The faith of Israel's Daughters

Final Paper Gian Nicola Paladino ‐ n. matr. 8355 PIB a.a. 2015/2016 I° Semester ‐ Prof. Phyllis A. Bird TV1114 – The faith of Israel's Daughters Women as Religious Specialists: Miriam – prophetess? Ex 15: 20; Num 12:1-5; Micah 6:4 Five women bear the title haybn, the feminine form of aybn, "prophet", in the Hebrew Bible: 1) Miriam, the sister of Moses; 2) Deborah, said also to be "judging Israel" (lEa∂rVcˆy_tRa hDfVpOv); 3) the nameless wife of the prophet Isaiah in Is 8:3; Hulda, the prophet who was concerned with the truthfulness of the discovered "Book of the Law" for King Josiah, in 2 Kgs 22:14 (paralleled in 2 Chr 34:22); and 5) Noadiah, who in Ne 6:14 seems to have rebelled the restoration projects of Nehemiah. Nevertheless scholars resist characterizing Isaiah's wife as a prophet in comparison with Miriam, Deborah, Hulda, and Noadiah. As a matter of fact Isaiah's wife did not undertake a typical prophetic ministry, making declarations about matters of public interest and taking part into public affairs. On the contrary the only action ascribed to Isaiah's wife is a domestically based initiative in which almost all ancient Israelite women were involved: conceiving by her husband and bearing their child. It is also worth to note that, among the Bible's five women prophets, Isaiah's wife is not given a name. This is fundamental for the giving of names in the Bible – especially the giving of names to women – is often an important marker of those women's autonomy and authority1. Therefore the anonimity of Isaiah's wife, may suggest her relative weakness and easily raise a question: is Isaiah's wife assigned the title "prophet" only because of her marriage to the male prophet Isaiah as well as Esther for example is assigned the title "queen" by dint of her marriage to Ahasuerus, even though she was not of royal birth? 1 See C. MEYERS, «The Hannah Narrative in the Feminist Perspective», Go to the Land I will show you. Studies in Honor of Dwight W. Young (eds. J. COLESON – V.H. MATTHEWS) (Winona Lake, IN 1994) 120-22. 1 Apart from this we must admit that the same biblical tradition that identifies four women as prophets ascribes the title aybn to no fewer than twenty-nine men2, and, if we think that the members of the various groups of prophets quoted in the Bible, such as the four hundred prophets of Ahab (1Kgs 22:6)3, were solely male, then the number of men designated as "prophet" in the biblical account enormously multiplies4. It is then desiderable to add the names of the books attributed to eight further men who, though not explicitly given the title aybn in the biblical text, were surely assumed by its redactors to be prophets: they are Amos, Hosea, Joel, Micah, Nahum, Obadiah, Zephaniah, and the anonymous Malachi. Most modern biblical scholars add as well Second (and possibly Third) Isaiah and the anonymous author(s) of Zech 9-14. The Protestant and Roman Catholic communities would include Daniel, and the Catholic tradition would also admit Baruch. As far as Miriam is concerned, she appeared in some scenes scattered throughout Moses’ life as the most important female figure in the books of Exodus and Numbers; and yet the actual number of verses in which she appears was limited to 17 in the Pentateuch, and 1 each in Micah and 1 Chronicles. She is depicted as a daughter, sister, leader, prophetess, and sister-in-law; her role in the history of the Exodus experience was appreciable, and she lived and acted with weariness at an important time in her people’s history. 2 These are (in alphabetical order) Aaron, Abraham, Ahijah, Elijah, Elisha, Ezekiel, Gad, Habbakuk, Haggai, Hananiah, Iddo, Isaiah, Jehu, Jeremiah, Jonah, Micaiah, Moses, Nathan, Oded, Samuel, Shemiah Zechariah, and the anonymous, but clearly male prophets of Judg 6:8; 1 Kgs 13:11.18; 20:13.38; 2Kgs 9:4; 2Chr 25:15. This list counts, moreover, only men whom the biblical record labels aybn; if we were to include those men who bear the kindred titles of “seer”, “man of God”, and the like, our total would be still higher. 3 The “king of Israel” of the Micah story in 1 Kgs 22 is in fact only identified by the name Ahab in v. 20, and thus some commentators have suggested that the narrative is not actually to be associated with this king; discussion can be found in S.J. DE VRIES, Prophet Against Prophet. The Role of the Micaiah Narrative (1 Kings 22) in the Development of Early Prophetic Tradition (Grand Rapids, MI 1990) 75-83. 4 Ezekiel does speak of “the daughters of your people who are prophesying” (Ezek 13:17), but whether this implies a company of female prophets, analogous to the companies or bands attested elsewhere in the biblical text, suggests, using comparative material, that Ezekiel's female prophets are holy women in the community who assisted a woman at childbirth and who helped Israelite women deal with other issues they might have had relating to pregnancy and delivery (N.R. BOWEN, «The Daughters of Your People: Female Prophets in Ezekiel 13: 17-23», JBL 118.3 (1999) 417-33). This very compelling analysis, however, while it does suggest some sort of as professional community of female prophets, does not necessarily imply the sort of company or band of prophets who lived and travelled together, as is described, for example, in the Elijah-Elisha narratives. 