication is complete, the connection is terminated or closed to free the resources for other uses. Since connections must be established between unreliable hosts and over the unreliable Internet domain, a handshake mechanism with clock-based sequence numbers is used to avoid erroneous initialization of connections. Re so ur A connection progresses through a series of states during establishment. The LISTEN state represents a TCP waiting for a connection request from any remote TCP and port. SYN-SENT occurs after sending a connection request and before a matching request is received. The SYN-RECEIVED state occurs while waiting for a confirming connection request acknowledgment, after having both received and sent a connection request. The ESTABLISHED state occurs following the handshake at which time an open connection is created, and data received can be delivered to the user. Mo re Le ar ni ng The TCP three-way handshake mechanism begins with an initial sequence number being generated by the initiating TCP as part of the synchronization (SYN) process. The initial TCP segment is then set with the SYN code bit, and transmitted to the intended IP destination TCP to achieve a SYN-SENT state. As part of the acknowledgement process, the peering TCP will generate an initial sequence number of its own to synchronize the TCP flow in the other direction. This peering TCP will transmit this sequence number, as well as an acknowledgement number that equals the received sequence number incremented by one, together with set SYN and ACK code bits in the TCP header to achieve a SYN-RECEIVED state. Page 121 n aw ei .c om /e Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht tp :/ /l ea rn in g. hu The final step of the connection handshake involves the initial TCP acknowledging the sequence number of the peering TCP by setting the acknowledgement number to equal the received sequence number plus one, together with the ACK bit in the TCP header, allowing an ESTABLISHED state to be reached. Page 122 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Since the TCP transmission is sent as a data stream, every octet can be sequenced, and therefore each octet can be acknowledged. The acknowledgement number is used to achieve this by responding to the sender as confirmation of receipt of data, thus providing data transport reliability. The acknowledgement process however is cumulative, meaning that a string of octets can be acknowledged by a single acknowledgement by reporting to the source the sequence number that immediately follows the sequence number that was successfully received. Re so ur In the example a number of bytes (octets) are transmitted together before TCP acknowledgement is given. Should an octet fail to be transmitted to the destination, the sequence of octets transmitted will only be acknowledged to the point at which the loss occurred. The resulting acknowledgement will reflect the octet that was not received in order to reinitiate transmission from the point in the data stream at which the octet was lost. Mo re Le ar ni ng The ability to cumulate multiple octets together before an acknowledgement enables TCP to operate much more efficiently, however a balance is necessary to ensure that the number of octets sent before an acknowledgement is required is not too extreme, for if an octet fails to be received, the entire stream of octets from the point of the loss must be retransmitted. Page 123 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The TCP window field provides a means of flow control that governs the amount of data sent by the sender. This is achieved by returning a "window" with every TCP segment for which the ACK field is set, indicating a range of acceptable sequence numbers beyond the last segment successfully received. The window indicates the permitted number of octets that the sender may transmit before receiving further permission. so ur ce In the example, TCP transmission from host A to server A contains the current window size for host A. The window size for server A is determined as part of the handshake, which based on the transmission can be assumed as 2048. Once data equivalent to the window size has been received, an acknowledgement will be returned, relative to the number of bytes received, plus one. Following this, host A will proceed to transmit the next batch of data. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re A TCP window size of 0 will effectively deny processing of segments, with exception to segments where the ACK, RST and URG code bits are set for incoming segments. Where a window size of 0 exists, the sender must still periodically check the window size status of receiving TCP to ensure any change in the window size is effectively reported, the period for retransmission is generally two minutes. When a sender sends periodic segments, the receiving TCP must still acknowledge with a sequence number announcement of the current window size of 0. Page 124 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht As part of the TCP connection termination process, a number of states are defined through which TCP will transition. These states include FIN-WAIT-1 that represents waiting for a connection termination (FIN) request from the remote TCP, or an acknowledgment of a connection termination request that was previously sent. The FIN-WAIT-2 represents waiting for a connection termination request from the remote TCP following which will generally transition to a TIME-WAIT state. A CLOSE-WAIT state indicates waiting for a locally defined connection termination request, typically when a servers application is in the process of closing. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so The LAST-ACK state represents waiting for an acknowledgment of the connection termination request previously sent to the remote TCP (which includes an acknowledgment of its connection termination request). Finally, a TIME-WAIT state occurs and waits for enough time to pass to ensure that the remote TCP received the acknowledgment of its connection termination request. This period is managed by the Max Segment Lifetime (MSL) timer that defines a waiting period of 2 minutes. Following a wait period equal to two times the MSL, the TCP connection is considered closed/terminated. Page 125 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht The User Datagram Protocol, or UDP, represents an alternative to TCP and applied where TCP is found to act as an inefficient transport mechanism, primarily in the case of highly delay sensitive traffic. Where TCP is considered a segment, the UDP is recognized as a datagram form of Protocol Data Unit (PDU), for which a datagram can be understood to be a self-contained, independent entity of data carrying sufficient information to be routed from the source to the destination end system without reliance on earlier exchanges between this source and destination end systems and the transporting network, as defined in RFC 1594. In effect this means that UDP traffic does not require the establishment of a connection prior to the sending of data. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so The simplified structure and operation of UDP makes it ideal for application programs to send messages to other programs, with a minimum of protocol mechanism such in the case of acknowledgements and windowing for example, as found in TCP segments. In balance however, UDP does not guarantee delivery of data transmission, nor protection from datagram duplication. Page 126 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The UDP header provides a minimalistic approach to the transport layer, implementing only a basic construct to help identify the destination port to which the UDP based traffic is destined, as well as a length field and a checksum value that ensures the integrity of the UDP header. In addition the minimal overhead acts as an ideal means for enabling more data to be carried per packet, favoring real time traffic such as voice and video communications where TCP provides a 20 byte overhead and mechanisms that influence delays, such as in the case of acknowledgements, however the lack of such fields means that datagram delivery is not guaranteed. Page 127 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Since UDP datagram transmission is not sent as a data stream, transmission of data is susceptible to datagram duplication. In addition, the lack of sequence numbers within UDP means that delivery of data transmission over various paths is likely to be received at the destination in an incorrect, nonsequenced order. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce Where stream data is transported over UDP such as in the case of voice and video applications, additional protocol mechanisms may be applied to enhance the capability of UDP, as in the case of the real time transport protocol (RTP) which helps to support the inability of UDP by providing a sequencing mechanism using timestamps to maintain the order of such audio/video data streams, effectively supporting partial connection oriented behavior over a connectionless transport protocol. Page 128 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The general UDP forwarding behavior is highly beneficial to delay sensitive traffic such as voice and video. It should be understood that where a connection-oriented transport protocol is concerned, lost data would require replication following a delay period, during which time an acknowledgement by the sender is expected. Should the acknowledgement not be received, the data shall be retransmitted. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce For delay sensitive data streams, this would result in incomprehensible audio and video transmissions due to both delay and duplication, as a result of retransmission from the point where acknowledgements are generated. In such cases, minimal loss of the data stream is preferable over retransmission, and as such UDP is selected as the transport mechanism, in support of delay sensitive traffic. Page 129 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht 1. The acknowledgement field in the TCP header confirms receipt of the segment received by the TCP process at the destination. The sequence number in the TCP header of the received IP datagram is taken and incremented by 1. This value becomes the acknowledgement number in the returned TCP header and is used to confirm receipt of all data, before being forwarded along with the ACK code bit set to 1, to the original sender. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur 2. The three-way handshake involves SYN and ACK code bits in order to establish and confirm the connection between the two end systems, between which transmission of datagrams is to occur. Page 130 re Mo Page 131 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 132 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 133 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 134 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht Data forwarding can be collectively defined as either local or remote for which the forwarding process relies on the application of the protocol stack in order to achieve end-to-end transmission. End systems may be part of the same network, or located in different networks, however the general forwarding principle to enable transmission between hosts follows a clear set of protocols that have been introduced as part of the unit. How these protocols work together shall be reinforced, as well as building the relationship between the upper layer TCP/IP protocols and the lower link layer based Ethernet protocol standards. Page 135 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht An end system that intends to forward data to a given destination must initially determine whether or not it is possible to reach the intended destination. In order to achieve this, the end system must go through a process of path discovery. An end system should be understood to be capable of supporting operation at all layers since its primary function is as a host to applications. In relation to this, it must also be capable of supporting lower layer operations such as routing and link layer forwarding (switching) in order to be capable of upper/application layer data forwarding. The end system therefore contains a table that represents network layer reachability to the network for which the upper layer data is destined. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so End systems will commonly be aware of the network to which they reside, but may be without a forwarding path in cases where remote network discovery has not been achieved. In the example given, host A is in possession of a path to the destined network through the ‘any network’ address that was briefly introduced as part of the IP Addressing section. The forwarding table identifies that traffic should be forwarded to the gateway as a next hop via the interface associated with the logical address of 10.1.1.1. Page 136 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Following discovery of a feasible route towards the intended destination network, a physical next hop must also be discovered to facilitate frame forwarding. The TCP/IP protocol suite is responsible for determining this before packet encapsulation can proceed. The initial step involves determining whether a physical path exists to the next hop identified as part of the path discovery process. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce This requires that the ARP cache table be consulted to identify whether an association between the intended next hop and the physical path is known. From the example it can be seen that an entry to the next hop gateway address is present in the ARP cache table. Where an entry cannot be found, the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) must be initiated to perform the discovery and resolve the physical path. Page 137 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht When both the logical and physical path forwarding discovery is complete, it is possible for encapsulation of data to be performed for successful transmission over IP/Ethernet based networks. Upper layer processes in terms of encryption and compression may be performed following which transport layer encapsulation will occur, identifying the source and destination ports via which upper layer data should be forwarded. so ur ce In the case of TCP, sequence and acknowledgement fields will be populated, code bits set as necessary with the ACK bit commonly applied. The window field will be populated with the current supported window size, to which the host will notify of the maximum data buffer that can be supported before data is acknowledged. