Modelling and supporting ICT implementation in secondary schools

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223402774 Modelling and supporting ICT implementation in secondary schools Article in Computers & Education · April 2001 DOI: 10.1016/S0360-1315(00)00068-3 · Source: DBLP CITATIONS READS 75 57 2 authors: Ton Mooij Ed Smeets 436 PUBLICATIONS 1,251 CITATIONS 77 PUBLICATIONS 547 CITATIONS Open Universiteit Nederland SEE PROFILE Radboud University SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Ton Mooij on 04 April 2014. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. All in-text references underlined in blue are added to the original document and are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately. Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu Modelling and supporting ICT implementation in secondary schools$ Ton Mooij *, Ed Smeets University of Nijmegen, ITS, Toernooiveld 5, NL 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands Received 1 August 2000; accepted 1 December 2000 Abstract In many countries the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education has been stimulated. To explore the implementation process and its support within secondary schools, research was conducted on modelling aspects of ICT implementation in Dutch secondary school practice. Case studies were carried out in 10 secondary schools by interviewing the school board, school leader, ICT co-ordinator, some teachers, pupils who liked ICT, pupils who did not like ICT, and some parents. In addition, relevant school documents were studied and lesson practice was observed. The information was subjected to a qualitative analysis from multilevel and school development points of view. The empirical results suggest ®ve successive phases of ICT implementation within schools, which constitute ®ve models representing the gradual ICT transformation of educational and learning processes. The ®fth model, however, was designed theoretically as this phase had not yet been realised in educational practice. Finally, educational and policy support actions to the ICT transformation process in school are presented in a structured way. The results are worthwhile for school practice and national policies, but they also need further underpinning and validation through research in other schools. # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Achitectures for educational technology system; Evaluation methodologies; Pedagogical issues; Secondary education; Teaching/learning strategies 1. Introduction In many countries, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is becoming more and more important in education (Sinko & Lehtinen, 1999; Smeets et al., 1999). The objective is to embed ICT into primary and secondary education, vocational training and adult education, as $ An earlier version of this text was presented in a paper at the European Conference on Educational Resarch (ECER), 20±23 September 2000, Edinburgh, Scotland. * Corresponding author. Tel.: +31-24-3653558; fax +31-24-3653599. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (T. Mooij), [email protected] (E. Smeets). 0360-1315/01/$ - see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0360-1315(00)00068-3 266 T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 well as the teacher training colleges. In addition, higher vocational training and tertiary education at university level have received an ICT stimulus (cf. Crowe & Zand, 2000a,b). Relevant governmental policies include organisational and ®nancial support for schools and institutes for educational research and facilities. Moreover, information about the ICT implementation process in educational practice and possibilities to stimulate the desired changes has been provided in several ways (e.g. Barron, 1998; Flottemesch, 2000). In this innovation process, di€erent educational levels seem to be of relevance. The national level is expressed in the national policy development concerning ICT as well as the ®nancial means made available by the national authorities to achieve ICT goals and remaining facilities in the educational system (e.g. the Dutch governmental programmes `Investing in Advancement' and `Education On Line' (Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science, 1997a,b, 1999). It is also at this level that, for each type of education or for each sector, links have been established to determine the ICT-related requirements in the national curriculum and corresponding exam requirements. Another national aspect is the development of educational software and the optimal integration of ICT applications into teaching materials, assessment, and the organisation of education (cf. Waller & Foster, 2000). Inspectorate, publishers, institutes for education support and networks of co-operating subject teachers are also of importance, although often di€erently in each educational sector. At school levels, policy and budgetary decisions made by the school board and management will a€ect the quality and quantity of ICT resources available in the school (Crawford, 1997, 1999). According to NCET (1994) the attitude of the school manager is the most important factor. Thus, the school management's commitment and decisions are expected to be relevant to the ICT innovation process. Crawford (1999) has also stressed the importance of the role of the ICT coordinator who should be part of senior management to have sucient authority to stimulate the implementation process within the school (see also BECTa, 1998b). Veen (1994, 1995), however, concluded