Wisdom and the Spirit of God: Investigating a Pentateuchal Theme

WISDOM AND THE SPIRIT OF GOD: INVESTIGATING A PENTATEUCHAL THEME By Lance Higginbotham Trinity Evangelical Divinity School Evangelical Theological Society Annual Meeting Milwaukee, WI November 14, 2012 One of the long-standing problems in the discipline of Old Testament (OT) Theology has been the question of the theological relationship between OT wisdom literature and the rest of the OT books.1 Sixty-seven years ago, Rylaarsdam observed that the OT wisdom corpus lacks any explicit concern for concepts that are basic to the theology of the rest of the OT, including the concepts of covenant, priesthood and Messiah.2 Subsequently, in a seminal essay on the theology of the OT wisdom literature, Zimmerli wrote “Wisdom has no relation to the history between God and Israel,” specifically noting the absence of the concepts of covenant and election in the canonical wisdom corpus.3 While there is certainly value in examining the theology of the wisdom corpus on its own terms, properly assessing the theological problem at hand requires caution in how one evaluates the differences 1 For a history of the discussion of the place of wisdom literature in OT theology, see: Charles H H. Scobie, “The Place of Wisdom in Biblical Theology,” BTB 14, no. 2 (Ap 1984): 43–44; Bruce K. Waltke, “The Book of Proverbs and Old Testament Theology,” BibSac 136, no. 544 (O-D 1979): 302–304; Leo G. Perdue, Wisdom and Creation: The Theology of Wisdom Literature (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994), 20–34. 2 John Coert Rylaarsdam, Revelation in Jewish Wisdom Literature (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr, 1946), 20. 3 Walther Zimmerli, “Place and Limit of the Wisdom in the Framework of the Old Testament Theology,” SJT 17, no. 2 (Je 1964): 147. Cf. similar thoughts in the following: Perdue, Wisdom and Creation, 23; G. Ernest Wright, God Who Acts: Biblical Theology as Recital (Studies in Biblical Theology 8; London: SCM, 1952), 103; Gerhard Von Rad, Old Testament Theology (trans. D. M. G. Stalker; New York: Harper, 1962), 452; Brevard S. Childs, Old Testament Theology in a Canonical Context (1st ed.; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1989), 210; Rolf Rendtorff, The Canonical Hebrew Bible: A Theology of the Old Testament (trans. David E. Orton; Tools for Biblical Study 7; Leiden, The Netherlands: Deo Pub, 2005), 665. 1 2 between the wisdom corpus and other OT books.4 Additionally, a comparison of OT wisdom literature with the rest of the OT must not be one-sided. In other words, a solution to the problem must not only account for wisdom’s use (or neglect) of concepts common in the broader OT, but also the broader OT’s use of wisdom. This paper will focus on the place of wisdom within the theology of the Pentateuch. While some other studies have concentrated on possible relationships between wisdom and the Pentateuch,5 this paper will concentrate specifically on the connection the Pentateuch itself forges between wisdom and the Spirit of God (Gen 41:33-40; Exod 28, 31 and 35; Deut 34:9). The paper will argue that by drawing attention to this connection within its narrative, the Pentateuch links the history of Israel with the outworking of the wisdom of the God who made heaven and earth. Wisdom and the Spirit of God in the Joseph Narrative In a pioneering essay, Von Rad argued for the presence of wisdom themes in the Joseph narrative (Gen 37-50), noting in particular that the passage portrays Joseph as an ideal wise man who exemplifies the virtues taught in the OT wisdom literature and reflects 4 For example, Ryan O’Dowd, “A Chord of Three Strands: Epistemology in Job, Proverbs and Ecclesiastes,” in The Bible and Epistemology (Milton Keyes, UK: Paternoster, 2007), 68, cautions that the perceived absence of salvation-historical content in Proverbs may be an attribute of the book's non-narrative genre, rather than an indication that the book operates in isolation from the theological framework of the rest of the OT. 5 Gerhard Von Rad, “The Joseph Narrative and Ancient Wisdom,” in Studies in Ancient Israelite Wisdom (The Library of Biblical Studies; New York: Ktav Pub. House, 1976), 439–448; Moshe Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), 244–81; John H. Sailhamer, “A Wisdom Composition of the Pentateuch?” in The Way of Wisdom: Essays in Honor of Bruce K. Waltke (ed. James I. Packer and Sven Soderlund; Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 2000), 15–35; Lindsay Wilson, Joseph Wise and Otherwise: The Intersection of Wisdom and Covenant in Genesis 37-50 (Paternoster Biblical Monographs; Carlisle, England; Waynesboro, Ga: Paternoster, 2004); Ryan P. O’Dowd, The Wisdom of Torah: Epistemology in Deuteronomy and the Wisdom Literature (1. Aufl.; Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments Bd. 225; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009). 