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re Values representing the TCP fields are included as part of the checksum, which is calculated using a ones compliment calculation process, to ensure TCP segment integrity is maintained once the TCP header is received and processed at the ultimate destination. In the case of basic TCP code operations, upper layer data may not always be carried in the segment, as in the case of connection synchronization, and acknowledgements to received data. Page 138 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Following transport layer encapsulation, it is generally required that instructions be provided, detailing how transmission over one or more networks is to be achieved. This involves listing the IP source as well as the ultimate destination for which the packet is intended. IP packets are generally limited to a size of 1500 bytes by Ethernet, inclusive of the network and transport layer headers as well as any upper layer data.Initial packet size will be determined by Ethernet as the maximum transmission unit, or MTU to which packets will conform, therefore fragmentation will not occur at the source. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so In the case that the MTU changes along the forwarding path, only then will fragmentation will be performed. The time to live field will be populated with a set value depending on the system, in ARG3 series routers, this is set with an initial value of 255. The protocol field is populated based on the protocol encapsulated prior to IP. In this case the protocol in question is TCP for which the IP header will populate the protocol field with a value of 0x06 as instruction for next header processing. Source and destination IP addressing will reflect the originating source and the ultimate destination. Page 139 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht Link layer encapsulation relies on IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standards for physical transmission of upper layer data over Ethernet networks. Encapsulation at the lower layers is performed by initially determining the frame type that is used. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: Where the upper layer protocol is represented by a type value greater than 1536 (0x0600) as is the case with IP (0x0800), the Ethernet II frame type is adopted. The type field of the Ethernet II frame header is populated with the type value of 0x0800 to reflect that the next protocol to be processed following frame processing will be IP. The destination MAC address determines the next physical hop, which in this case represents the network gateway. Page 140 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht As part of the link layer operation, it is imperative to ensure that the transmission medium is clear of signals in shared collision domain. The host will first listen for any traffic on the network as part of CSMA/CD and should the line remain clear, will prepare to transmit the data. It is necessary for the receiving physical interface to be made aware of the incoming frame, so as to avoid loss of initial bit values that would render initial frames as incomplete. Frames are therefore preceded by a 64 bit value indicating to the link layer destination of the frame’s imminent arrival. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The initial 56 bits represent an alternating 1, 0 pattern is called the preamble, and is followed immediately by an octet understood as the Start of Frame Delimiter (SFD). The final two bits of the SFD deviate from an alternating pattern to a 1,1 bit combination that notifies that the bits that follow represent the first bit values of the destination MAC address and therefore the start of the frame header. Page 141 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht As a frame is received by the link layer destination, it must go through a number of checks to determine its integrity as well as validity. If the frame was transmitted over a shared Ethernet network, other end stations may also receive an instance of the frame transmitted, however since the frame destination MAC address is different from the MAC address of the end station, the frame will be discarded. Re so ur ce Frames received at the intended destination will perform error checking by calculating the ones compliment value based on the current frame fields and compare this against the value in the Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field. If the values do not match, the frame will be discarded. Receiving intermediate and end systems that receive valid frames will need to determine whether the frame is intended for their physical interface by comparing the destination MAC address with the MAC address of the interface (or device in some cases). Mo re Le ar ni ng If there is a match, the frame is processed and the type field is used to determine the next header to be processed. Once the next header is determined, the frame header and trailer are discarded. Page 142 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The packet is received by the network layer, and in particular IP, at which point the IP header is processed. A checksum value exists at each layer of the protocol stack to maintain the integrity at all layers for all protocols. The destination IP is used to determine whether the packet has reached it’s ultimate destination. The gateway however determines that this is not the case since the destination IP and the IP belonging to the gateway do not match. Re so ur ce The gateway must therefore determine the course of action to take with regards to routing the packet to an alternate interface, and forward the packet towards the network for which it is intended. The gateway must firstly however ensure that the TTL value has not reached 0, and that the size of the packet does not exceed the maximum transmission unit value for the gateway. In the event that the packet is larger than the MTU value of the gateway, fragmentation will generally commence. Mo re Le ar ni ng Once a packet’s destination has been located in the forwarding table of the gateway, the packet will be encapsulated in a new frame header consisting of new source and destination MAC addresses for the link layer segment, over which the resulting frame is to be forwarded, before being once again transmitted to the next physical hop. Where the next physical hop is not known, ARP will again be used to resolve the MAC address. Page 143 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht Frames received at the ultimate destination will initially determine whether the frame has arrived at the intended location. The example shows two servers on a shared Ethernet network over which both receive a copy of the frame. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: The frame is ultimately discarded by server B since the destination MAC value and the interface MAC address of server B do not match. Server A however successfully receives the frame and learns that the MAC fields are the same, the integrity of the frame based on the FCS can also be understood to be correct. The frame will use the type field to identify 0x0800 as the next header, following which the frame header and trailer are discarded and the packet is received by IP. Page 144 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Upon reaching the ultimate destination, the IP packet header must facilitate a number of processes. The first includes validating the integrity of the packet header through the checksum field, again applying a ones compliment value comparison based on a sum of the IP header fields. Where correct, the IP header will be used to determine whether the destination IP matches the IP address of the current end station, which in this case is true. Re so ur ce If any fragmentation occurred during transmission between the source and the destination, the packet must be reassembled at this point. The identification field will collect the fragments belonging to a single data source together, the offset will determine the order and the flags field will specify when the reassembly should commence, since all fragments must be received firstly and a fragment with a flag of 0 will be recognized as the last fragment to be received. Mo re Le ar ni ng A timer will then proceed during which time the reassembly must be completed, should reassembly fail in this time period, all fragments will be discarded. The protocol field will be used to identify the next header for processing and the packet header will be discarded. It should be noted that the next header may not always be a transport layer header, a clear example of where this can be understood is in the case of ICMP, which is understood to also be a network layer protocol with a protocol field value of 0x01. Page 145 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht In the case where a packet header is discarded, the resulting segment or datagram is passed to the transport layer for application-to-application based processing. The header information is received in this case by TCP (0x06). Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: In the example it can be understood that a TCP connection has already been established and the segment represents an acknowledgement for the transmission of HTTP traffic from the HTTP server to the acknowledging host. The host is represented by the port 1027 as a means to distinguish between multiple HTTP connections that may exist between the same source host and destination server. In receiving this acknowledgement, the HTTP server will continue to forward to the host within the boundaries of the window size of the host. Page 146 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht 1. Prior to the encapsulation and forwarding of data, a source must have knowledge of the IP destination or an equivalent forwarding address such as a default address to which data can be forwarded. Additionally it is necessary that the forwarding address be associated with a physical next hop to which the data can be forwarded within the local network. ce 2. Any frame that is received by a gateway or end system (host) to which it is not intended, is subsequently dropped, following inspection of the destination MAC address in the frame header. so ur 3. The delivery of data relies on the destination port number in the TCP and UDP headers to identify the application to which the data is intended. Following analysis of this value by the TCP or UDP protocol, the data is forwarded. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re 4. The source port of the TCP header for the HTTP traffic distinguishes between the different application sessions that are active. Return HTTP traffic from the HTTP server is able to identify each individual web browser session based on this source port number. For example, the source port of two separate requests for HTTP traffic originating from IP source 10.1.1.1 may originate from source ports 1028 and 1035, however the destination port in both cases remains as port 80, the HTTP server. Page 147 re Mo Page 148 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e Module 2 in g. hu Huawei Certification Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht tp :/ /l ea rn Huawei Device Navigation & Configuration Huawei Technologies Co.,Ltd re Mo ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 151 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 152 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 153 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht The Ethernet network until now has been understood to be a collection of devices communicating over shared media such as 10Base2, through which hosts are able to communicate with neighboring hosts or end systems. It has been determined that the Ethernet network is a contentious network, meaning that hosts must compete for media access which becomes increasingly limited as more and more devices are connected over this shared media; which causes additional limitations in scalability and the increasing potential for collisions. ng Re so ur As a result, the need for collision detection in the form of CSMA/CD is ever present in such shared Ethernet networks. Following the adoption of switched media such as that of 100BaseT, data transmission and reception became isolated within channels (wire pairs), enabling the potential for collisions to occur to be eliminated. This medium as a form of non-shared Ethernet provides only a means for point-to-point communication, however used together with other devices such as hubs, a shared Ethernet network is once again possible, along with the potential for collisions. Mo re Le ar ni The switch was introduced as part of the evolution of the bridge, and is capable of breaking down the shared collision domain into multiple collision domains. The collision domains operate as a collection of point-to-point links for which the threat of collisions is removed and link-layer traffic is isolated, to allow higher transmission rates that optimize traffic flow within the Ethernet network. Page 154 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht A broadcast domain is capable of being comprised of a single, or multiple collision domains, and any broadcast transmission is contained within the boundary of a broadcast domain. The edge of a broadcast domain’s boundary is typically defined by a gateway that acts as the medium, via which other networks are reachable, and will restrict the forwarding of any broadcast traffic beyond the interface on which the broadcast is received. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce Routers are synonymous with the term gateway for which the two are often used interchangeably. A single IP network can generally be understood to make up a broadcast domain, which refers to the scope of a link-layer segment. Routers are generally responsible for routing Internet datagrams (IP packets) to a given destination based on the knowledge of a forwarding address for the destination network, found within an internally managed forwarding table. Page 155 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The Versatile Routing Platform (VRP) represents the foundation of many of Huawei products including routers and switches. Its design has been through many evolutions to enable continuous improvement of data management and forwarding. The architectural design has resulted in ever enhanced modularity that allows for greater overall performance. The configuration, management and monitoring of devices using VRP is based on a standardized and hierarchical command line system for which a familiarity should be developed to support navigation and operation of Huawei products managed using VRP software. Page 156 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht A familiarity with the versions of VRP network operating system (NOS) aids in ensuring that the version currently being used is up to date and supports certain features that may be required in an enterprise network. The general trend for most Huawei devices is to operate using VRP version 5.x currently, where x may vary depending on the product and VRP release. VRP version 8 is a recent revision of VRP built with a highly refined architecture for the next generation of technologies and constructed around the need for greater efficiency, but is not present in all Huawei products. Page 157 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht AR series enterprise routers (AR) include the AR150, AR200, AR1200, AR2200, and AR3200. They are the next-generation of Huawei products, and provide routing, switching, wireless, voice, and security functionality. The AR series are positioned between the enterprise network and a public network, functioning as an ingress and egress gateway for data transmitted between the two networks. Deployment of various network services over the AR series routers reduces operation & maintenance (O&M) costs as well as costs associated with establishing an enterprise network. AR series routers of different specifications can be used as gateways based on the user capacity of an enterprise. ng Re so The Sx7 Series Ethernet Switch provides data transport functionality, and has been developed by Huawei to meet the requirements for reliable access and high-quality transmission of multiple services on the enterprise network. This series of switch is positioned for access or aggregation layer operation in the enterprise network, and provides a large switching capacity, high port density, and cost-effective packet forwarding capabilities. Mo re Le ar ni Management of the ARG3 series routers and Sx7 series of switch can be achieved through establishing a connection to the console interface, and in the case of the AR2200, a connection is also possible to be established via a Mini USB interface. Page 158 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht A console cable is used to debug or maintain a locally established device such as a router or switch, and will interface with the console port of such devices. The console interface of the S5700 series switch and the AR2200 router is an RJ-45 type connection, while the interface to which a host connection is made, represents an RS-232 form of serial connector. Often such serial connectors are no longer present on newer devices that can be used for establishing connectivity, such as laptop computers, and therefore an RS-232 to USB conversion is performed. For most desktop devices however, an RS-232 based console connection can be established to a COM port on the host device. Page 159 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Console establishment is set up through one of a number of available terminal emulation programs. Windows users often apply the hyperterminal application as shown in the example to interface with the VRP operating system. Following specification of the COM port that is to be used to establish the connection, port settings must be defined. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The example defines the port settings that should be applied, for which the restore default button will automatically reassign should any change have been made to these settings. Once the OK button is pressed, a session will be established with the VRP of the device. If the device is operating using factory default settings, the user will be prompted for a password, which will be assigned as the default login password for future connection attempts. Page 160 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The Huawei AR2200 router, additionally supports the means for terminal connectivity via a USB connection. A type B mini USB interface exists on the front panel of the AR2200 series router through which hosts are able to establish a USB based connection as a serial alternative to that of RS-232. Page 161 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht A slight variation in the setup process requires that the mini USB firstly establish drivers to allow USB functionality. The mini USB driver can be obtained by visiting http://support.huawei.com/enterprise, and under the path Support > Software > Enterprise Networking > Router > Access Router > AR > AR2200, choose the relevant VRP version & patch path option, and download the file labeled AR&SRG_MiniUSB_driver.zip. It should be noted that the mini USB driver supports only Windows XP, Windows Vista, and Windows 7 operating systems. so ur When upgrading the device software or installing a patch, the MD5 hash value can be checked to confirm software validity. In order to prevent the software from being modified or replaced, you are advised to perform this operation. ng Re Installing requires the user to firstly double-click the driver installation file on the PC and click Next. Secondly select I accept the terms in the license agreement and click Next. Click the Change button to change the driver directory if required, and click Next. Click Install and decompress the driver. When the system finishes decompressing the driver, click Finish. Mo re Le ar ni Users should then find the DISK1 folder in the specified driver directory, and double-click the file setup.exe Following the opening of a second installation window click Next. Users should again select I accept the terms in the license agreement and click Next to install the driver. Once complete, click Finish to finish installing the driver. Right-click My Computer, and choose Manage > Device Manager > Ports(COM&LPT). The system should display the TUSB3410 Device indicating the driver that has been installed. Page 162 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht As with the RS-232 console connection, the Mini USB serial connection requires establishment to terminal emulation software to enable interaction with the VRP command line. so ur ce s: Use the terminal emulation software to log in to the device through the mini USB port, (for which the Windows HyperTerminal is used as an example). On the host PC, start the HyperTerminal application, for which the location may vary for each version of Windows, and create a connection by providing a suitable terminal connection name and click OK. Select the relevant connection (COM) port and then set the communication parameters for the serial port of the PC. These parameters should match the default values that are set when pressing the Restore Defaults button. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re After pressing Enter, the console information is displayed requesting a login password. Enter a relevant password and confirmation password, and the system will save the password. Page 163 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht 1. Any broadcast that is generated by an end system within a local network will be forwarded to all destinations. Once a frame is broadcast to a router or device acting as a gateway for the network, the frame will be analyzed and should it be determined that the destination is for a locally defined host other than the gateway, the frame will be dropped. This as such defines the boundary of any broadcast domain. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce 2. VRP version 5 is supported by a large number of current Huawei products, while high end products may often be supported by VRP version 8. Page 164 re Mo Page 165 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 166 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 167 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 168 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The startup/boot process is the initial phase of operation for any administrator or engineer accessing Huawei based products operating with VRP. The boot screen informs of the system startup operation procedures as well as the version of the VRP image that is that currently implemented on the device, along with the storage location from where it is loaded. Following the initial startup procedure, an option for auto-configuration of the initial system settings prompts for a response, for which the administrator can choose whether to follow the configuration steps, or manually configure the basic system parameters. The auto-configuration process can be terminated by selecting the yes option at the given prompt. Page 169 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp so ur ce s: ht The hierarchical command structure of VRP defines a number of command views that govern the commands for which users are able to perform operations. The command line interface has multiple command views, of which common views have been introduced in the example. Each command is registered to run in one or more command views, and such commands can run only after entering the appropriate command view. The initial command view of VRP is the User View, which operates as an observation command view for observing parameter statuses and general statistical information. For application of changes to system parameters, users must enter the System View. A number of sub command levels can also be found, in the form of the interface and protocol views for example, where sub system level tasks can be performed. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re The command line views can be determined based on the parenthesis, and information contained within these parenthesis. The presence of chevrons identifies that the user is currently in the User View, whereas square brackets show that a transition to the System View has occurred. Page 170 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht The example demonstrates a selection of common system defined shortcut keys that are widely used to simplify the navigation process within the VRP command line interface. Additional commands are as follows: CTRL+B moves the cursor back one character. s: CTRL+D deletes the character where the cursor is located. ce CTRL+E moves the cursor to the end of the current line. CTRL+F moves the cursor forward one character. ur CTRL+H deletes the character on the left side of the cursor. so CTRL+N displays the next command in the historical command buffer. CTRL+P displays the previous command in the historical command buffer. Re CTRL+W deletes the word on the left side of the cursor. CTRL+X deletes all the characters on the left side of the cursor. ng CTRL+Y deletes all the characters on the right side of the cursor. ESC+B moves the cursor one word back. ni ESC+D deletes the word on the right side of the cursor. Mo re Le ar ESC+F moves the cursor forward one word. Page 171 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Additional key functions can be used to perform similar operations, the backspace operation has the same behavior as using CTRL+H to delete a character to the left of the cursor. The left (←) and right (→) cursor keys can be used to perform the same operation as the CTRL+B and CTRL+F shortcut key functions. The down cursor key (↓) functions the same as Ctrl+N, and the up cursor key (↑) acts as an alternative to the CTRL+P operation. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce Additionally, the command line functions support a means of auto completion where a command word is unique. The example demonstrates how the command word interface can be auto completed by partial completion of the word to such a point that the command is unique, followed by the tab key which will provide auto completion of the command word. Where the command word is not unique, the tab function will cycle through the possible completion options each time the tab key is pressed. Page 172 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht There are two forms of help feature that can be found within the VRP, these come in the form of partial help and complete help functions. In entering a character string followed directly by a question mark (?), VRP will implement the partial help function to display all commands that begin with this character string. An example of this is demonstrated. In the case of the full help feature, a question mark (?) can be placed on the command line at any view to display all possible command names, along with descriptions for all commands pertaining to that view. Additionally the full help feature supports entry of a command followed by a question mark (?) that is separated by a space. All keywords associated with this command, as well as simple descriptions, are then displayed. Page 173 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht For the majority of industries, it is likely that multiple devices will exist, each of which needs to be managed. As such, one of the first important tasks of device commissioning involves setting device names to uniquely identify each device in the network. The system name parameter on AR2200 series router is configured as Huawei by default, for the S5700 series of switch the default system name is Quidway. The implementation of the system name takes effect immediately after configuration is complete. Page 174 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht The system clock reflects the system timestamp, and is able to be configured to comply with the rules of any given region. The system clock must be correctly set to ensure synchronization with other devices and is calculated using the formula: Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) + Time zone offset + Daylight saving time offset. The clock datetime command is used to set the system clock following the HH:MM:SS YYYY-MM-DD formula. It should be noted however that if the time zone has not been configured or is set to 0, the date and time set are considered to be UTC, therefore it is recommended that the clock timezone be set firstly before configuring the system time and date. Re so The setting of the local timezone is achieved using the clock timezone command and is implemented based on the time-zone-name { add | minus } offset formula, where the add value indicates that the time of time-zone-name is equal to the UTC time plus the time offset and minus indicates the time of time-zone-name is equal to the UTC time minus the time offset. Mo re Le ar ni ng Certain regions require that the daylight saving time be implemented to maintain clock synchronization with any change in the clock timezone during specific periods of the year. VRP is able to support daylight saving features for both fixed dates and dates which are determined based on a set of predetermined rules. For example, daylight saving in the United Kingom occurs on the last Sunday of March and the last Sunday of October, therefore rules can be applied to ensure that changes occur based on such fluctuating dates. Page 175 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp so ur ce s: ht The header command provides a means for displaying notifications during the connection to a device. The login header indicates a header that is displayed when the terminal connection is activated, and the user is being authenticated by the device. The shell header indicates a header that is displayed when the session is set up, after the user logs in to the device. The header information can be applied either as a text string or retrieved from a specified file. Where a text string is used, a start and end character must be defined as a marker to identify the information string, where in the example the “ character defines the information string. The string represents a value in the range of 1 to 2000 characters, including spaces. The information based header command follows the format of header { login | shell } information text where information represents the information string, including start and end markers. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re In the case of a file based header, the format header { login | shell } file filename is applied, where file-name represents the directory and file from which the information string can be retrieved. Page 176 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht The system structures access to command functions hierarchically to protect system security. The system administrator sets user access levels that grant specific users access to specific command levels. The command level of a user is a value ranging from 0 to 3, whilst the user access level is a value ranging from 0 to 15. Level 0 defines a visit level for which access to commands that run network diagnostic tools, (such as ping and traceroute), as well as commands such as telnet client connections, and select display commands. ni ng Re so ur The Monitoring level is defined at a user level of 1 for which command levels 0 and 1 can be applied, allowing for the majority of display commands to be used, with exception to display commands showing the current and saved configuration. A user level of 2 represents the Configuration level for which command levels up to 2 can be defined, enabling access to commands that configure network services provided directly to users, including routing and network layer commands. The final level is the Management level which represents a user level of 3 through to 15 and a command level of up to 3, enabling access to commands that control basic system operations and provide support for services. Mo re Le ar These commands include file system, FTP, TFTP, configuration file switching, power supply control, backup board control, user management, level setting, system internal parameter setting, and debugging commands for fault diagnosis. The given example demonstrates how a command privilege can be changed, where in this case, the save command found under the user view requires a command level of 3 before the command can be used. Page 177 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Each user interface is represented by a user interface view or command line view provided by the system. The command line view is used to configure and manage all the physical and logical interfaces in asynchronous mode. Users wishing to interface with a device will be required to specify certain parameters in order to allow a user interface to become accessible. Two common forms of user interface implemented are the console interface (CON) and the virtual teletype terminal (VTY) interface. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The console port is an asynchronous serial port provided by the main control board of the device, and uses a relative number of 0. VTY is a logical terminal line that allows a connection to be set up when a device uses telnet services to connect to a terminal for local or remote access to a device. A maximum of 15 users can use the VTY logical user interface to log in to the device by extending the range from 0 – 4 achieved by applying the user-interface maximum-vty 15 command. If the set maximum number of login users is 0, no users are allowed to log in to the router through telnet or SSH. The display user-interface command can be used to display relevant information regarding the user interface. Page 178 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht For both the console and VTY terminal interfaces, certain attributes can be applied to modify the behavior as a means of extending features and improving security. A user allows a connection to remain idle for a given period of time presents a security risk to the system. The system will wait for a timeout period before automatically terminating the connection. This idle timeout period on the user interface is set to 10 minutes by default . so ur ce Where it may be necessary to increase or reduce the number of lines displayed on the screen of a terminal when using the display command for example, the screen-length command can be applied. This by default is set to 24 however is capable of being increased to a maximum of 512 lines. A screen-length of 0 however is not recommended since no output will be displayed. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re For each command that is used, a record is stored in the history command buffer which can be retrieved through navigation using the (↑) or CTRL+P and the (↓) or Ctrl+N key functions. The number of recorded commands in the history command buffer can be increased using the history-command maxsize command to define up to 256 stored commands. The number of commands stored by default is 10. Page 179 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Access to user terminal interfaces provides a clear point of entry for unauthorized users to access a device and implement configuration changes. As such the capability to restrict access and limit what actions can be performed is necessary as a means of device security. The configuration of user privilege and authentication are two means by which terminal security can be improved. User privilege allows a user level to be defined which restricts the capability of the user to a specific command range. The user level can be any value in the range of 0 – 15, where values represent a visit level (0), monitoring level (1), configuration level (2), and management level (3) respectfully. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Authentication restricts a users capability to access a terminal interface by requesting the user be authenticated using a password or a combination of username and password before access via the user interface is granted. In the case of VTY connections, all users must be authenticated before access is possible. For all user interfaces, three possible authentication modes exist, in the form of AAA, password authentication and non-authentication. AAA provides user authentication with high security for which a user name and password must be entered for login. Password authentication requires that only the login password is needed therefore a single password can be applied to all users. The use of non-authentication removes any authentication applied to a user interface. It should be noted that the console interface by default uses the non-authentication mode. It is generally recommended that for each user that is granted telnet access, the user be identified through usernames and passwords to allow for distinction of individual users. Each user should also be granted privilege levels, based on each users role and responsibility. Page 180 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht In order to run IP services on an interface, an IP address must be configured for the interface. Generally, an interface needs only the primary IP address. In special cases, it is possible for a secondary IP address to be configured for the interface. For example, when an interface of a router such as the AR2200 connects to a physical network, and hosts on this physical network belong to two network segments. Re so ur ce In order to allow the AR2200 to communicate with all the hosts on the physical network, configure a primary IP address and a secondary IP address for the interface. The interface has only one primary IP address. If a new primary IP address is configured on an interface that already has a primary IP address, the new IP address overrides the original one. The IP address can be configured for an interface using the command ip address <ip-address > { mask | mask-length } where mask represents the 32 bit subnet mask e.g. 255.255.255.0, and mask-length represents the alternative mask-length value e.g. 24, both of which can be used interchangeably. Mo re Le ar ni ng The loopback interface represents a logical interface that is applied to represent a network or IP host address, and is often used as a form of management interface in support of a number of protocols through which communication is made to the IP address of the loopback interface, as opposed to the IP address of the physical interface on which data is being received. Page 181 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht 1. The console interface is capable of supporting only a single user at any given time; this is represented by the console 0 user interface view. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: 2. The loopback interface represents a logical interface that is not present in a router until it is created. Once created, the loopback interface is considered up. On ARG3 devices, the loopback interfaces can however be shut down. Page 182 re Mo Page 183 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 184 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 185 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 186 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht The file system manages files and directories on the storage devices. It can create, delete, modify, or rename a file or directory, or display the contents of a file. ur ce s: The file system has two functions: managing storage devices and managing the files that are stored on those devices. A number of directories are defined within which files are stored in a logical hierarchy. These files and directories can be managed through a number of functions which allow the changing or displaying of directories, displaying files within such directories or subdirectories, and the creation or deletion of directories. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Common examples of file system commands for general navigation include the cd command used to change the current directory, pwd to view the current directory and dir to display the contents of a directory as shown in the example. Access to the file system is achieved from the User View. Page 187 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht Making changes to the existing file system directories generally relates to the capability to create and delete existing directories within the file system. Two common commands that are used in this case. The mkdir directory command is used to create a folder in a specified directory on a designated storage device, where directory refers to the name given to the directory and for which the directory name can be a string of 1 to 64 characters. In order to delete a folder within the file system, the rmdir directory command is used, with directory again referring to the name of the directory. It should be noted that a directory can only be deleted if there are no files contained within that directory. Page 188 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Making changes to the files within a file system includes copying, moving, renaming, compressing, deleting, undeleting, deleting files in the recycle bin, running files in batch and configuring prompt modes. Creating a duplicate of an existing file can be done using the copy source-filename destinationfilename command, where if the destination-filename is the same as that of an existing file (source-filename), the system will display a message indicating that the existing file will be replaced. A target file name cannot be the same as that of a startup file, otherwise the system displays a message indicating that the operation is invalid and that the file is a startup file. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so The move source-filename destination-filename command can be used to move files to another directory. After the move command has been successfully executed, the original file is cut and moved to the defined destination file. It should be noted however that the move command can only move files in the same storage device. Page 189 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht For the removal of files within a file system, the delete function can be applied using the command delete [ /unreserved ] [ /force ] { filename | device-name }. Generally files that are deleted are directed to a recycle bin from where files can recovered using the undelete { filename | device-name } command, however should the /unreserved command be used, the file will be permanently deleted. The system will generally display a message asking for confirmation of file deletion, however if the /force parameter is included, no prompt will be given. The filename parameter refers to the file which is to be deleted, while the device-name parameter defines the storage location. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Where a file is directed to the recycle bin, it is not permanently deleted and can be easily recovered. In order to ensure that such files in the recycle bin are deleted permanently, the reset recycle-bin [ filename ]command can be applied, where the filename parameter can be used to define a specific file for permanent deletion. Page 190 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht When powered on, the device retrieves configuration files from a default save path to initialize itself, which is then stored within the RAM of the device. If configuration files do not exist in the default save path, the router uses default initialization parameters. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: The current-configuration file indicates the configurations in effect on the device when it is actually running. When the configuration is saved, the current configuration is stored in a saved-configuration file within the storage location of the device. If the device loaded the current configuration file based on default initialization parameters, a saved-configuration file will not exist in the storage location of the default save path, but will be generated once the current configuration is saved. Page 191 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Using the display current-configuration command, device parameters that take effect can be queried. If default values of certain parameters are being used, these parameters are not displayed. The current configuration command includes a number of parameters that allow for filtering of the command list during the used of the display function. The display current-configuration | begin {regular-expression} is an example of how the current configuration can be used to display active parameters that begin with a specific keywords or expressions. An alternative to this command is the display currentconfiguration | include {regular-expression} which allows parameters that include a specific keyword or experssion within the current-configuration file. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so The display saved-configuration [ last | time ] shows the output of the stored configuration file used at startup to generate the current-configuration. Where the last parameter is used it displays the configuration file used in the current startup. The configuration file is displayed only when it is configured for the current startup. The time parameter will display the time when the configuration was last saved. Page 192 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Using the save [configuration-file] command will save the current configuration information to a default storage path. The configuration-file parameter allows the current configuration information to be saved to a specified file. Running the save command with the configuration-file parameter does not affect the current startup configuration file of the system. When configuration-file is the same as the configuration file stored in the default storage path of the system, the function of this command is the same as that of the save command. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The example demonstrates the use of the save command to save the currentconfiguration, which by default will be stored to the default vrpcfg.zip file in the default storage location of the device. Page 193 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The currently used save configuration file can be discovered through the use of the display startup command. In addition the display startup command can be used to query the name of the current system software file, name of the next system software file, name of the backup system software file, names of the four currently used (if used) system software files, and names of the next four system software files. The four system software files are the aforementioned configuration file, voice file, patch file, and license file. Page 194 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht Following discovery of the startup saved-configuration file, it may be necessary to define a new configuration file to be loaded at the next startup. If a specific configuration file is not specified, the default configuration file will be loaded at the next startup. ur ce s: The filename extension of the configuration file must be .cfg or .zip, and the file must be stored in the root directory of a storage device. When the router is powered on, it reads the configuration file from the flash memory by default to initialize. The data in this configuration file is the initial configuration. If no configuration file is saved in the flash memory, the router uses default parameters to initiate. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Through the use of the startup saved-configuration [configuration-file] where the configuration-file parameter is the configuration file to be used at startup, it is possible to define a new configuration file to initialize at the next system startup. Page 195 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht When the compare configuration [configuration-file] [current-line-number saveline-number] command is used, the system performs a line by line comparison of the saved configuration with the current configuration starting from the first line. If the current-line-number save-line-number parameters are specified, the system skips the non relevant configuration before the compared lines and continues to find differences between the configuration files. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The system will then proceed to output the configuration differences between the saved configuration and the current configuration files. The comparison output information is restricted to 150 characters by default. If the comparison requires less than 150 characters, all variations until the end of two files are displayed. Page 196 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht The reset saved-configuration command is used in order to delete a device startup configuration file from the storage device. When performed, the system compares the configuration files used in the current startup and the next startup when deleting the configuration file from the router. ur ce s: If the two configuration files are the same, they are deleted at the same time after this command is executed. The default configuration file is used when the router is started next time. If the two configuration files are different, the configuration file used in the current startup is deleted after this command is executed. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so If no configuration file is configured for the device current startup, the system displays a message indicating that the configuration file does not exist after this command is executed. Once the reset saved-configuration command is used, a prompt will be given to confirm the action, for which the user is expected to confirm, as shown in the example. Page 197 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The storage devices are product dependant, and include flash memory, SD cards, or USB flash drives. The AR2200 router for example has a built-in flash memory and a built-in SD card (in slot sd1). The router provides two reserved USB slots (usb0 and usb1) and an SD card slot (sd0). For the S5700 it includes a built in flash memory with a capacity that varies dependant on the model, with 64MB supported in the S5700C-HI, S5700-LI, S5700S-LI and S5710-EI models, and 32 MB for all others. The details regarding the Huawei product storage devices can be detailed by using the display version command as shown. Page 198 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht Formatting a storage device is likely to result in the loss of all files on the storage device, and the files cannot be restored, therefore extra care should be taken when performing any format command and should be avoided unless absolutely necessary. The format [storage-device] command is used along with the storage-device parameter to define the storage location which is required to be formatted. Page 199 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht When the terminal device displays that the system has failed, the fixdisk command can be used to attempt to fix the abnormal file system in the storage device, however it does not provide any guarantee as to whether the file system can be restored successfully. Since the command is used to rectify problems, if no problem has occurred in the system it is not recommended that this command be run. It should also be noted that this command does not rectify device-level problems. Page 200 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht 1. The file system attribute d represents that the entry is a directory in the file system. It should be noted that this directory can only be deleted once any files contained within the directory have been deleted. The remaining rwx values refer to whether the directory (or file) can be read, written to, and/or executed. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce 2. A configuration may be saved under a separate name from the default vrpcfg.zip file name and stored within the storage device of the router or switch. If this file is required to be used as the active configuration file in the system, the command startup saved-configuration <configuration-filename> should be used where the configuration-file-name refers to the file name and file extension. Page 201 re Mo Page 202 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 203 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 204 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 205 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The VRP platform is constantly updated to maintain alignment with changes in technology and support new advancements to the hardware. The VRP image is generally defined by a VRP version and a product version number. Huawei ARG3 and Sx7 series products generally align with VRP version 5 to which different product versions are associated. Version 5.90 (AR2200 V200R001C00) (AR2200 V200R002C00) Re Version 5.110 so ur ce As the product version increases, so do the features that are supported by the version. The product version format includes a product code Vxxx , Rxxx denotes a major version release and Cxx a minor version release. If a service pack is used to patch the VRP product version, an SPC value may also be included in the VRP product version number. Typical examples of the VRP version upgrades for the AR2200 include: Mo re Le ar ni ng Version 5.120 Page 206 (AR2200 V200R003C00) n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht File transfer refers to the means by which files are sent to or retrieved from a remote server or storage location. Within the IP network this application can be implemented for a wide range of purposes. As part of effective practice, it is common for important files be duplicated and backed up within a remote storage location to prevent any loss that would affect critical systems operations. This includes files such as the VRP image of products which (should the existing image suffer loss through use of the format command or other forms of error), can be retrieved remotely and used to recover system operations. Similar principles apply for important configuration files and maintaining records of activity within devices stored in log files, which may be stored long term within the remote server. Page 207 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht FTP is a standard application protocol based on the TCP/IP protocol suite and used to transfer files between local clients and remote servers. FTP uses two TCP connections to copy a file from one system to another. The TCP connections are usually established in client-server mode, one for control (the server port number is 21) and the other for data transmission (the sever port number is 20). FTP as a file transfer protocol is used to control connections by issuing commands from the client (RTA) to the server and transmits replies from the server to the client, minimizing the transmission delay. In terms of data transmission, FTP transmits data between the client and server, maximizing the throughput. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is a simple file transfer protocol over which a router can function as a TFTP client to access files on a TFTP server. Unlike FTP, TFTP has no complex interactive access interface and authentication control. Implementation of TFTP is based on the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The client initiates the TFTP transfer. To download files, the client sends a read request packet to the TFTP server, receives packets from the server, and returns an acknowledgement to the server. To upload files, the client sends a write request packet to the TFTP server, sends packets to the server, and receives acknowledgement from the server. Page 208 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The example demonstrates how connection between an FTP server and client is established in order to retrieve a VRP image that can be used as part of the system upgrade process. Prior to any transfer of data, it is necessary to establish the underlying connectivity over which files can be transferred. This begins by providing suitable IP addressing for the client and the server. Where the devices are directly connected, interfaces can be applied that belong to the same network. Where devices belong to networks located over a large geographic area, devices must establish relevant IP addressing within their given networks and be able to discover a relevant network path over IP via which client/server connectivity can be established. Page 209 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht A user must determine for any system upgrade as to whether there is adequate storage space in which to store the file that is to be retrieved. The file system commands can be used to determine the current status of the file system, including which files are currently present within the file storage location of the device and also the amount of space currently available. Where the storage space is not adequate for file transfer, certain files can be deleted or uploaded to the FTP server in the event that they may still be required for future use. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The example demonstrates the use of the delete file system command to remove the existing image file. It should be noted that the system image, while deleted will not impact the current operation of the device as long as the device remains operational, therefore the device should not be powered off or restarted before a new VRP image file is restored within the storage location of the device, and set to be used during the next system startup. Page 210 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht The retrieving of files from an FTP server requires that a connection be established firstly before any file transfer can take place. Within the client device, the ftp service is initiated using the ftp <ip address> where the IP address relates to the address of the FTP server to which the client wishes to connect. FTP connections will be established using TCP, and requires authentication in the form of a username and password which is defined by the FTP server. Once authentication has been successfully achieved, the client will have established access to the FTP server and will be able to use a variety of commands to view existing files stored within the local current directory of the server. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Prior to file transmission, the user may be required to set the file type for which two formats exist, ASCII and Binary. ASCII mode is used for text, in which data is converted from the sender's character representation to "8-bit ASCII" before transmission, and then to the receiver's character representation. Binary mode on the other hand requires that the sender send each file byte for byte. This mode is often used to transfer image files and program files, and should be applied when sending or retrieving any VRP image file. In the example, the get vrp.cc command has been issued in order to retrieve the new VRP image located within the remote server. Page 211 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht In the event that the client wishes to retrieve a VRP image from a TFTP server, a connection to the server need not first be established. Instead the client must define the path to the server within the command line, along with the operation that is to be performed. It should also be noted that the AR2200 & S5700 models serve as the TFTP client only and transfer files only in binary format. As can be seen from the example, the get command is applied for retrieval of the VRP image file from the TFTP server following the defining of the destination address of the TFTP server. Page 212 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht The transfer of the VRP image file to the client once successfully achieved, requires that the image be enabled as the startup system software during the next system startup process. In order to change the system software version, the startup system-software command must be run and include the system software file to be used in the next startup. A system software file must use .cc as the file name extension, and the system software file used in the next startup cannot be that used in the current startup. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur Additionally, the storage directory of a system software file must be the root directory, otherwise the file will fail to run. The display startup command should be used to verify that the change to the startup system software has been performed successfully. The output for the startup system software should show the existing VRP image, while the next startup system software should display the transferred VRP image that is now present within the root directory of the device. Page 213 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Confirmation of the startup system software allows for the safe initiation of the system software during the next system boot. In order to apply the changes and allow for the new system software to take effect, the device must be restarted. The reboot command can be used in order to initiate the system restart. During the reboot process, a prompt will be displayed requesting confirmation regarding whether the configuration file for the next system startup be saved. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur In some cases, the saved-configuration file may be erased by the user in order to allow for a fresh configuration to be implemented. Should this have occurred, the user is expected define a response of ‘no’ at the ‘Continue?’ prompt. If the user chooses ‘yes’ at this point, the current-configuration will be rewritten to the saved-configuration file and applied once again during the next startup. If the user is unaware of the changes for which the save prompt is providing a warning, it is recommended that the user select ‘no’ or ‘n’ and perform a comparison of the saved and current configuration to verify the changes. For the reboot prompt, a response of ‘yes’ or ‘y’ is required to complete the reboot process. Page 214 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht 1. A client device must have the capability to reach the FTP server over IP, requiring an IP address be configured on the interface via which the FTP server can be reached. This will allow a path to be validated to the FTP server at the network layer if one exists. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: 2. The user can run the configuration command display startup to validate that current startup system software (VRP) is active, identified by the .cc extension. Page 215 re Mo Page 216 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e Module 3 in g. hu Huawei Certification Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht tp :/ /l ea rn Supporting and Maintaining Enterprise Local Area Networks Huawei Technologies Co.,Ltd re Mo ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 219 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 220 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 221 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht As the enterprise network expands, multiple users need to be established as part of a multi-access network. The evolution of network technologies has seen a shift away from shared local networks, to networks which support multiple collision domains and support the use of 100BaseT forms of media that isolated the transmission and reception of data over separate wire pairs, thus eliminating the potential for collisions to occur and allowing higher full duplex transmission rates. The establishment of a switch brings the capability for increased port density to enable the connection of a greater number of end system devices within a single local area network. Each end system or host within a local area network is required to be connected as part of the same IP network in order for communication to be facilitated at the network layer. The IP address however is only relevant to the host systems since switch devices operate within the scope of the link layer and therefore rely on MAC addressing for frame forwarding. Page 222 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht As a link layer device, each switch relies on a MAC based table that provides association between a destination MAC address and the port interface via which a frame should be forwarded. This is commonly referred to as the MAC address table. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: The initiation of a switch begins with the switch having no knowledge of end systems and how frames received from end systems should be forwarded. It is necessary that the switch build entries within the MAC address table to determine the path that each frame received should take in order to reach a given destination, so as to limit broadcast traffic within the local network. These path entries are populated in the MAC address table as a result of frames received from end systems. In the example, Host A has forwarded a frame to Switch A, which currently has no entries within its MAC address table. Page 223 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The frame that is forwarded from Host A contains a broadcast MAC address entry in the destination address field of the frame header. The source address field contains the MAC address of the peering device, in this case Host A. This source MAC address is used by the switch in order to populate the MAC address table, by associating the MAC entry in the source address field with the switch port interface upon which the frame was received. The example demonstrates how the MAC address is associated with the port interface to allow any returning traffic to this MAC destination to be forwarded directly via the associated interface. Page 224 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The general behavior of an ARP request involves the frame being flooded to all intended destinations primarily due to the MAC broadcast (FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF) that represents the current destination. The switch is therefore responsible for forwarding this frame out of every port interface with exception to the port interface on which the frame was received, in an attempt to locate the intended IP destination as listed within the ARP header for which an ARP reply can be generated. As demonstrated in the example, individual frames are flooded from the switch via port interfaces G0/0/2 and G0/0/3 towards hosts B and host C respectively. Page 225 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht As a result of the ARP request header, the receiving host is able to determine that the ARP header is intended for the IP destination of 10.1.1.3, along with the local source address (MAC) from which the frame originated, and use this information to generate a unicast reply. The information regarding Host A is associated with the IP address of 10.1.1.3 and stored within the MAC address table of Host C. In doing so, the generation of broadcast traffic is minimized, thereby reducing the number of interrupts to local destinations as well as reduction of the number of frames propagating the local network. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur Once the frame is received from Host C by Switch A, the switch will populate the MAC address table with the source MAC address of the frame received, and associate it with the port interface on which the frame was received. The switch then uses the MAC address table to perform a lookup, in order to discover the forwarding interface, based on the destination MAC address of the frame. In this case the MAC address of the frame refers to Host A, for which an entry now exists via interface G0/0/1, allowing the frame to be forwarded to the known destination. Page 226 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Early Ethernet systems operated based on a 10Mbps half duplex mode and applied mechanisms such as CSMA/CD to ensure system stability. The transition to a twisted pair medium gave rise to the emergence of full-duplex Ethernet, which greatly improved Ethernet performance and meant two forms of duplex could be negotiated. The auto-negotiation technology allows newer Ethernet systems to be compatible with earlier Ethernet systems. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce In auto-negotiation mode, interfaces on both ends of a link negotiate their operating parameters, including the duplex mode, rate, and flow control. If the negotiation succeeds, the two interfaces work with the same operating parameters. In some cases however it is necessary to manually define the negotiation parameters, such as where Gigabit Ethernet interfaces that are working in auto-negotiation mode are connected via a 100 Mbps network cable. In such cases, negotiation between the interfaces will fail. Page 227 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht In the event that the configuration parameters for negotiation are changed from using auto negotiation, the defined parameters should be checked using the display interface <interface> command to verify that the negotiated parameters allow for the link layer interface negotiation to be successful. This is verified by the line protocol current state being displayed as UP. The displayed information reflects the current parameter settings for an interface. Page 228 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht 1. When a host or other end system is connected to a switch port interface, a gratuitous ARP is generated that is designed to ensure that IP addresses remain unique within a network segment. The gratuitous ARP message however also provides the switch with information regarding the MAC address of the host, which is then included in the MAC address table and associated with the port interface on which the host is connected. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce If the physical connection of a host connected to a switch port interface is removed, the switch will discover the physical link is down and remove the MAC entry from the MAC address table. Once the medium is connected to another port interface, the port will detect that the physical link is active and a gratuitous ARP will be generated by the host, allowing the switch to discover and populate the MAC address table with the MAC address of the connected host. Page 229 re Mo Page 230 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 231 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 232 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 233 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Enterprise growth results in the commissioning of multiple switches in order to support the interconnectivity of end systems and services required for daily operations. The interconnection of multiple switches however brings additional challenges that need to be addressed. Switches may be established as single point-to-point links via which end systems are able to forward frames to destinations located via other switches within the broadcast domain. The failure however of any point-to-point switch link results in the immediate isolation of the downstream switch and all end systems to which the link is connected. In order to resolve this issue, redundancy is highly recommended within any switching network. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Redundant links are therefore generally used on an Ethernet switching network to provide link backup and enhance network reliability. The use of redundant links, however, may produce loops that cause the communication quality to drastically deteriorate, and major interruptions to the communication service to occur. Page 234 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht One of the initial effects of redundant switching loops comes in the form of broadcast storms. This occurs when an end system attempts to discover a destination for which neither itself nor the switches along the switching path are aware of. A broadcast is therefore generated by the end system which is flooded by the receiving switch. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The flooding effect means that the frame is forwarded via all interfaces with exception to the interface on which the frame was received. In the example, Host A generates a frame, which is received by Switch B which is subsequently forwarded out of all other interfaces. An instance of the frame is received by the connected switches A and C, which in turn flood the frame out of all other interfaces. The continued flooding effect results in both Switch A and Switch C flooding instances of the frame from one switch to the other, which in turn is flooded back to Switch B, and thus the cycle continues. In addition, the repeated flooding effect results in multiple instances of the frame being received by end stations, effectively causing interrupts and extreme switch performance degradation. Page 235 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Switches must maintain records of the path via which a destination is reachable. This is identified through association of the source MAC address of a frame with the interface on which the frame was received. Only one instance of a MAC address can be stored within the MAC address table of a switch, and where a second instance of the MAC address is received, the more recent information takes precedence. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce In the example, Switch B updates the MAC address table with the MAC address of Host A and associates this source with interface G0/0/3, the port interface on which the frame was received. As frames are uncontrollably flooded within the switching network, a frame is again received with the same source MAC address as Host A, however this time the frame is received on interface G0/0/2. Switch B must therefore assume that the host that was originally reachable via interface G0/0/3 is now reachable via G0/0/2, and will update the MAC address table accordingly. The result of this process leads to MAC instability and continues to occur endlessly between both the switch port interfaces connecting to Switch A and Switch C since frames are flooded in both directions as part of the broadcast storm effect. Page 236 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The challenge for the switching network lies in the ability to maintain switching redundancy to avoid isolation of end systems in the event of switch system or link failure, and the capability to avoid the damaging effects of switching loops within a switching topology which implements redundancy. The resulting solution for many years has been to implement the spanning tree protocol (STP) in order to prevent the effects of switching loops. Spanning tree works on the principle that redundant links be logically disabled to provide a loop free topology, whilst being able to dynamically enable secondary links in the event that a failure along the primary switching path occurs, thereby fulfilling the requirement for network redundancy within a loop free topology. The switching devices running STP discover loops on the network by exchanging information with one another, and block certain interfaces to cut off loops. STP has continued to be an important protocol for the LAN for over 20 years. Page 237 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The removal of any potential for loops serves as the primary goal of spanning tree for which an inverted tree type architecture is formed. At the base of this logical tree is the root bridge/switch. The root bridge represents the logical center but not necessarily the physical centre of the STP-capable network. The designated root bridge is capable of changing dynamically with the network topology, as in the event where the existing root bridge fails to continue to operate as the root bridge. Non-root bridges are considered to be downstream from the root bridge and communication to non-root bridges flows from the root bridge towards all non-root bridges. Only a single root bridge can exist in a converged STP-capable network at any one time. Page 238 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Discovery of the root bridge for an STP network is a primary task performed in order to form the spanning tree. The STP protocol operates on the basis of election, through which the role of all switches is determined. A bridge ID is defined as the means by which the root bridge is discovered. This comprises of two parts, the first being a 16 bit bridge priority and the second, a 48 bit MAC address. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The device that is said to contain the highest priority (smallest bridge ID) is elected as the root bridge for the network. The bridge ID comparison takes into account initially the bridge priority, and where this priority value is unable to uniquely identify a root bridge, the MAC address is used as a tie breaker. The bridge ID can be manipulated through alteration to the bridge priority as a means of enabling a given switch to be elected as the root bridge, often in support of an optimized network design. Page 239 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht The spanning tree topology relies on the communication of specific information to determine the role and status of each switch in the network. A Bridge Protocol Data Unit (BPDU) facilitates communication within a spanning tree network. Two forms of BPDU are used within STP. A Configuration BPDU is initially created by the root and propagated downstream to ensure all nonroot bridges remain aware of the status of the spanning tree topology and importantly, the root bridge. The TCN BPDU is a second form of BPDU, which propagates information in the upstream direction towards the root and shall be introduced in more detail as part of the topology change process. ng Re so Bridge Protocol Data Units are not directly forwarded by switches, instead the information that is carried within a BPDU is often used to generate a switches own BPDU for transmission. A Configuration BPDU carries a number of parameters that are used by a bridge to determine primarily the presence of a root bridge and ensure that the root bridge remains the bridge with the highest priority. Each LAN segment is considered to have a designated switch that is responsible for the propagation of BPDU downstream to non-designated switches. Mo re Le ar ni The Bridge ID field is used to determine the current designated switch from which BPDU are expected to be received. The BPDU is generated and forwarded by the root bridge based on a Hello timer, which is set to 2 seconds by default. As BPDU are received by downstream switches, a new BPDU is generated with locally defined parameters and forwarded to all non-designated switches for the LAN segment. Page 240 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Another feature of the BPDU is the propagation of two parameters relating to path cost. The root path cost (RPC) is used to measure the cost of the path to the root bridge in order to determine the spanning tree shortest path, and thereby generate a loop free topology. When the bridge is the root bridge, the root path cost is 0. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The path cost (PC) is a value associated with the root port, which is the port on a downstream switch that connects to the LAN segment, on which a designated switch or root bridge resides. This value is used to generate the root path cost for the switch, by adding the path cost to the RPC value that is received from the designated switch in a LAN segment, to define a new root path cost value. This new root path cost value is carried in the BPDU of the designated switch and is used to represent the path cost to the root. Page 241 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht Huawei Sx7 series switches support a number of alternative path cost standards that can be implemented based on enterprise requirements, such as where a multi vendor switching network may exist. The Huawei Sx7 series of switches use the 802.1t path cost standard by default, providing a stronger metric accuracy for path cost calculation. Page 242 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht A converged spanning tree network defines that each interface be assigned a specific port role. Port roles are used to define the behavior of port interfaces that participate within an active spanning tree topology. For the spanning tree protocol, three port roles of designated, root and alternate are defined. ur ce s: The designated port is associated with a root bridge or a designated bridge of a LAN segment and defines the downstream path via which Configuration BPDU are forwarded. The root bridge is responsible for the generation of configuration BPDU to all downstream switches, and thus root bridge port interfaces always adopt the designated port role. ng Re so The root port identifies the port that offers the lowest cost path to the root, based on the root path cost. The example demonstrates the case where two possible paths exist back to the root, however only the port that offers the lowest root path cost is assigned as the root port. Where two or more ports offer equal root path costs, the decision of which port interface will be the root port is determined by comparing the bridge ID in the configuration BPDU that is received on each port. Mo re Le ar ni Any port that is not assigned a designated or root port role is considered an alternate port, and is able to receive BPDU from the designated switch for the LAN segment for the purpose of monitoring the status of the redundant link, but will not process the received BPDU. The IEEE 802.1D-1990 standard for STP originally defined this port role as backup, however this was amended to become the alternate port role within the IEEE 802.1D-1998 standards revision. Page 243 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht The port ID represents a final means for determining port roles alongside the bridge ID and root path cost mechanism. In scenarios where two or more ports offer a root path cost back to the root that is equal and for which the upstream switch is considered to have a bridge ID that is equal, primarily due to the upstream switch being the same switch for both paths, the port ID must be applied to determine the port roles. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The port ID is tied to each port and comprises of a port priority and a port number that associates with the port interface. The port priority is a value in the range of 0 to 240, assigned in increments of 16, and represented by a value of 128 by default. Where both port interfaces offer an equal port priority value, the unique port number is used to determine the port roles. The highest port identifier (the lowest port number) represents the port assigned as the root port, with the remaining port defaulting to an alternate port role. Page 244 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht The root bridge is responsible for the generation of configuration BPDU based on a BPDU interval that is defined by a Hello timer. This Hello timer by default represents a period of 2 seconds. A converged spanning tree network must ensure that in the event of a failure within the network, that switches within the STP enabled network are made aware of the failure. A Max Age timer is associated with each BDPU and represents life span of a BPDU from the point of conception by the root bridge, and ultimately controls the validity period of a BDPU before it is considered obsolete. This MAX Age timer by default represents a period of 20 seconds. Re so Once a configuration BPDU is received from the root bridge, the downstream switch is considered to take approximately 1 second to generate a new BPDU, and propagate the generated BPDU downstream. In order to compensate for this time, a message age (MSG Age) value is applied to each BPDU to represent the offset between the MAX Age and the propagation delay, and for each switch this message age value is incremented by 1. Mo re Le ar ni ng As BPDU are propagated from the root bridge to the downstream switches the MAX Age timer is refreshed. The MAX Age timer counts down and expires when the MAX Age value exceeds the value of the message age, to ensure that the lifetime of a BPDU is limited to the MAX Age, as defined by the root bridge. In the event that a BPDU is not received before the MAX Age timer expires, the switch will consider the BPDU information currently held as obsolete and assume an STP network failure has occurred. Page 245 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht The spanning tree convergence process is an automated procedure that initiates at the point of switch startup. All switches at startup assume the role of root bridge within the switching network. The default behavior of a root bridge is to assign a designated port role to all port interfaces to enable the forwarding of BPDU via all connected port interfaces. As BPDU are received by peering switches, the bridge ID will be compared to determine whether a better candidate for the role of root bridge exists. In the event that the received BPDU contains an inferior bridge ID with respect to the root ID, the receiving switch will continue to advertise its own configuration BPDU to the neighboring switch. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so Where the BDPU is superior, the switch will acknowledge the presence of a better candidate for the role of root bridge, by ceasing to propagate BPDU in the direction from which the superior BPDU was received. The switch will also amend the root ID field of it’s BPDU to advertise the bridge ID of the root bridge candidate as the current new root bridge. Page 246 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht An elected root bridge, once established will generate configuration BPDU to all other non-root switches. The BPDU will carry a root path cost that will inform downstream switches of the cost to the root, to allow for the shortest path to be determined. The root path cost carried in the BPDU that is generated by the root bridge always has a value of 0. The receiving downstream switches will then add this cost to the path cost of the port interfaces on which the BPDU was received, and from which a switch is able to identify the root port. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur In the case where equal root path costs exist on two or more LAN segments to the same upstream switch, the port ID is used to discover the port roles. Where an equal root path cost exists between two switches as in the given example, the bridge ID is used to determine which switch represents the designated switch for the LAN segment. Where the switch port is neither a root port nor designated port, the port role is assigned as alternate. Page 247 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht As part of the root bridge and port role establishment, each switch will progress through a number of port state transitions. Any port that is administratively disabled will be considered to be in the disabled state. Enabling of a port in the disabled state will see a state transition to the blocking state ①. Re so ur ce Any port considered to be in a blocking state is unable to forward any user traffic, but is capable of receiving BPDU frames. Any BPDU received on a port interface in the blocking state will not be used to populate the MAC address table of the switch, but instead to determine whether a transition to the listening state is necessary. The listening state enables communication of BPDU information, following negotiation of the port role in STP ②, but maintains restriction on the populating of the MAC address table with neighbor information. ni ng A transition to the blocking state from the listening or other states ③ may occur in the event that the port is changed to an alternate port role. The transition between listening to learning and learning to forwarding states ④ is greatly dependant on the forward delay timer, which exists to ensure that any propagation of BDPU information to all switches in the spanning tree topology is achievable before the state transition occurs. Mo re Le ar The learning state maintains the restriction of user traffic forwarding to ensure prevention of any switching loops however allows for the population of the MAC address table throughout the spanning tree topology to ensure a stable switching network. Following a forward delay period, the forwarding state is reached. The disabled state is applicable at any time during the state transition period through manual intervention (i.e. the shutdown command) ⑤. Page 248 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ur ce s: ht Events that cause a change in the established spanning tree topology may occur in a variety of ways, for which the spanning tree protocol must react to quickly re-establish a stable and loop free topology. The failure of the root bridge is a primary example of where re-convergence is necessary. Non-root switches rely on the intermittent pulse of BPDU from the root bridge to maintain their individual roles as non-root switches in the STP topology. In the event that the root bridge fails, the downstream switches will fail to receive a BPDU from the root bridge and as such will also cease to propagate any BPDU downstream. The MAX Age timer is typically reset to the set value (20 seconds by default) following the receipt of each BPDU downstream. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so With the loss of any BPDU however, the MAX Age timer begins to count down the lifetime for the current BPDU information of each non-root switch, based on the (MAX Age – MSG Age) formula. At the point at which the MSG Age value is greater than the MAX Age timer value, the BPDU information received from the root becomes invalid, and the non-root switches begin to assume the role of root bridge. Configuration BPDU are again forwarded out of all active interfaces in a bid to discover a new root bridge. The failure of the root bridge invokes a recovery duration of approximately 50 seconds due to the Max Age + 2x Forward Delay convergence period. Page 249 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht In the case of an indirect link failure, a switch loses connection with the root bridge due to a failure of the port or media, or due possibly to manual disabling of the interface acting as the root port. The switch itself will become immediately aware of the failure, and since it only receives BPDU from the root in one direction, will assume immediate loss of the root bridge, and assert its position as the new root bridge. so ur ce From the example, switch B begins to forward BPDU to switch C to notify of the position of switch B as the new root bridge, however switch C continues to receive BPDU from the original root bridge and therefore ignores any BPDU from switch B. The alternate port will begin to age its state through the MAX Age timer, since the interface no longer receives BPDU containing the root ID of the root bridge. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re Following the expiry of the MAX Age timer, switch C will change the port role of the alternate port to that of a designated port and proceed to forward BPDU from the root towards switch B, which will cause the switch to concede its assertion as the root bridge and converge its port interface to the role of root port. This represents a partial topology failure however due to the need to wait for a period equivalent to MAX Age + 2x forward delay, full recovery of the STP topology requires approximately 50 seconds. Page 250 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht A final scenario involving spanning tree convergence recovery occurs where multiple LAN segments are connected between two switch devices for which one is currently the active link while the other provides an alternate path to the root. Should an event occur that causes the switch that is receiving the BPDU to detect a loss of connection on its root port, such as in the event that a root port failure occurs, or a link failure occurs, for which the downstream switch is made immediately aware, the switch can instantly transition the alternate port. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur This will begin the transition through the listening, learning and forwarding states and achieve recovery within a 2x forward delay period. In the event of any failure, where the link that provides a better path is reactivated, the spanning tree topology must again re-converge in order to apply the optimal spanning tree topology. Page 251 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht In a converged spanning tree network, switches maintain filter databases, or MAC address tables to manage the propagation of frames through the spanning tree topology. The entries that provide an association between a MAC destination and the forwarding port interface are stored for a finite period of 300 seconds (5 minutes) by default. A change in the spanning tree topology however means that any existing MAC address table entries are likely to become invalid due to the alteration in the switching path, and therefore must be renewed. Re so ur The example demonstrates an existing spanning tree topology for which switch B has entries that allow Host A to be reached via interface Gigabit Ethernet 0/0/3 and Host B via interface Gigabit Ethernet 0/0/2. A failure is simulated on switch C for which the current root port has become inactive. This failure causes a recalculation of the spanning tree topology to begin and predictably the activation of the redundant link between switch C and switch B. Mo re Le ar ni ng Following the re-convergence however, it is found that frames from Host A to Host B are failing to reach their destination. Since the MAC address table entries have yet to expire based on the 300 second rule, frames reaching switch B that are destined for Host B continue to be forwarded via port interface Gigabit Ethernet 0/0/2, and effectively become black holed as frames are forwarded towards the inactive port interface of switch C. Page 252 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht An additional mechanism must be introduced to handle the MAC entries timeout period issue that results in invalid path entries being maintained following spanning tree convergence. The process implemented is referred to as the Topology Change Notification (TCN) process, and introduces a new form of BPDU to the spanning tree protocol operation. so ur ce This new BPDU is referred to as the TCN BPDU and is distinguished from the original STP configuration BPDU through the setting of the BPDU type value to 128 (0x80). The function of the TCN BPDU is to inform the upstream root bridge of any change in the current topology, thereby allowing the root to send a notification within the configuration BPDU to all downstream switches, to reduce the timeout period for MAC address table entries to the equivalent of the forward delay timer, or 15 seconds by default. ni ng Re The flags field of the configuration BPDU contains two fields for Topology Change (TC) and Topology Change Acknowledgement (TCA). Upon receiving a TCN BPDU, the root bridge will generate a BPDU with both the TC and TCA bits set, to respectively notify of the topology change and to inform the downstream switches that the root bridge has received the TCN BPDU, and therefore transmission of the TCN BPDU should cease. Mo re Le ar The TCA bit shall remain active for a period equal to the Hello timer (2 seconds), following which configuration BPDU generated by the root bridge will maintain only the TC bit for a duration of (MAX Age + forward delay), or 35 seconds by default. Page 253 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht The effect of the TCN BPDU on the topology change process ensures that the root bridge is notified of any failure within the spanning tree topology, for which the root bridge is able to generate the necessary flags to flush the current MAC address table entries in each of the switches. The example demonstrates the results of the topology change process and the impact on the MAC address table. The entries pertaining to switch B have been flushed, and new updated entries have been discovered for which it is determined that Host B is now reachable via port interface Gigabit Ethernet 0/0/1. Page 254 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht Huawei Sx7 series switches to which the S5700 series model belongs, is capable of supporting three forms of spanning tree protocol. Using the stp mode command, a user is able to define the mode of STP that should be applied to an individual switch. The default STP mode for Sx7 series switches is MSTP, and therefore must be reconfigured before STP can be used. Page 255 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht As part of good switch design practice, it is recommended that the root bridge be manually defined. The positioning of the root bridge ensures that the optimal path flow of traffic within the enterprise network can be achieved through configuration of the bridge priority value for the spanning tree protocol. The stp priority [priority] command can be used to define the priority value, where priority refers to an integer value between 0 and 61440, assigned in increments of 4096. This allows for a total of 16 increments, with a default value of 32768. It is also possible to assign the root bridge for the spanning tree through the stp root primary command. Page 256 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht It has been understood that Huawei Sx7 series of switches support three forms of path cost standard in order to provide compatibility where required, however defaults to support the 802.1t path cost standard. The path cost standard can be adjusted for a given switch using the stp pathcost-standard { dot1d-1998 | dot1t | legacy } command, where dot1d-1998, dot1t and legacy refer to the path cost standards described earlier in this section. so ur ce In addition, the path cost of each interface can also be assigned manually to support a means of detailed manipulation of the stp path cost. This method of path cost manipulation should be used with great care however as the path cost standards are designed to implement the optimal spanning tree topology for a given switching network and manipulation of the stp cost may result in the formation of a sub-optimal spanning tree topology. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re The command stp cost [cost] is used, for which the cost value should follow the range defined by the path cost standard. If a Huawei legacy standard is used, the path cost ranges from 1 to 200000. If the IEEE 802.1D standard is used, the path cost ranges from 1 to 65535. If the IEEE 802.1t standard is used, the path cost ranges from 1 to 200000000. Page 257 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht If the root switch on a network is incorrectly configured or attacked, it may receive a BPDU with a higher priority and thus the root switch becomes a nonroot switch, which causes a change of the network topology. As a result, traffic may be switched from high-speed links to low-speed links, causing network congestion. so ur ce To address this problem, the switch provides the root protection function. The root protection function protects the role of the root switch by retaining the role of the designated port. When the port receives a BPDU with a higher priority, the port stops forwarding packets and turns to the listening state, but it still retains a designated port role. If the port does not receive any BPDU with a higher priority for a certain period, the port status is restored from the listening state. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re The configured root protection is valid only when the port is the designated port and the port maintains the role. If a port is configured as an edge port, or if a command known as loop protection is enabled on the port, root protection cannot be enabled on the port. Page 258 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht Using the display stp command, the current STP configuration can be determined. A number of timers exist for managing the spanning tree convergence, including the hello timer, max age timer, and forward delay, for which the values displayed represent the default timer settings, and are recommended to be maintained. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce The current bridge ID can be identified for a given switch through the CIST Bridge configuration, comprised of the bridge ID and MAC address of the switch. Statistics provide information regarding whether the switch has experienced topology changes, primarily through the TC or TCN received value along with the last occurrence as shown in the time since last TC entry. Page 259 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht For individual interfaces on a switch it is possible to display this information via the display stp command to list all interfaces, or using the display stp interface <interface> command to define a specific interface. The state of the interface follows MSTP port states and therefore will display as either Discarding, Learning or Forwarding. Other valid information such as the port role and cost for the port are also displayed, along with any protection mechanisms applied. Page 260 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp s: ht 1. Following the failure of the root bridge for a spanning tree network, the next best candidate will be elected as the root bridge. In the event that the original root bridge becomes active once again in the network, the process of election for the position of root bridge will occur once again. This effectively causes network downtime in the switching network as convergence proceeds. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce 2. The Root Path Cost is the cost associated with the path back to the root bridge, whereas the Path Cost refers to the cost value defined for an interface on a switch, which is added to the Root Path Cost, to define the Root Path Cost for the downstream switch. Page 261 re Mo Page 262 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 263 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 264 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n re Mo Page 265 ni ar Le ng ur so Re s: ce ht tp ea /l :/ rn in g. hu aw ei .c om /e n n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht STP ensures a loop-free network but has a slow network topology convergence speed, leading to service deterioration. If the network topology changes frequently, the connections on the STP capable network are frequently torn down, causing regular service interruption. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: RSTP employs a proposal and agreement process which allows for immediate negotiation of links to take place, effectively removing the time taken for convergence based timers to expire before spanning tree convergence can occur. The proposal and agreement process tends to follow a cascading effect from the point of the root bridge through the switching network, as each downstream switch begins to learn of the true root bridge and the path via which the root bridge can be reached. Page 266 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ce s: ht Switches operating in RSTP mode implement two separate port roles for redundancy. The alternate port represents a redundant path to the root bridge in the event that the current path to the root bridge fails. The backup port role represents a backup for the path for the LAN segment in the direction leading away from the root bridge. It can be understood that a backup port represents a method for providing redundancy to the designated port role in a similar way that an alternate port provides a method of redundancy to the root port. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur The backup port role is capable of existing where a switch has two or more connections to a shared media device such as that of a hub, or where a single point-to-point link is used to generate a physical loopback connection between ports on the same switch. In both instances however the principle of a backup port existing where two or more ports on a single switch connect to a single LAN segment still applies. Page 267 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp ht In RSTP, a designated port on the network edge is called an edge port. An edge port directly connects to a terminal and does not connect to any other switching devices. An edge port does not receive configuration BPDU, so it does not participate in the RSTP calculation. Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: It can directly change from the Disabled state to the Forwarding state without any delay, just like an STP-incapable port. If an edge port receives bogus configuration BPDU from attackers, it is deprived of the edge port attributes and becomes a common STP port. The STP calculation is implemented again, causing network flapping. Page 268 n aw ei .c om /e in g. hu rn ea /l :/ tp Mo re Le ar ni ng Re so ur ce s: ht RSTP introduces a change in port states that are simplified from five to three types. These port types are based on whether a port forwards user traffic and learns MAC addresses. If a port neither forwards user traffic nor learn