in his dissertation that teacher factors outweigh school factors in explaining teachers' use of computers. Ten Brummelhuis (1995) identi®ed perceived relevance of the innovation as the key factor that in¯uences the use of ICT by teachers in secondary education. In addition to this, if teachers are not con®dent in their ability or competence to handle computers this may hamper their willingness to introduce technology in their classroom. Lack of knowledge on the teachers' part may constitute a serious obstacle to the integration of ICT in secondary schools. In the international study conducted by Smeets et al. (1999) the most important reason teachers mention for not using ICT is that they are not familiar with ICT, or they feel unsure about it. Professional dialogue is considered to contribute signi®cantly to teachers' willingness to implement ICT in classroom practice and to adopt a new style of teaching (CEO, 1999; Dillemans, Lowyck, Van der Perre, Claeys & Elen, 1998; OTA, 1995; Richardson, 1997). Moreover, in secondary education, it has been a tradition that most teachers could decide on their own whether or not they would use certain didactic methods in their lessons. Teachers' beliefs and skills, therefore, are important for ICT to be implemented, both in regard to the question of whether or not to use ICT in educational practice, and also with regard to the question of how ICT will be used. Teachers need to see the advantages of ICT use to be motivated to implement it in their teaching practice. Furthermore, the ways in which teaching and learning occur can be changed rather drastically. This means that pupils, for example, can learn more independently in small co-operative groups (Mooij, Terwel & Huber, 2000). Teaching and learning may become more related and more independent at the same time, with more self-responsibility T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 267 and self-regulation for the pupils. This process can change both teachers' and pupils' roles (Smeets & Mooij, 1999). In government goals in relation to ICT implementation in education, three issues appear to be rather general: 1. characteristics of ICT implementation in the schools, in¯uences on it, as well as support for it; 2. implementation related educational/pedagogical and organisational changes; 3. change related or strategic policy aspects, or conditions for these aspects. As indicated in the above, characteristics and processes relevant to ICT implementation in educational practice need more clari®cation and structural organisation to be able to assist in achieving these goals. To clarify the necessary characteristics and intermediate results of ICT implementation processes, research was conducted to provide required information to help both schools and educational policy. The focus was on the exploration of the most important characteristics and phases in the ICT implementation process and its potential improvement within schools for secondary education. To generate this information, two research questions were formulated: (1) which characteristics or models seem most relevant to describe ICT implementation processes in secondary schools, and (2) which intervention or support actions may promote ICT implementation processes in secondary schools? The research was conducted in 10 Dutch secondary schools that varied in background characteristics. The empirical results were used to model the multilevel change process related to ICT implementation. This included the potential support of the ICT implementation. The research was subsidised by the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science, the Dutch Ministry for Agriculture, Environment, and Fishery, and the Dutch Ministry of Economic A€airs. The activities were carried out in co-operation by the University of Nijmegen (ITS), Wageningen Agricultural University and KPMG Human Performance Technology. 2. Theory 2.1. Conditions relevant to ICT implementation in education Ely (1999) distinguishes eight conditions which, according to a large number of studies into innovation processes, are relevant to ICT implementation. These conditions are dissatisfaction with the status quo, existence of knowledge and skills, availability of resources, availability of time, existence of rewards or incentives, participation, commitment, and leadership. According to Ely (1999), dissatisfaction with the status quo is the starting point of an innovation process. In order to support the implementation of the innovation, knowledge and skills need to be present with those involved in the implementation. In addition to this, resources need to be made available, as well as sucient time to establish the innovation. The implementation process may be further stimulated by supplying rewards for those implementing the process. Another key factor is participation. This is stimulated by communication and shared decision making. Moreover, commitment (e.g. from the school management's endorsement) and leadership (the management being in control of the innovation process) are important. 