2 The Bible does not provide a physical description of Miriam; her personality emerges only through her actions. As a girl (Ex 2: 4, 7-8), she had an important acting role when her brother Moses needed a nurse. Later she took a command role in the crossing of the Reed Sea (Ex 15:20-21). Often she is linked to what her brothers were doing. She helped save Moses and later, after Moses had led the people across the Reed Sea, she led the women in song. This latter role was enriched by a further description of her joining the women in music and dance, a unique combination for a Pentateuchal female5. Her total interaction with her brothers was seen again when she was punished with a skin affliction because of denigrating remarks she and Aaron levied against Moses (Num 12. 1-5, 915). The critical nature of her remarks showed her to be antagonistic towards Moses’ Cushite wife and jealous of Moses to whom God spoke; because of this latter resentment she challenged God (Num 12:2), expressing her bitterness verbally. Though Miriam was usually called by her name, she was also known as the sister of Moses and Aaron, as when she saved Moses at the bank of the Nile. Even though the text (Ex 2:4) reads wtwxa ("his sister"), the absence of her name from this passage may suggest she was depraciated and not the focal point of the event, though she was the force behind it6. Miriam was commented about as a young girl who saved Moses, and as adult woman who sinned by slandering him. After having prophesied that her brother would have rescued one day Israel, Miriam watched him while he was in the river to learn his fate7. The targumim literally translated the stories about Miriam and added almost nothing to the bible story when describing her early life; midrashic texts regularly amplified the biblical verses. Names in the Bible often provide clues to personality traits and actions. When studying the meaning of Miriam's name we find exegetical comments, which philologically connect the 5 P.S. KRAMER, «Miriam», Exodus to Deuteronomy. A Feminist Companion to the Bible (Second Series 5) (eds. A. BRENNER – C.R. FONTAINE) (Sheffield 2000) 105. 6P.S. KRAMER, «Miriam», 105. 7 Jubilees 47.4 offered a fascinating reason for Miriam’s being at the river bank when it read “during the day Miriam, your sister, guarded you from the birds”. 3 meaning of her name to her life. As female exegetes examine Miriam's name, they relate the word rm, "bitter", to the adversities and bitterness of her life. Her name "embodied the condition of Israel at the time of her birth"8. Thus "the meaning of her name is with the time of bondage in Egypt"9. The syllable meaning "bitter" is combined with ‫םי‬ or water. Miriam, in a modern day midrash, defines her own name: My name is an amalgam of two Hebrew words – mar, meaning "bitter", and yam, meaning "sea". My life was indeed bitter, like the waters we encountered after crossing the Sea of Reeds, as it is written: "They could not drink the water of Marah because it was bitter; that is why it was called Marah"10. In combining the water motif with Miriam’s personality, the stories of Marah and Meribah are referred to: The ambiguity of this motif associated with Miriam seems to be reflected in two biblical wordplays on Miriam’s name. Both appear in stories about the Israelites’ lack of water, in the episodes of Marah and Meribah, each of which follows a reference to Miriam. The word mar, “bitter”, occurs four times in one verse soon after Miriam’s song, echoing and reechoing a play on Miriam’s name as MRYM, “bitter sea” or “water”(Exod 15.24). Meribah means “contentiousness” (Num 20.13) and is linked in the episode which immediately follows Miriam’s death with the word MRY, “rebelliousness” (Num 20.10, 24; 27.14). Both of these stories seem to be playing on Miriam’s name; together, they offer the double connotation of bitterness and rebelliousness and suggest, perhaps, a complex view of Miriam consistent with the complexity of the water motif11. In Rabbinic Interpretation12 Miriam's role as prophetess was evident early in her life when she challenged her father for having divorced his wife to avoid having any children, and Amran capitulated and took Yocheved back. Miriam and Aaron accompanied their wedding procession, she "carrying castanets and marching13. Miriam challenged her father's actions and said he was wrong to abstain from a matrimonial relationship with his wife. She reminded him that Pharaoh's edict intended to kill only male infants, and that by his abstaining from sexual relations with his wife he was not allowing for the possibility even of female to be born14. When Miriam predicted the birth of a son who would be a saviour, her father praised her; when the 8 J. ANTONELLI, In the Image of God. A Feminist Commentary on the Torah (Northvale, NJ 1995) 173. L.L. BRONNER, From Eve to Esther. Rabbinic Reconstructions of Biblical Women (Luoisville, KY 1994) 168. 10 E. FRANKEL, The Five Books of Miriam. A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah (New York 1996) 113. 11 D. STEINMETZ, «A Portrait of Miriam in Rabbinic Midrash», Prooftexts 8.1 (1998) 35-65, esp. 55. 12 Exodus Rabbah 1.17. 13 Pes. R. 43.4. 14 Pes. R. 43.4 9 4 infant was put into the Nile, the father chastened her and was misbeliever about the prophecy. Actually, Miriam's prophecy was twofold: first, the birth of a son; and second, the son would redeem Israel. As a result of this prophecy, she was listed as one of seven prophetess, the others being Sarah, Deborah, Hannah, Abigail, Huldah, and Esther. Similarly The Chronicles of Jerahmel, in dealing with Miriam's prophecy, attributed her abilities to "the Spirit of God". This was a singular theophanic description, directly relating Miriam to the divine. This same section stated: "Amran begat a son and daughter, Aaron and Miriam"15. Since Miriam was the elder child, one would have expected her name to be listed first (cf. 1 Chron. 