3 the ideology at work in wisdom texts.6 Perhaps, of all the Joseph narrative, the theme of wisdom appears most explicitly in Genesis 41, for the root Mkj appears in the following three places: (1) Following two disturbing dreams the previous evening, Pharaoh turns to his “wise men” (MyImDkSj) to interpret them, though they are unable to do so (41:8), (2) after Joseph successfully interprets the dreams, Joseph suggests that Pharaoh appoint “a wise and understanding man” (MDkDj◊w NwøbÎn vyIa) to oversee the land of Egypt during the coming years of plenty and famine which his dreams foretold (41:33) and (3) Pharaoh responds by recognizing the presence of “the Spirit of God” (MyIhølTa Aj…wr) with Joseph, leading him to comment, “Since God has made known all this to you, there is no one understanding and wise (MDkDj◊w NwøbÎn_NyEa) like you” (41:38-39). The significance of the events in Genesis 41 for the rest of the narrative—and for the book of Genesis as a whole—is difficult to miss. As a result of demonstrating wisdom to Pharaoh, Joseph rises to a position of power in Egypt (41:39-45) and implements a plan to preserve Egypt during the famine (41:47-57). Joseph’s life-saving plan, which he implements in Egypt, draws the attention of his father, Jacob, leading him to send Joseph’s brothers there to buy grain (42:1-4). The story culminates in Joseph’s reunion with his Hebrew family and the survival of Israel, God’s covenant people, a survival that is accomplished by God’s providence in bringing Joseph to Egypt in the first place (50:20). 6 Von Rad, “Joseph Narrative,” 442–45. However, Donald B. Redford, A Study of the Biblical Story of Joseph (Genesis 37-50) (Supplements to Vetus Testamentum v. 20; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970), 103 criticizes Von Rad’s essay, questioning whether “one who blurts out meaningful dreams to jealous brothers” (42:18-25) truly exhibits the character depicted in wisdom literature. Yet,Wilson, Joseph Wise and Otherwise, 7–21, 237–72 argues convincingly for a mediating position between Von Rad and Redford, agreeing with Redford that the Joseph narrative is not wisdom literature per se, while agreeing with Von Rad that wisdom ideas present themselves throughout the story. 4 Joseph resembles not simply a prophet,7 but also a wise king (cf. Ps 72:16; Isa 9:2[3]; 11:2),8 whose administration exhibits the theme in Proverbs that wisdom leads to life. 9 In sum, the narrative intertwines Israel’s survival with Joseph’s wisdom depicted in Genesis 41. In addition to the explicit wisdom language in Genesis 41, Pharaoh’s confession that Joseph has the Spirit of God (41:38) carries significance for understanding the passage. In the OT, the Spirit of God appears in various kinds of contexts, and frequently points to the execution of the divine objective.10 When the OT associates the Spirit with a specific person, often the association signifies that God has selected the person for a specific office (1 Sam 16:13; Is 11:2; Deut 34:9) or that the person serves as God’s agent for carrying out a particular work (Judg 14:6, 19; 1 Sam 10:6, 10; Micah 3:8). The Spirit of God in this text seems to refer primarily to the means by which Joseph interprets Pharaoh’s dreams, and his ability to interpret demonstrates that he serves as an agent of God’s wisdom whose plan for Egypt should be executed. That Pharaoh’s comment about the Spirit is closely tied to Joseph’s ability to interpret the dreams is evident from the passage’s emphasis on God’s revelation through Joseph as he interprets the dreams. In 41:16, Joseph tells Pharaoh that he 7 8 Cf. Bruce K. Waltke, Genesis: A Commentary (Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 2001), 531. Gordon J. Wenham, Genesis 16-50 (Word Biblical Commentary 1b; Dallas, Tex: Word Books, 1994), 400. 9 Wilson, Joseph Wise and Otherwise, 241–42. See esp. Prov. 2:1-10, 19, 21; 3:1-2; 4:3-4; 9:11. 10 Cf. Wilf Hildebrandt, An Old Testament Theology of the Spirit of God (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1995), 27. See John H. Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative: A Biblical-Theological Commentary (Library of Biblical Interpretation; Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 1992), 309. 5 is unable to interpret the dream and further asserts that God will give the interpretation.11 More significant is Pharaoh’s statement to Joseph in 41:39, “Since God made all this known to you (Joseph), there is no one understanding and wise like you,” which clearly connects Joseph’s wisdom with revelation from God.12 Pharaoh’s logic makes good sense, as Joseph has not only told him that God serves as the interpreter of the dream (41:39), but also that the dream itself has its origin in God (41:25, 28).13 Pharaoh realizes that Joseph’s interpretation reflects God’s work through him and the presence of God’s Spirit with him. Some commentators argue against associating Pharaoh’s acknowledgement of Joseph’s wisdom with the interpretation of the dreams, and insist that Pharaoh’s words refer to Joseph’s wise plan given in the more immediate context (see 41:33-36).14 Yet, the narrative closely connects Joseph's wise plan with his interpretation of the dream, for the latter is the very foundation of the former.15 It seems that the passage is intended to show that by doing what Pharaoh’s own wise men could not do (interpret the dreams), Joseph demonstrates to Pharaoh that he himself is an agent of God’s wisdom with a plan that should 11 Wenham, Genesis 16-50, 392; Kenneth A. Mathews, Genesis 11:27-50:26 (New American Commentary v. 1B; Nashville, Tenn: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2005), 759. Cf. Waltke, Genesis, 531; Murray H. Lichtenstein, “Idiom, Rhetoric and the Text of Genesis 41:16,” JANESCU 19 (1989): 85–94. 12 Wenham, Genesis 16-50, 395; Mathews, Genesis 11-50, 761; Waltke, Genesis, 533. 13 Mathews, Genesis 11-50, 760. 14 Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis: Chapters 18-50 (The New international Commentary on the Old Testament; Grand Rapids, Mich: Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co, 1995), 503; Wilson, Joseph Wise and Otherwise, 132; 242–45. Cf. Hermann Gunkel, Genesis (trans. Mark E. Biddle; Mercer Library of Biblical Studies; Macon, Ga: Mercer University Press, 1997), 419; Von Rad, “Joseph Narrative,” 402–403, who ascribes Joseph's ascent to authority to his wise speech. 15 Cf. Redford, Study of the Biblical Story, 103, who rightly argues that Joseph's wise plan is predicated upon his inspired interpretation of the dreams, but who mistakenly downplays the importance of the wise plan, and wisdom in general, to the rest of the chapter. 6 be executed.16 Genesis 41 therefore shows that God’s wisdom, at work by his Spirit and through Joseph, plays a decisive role in the survival of God’s people in Egypt. Wisdom, the Spirit of God and the Building of the Tabernacle In addition to Genesis 41, wisdom and the Spirit of God appear together in the tabernacle construction chapters (Exod 25-40). The expression “the Spirit of God” (Aj…wr MyIhølTa) appears with “wisdom” (hDmVkDj) in Exodus 31:3 and 35:31, while “the Spirit of wisdom” (hDmVkDj Aj…wr), an apparent variant of the expression, appears in 28:3. In Exodus 25-40, “wisdom” refers to the craftsmanship of those who construct the tabernacle and its accessories. The Spirit of God/wisdom is the divine source of their craftsmanship: the builders receive the necessary skill for constructing the tabernacle and its accessories when they are “filled” with God’s Spirit (28:3; 31:3; 35:31). One may question whether Exodus 25-40 really speaks of wisdom, and propose that the “manual” nuance of hDmVkDj in these chapters is distinct from the “intellectual” nuance of hDmVkDj in other OT texts.17 Yet, Van Leeuwen shows that the OT recognizes a place for manual skill within the conceptual domain of wisdom, noting that the OT uses hDmVkDj to refer to craftsmanship or building in indisputable wisdom contexts (Prov 3:19-20; 8:22-31; 9:1; 14:1; 24:2-3; cf. 1 Kings 7:13-14).18 He additionally observes similarities between the 16 Cf. Claus Westermann, Genesis 37-50: A Commentary (Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House, 1986), 93–94. 17 This position is taken by R. N. Whybray, The Intellectual Tradition in the Old Testament (Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 135; Berlin; New York: De Gruyter, 1974), 75. 