268 T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 These innovation conditions need to be speci®ed a little bit more, as implementation of ICT occurs at di€erent levels of the educational system. As previously outlined, the impact of government at the national level appears to be a main in¯uence in many European countries. National developments are partially dependent on international developments in Information and Communication Technology. This concerns, in particular, policy and research processes that are supported by, for example, the European Commission, as well as hardware and software developments implemented in the international business community. These di€erent international processes are closely interrelated. Developments and management at the national level, however, actually occur and are given shape at regional levels, for example, institutions for education and training as well as institutes for educational research and facilities. Workgroups or networks of management and teachers from various types of education also play an important role in this. At regional and national levels, networks of co-operating teachers, or of ICT co-ordinators, from schools and sta€ from training and research institutes play a pivotal role in these developments, as it is within the schools where the most important developments in practice need to take place. In various respects, school boards, school leaders, ICT co-ordinators, teachers, pupils and occasionally, parents are all partners in the implementation process. With respect to ICT, it is the boards and management that formulate and implement school policy. Since schools are usually spread over multiple locations, location leaders and speci®c location characteristics may also have their own in¯uence on the ICT innovation processes. ICT co-ordinators and teachers are especially crucial in the implementation of the required changes on the educational `shop ¯oor'. Within secondary schools, teachers are organised in subject-speci®c departments, each of which may have its own speci®c interests and priorities. Eventually, however, the characteristics of the pupils' learning processes will necessarily be responsible for the objectives and the criteria for intended ICT developments. In general, therefore, ICT-related changes in education seem to occur at di€erent, mutually closely related levels (see also BECTa, 1998a). Innovation conditions at a certain level, for example dissatisfaction with the status quo, require the existence of knowledge and skills and availability of resources and time at the same level. National policy processes, however, also in¯uence comparable innovation processes at other levels. This inter-level in¯uencing shows that education is a complex system in which many di€erent organisational levels need to be distinguished. In this sense, Ely's (1999) eight conditions are extended with a speci®cation according to organisational level (see also Cronbach, 1983; Mooij, 1987). Table 1 illustrates the organisational levels that are potentially relevant in the educational system. 2.2. Levels, actors and processes At each of the 10 organisational levels illustrated in Table 1, acting institutions and persons, or `actors', can be distinguished. They have their own or joint objectives. They may, perhaps, cooperate in realising these objectives and may experience implementation and ®nancial problems. To a certain degree, they may achieve the expected or desired results and, again perhaps in cooperation, search for solutions or meaningful follow-up activities. At each level, as well as between the di€erent levels, relations between characteristics and processes are sometimes of vital importance, in particular when implementing ICT. More speci®c ICT innovation processes can T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 269 Table 1 Multi-level structure of education relevant to Information and Communication Technology innovation 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. International level National level ``Umbrella''/regional/municipal levels Administrative/above-school levels School management level Location level Subject-speci®c department level Subject teacher level/form level Individual pupil level/level of (small) groups of pupils Development level/internal learning process of individual pupil become possible by ®rst creating the conditions and developing hardware and software. For each of the levels on Table 1, speci®c examples have been given and have been incorporated into the third column of Table 2. Further, ICT implementation also requires more speci®c facilities and forms of support that appropriately change educational objectives and contents, as well as materials and infrastructures. Here, process characteristics at one level may become conditional for characteristics or developments at the very same level, or for one or more other levels of the educational system. Examples of this are provided in the fourth column of Table 2. To supply information about the possible stimulation of ICT innovation within secondary schools in particular, the di€erent levels within a school will be included in the present study. Exploration of the potentially di€erent importance of these levels, and the most relevant variables or processes at or between levels, will also be integrated. 