5.29). Miriam, enjoying equality with her two brothers, was numbered as one of Israel's three redeemers, and merited the respect of the people who waited for her when she suffered from leprosy, as the Shekinah lingered16. Their waiting was reciprocal for her having waited at the Nile's banks to learn the fate of the infant Moses17. Rabbi Joshua likened the vine in the chief steward's dream (Gen 40.10) to the Torah, and the three branches to the three siblings: Miriam, Aaron and Moses. Rabbi Berekiah stated that God said to Israel: "Is sent you three messengers, Moses, Aaron and Miriam"18. Miriam was referred to as a pedagouge, as were her brothers, and she was credited with having merited the well accompanying the people in their wanderings. As to her leadership she equalized her brothers, the gift of the well bestowed upon Israel because of her merit, and the well being taken away upon her death19. In each of these instances, Miriam was treated identically with her brothers. Exegetes viewed Miriam as a woman, a righteous leader and a prophetess. In Exod. 15.20 she was mentioned both as a prophetess and as above-mentioned the sister of Aaron. Rashi and Epstein explained why she was called both prophetess and sister of Aaron, echoing earlier 15 The Chronicles of Jerahmel, 42.8. Lev. Rabbah 15.8. 17 Sot 9b and 11a; and Mek. Beshal.1. 18 Lev. R. 27.6. 19 Pal. Targ. 16 5 talmudic statements20. She was specifically called Aaron's sister because it was he who, in spite of the possibility of coming across God's wrath, pleaded for Miriam when she was smitten with leprosy, showing feelings from his soul (Rashi on 15.20). Miriam, Deborah and Huldah are unique in that they "are endowed with gifts of prophecy that transcend sex or gender"21. Of these three women, Miriam "is the first person – not the first woman, but the first person – in the Hebrew Bible given this title in its general sense22. The peshat does not directly deal with Miriam's prophecies; rather, her gift is exegetically described. In modern day thinking, one can imagine her saying: When I was but a child of five, I chastised my father and all the Hebrew men for abandoning their marriage beds; when I was a leader of our free people, I upraided my brother Moses for abandoning his marriage bed. Mine is the voice of joy of victory, of power. I prophesy the redemption of all our people! My vision is clear and limitless. I see to the last generation!23 Miriam does not fit as a prophetess the model found in post-Pentateuchal books. Her designation as a prophet and her unquestioned leadership of the victory celebration in Exodus 15 indicate that ancient Israelites were also familiar with forms of female authority that did not survive into later periods…Although she is called a prophet, her actions do not follow the patterns of oracular speech generally associated with Israelite prophecy. They do, however, suggest ritual, perhaps ecstatic dance and song24. In three Old Testament passages Miriam is quoted as a prophetess: Ex 15:20; Num 12:1-5 and Mi 6:4. The Song of the Sea (Ex 15:1-18), is followed by the final portion of its framework (vv.19-21). Verse 19 indicates the reason for the song of Moses and Aaron, by repeating expressions that had occurred in chapter 14, as though it were a continuation of the initial words of the framework (v.1): taøΩzAh h∂ryIÚvAh_tRa lEa∂rVcˆy y´nVb…w hRvOm_ryIvÎy zDa... MÎ¥yA;b wyDv∂rDpVb…w wø;bVkîrV;b 20 Sot. 12b-13a and Meg. 14a. R. LACKS, Women and Judaism. Myth, History, and Struggle (Garden City, NY 1980) 90. 22 A.O. BELLIS, Helpmates, Harlots, and Heroes. Women’s Stories in the Hebrew Bible (Louisville, KY 1994) 102. 23 F. ELLEN, The Five Books of Miriam. A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah (New York 1996) 12. 24 S.D. O’DONNELL, «Exodus», Women’s Bible Commentary (eds. C.A. NEWSOM – S.H. RINGE) (London 1992) 3039. 21 6 hOo√rAÚp s…ws aDb yI;k, etc. (here the horses are mentioned first, followed immediately by the chariots, and only at the end are the horsemen mentioned). The verse consists of three clauses, each of which ends with word "sea": "For when the horses of Pharaoh with his chariots and his horsemen went into the sea – the Lord brought back upon them the waters of the sea – but the children of Israel walked on dry ground in the midst of the sea". In vv. 20-21, we are told how the song was accompanied by instrumental music. "Then took Miriam" MÎy√rIm jå;qI;tÅw who is mentioned here for the first time by her name and hence also by her title of honour, "the prophetess" hDayIb◊…nAh, and also by her formal ephitet, "the sister of Aaron" NOrShAa twøjSa, in accordance with the system in which the eldest brother is recognized as the head of the family25 "a timbrel in her hand" - h∂dÎyV;b PO;tAh_tRa the timbrel – "and all the women" - – in order to accompany the singers with the music of MyIvÎ…nAh_lDk – not actually all, but many of them – "went out" Î NaRxE;tÅw – from their place, so as to stand in the midst of the choirs – "after her, with timbrels and with tølOjVmIb…w MyIÚpUtV;b Dhy®rSjAa - holding timbrels and tølOjVm. The last word does not denote "dances" but musical instruments like the timbrels. And Miriam – with her companions – sang with the Israelite men: :MD¥yAb hDm∂r wøbVkOr◊w s…ws hDaÎ…g hOaÎg_yI;k hÎwhyAl …wryIv - as a refrain at the end of each strophe. The reason of the story of Nu 12:1-15, which relates how Miriam and Aaron challenge Moses' peculiar right to speak for YHWH, how YHWH vindicates Moses, and how Miriam is smitten with leprosy because of her sin, and only healed thanks to Moses' intercession, is the uniqueness of Moses' position and of his intimacy with