18 Raymond C. Van Leeuwen, “Cosmos, Temple, House: Building and Wisdom in Mesopotamia and Israel,” in From the Foundations to the Crenellations: Essays on Temple Building in the Ancient Near East and Hebrew Bible (ed. Mark J. Boda and Jamie Novotny; Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2010), 418–19. Cf. Angelika 7 fabrics which the woman of Proverbs 31 weaves and the fabrics which the wise women weave for the tabernacle (Prov 31:13, 19, 21-22, 24-25; cf. Exod 35:25-26).19 So what is the significance of the references to wisdom in Exodus 25-40? It is two-fold. First, the tabernacle is the product of God’s wisdom, as shown by the passage’s repeated reference to the Spirit of God. It is God who provides the wisdom to the craftsmen for making the tabernacle and its accessories. This resonates with the fact that God revealed the tabernacle’s “design” (tyInVbA;t) to Moses on Sinai (25:9; 25:40), and that the text repeatedly asserts that the Israelites built the tabernacle according to God’s plan.20 Just as Joseph has the Spirit of God and serves as the agent of God’s wisdom, Bezalel, Oholiab and the rest of the craftsmen have the Spirit of God and serve as the agents of God’s wisdom in building the tabernacle and its accessories. Second, by making the tabernacle and its accessories with wisdom, the craftsmen create an ordered sanctuary that makes possible God’s presence among his sinful people.21 Scholars have observed the importance of order to wisdom within the OT and the Berlejung, “Der Handwerker als Theologe: zur Mentalitäts- und Traditionsgeschichte eines altorientalischen und alttestamentlichen Berufstands,” VT 46, no. 2 (Ap 1996): 154. 19 Van Leeuwen, “Cosmos, Temple, House,” 417. 20 See 26:30; 27:8; 36:1; 39:1, 5, 7, 21, 26, 31, 32, 42; 40:16, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 32. Cf. Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative, 318; Terence E. Fretheim, Exodus (Interpretation; Louisville, Ky: John Knox Press, 1991), 272; Douglas K. Stuart, Exodus (New American Commentary 2; Nashville, Tenn: Broadman and Holman, 2006), 762. 21 Jon Douglas Levenson, Creation and the Persistence of Evil: The Jewish Drama of Divine Omnipotence (1st ed.; San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988), 86; Donald E. Gowan, Theology in Exodus: Biblical Theology in the Form of a Commentary (1st ed.; Louisville, Ky: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994), 184; Hildebrandt, Old Testament Theology, 194; Fretheim, Exodus, 273; Van Leeuwen, “Cosmos, Temple, House,” 416–19. 8 Ancient Near East.22 Van Leeuwen takes this observation further, and notes the importance of divinely established boundaries to the order of creation as reflected in Proverbs 8:22-31, arguing that belief in such boundaries is fundamental to OT conceptions of societal order and justice.23 The connection between wisdom, order and boundaries appears not only in Proverbs 8, but also in Psalm 104:5-26, which also speaks of God’s creating the world with wisdom. This very connection likewise appears in Exodus 25-40. As a product of wisdom, the tabernacle serves as a sanctuary ordered by boundaries between a holy God and his people (Exod 26:33).24 Exodus 40:1-8 portrays the tabernacle as a sanctuary, whose altars and instruments are arranged within zones that its veil and screens demarcate (cf. Heb 9:1-5). Similarly, the priestly garments demarcate the priests from the rest of the people, and designate them for the holy task of service in the presence of God (28:1-3, 12, 29-43).25 The purpose of the tabernacle is for God to dwell in the midst of his people (Exod 25:8-9, 22; 26:33; 28:45-46), and Exodus portrays it as a portable Sinai, by which God’s presence goes with the people from the mountain on their journey.26 What is often 22 Von Rad, Old Testament Theology, 67–69, 78, 80, 90, 95, 153–58, 191–94; Raymond C. Van Leeuwen, “Liminality and Worldview in Proverbs 1-9,” Semeia, no. 50 (1990): 116–120; Perdue, Wisdom and Creation, 46–47; Craig G. Bartholomew and Ryan O’Dowd, Old Testament Wisdom Literature: A Theological Introduction (Downers Grove, Ill.: Nottingham, England: IVP Academic; Apollos, 2011), 34–46. 23 Van Leeuwen, “Liminality,” 116–18, 120–26. 24 See Philip Peter Jenson, Graded Holiness: A Key to the Priestly Conception of the World (Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series 106; Sheffield, England: JSOT Press, 1992), 36–38, 96–98, 101–105. Jenson demonstrates that the tabernacle’s order reflects what he calls “the holiness spectrum”— ranging from most holy to most unclean—and argues that this spectrum determines the choice of materials used in constructing the tabernacle’s rooms and accessories, as well as the priestly garments. 