3. Method 3.1. Selection of schools To gain concrete insight into possibly di€erent ICT innovation conditions, case studies were carried out in Dutch schools. The schools di€ered in characteristics such as the region of the country, number of inhabitants of the city, size (number of pupils), religious aliation, whether or not selected as a priority school or spearhead in getting state funding for the stimulation of ICT, educational types present within a school, and percentage of pupils coming from ethnic minority groups. In total, 10 schools or locations of schools for secondary education were involved in the research. At the time of selection, relatively more priority schools were involved to be able to determine variation in the ICT development process. The selection process was not guided by examples of good practice or best practice since the objective of the research was to relate everyday variance in ICT implementation to change processes. The characteristics of the 10 participating schools for secondary education are listed in Table 3. Table 3 shows that the schools di€ered in region and degree of urbanisation of the vicinity, the number of pupils, denomination, whether or not participation is on the basis of spearhead school, 270 Table 2 Multi-level educational structure and examples of actors and Information and Communication Technology implementation Actor, e.g. Hardware and software, e.g. Other facilities, support, e.g. 10. International European Commission; multinational enterprise New generations of technology/software International policy; research & development 9. National Ministries; publishers; inspectorate Intranet applications; software development Guidelines for curriculum; funding; research & development 8. ``Umbrella''/regional/municipal Institute for educational research and/or training facilities; technical (service) company Supply of hardware and software; installation/servicing of equipment/LANs Teacher networks; Helpdesk; preand in-service training 7. Administrative/above-school School board Policy and funding strategy Allocation of resources; stimulating school management 6. School management Senior Management; ICT co-ordinator Purchase of hardware and software School-wide policy; communication; providing training opportunities and support 5. Location Location manager; system manager Internal installation and servicing Supervision 4. Subject-speci®c department Group of subject teachers In¯uence on purchasing and actual purchasing Options re. teaching methods for substance and form; implementation of curriculum 3. Subject teacher level/form Subject teacher; pupils at form level Use of hardware and software Realisation of teaching-learning situation; pupil interactions 2. Individual pupil/(small) groups of pupils Small subgroup of pupils as a workgroup Use of hardware and software Feedback from teacher; ICT contents/didactics; learning progress 1. Development level/internal learning process of pupil Pupil and individual potential Use of hardware and software Individual competence, diagnostics, learning progress T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 Level: T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 271 Table 3 Characteristics of ten schools in secondary educationa No. Region, Urban/Rural No. of pupils Denomination Spearhead Type(s) of education % immigrants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 South, urban Central, rural West, rural East, urban East, urban West, urban West, rural North, urban Central, rural South, rural 1000 1300 1000 500 1100 1200 1000 1000 800 1870 Roman Catholic Ecumenic State school Roman Catholic State school State school Non-denom. Special educ. State school State school Roman Catholic Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No mavo 8%; havo 3%; vwo 7% mavo 13%, havo 5%, vwo 3% mavo 2%, havo 2%, vwo 2% ivbo 18% mavo 30% havo 10%, vwo 14% vbo 19%, mavo 6%, havo/vwo 5% mavo 3%, havo 4%, vwo 6% vbo 13%, mavo 3%, havo/vwo 2% havo 4%, vwo 2% vbo 17%, mavo 6%, havo/vwo 2% a Types of education: mavo, junior general secondary education; havo, senior general secondary education; vwo, pre-university education; ivbo, individualising pre-vocational education; vbo, pre-vocational education. educational type, and the percentage of immigrants per educational type. Thus, the selected schools met the requirements of intended di€erences in background characteristics. 3.2. Selection of core variables The emphasis was on ICT implementation in practice as well as on the educational, pedagogical and organisational development of the practice while using ICT. In addition, the support and evaluation of relevant change processes were addressed. Most important were the primary processes in schools (the learning and teaching processes), then the secondary processes (such as guidance, speci®c support for certain pupils), and then the tertiary or management processes. The possible changes in these processes were investigated from the perspective that ICT creates new learningpsychological, didactic, pedagogical and organisational avenues for the development and optimalisation of educational practice. The main variables that were explored, therefore, concerned the following: the degree of involvement in ICT of the di€erent actors involved at the di€erent levels within a school, the acquisition of competencies in ICT at di€erent levels, the co-ordination and coherence in ICT policy in school, questions about hardware and the use of software, the necessary professional development of teachers, the use of ICT in lessons, potential didactic and school improvement by using ICT, and hindering or facilitating conditions within or outside the school with respect to ICT innovation. 