YHWH. Miriam is here mentioned before Aaron, and the vb. is in the 3rd fem. sing. rE;bådV;tÅw26; subsequently the verbs are pl., and Aaron is mentioned first. The order and structure of the present clause (subsequently abandoned) 25 U. CASSUTO, A Commentary on the book of Exodus (Jerusalem 1967) 162. The general sense of rabbinic literature was not strictly in accordance with the grammatical significance of the phrase ‫באהרון ותדבר ירמם‬. The verb is third person feminine singular, indicating that Miriam was the one who spoke. However, I question the conjunction connected to Aaron’s name and wonder if he, too, did utter a slanderous remark as well, or if she spoke with him. In any case, the grammar makes her the responsible person and Aaron, with no verb attached to his name, would be guiltless of having spoken. That he got off unscathed may reflect an understanding of the text as if it read ‫ותדבר ירמם באהרון‬, that is, she did the talking and he did the listening. This interpretation would make him an accomplice for having heeded her, but certainly not as guilty as she for her words. In addition, because God dispensed punishment for Miriam and not for Aaron, the commentators mirrored this difference, impugning and reproving only her. (Cfr. P.S. KRAMER, «Miriam», 115). 26 7 indicate either that Miriam took the lead, or that a story in which Miriam alone offended – she is still alone in being punished – has been modified by introducing Aaron as a second offender. Irmtraud Fisher argues that the feminine singular form of the verb in verse 1 should be interpreted as highlighting Miriam as the driving force of the action or dominant character, and as such she would logically bear the greater guilt and punishment27. The precise meaning of b rbd used of a divine communication is not quite certain28. We may notice three suggestions that have been offered. 1) Here and in some other passages, 1 Kings 22,28 it might be and has been explained29 as meaning "to use as a spokesman"; V;b certainly has, with some other verbs, a similar force: b db‫ ע‬means “to use as a slave”; cp. BDB 89b. Further, this meaning would be consistent with the Hebrew view of a prohet’s function like in Ex 14:15. But the mediation of the prophet in divine communications is otherwise expressed, namely by dyb rbd (17:5, 27:23, Is. 20:2 and Jer 37:2); and the proposed meaning of b rbd not in harmony with the parallel (‫ע‬dwta is wyla) in v. 6, and it is impossible in the context both in v. 6 and v. 8.2). Another suggestion is that the phrase means “to speak in”, and refers to the internal voice of revelation; but this is inconsistent with the representation of the “angel who speaks with” Zechariah (Zc 1:9); for this angel is conceived not to dwell in, but to accompany and sometimes to leave the prophet (Zc 2:7; 4:1; 5:1). 3). It is best therefore to explain b the analogy of b rbd on har, b jbyh, b ‫ע‬mv, as meaning “to speak to” but as expressing a closer and more intimate conversation than la rbd. This explanation has the advantage of closely connecting the sense of the phrase as used here and in similar cases with that of the phrase as B. emphasizes the friendly intimacy, there the hostile intent that b rbd is translated as "to speak to", a difficulty does arise. Verse 2 begins used in v.1; here the accompanies the speech. However if the direct speech that follows with …wrVmaø¥yÅw, "and they said". This clearly includes Aaron in the 27 I. FISCHER, «The Authority of Miriam: A Feminist Rereading of Numbers 12 Prompted by Jewish Interpretation», Exodus to Deuteronomy. A Feminist Companion to the Bible (Second Series 5) (eds. A. BRENNER – C.R. FONTAINE) (Sheffield 2000) 161. 28 G.B. GRAY, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Numbers (ICC; Edinburg 1989) 122. 29 W. GESENIUS, Thesaurus linguae Hebraica et Chaldaice Veteris Testamenti, § 314a. 8 action while in v. 1 it was Miriam alone who spoke, with Aaron simply being mentioned alongside. Verse 2 is a quotation that presents the words in which Miriam and Aaron reveal the reason for their question to Moses. Direct speech clearly requires an introduction; therefore the two synonymous verbs are not to be queried on grounds of source criticism30. Now v. 2 uses rbd, "to speak", to denote God's speaking with human beings, in the sense of communicating a word of God, whereas a conversation among human beings is expressed in terms of the root rma, "to say". In v. 2 rbd "to speak", is understood as prophecy, as it is in the prophetic law of Deut. 18. 9-22 which establishes the basic understanding of prophecy within the Torah. Prophecy is denoted both times with the root rbd, "to speak". Thus, in both contexts we are dealing with the reception of a word from YHWH that designates the true prophet. As the text continues, it becomes apparent that Numbers 12 clearly distinguishes between rma "to say" and rbd, "to speak", inasmuch as the latter is used to denote only prophetic speech (vv. 2, 6, and 8), whereas the former introduces an exchange of words or conversation. But for Miriam's speaking, and for her and Aaron's speaking with Moses, v. 1 uses rbd, "to speak", as does v. 8 that refers back to v. 1. The choice of this word clearly qualifies her speaking as communicating a word from God, that is to say that when Miriam – and also Aaron – speak to Moses they do so, within the confines of Numbers 12, in the form of prophetic speech. In his commentary Levine states that b rbd means either "to speak to" or "to speak through", to communicate through a human being, to transmit a message through him. The latter sense is attested elsewhere. In his farewell address to the people, David claims that "the spirit of YHWH has spoken through me (yb rbd)". In 2 Chr 18:27 the prophet Micah challenges his critics by saying, "then YHWH did not speak through me!". But immediate usage in Nu 12:6 is simpler: "in a dream would I speak to him". This is probably the meaning here, too, for in the perception of JE as represented in Nu, God did not speak through Miriam and Aaron, but only to them. It is only in the priestly writings of the Torah that God regularly trasmits his utterances 30 I. FISHER, «The authority of Miriam», 162. 