25 Ibid., 104–105. 26 Fretheim, Exodus, 272–73; Gowan, Theology in Exodus, 183; Richard E. Averbeck, “Tabernacle,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch (ed. David W. Baker and T. Desmond Alexander; Downers 9 overlooked is that the tabernacle, like Sinai, is the location of God’s physical presence (Exod 33:9-10; 34:5; 40:34-35; 40:36-38).27 God’s physical presence in the midst of Israel required that there be physical boundaries that separate him and his holy sanctuary from the sinfulness and impurity of the people. As at Sinai, unauthorized crossing of these boundaries into the presence of God meant death for the trespasser (28:3; Num 16; cf. Exod 19:9-13, 20-23).28 The divinely given wisdom of the craftsmen not only produces the boundaries necessitated by God’s presence, but the ritual means of dealing with sin and impurity before him.29 The altars and instruments of the tabernacle, which according to 40:1-8 are hardwired into the ordered arrangement of the tabernacle, provide the ritual means by which Israel deals with its sin and impurity before God.30 Therefore, the tabernacle craftsmen serve as agents of divine wisdom by which God establishes an ordered sanctuary that facilitates his presence among the Israelites. Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 822–24. Cf. Craig G. Bartholomew, Where Mortals Dwell: A Christian View of Place for Today (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academic, 2011), 68. 27 See Richard E. Averbeck, “Clean and Unclean,” in New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (ed. Willem A. VanGemeren; Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan Pub. House, 1997), 4:478–80. 28 Bartholomew, Where Mortals Dwell, 68. 29 Note that the phrase hÎwh◊y yEnVpIl occurs 106 times in Lev 1-16, which describes the rituals to be performed in the tabernacle. 30 Bartholomew, Where Mortals Dwell, 72, rightly observes that “…Old Testament ritual is the indispensable means for restoring her (Israel’s) relationship with Yahweh, for recentering her in the biblical story, and for providing resources for maintaining her in that center which is Yahweh himself.” 10 The Spirit of Wisdom, Moses and Joshua As discussed previously, Exodus 28:3 indicates that “the Spirit of wisdom” serves as a variant expression of “the Spirit of God.”31 Therefore, a third text relevant to this investigation is Deuteronomy 34:9-12, which speaks of Joshua’s filling with “the Spirit of wisdom” (hDmVkDj Aj…wr) and Israel’s transition to leadership under Joshua following Moses’ death. After Deuteronomy 34:9 refers to Joshua’s filling with the Spirit, it attests that “the Israelites listened (…woVmVvˆ¥yÅw) to him and did just as the LORD commanded (hD…wIx) Moses.” Listening to instruction and following commands appear as recurring themes in the OT wisdom literature. The portrayal of Israel in Deuteronomy 34:9 resonates with the role of the sons in Proverbs, who are called to listen (…woVmIv) to the wise commandments (yAtOwVxIm) of the parents (4:1-5; cf. 2:1-6; 7:1-4), and that of the frame narrator’s son in Ecclesiastes, who is instructed to keep the commandments of God (wyDtOwVxIm_tRa) (12:12-13). Numbers 27:15-23, a parallel passage that describes Joshua’s ordination, illumines the significance of the Spirit of wisdom to Deuteronomy 34:9 in two ways. First, while the word hDmVkDj does not occur in Numbers 27:15-23, God’s appointing Joshua comes in response to Moses’ asking God for a “shepherd” (hRoOr) to lead the people after he dies (27:17). While the OT applies shepherd imagery more commonly to royal figures (2 Sam 5:2, 7:7 // 1Chron 11:2, 17:6; Ezek 34:23, 37:24), the image refers to a teacher of wisdom in Ecclesiastes 12:11. The link between wisdom and shepherding appears in other Ancient Near Eastern texts. Lipit-Ishtar, in the prologue to his laws, portrays himself as a wise shepherd, 31 See pg. 6 above. 