3.3. Data collection The case studies were carried out during the school year 1998 1999. Three procedures were chosen to collect relevant data. First, semi-structured interviews were held in the 10 schools with a representative of the school board, school leadership, the ICT co-ordinator of the school (if 272 T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 present), two or three teachers, ®ve pupils who liked ICT, ®ve pupils who did not like ICT, and a few parents. The topics of interest were the interests in and state of a€airs concerning ICT such as: the opportunities and challenges when introducing or working with ICT in the school, with special emphasis on issues such as interest, hardware and software; ICT co-ordination; the attitude of management and teachers; parents, pupils; schooling; and external support. Second, if present, school documents with regard to ICT were studied before the interviews were held. The school information included, for example, the school information brochure and the ICT policy or plan. This information was used as background in preparing as well as evaluating the interview results. Third, the opportunity was used in visiting the schools to examine the hardware and software facilities and some of the lessons during which ICT was used. If possible, the ICT co-ordinator explained the state of a€airs and accompanied the researchers into the classrooms to explain procedures. This permitted the researchers to clarify or question some speci®cs with pupils and teachers using ICT. 3.4. Analysis The resulting information was recorded and analysed qualitatively to reveal structural aspects according to di€erent criteria. Information from the three collection procedures was discussed between the researchers to check for consistency and mutual validity within each of the schools. The resulting school pictures were tentatively ordered according to ICT and school characteristics related to potential phases of ICT implementation. These phases referred mainly to the degree of generality of the hardware and software qualities of ICT use within the whole school. In addition, attention was concentrated upon more speci®c characteristics of the levels of the school board, school management, location management and ICT co-ordination, school subject departments, and subject teachers. It seemed that longitudinal di€erences in relevance of speci®cs at these di€erent levels were important in understanding developmental processes within a location. These speci®cs were integrated into ®rst conceptualisations of successive ICT implementation phases. All research outcomes were read and discussed again, to compare and check the ®rst conceptualisations with the authentic sources. This review led to some changes in the conceptualisations. The ®nal explorative results suggested the existence of ®ve successive phases of ICT implementation in secondary schools. These phases constitute ®ve related models representing the gradual ICT transformation of everyday educational and learning processes. The multilevel school practice models refer to, respectively: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. incidental and isolated use of ICT by one or more teachers; increasing school awareness of ICT relevance for the school, at all levels; emphasis on ICT co-ordination and hardware within school; emphasis on didactic innovation and ICT support; and use of ICT-integrated teaching and learning, independent of time and place. This article ®rst provides summaries of empirical examples of the phases 1 4. This presentation is followed by a theoretical elaboration of what the characteristics of phase 5 could be. Phase 5 has T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 273 not been identi®ed in practice, but has been constructed as a model from optimising guidelines (cf. Mooij et al., 2000). Finally, attention is given to concrete actions for schools when making the step to a next phase (from 1 to 2 and all the way up to phase 5). These sets of information suggest ways in which schools can learn from each other's ICT implementation experiences and indicate intervention possibilities for national policies to support desired school developments. 4. Results 4.1. Example of ICT implementation model 1 A summary of the data based on the various interviews and other sources of information in school 5 yields the following overview. At this school, there was hardly any involvement from the school board and the management in ICT. For a long time, however, there had already been some subject teachers who, at their own initiative, had used a computer in their own lessons, independent from any co-operation within the department. The school did not have an ICT policy nor any speci®c training for the teachers. The few teachers who did use ICT, did so in direct relation to learning processes, exercises and assessment of pupils in the immediate teaching practice. There was no coherence between the various sections at school with reference to ICT. The parents did have surprisingly up-to-date views on ICT and the relevant di€erences between pupils, including the possible deployment of pupils to assist in case of ICT problems during the lessons. This had not yet had an impact in the school. Speci®cation in a form that could function as a model for ICT implementation is given in the characteristics listed in the column under model 1 in Table 4. The ®rst column of this table contains the speci®cation per school section or level, while the second column contains the levelspeci®c educational term. The third column, under model 1, contains the speci®cations of the various educational terms per school section which are relevant for phase 1 of the ICT implementation. Most characteristic in ICT model 1 is the sporadic use of hardware and software by individual teachers and pupils (see the three texts in italics in the respective cells in column 3 of Table 4). This view of occasional use of ICT by a teacher conforms to what was traditionally the case in secondary education prior to the launch of the 'Investing in Advancement' programme. The individual subject teachers in school 5 have sometimes progressed quite far in the use of software during their own lessons. Even after a great number of years, however, the teachers' impact has not developed beyond their own lessons. The ICT views and uses within the whole school in this phase are both varied and fragmented and are not aimed at stimulating pupils to learn actively or constructively by themselves. 