9 through Aaron, alongside Moses, and isntructs them both to communicate his words to the people31. In v. 2 Miriam and Aaron express their doubt that JHWH spoke only with Moses. Here Miriam and Aaron do no question that Moses is a prophet. There is no doubt about this. What they question is that YHWH spoke with Moses only, which would be equivalent to saying that YHWH had not spoken with them. Moses' prophetic office is not in dispute. But Miriam and Aaron claim that they too have the ministry of prophecy besides Moses, whose ministry they fully acknowledge32. In Num 12 the story is set in terms of chronology only a short time after the Israelites' departure from Sinai (according to Nu 10:33, there is an initial three-day journey from Sinai to a place eventually named Kibroth-hattaavah and then a subsequent march of unknown duration to the site of the Nu 12 account, Hazeroth). At Hazeroth, Miriam and Aaron are said to challenge Moses' position of authority within their community. If, though, we understand this passage as occurring at a point in the exodus narrative after Israel's period of liminality has ended and during a period of reaggregation, then the punishing of Miriam alone – even the punishing of Miriam alone despite the possible role of Aaron as the incident's principal instigator – is not so hard to understand. Both Miriam and Aaron have indeed previously been assigned the label "prophet" that in certain respects designates them as spokespersons for God: Aaron in Exod 7:1 and Miriam in Exod 15:20. But in Miriam's case, that label was assigned only within the context of liminal anti-structure, during a point in the narrative when she, although a woman, could assume an otherwise almost exclusively male role. For example, two different reasons are given for Miriam's and Aaron's defiance: first, Miriam and Aaron speak against Moses because of his "Cushite wife"; second, they question Moses' right to serve as YHWH's sole spokesperson within the Israelite community. "Has not", they ask, "he [YHWH] spoken through us also?" (Num 12:2). As the text continues, however, the initial concern that was expressed about Moses' marriage seems to be forgotten and the focus becomes the question of JHWH''s appropriate spokespersons. According to Num 12:6-8, God 31 32 B.A. LEVINE, Numbers 21-36 (AncB 4A; New Haven, CT 2000) 175. I. FISHER, «The authority of Miriam», 164. 10 directly speaks with God "mouth to mouth" (hRÚp lRa hRÚp). Then according to Nu 12:9, "the anger of YHWH was kindled against them because of their affront. But as God's anger manifests itself, in Nu 12:10-16, only Miriam is punished, afflicted with ‫צרעת‬, some sort of skin disease, and then shut out of the Israelite camp for seven days. Aaron, conversely, remains unharmed and is not rebuked; indeed, he seems to retain the authority to speak out as an intercessor (Nu 12:11). This inconstancy has been another major point of confusion for interpreters of the passage. It is particularly disturbing for those who see Aaron as the primary instigator of the Nu 12:2-9 confrontation, a reading based on the fact that Aaron’s name comes before Miriam’s in Nu 12:4 and 6. Now, in Num 12, when liminality has come to an end, Miriam’s claims about her prophetic stature within a reaggregated community are perceived as presumptuous, and far more presumptuous than are Aaron’s, for while he has only misconstrued the nature of his relationship to God as compared to Moses’, she both has been guilty of this misconstruing and has overstepped the bounds of gender. It is for this double transgression that Miriam is so harshly punished. However a discussion of Miriam's prophetic role si significantly problematic, because biblical scholars have increasingly come to doubt not just the historicity of the Bible's exodus accounts but the historicity of the entire exodus event33. In particular, the recently developed models that sets the origins of Israel within Canaan have called into question the notion of any Israelite immigration from outside the "promised land", and even those contemporary scholars who do still admit the possibility of an exodus event now tend to describe the group involved as numerically insignificant34. Consequently, we cannot assess whether that social and political organization was the sort that would have allowed a depiction of a woman such as Miriam achieving a relatively high status within her community and stepping forward in the exercise of power. 33 S. ACKERMAN, «Why is Miriam also among the prophets? (And is Zipporah among the priests?)», JBL 121/1 (2002) 47-80. 34 The thesis that the Israelites emerged from within the context of Canaanite culture rather than entering the “promised land” from without was originally associated with the work of G.E. MENDENHALL, «The Hebrew context of Palestine», BA 25 (1962) 66-87, and N.K. GOTTWALD, The tribes of Yahweh. A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel, 1250-1050 B.C.E. (Maryknoll, NY 1999) 550-558. 