11 as does Hammurapi in the prologue and epilogue to his laws.32 It is likely that Moses’ asking God for a shepherd in effect serves as a request for a wise leader for Israel. Second, the Numbers account explains that the people’s compliance with Joshua—that they will “listen to him” (…woVmVvˆy)—will derive from the “majesty” (dwøh) that Moses bestows upon Joshua by laying his hands upon him (27:20; cf. Deut 34:9). Numbers 27 does not define the “majesty” that Joshua receives, but the ensuing verse may give a clue as to its meaning. There it is learned that Joshua’s leadership will entail receiving his instructions for leading the people from Eleazar the priest, who will receive instructions from God by consulting the “decision (fAÚpVvIm = lit. “the judgment”) of the Urim” (27:21). The identity of the Urim is uncertain to modern interpreters,33 but Exodus 28:30—as does Numbers 27:21—indicates that they served as the instruments by which the priests received “decisions” from God. It appears that the text associates Joshua’s “majesty” with his role of receiving decisions from God with which to lead the people.34 Several commentators35 have noted that Joshua does not receive the fullness of Moses’ majesty. Consequently, Moses 32 “The Laws of Lipit-Ishtar,” translated by S.N. Kramer (ANET, 159); “The Code of Hammurabi,” translated by Theophile J. Meek (ANET, 319; 178). 33 Timothy R. Ashley, The Book of Numbers (The New International Commentary on the Old Testament; Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 1992), 554. 34 Baruch A. Levine, Numbers 21-36: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (1st ed.; Anchor Bible Commentary 4a; New York: Doubleday, 1993), 351. 35 God literally commands Moses “you will bestow upon him from your majesty” (27:20). See Gordon J. Wenham, Numbers: An Introduction and Commentary (1st ed.; The Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries 4; Leicester, Eng: Downers’ Grove, Ill.: Inter-Varsity Press, 1981), 194; Jacob Milgrom, Numbers: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation (The JPS Torah Commentary; Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1990), 236; Ashley, The Book of Numbers, 553. 12 received divine instruction directly—face to face with God—but Joshua indirectly, by way of the priest (cf. Deut 34:10).36 It is significant to note that the OT associates wisdom with making right decisions. The Hebrew word “decision” (fDÚpVvIm) describes Solomon’s wise verdict in the case of the two prostitutes arguing for custody of an infant (1 Kings 3:28). Van Leeuwen has shown that the theme of making right decisions, in keeping with the fear of the LORD, rests at the theological heart of Proverbs 1-9.37 Additionally, Exodus 28:30, the initial mentioning of the Urim and their function in the Pentateuch, stands in the midst of the tabernacle construction passage where wisdom terminology prevails. This interpretation—that Numbers portrays Joshua as a wise shepherd, who commands the people with wisdom from God—accords well with the description of Joshua in Deuteronomy 34:9, which links Joshua’s leadership with his being filled with the Spirit of wisdom. Sailhamer rightfully notes that Deuteronomy 34:9 connects Joshua’s wisdom with his meditating on the written words of the Torah, for the verse explains that when the Israelites “listened to him (Joshua), they did just as the Lord had commanded Moses” (cf. Josh 1:7-8).38 However, meditating on the Torah is not the only means through which Joshua leads the people in wisdom. Joshua also receives wise decisions by consulting with the priest, who has received the decisions from God himself by consulting the Urim. Though he 36 Ashley, The Book of Numbers, 553–54; Wenham, Numbers, 194–95. 37 Van Leeuwen, “Liminality,” 114–16. 38 Sailhamer, “Wisdom Composition,” 27; Cf. Richard D. Nelson, Deuteronomy: A Commentary (1st ed.; Old Testament Library; Louisville, Ky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002), 397; O’Dowd, Wisdom of Torah, 109. 13 does not do so in the same way as Moses (Deut 34:10), Joshua serves in a prophetic-like capacity, in which he leads by serving as a messenger of divine revelation.39 He is the agent through whom God leads his people in wisdom on their way to the Promised Land. The Spirit of God and Genesis 1 The first biblical use of the expression “the Spirit of God” appears in the Bible’s opening verses. Genesis 1:2 describes the Spirit’s “hovering above the waters” as a way of introducing the creation account of 1:3-2:3. The precise meaning of Aj…wr in this context is up for debate, as the word could refer to wind, breath or Spirit. However, Averbeck suggests that these three understandings of Aj…wr do not necessarily exclude one another,40 and proposes that “the Spirit of God” simultaneously depicts wind-like power over the waters in 1:2 (cf. Gen 8:1; Exod 14:21-22; 15:8-10), and the “‘breathing out’ of his pronouncements” by which he creates the heavens and the earth (cf. Ps 33:6).41 Consequently, the Bible’s opening verses closely connect the Spirit of God with God’s work of creation. The connection between the Spirit of God and creation in the opening words of the Bible certainly has bearing on the other passages discussed from the Pentateuch. The 39 Duane L. Christensen, Deuteronomy 21:10-34:12 (Word Biblical Commentary v. 6B; Nashville, Tenn.: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2002), 873. Sailhamer’s contention that “when Joshua replaced Moses, wisdom replaced prophecy” oversimplifies the sense of Deut 34:9. See “Wisdom Composition,” 27. 