11 YHWH personally places Moses above all human beings on the face of the earth in meekness and declares him to be sacrosant. The fact that Moses speaks with God and God with Moses after the cloud has lifted manifests Moses' unique status. YHWH's conversation with him proves the fact, declared by YHWH, that Moses alone is the one with whom he speaks directly, from hRÚp_lRa hRÚp (v. 8); but, with Miriam and Aaron, he speaks as with "ordinary" prophets. With them YHWH speaks by the mediation of the institutionally ordered possibility of an encounter with God. That possibility is furnished by the Tent of Meeting during the yourney in the wilderness; it is symbolized here by the cloud that depicts the sign of God's presence. The disappearance of the cloud before the conversation with Moses confirms the difference that God had declared between Moses and the other two leading persons (vv. 6-8). Thus, it is not to be queried on grounds of source criticism, since the disappearance of the cloud serves a narrative function. The text concedes that the groups around "Miriam" and "Aaron" have prophetic capacity like "Moses", because God himself speaks to all three (rma, v.4); and by the manner in which God speaks to them in v. 6. Miriam's question (v. 1) and the reference back to it (v.8) are expressed in the root rbd, "to speak", reserved in Numbers 12 for prophetic speech; accordingly, her question to Moses is understood as prophecy in the sense of an actualization of the Torah. If the latter part of v. 1 be and editorial insertion, the original text ran, ... …wrVmaø¥yÅw hRvOmV;b NOrShAa◊w MDy√rIm rE;bådV;tÅw. Miriam and Aaron do not call in question Moses' prophetic position or his right to lead, but only the uniqueness of his prophetic position and his right to sole leadership; nor is there any suggestion in their question that he had done anything to forfeit a position originally held; in other words, the question has no relation to the occasion mentioned in 12:1b. "To speak with or by" (B. Hab. 2:1, cp. yBII rbEDho rB,DI) is used several times (12:6.8, 2Sam 23:2, 1K. 22:8, Hos. 1:2, Zc 1: 9.13; 2: 2.7; 4: 1.4.5; 5: 5.10; 6: 4) of a divine communication to or through a prophet or other inspired person, though it is much less common than the phrase "to speak to" (la rbd). 12 In 12: 6 the terms prophet, vision, dream are singulars with a collective sense; the tenses, imperfects denoting customary and repeated action 35 . The verse therefore states YHWH's customary mode of revelation to ordinary prophets – it is by means of dreams and visions, like in Joel 3:1 (2:28); it is the mode of revelation to which constant reference is made in E (but not in J) – Gen 15:1; 20:3; 31:11.24; 46:2; cp. Nu 22:8.20 ("by night"). Elsewhere revelation by dreams is sometimes distinguished from revelation through prophets (1Sam 28:6.15; Dt 13:1; Jer. 27:9); and with some of the higher prophets, such as Jeremiah, dreams as a source of revelation fell into complete disrepute (Jer. 23:25). Therefore Miriam is undoubtedly conceived here as a prophetess. In Micah 6:1-8 YHWH reminds his people of the exodus from Egypt, the house of slavery. As leaders of the exodus whom YHWH "sent before you" he names "Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (Mi 6: 4). The list of these three is remarkable because it coincides only superficially with the picture the Pentateuch draws of the exodus. To be sure Moses, Aaron and Miriam are named there too in connection with the exodus. But the specific emphasis is different. Moses dominates everything, Aaron is clearly subordinate to him, and Miriam is altogether marginalized. What we find in the structure of the whole Pentateuch appears again in Ex 15. This is demonstrated by the pushing aside of Miriam and her song to the second place (Ex 15: 20-21) and the colonization and expansion of the song by lEa∂rVcˆy y´nVb…w hRvOm. By contrast Micah 6: 4 stresses the equal rank of the three – Moses, Aaron and Miriam – in the exodus. Although the order of the list implies a certain hierarchy, the moment of equality is nevertheless emphasized beyond a hierarchy by the naming of all the three in one and the same breath. But what interest is to be found beyond the statement of Mi 6:4? It would be too simple to say that justice should be done to Aaron and especially, to Miriam in comparison to Moses. For what abstract interest in historical justice should motivate an author who writes centuries after the exodus – whether one thinks of an eight century Micah in whose name the text is transmitted or, which is more likely, of an author from the Persian period? The question is, rather: What do Moses, Aaron and Miriam stand for in the time of the 35 P. JOÜON – T. MURAOKA, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew (SubBi 27; Roma 2006) 338-339. 13 composition of the Micah text? The answer is quite simple and, as such, was given already a long time ago: "Moses is the founder and the mediator of theocracy" – today we would say that Moses stands for the Torah; "Aaron is the representative of priesthood, Miriam is the prophetess, cf. Ex 15.2036. So Micah does not deal with the arrangment of historical figures, but with the relation of the subjects they stand for: Torah, cult and prophecy. This view is confirmed by Numbers 12. Another text in which as already stated Moses, Aaron and Miriam act. One might read this text as a countertext to Mi 6: 4. The basic conflict in this text is the relation of prophecy to what Moses stands for. Miriam and Aaron – in this order – claim that YHWH had not only spoken through Moses but also through them (v.2). But YHWH himself objects: "If there is a prophet among you, I the Lord make myself known to him in a vision, I speak with him in a dream. Not so with my servant Moses; he is entrusted with all my house. With him I speak mouth to mouth, clearly, and not in direct speech (vv. 6-8). To emphasize this, Miriam is afflicted with leprosy and only healed by the intervention of Aaron and with Moses, and by Moses' intercession of God. The message is clear. Moses, that is the Torah which he received hRÚp lRa hRÚp from God and which was transmitted through him to everyone who is authorized to rely on the Torah of Moses37, stands above each and any form of prophecy with absolute authority. Prophecy besides Moses' prophecy or, worse, against him is a form of blasphemy. Aaron, the representative of the cult (Lv 1: 5), is not punished like Miriam the prophetess. He takes the role of mediating between the sinner (v. 11) and Moses, who is totally on God's side. The two counter-texts, Mi 6: 4 and Nu 12, provoke a double question. What is the historical background for the question of the specific arrangment of Torah, cult and prophecy discussed in our two texts and answered in such opposite manners? And why is the woman 36"Mose ist Gründer und Mittler der Theokratie, Aaron Repräsentant des Prieserthums, Mirjam die Prophetin, vgl. Exod. 15:20”, J.T. BECK, Erklärung der Propheten Micha und Joel nebst einer Einleitung in die Propheten (Gütersloh 1898) 180. On the other hand R. J. BURNS, Has the Lord indeed Spoken only through Moses? A study of the Biblical Portrait of Miriam (SBL.DS, 84; Atlanta, GA 1987) esp. 122, totally plays down Miriam’s role as a prophetess. She describes her in the first line as leader equal to Moses and Aaron, who originally had more affinities to cult. Her naming as a prophetess in Ex 15:20 is according to Burns, an anachronism. 37 See F. CRÜSEMANN, The Torah. Theology and Social History of Old Testament Law (trans. by A.W. MAHNKE) (Minneapolis 1996) 59-107, for the question of who stands behind the figure of Moses (“Moses as Institution? The Organizational Form of Israelite Law”). 14 Miriam chosen as representative of prophecy alongside the two men Moses and Aaron? I want begin with the second question. As I have already stated it is known that in Israel, besides the prophets, there also existed prophetesses. In the first place one has of course to remember Miriam herself, called "the prophetess" in Ex 15. 20 and taken as representative of prophecy in Nu 12. Furthermore Deborah (Judg. 4: 4), Huldah (2Kings 22: 14; 2Chron. 34: 22), Isaiah's wife (Is 8: 3), Noadiah (Neh. 6: 14) and, from later times, Anna (Lk 2: 36) are mentioned as "prophetesses" as well. So there is certain evidence for the existence of prophetesses from the eighth century (Isaiah's wife), through the seventh (Huldah) and down to the fifth (Noadiah), which is exactly the period from which the prophetic writings of the Hebrew Bible stem. But this record comprises only, so to say, the orthodox side of the prophetic phenomenon. If one considers the phenomenon in a wider sense and includes in it every form of contact with transcedent powers, the participation of women in it becomes even more broadbased. The law on the prophets in Deuteronomy (Deut. 18.9-22) clearly demonstrates that it is justified to speak of expanding the conception of prophecy. It is true that the law presents a sharp distinction between forbidden practices (vv. 10-14) and the orthodox form of YHWH prophecy. However, both forms are treated in one and the same law. Moreover, one must mention the fact that orthodox prophecy is attacked and suspected in the same way as the heterodox practices. So officers call a prophet mad (‫ע‬gvm, 2 Kgs 9.11), so Amos is banished from the royal sanctuary at Bethel (Amos 7.10-17), so a priest calls for the temple police because of Jeremiah, and the same priest is the supervisor of the prophets called mad (‫ע‬gvm) also here (Jer. 29.26-27). When all the practices declared to be prohibited by the deuteronomic law on prophecy (Deut. 18.10-14) are taken as the basis for the argument, we see that such practices are not only executed by men but also by women. 1Sam 28 tells the story of a woman described as a "medium"- bwøa_tAlSoA;b tRvEa. Leviticus 20.27 speaks of "a man or a woman who is a medium or a wizard". Ezekiel 13 criticizes the (male) "prophets of Israel" (vv. 1-16), followed by polemics against women accused of magic practices of saving or destroying human lives (vv. 17-23), whose activities are defined by the same word – "to prophesy" – as those of their male counterparts (v. 17). Isaiah 57.3 knows "sons of the sorceress". 2 Kings 9.22 speaks of the "sorceries" of Queen Jezebel, and in Rev. 2.20, her name is applied to a prophetess from Thyatira accused of seducing the community. 15 All the above-mentioned practices are also attributed to men; and the question must be left unanswered whether, in the grammatically masculine forms of the Hebrew language, women are included too – a question to which, nevertheless, an affirmative answer is highly probable. But the formulation of Ex 22.17, with its exclusively feminine forms, proves that this field of handling transcendent powers was seen as the domain of women: hR¥yAjVt aøl hDpEÚvAkVm – You shall not permit a sorceress to live". When we look beyond the borders of Israel, these observed phenomena are confirmed. Thus the Middle Assyrian Laws from the end of the second millennium38 threaten the practice of sorcery, by men or by women, with death, which is comparable with the stipulations of the Israelite Covenant Code. And as far as prophecy itself is concerned, in the first half of the second millennium in Mari many women act as a prophetess besides men, either in a cultic context (as apiltum, "answerer", muhhutum, "ecstatic" and other senses) or as lay women 39 . And the Assyrian prophecies of the seventh century, which fall within the period of the Old Testament prophetic movement, were even given mostly by women called raggintu = caller40. Taking all these hints together we see a picture of broad female participation in this field, connected with prophecy in a wider sense. The panorama ranges from sorcery, to invocation of spirits of the dead, to singing that is imagined as divinely inspired (Ex 15: 20-21. Cf. 1Sam 10:5 for ecstatic prophecy and 1Chron 25. 