40 Richard E. Averbeck, “Breath, Wind, Spirit and the Holy Spirit in the Old Testament,” in Presence, Power and Promise: The Role of the Spirit of God in the Old Testament (ed. David G. Firth and Paul D. Wegner; Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2011), 28–29, argues that wind, breath and spirit all speak of “essential and primal categories of life—animal, human and divine life.” Cf. Hildebrandt, Old Testament Theology, 34–35. 41 Averbeck, “Wind, Breath, Spirit,” 34. Cf. Hildebrandt, Old Testament Theology, 35. 14 presence of the Spirit of God/wisdom in Genesis 41, Exodus 25-40 and Deuteronomy 34 suggests that at work in Joseph, the tabernacle craftsmen, Moses and Joshua—all key figures in the history of Israel—is the very God who created heaven and earth.42 Yet, other threads connect the passages discussed above to creation and the early chapters of Genesis. First, other OT texts closely associate God’s creating the heavens and the earth with wisdom, something not made explicit in Genesis 1 (Prov 3:19-20; 8:27-30; Ps 104:24-26). Other OT texts, therefore, understand the acts that God carries out in Genesis 1 by his Spirit as acts that he also carries out in wisdom, resonating with the Pentateuchal texts examined above. Second, the Pentateuch integrates the passages that connect the Spirit of God and wisdom within its salvation-historical storyline, which largely concerns God’s plan to renew creation through his people. Sailhamer argues that the description of Joseph in Genesis 41 alludes to that of Adam in Genesis 1-3, and that the passage portrays Joseph as trusting and obeying God in the very ways that Adam did not.43 Dahlberg suggests that Genesis 37-50 intentionally interacts with many of the issues raised in Genesis 1-11, and proposes that Joseph’s discourse in 50:19-20 stands in deliberate contrast with the words of the serpent in 3:4-5, a contrast which points to “a reversal of the scene portrayed earlier in Eden.”44 The contrasts between Joseph and Adam and Eve, along with the text’s assertion 42 Hamilton, Genesis 18-50, 503, makes this observation with respect to Joseph. 43 Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative, 215. Sailhamer in particular compares Adam’s need for God’s knowledge of good and evil and Adam’s dominion over the land as God’s image with Joseph’s wisdom and authority as Pharaoh’s vice-regent in Egypt. Bruce T. Dahlberg, “On Recognizing the Unity of Genesis,” Theology Digest 24, no. 4 (1976): 364. 44 Dahlberg, “Recognizing,” 363–64. He contrasts (1) the serpent’s claim that the fruit will make the woman like God with Joseph’s question, “Am I in the place of God?” (2) the serpent’s discourse about good and evil with Joseph’s words concerning God’s providential goodness in spite of evil human intentions and (3) 15 that he has “the Spirit of God with him” suggests that Joseph himself is a sign of God’s work of re-creation through his people.45 Additionally, numerous parallels exist between the tabernacle and the Garden of Eden in Genesis 2-3.46 However, Hess has drawn attention to linguistic parallels between the tabernacle construction account (Exod 25-40) and the creation narrative of Genesis 1, noting in particular that Bezalel and Oholiab serve the same role in the building of the tabernacle as the Spirit serves in the creation of the world in Genesis.47 Similarly, seven discourses provide the infrastructure of Exodus 25-31, perhaps with the intent of mirroring the seven-day scheme of creation in Genesis 1.48 Therefore, the tabernacle—built through wisdom from God—represents another act in the drama of re-creation, where God re-creates a place to dwell among his people Israel. the serpent’s words that eating from the tree will not lead to death with Joseph’s assertion that God’s providential ways have led to Israel’s life. 45 See Sailhamer’s contention that the picture of Joseph in Genesis 41 resonates with the eschatological poem of Genesis 49 concerning the house of Judah. The Pentateuch as Narrative, 215. 