1-3 for the temple music), to official consultation of a prophetess by the king (2Kgs 22). In that last case we must even suppose that, according to the opinion of the authors of the text, Huldah holds the Mosaic prophetic office provided in the deuteronomic law on the prophets (Deut. 18.9-22) and equipped with the highest authority41. We have to take into consideration that women in Israel had no access to priestly functions in the cult of YHWH. Then we comprehend all the more why they play such an important role in the field that can be understood as prophetic, in its wider meaning, and why they are mentioned in such a continuous fashion as true prophetesses of YHWH. Against this 38 Cf. ANET, 180-88; W.W. HALLO (ed.), The Context of Scripture, II (Leiden 2000) 353-61. See F. ELLERMEIER, Prophetie in Mari und Israel (ThOA 1; Herzberg 1968) 83-84. 40 See the discussion of the texts of the Assyrian prophecies of the seventh century in H. SPIECKERMANN, Juda unter Assur in der Sargonidenzeit (FRLANT 129; Göttingen 1982) 295-303, and of the contribution of prophetesses in general in F. NÖTSCHER, «Prophetie im Umkreis des alten Israels», BZ NS 10 (1966) 161-97, esp. 183-85. 41 See U. RÜTERSWÖRDEN, «Die Prophetin Hulda», Meilensteil. Festgabe für Herbert Donner zum 16. Februar 1995 (eds. M. WEIPPERT – S. TIMM) (Wiesbaden 1995) 234-42. 39 16 background it is thus easy to see why, according to Mic 6.4 and Numbers 12, Miriam the woman is representative of prophecy in general. The tradition of Miriam lives in fragments in the bible, but these fragments are testimony of the strength and durability of Miriam within the Jewish and Christian communities. 17 BIBLIOGRAPHY ACKERMAN, S., «Why is Miriam also among the prophets? (And is Zipporah among the priests?)», JBL 121/1 (2002) 47-80. ANTONELLI, J., In the Image of God. A Feminist Commentary on the Torah (Northvale, NJ 1995) 173. BECK, J.T., Erklärung der Propheten Micha und Joel nebst einer Einleitung in die Propheten (Gütersloh 1898). BELLIS, A.O., Helpmates, Harlots, and Heroes. Women’s Stories in the Hebrew Bible (Louisville, KY 1994). BOWEN, N.R., «The Daughters of Your People: Female Prophets in Ezekiel 13:17-23» JBL 118.3 (1999) 417-433. BRONNER, L.L., From Eve to Esther. Rabbinic Reconstructions of Biblical Women (Luoisville, KY 1994). BURNS, R.J., Has the Lord indeed Spoken only through Moses? A study of the Biblical Portrait of Miriam (SBL.DS 84; Atlanta, GA 1987). CASSUTO, U., A Commentary on the book of Exodus (trans. by I. ABRAHAMS) (Jerusalem 1967). CRÜSEMANN, F., The Torah. Theology and Social History of Old Testament Law (trans. by A.W. MAHNKE) (Minneapolis 1996). DE VRIES, S.J., Prophet Against Prophet. The Role of the Micaiah Narrative (1 Kings 22) in the Development of Early Prophetic Tradition (Grand Rapids, MI 1990). ELLEN, F., The Five Books of Miriam. A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah (New York 1996). ELLERMEIER, F., Prophetie in Mari und Israel (ThOA 1; Herzberg 1968) 83-84. FISCHER, I., «The Authority of Miriam: A Feminist Rereading of Numbers 12 Prompted by Jewish Interpretation», Exodus to Deuteronomy. A Feminist Companion to the Bible (Second Series 5) (eds. A. BRENNER – C.R. FONTAINE) (Sheffield 2000) 161. FRANKEL, E., The Five Books of Miriam. A Woman’s Commentary on the Torah (New York 1996). GESENIUS, W., Hebräisches und Chaldäisches Handwörterbuch über das Alte Testament (Leipzig 1828) § 314a. 18 GOTTWALD, N.K., The tribes of Yahweh. A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel, 12501050 B.C.E. (Maryknoll, NY 1979). GRAY, G.B., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Numbers (ICC numero del volume; Edinburg 1989). HALLO, W.W. (ed.), The Context of Scripture, II (Leiden 2000). JOÜON, P. –MURAOKA, T., A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew (SubBi 27; Roma 2006). KRAMER, P.S., «Miriam», Exodus to Deuteronomy. A feminist Companion to the Bible (Second Series 5) (eds. A. BRENNER – C.R. FONTAINE) (Sheffield 2000) 105. LACKS, R., Women and Judaism. Myth, History, and Struggle (Garden City, NY 1980). LEVINE, B. A., Numbers 21-36 (AncB 4A; New Haven, CT 2000). MENDENHALL, G.E., «The Hebrew context of Palestine», BA 25 (1962) 66-87. MEYERS, C., «The Hannah Narrative in the Feminist Perspective», Go to the Land I will show you. Studies in Honor of Dwight W. Young (eds. J. COLESON – V.H. MATTHEWS) (Winona Lake, IN 1994) 120-22. NÖTSCHER, F., «Prophetie im Umkreis des alten Israels», BZ NS 10 (1966) 161-97, esp. 183-85. O’DONNELL, S.D., «Exodus», The Women’s Bible Commentary (eds. C.A. NEWSOM – S.H. RINGE) (London 1992) 30-39. PRITCHARD, J.B., Ancient Near Eastern Text. Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton, NJ 1969). RÜTERSWÖRDEN, U., «Die Prophetin Hulda», Meilensteil. Festgabe für Herbert Donner zum 16. Februar 1995 (eds. M. WEIPPERT – S. TIMM) (Wiesbaden 1995) 234-42. SPIECKERMANN, H., Juda unter Assur in der Sargonidenzeit (FRLANT 129; Göttingen 1982) 295-303. STEINMETZ, D., «A Portrait of Miriam in Rabbinic Midrash», Prooftexts 8.1 (1998) 35-65, esp. 55. 19 20