46 See Gordon J. Wenham, “Sanctuary Symbolism in the Garden of Eden Story,” in Proceedings: 9th World Congress of Jewish Studies, Jerusalem, August 1985 (ed. Raphael Giveon, H. Jacob Katzenstein, and Moshé Anbar; Jerusalem: World Union of Jewish Studies, 1986), 19–25; Cf. Gregory K. Beale, The Temple and the Church’s Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God (New Studies in Biblical Theology 17; Downers Grove, Ill.: Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press; Apollos, 2004), 66–76. 47 Richard S. Hess, “Bezalel and Oholiab: Spirit and Creativity,” in Presence, Power and Promise: The Role of the Spirit of God in the Old Testament (ed. David G. Firth and Paul D. Wegner; Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 2011), 170–71. 48 Peter J. Kearney, “Creation and Liturgy: The P Redaction of Ex 25-40,” ZAW 89, no. 3 (1977): 375 divides the passage into seven discourses as follows: (1) 25:1-30:10, (2) 30:11-16, (3) 30:17-21, (4) 30:22-33, (5) 30:34-37, (6) 31:1-11, (7) 31:12-17. He notes that 31:12-17, the seventh discourse, is “a command to observe the sabbath,” reflecting the seventh day of creation in Genesis 2:2. 16 Furthermore, the impending entrance into the Promised Land in Deuteronomy 34 is itself situated in God’s re-creative work through Israel. Adding to his thesis that Israel’s tabernacle and temple were modeled after the Garden, Beale notes comparisons that the OT draws between the Promised Land and the Garden (Gen 13:10; Is 51:3; Ezek 36:35; 47:12; Joel 2:3).49 O’Dowd rightly observes that Genesis 12 serves as the “lynch-pin” of the Pentateuch’s overarching narrative, drawing connections between the land that God promises to Abraham and his descendants and the Garden from which God expels Adam and Eve.50 He writes, “Genesis sets Israel apart in a legal and binding relationship with Yahweh in order to gather and bless the nations in a re-created garden.”51 Consequently, God’s bestowing the Spirit of wisdom on Joshua in Deuteronomy 34:9, as Israel plans to enter the Promised Land, has significance not simply for Israel, but for God’s cosmic plan of re-creation to restore all nations to their uncorrupted state in Paradise.52 Moreover, these passages connecting the Spirit of God and wisdom link the OT story about Israel with the wise, creative work of God exhibited in Genesis 1. 49 Beale, Temple, 116. 50 O’Dowd, Wisdom of Torah, 16. 51 Ibid., 17. Cf. his comments about Israel’s missiological role as spelled out in Deut 4:5-8 (pg. 173). 52 See Stephen G. Dempster, Dominion and Dynasty: A Biblical Theology of the Hebrew Bible (New Studies in Biblical Theology 15; Leicester, England: Downers Grove, Ill: Apollos; InterVarsity Press, 2003), 76–77. 17 Conclusion The first explicit reference to wisdom in the OT appears in Genesis 3:6, where the serpent convinces Eve to eat the forbidden fruit by appealing to its ability to impart wisdom. By eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve began a pursuit of wisdom apart from God.53 Since the story of how the world went wrong entails the rejection of God’s wisdom, it should be no surprise that God’s plan of re-creation and restoration of the world involves the very wisdom which Adam and Eve rejected, and through which God assembled creation in the beginning. The repeated connection between wisdom and the Spirit of God shows that the Pentateuch links the history of Israel with the outworking of the wisdom of the God who made heaven and earth. This outworking of divine wisdom is evident in the preservation of Israel in the Joseph narrative (Gen 41), the building of the tabernacle sanctuary where God dwells among his people (Exod 25-40) and the provision of a wise shepherd, Joshua, to lead God’s people in the conquest of the Promised Land (Numb 27; Deut 34). While the problem of the theological relationship between OT wisdom literature and the rest of the OT is too complex for a paper of this scope to resolve, the conclusions set forth here have implications for this question. The Pentateuch indicates that wisdom plays a significant role in the working out of God’s mission to re-create and redeem the world through his people Israel. Perhaps OT scholarship should allow the theology of wisdom in historical and prophetic OT texts to shed light on how the theology of the OT wisdom literature should be understood in relationship to the broader OT canon. 53 Sailhamer, The Pentateuch as Narrative, 104.