4.2. Example of ICT implementation model 2 A new phase in school 5 was introduced by the arrival of a new principal. For example, he wrote a memo on ICT policy and its potential consequences within the school. It was the new principal who took charge of, among other things, the ICT co-ordination. The following information is a translated quotation from his `Computerisation Policy Plan' for the school. 274 Table 4 School sectors, concepts and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) characteristics: models 1± 5 when implementing ICT in schools for secondary education Educational concept ICT phase 1 model ICT phase 2 model ICT phase 3 model ICT phase 4 model ICT phase 5 model School board Involvement in ICT Usually not much Sometimes a lot Sometimes a lot Interested Interested School management Involvement in ICT Usually not much Sometimes a lot Sometimes a lot Interested Interested Usually not much Usually not much Sometimes a lot Sometimes a lot Sometimes a lot Sometimes a lot Interested More or less divided Interested Stimulating Usually not de®ned Awareness Implementation at school Aiming for integration Integration Usually not much Awareness Implementation at school Continued interest Continued interest None None Sporadically from teacher Hardware links Ð internal None Hardware links Ð external None Software availability Sporadically from teacher Methodical software Incidental exercise/ integration test No Software diagnostics/ assessment Software location-related No Software time-related No Awareness Awareness School optics Implementation at school Implementation at school Implementation Continued interest Continued interest Continued interest Continued interest Integration into system Integrated system School optics School optics Subject-related department optics Limited Implementation Implementation Subject-related department implementation Goal-oriented, partial Integrated system Integrated system Subject integration Awareness Dependent on method Integration into system Integration into system Goal-oriented, system-minded Goal-oriented, system-minded System implementation No No Dependent on method Dependent on method System implementation System implementation If and when needed If and when needed School subject departments Involvement in ICT Considering ICT None None Awareness Incidental About to emerge Regularly Interested Structural Interested Structural Teachers Training Professional dialogue Deployment of ICT in class None/individual No None/incidental To a lesser degree Incidental Limited; emphasis on exercises Required for many Yes, within the school Continually expanding If and when needed Yes, also externally Extensive and varied If and when needed Yes, on a large scale Extensive and varied Characterisation of organisation Coherent implementation of ICT No Awareness About to emerge Reasonably coherent Overall integration Location management Involvement in ICT and ICT co-ordination Own commitment to ICT Educational objective of ICT Competence of ICT co-ordination Coherence of ICT policy Quality of ICT support Hardware, devices, etc. Yes, integrated Yes T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 School level T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 275 In the past years, ICT use has not been a clear priority at our school. In comparison to many other schools, we are even lagging behind. Not only is there no ICT policy, but also a modern registration system for pupils, a management information system, links between software applications as well as sucient and modern hardware are lacking, to name but a few. In the ®eld of computer-aided education, not all possibilities are used, if any at all . . . Although within various subjects there is serious interest in the use of computers in the class, we think that there are numerous possibilities to extend the use of computers . . . A workgroup must be established, consisting of the ICT manager, the co-ordinator, the application manager and representatives of the subject-speci®c departments, whose task it will be to draft an ICT policy plan . . . It is becoming increasingly clear that network and application management in school is really a full-time job and that these tasks greatly exceed the task of a teacher with a limited number of hours without any classes. The new principal explained, among other things, that the school is seriously lagging behind in ICT (cf. Ely, 1999). Introducing ICT in school requires one or two people on the `shop-¯oor' who will carry the load. The ICT co-ordinator must not just be knowledgeable about the technical ICT issues. This person must also be a strong communicator, have authority and charisma, be able to inspire his/her colleagues for the phenomenon of the computer, be creative, and be able to provide advice on how ICT ®ts in into education (see also BECTa, 1998b; Crawford, 1999). The new principal's approach yielded information on how ICT can be introduced in a school from a policy and education point of view. What was most striking were the intensive involvement of the school management, the growing awareness of the role of ICT in educational institutions within the entire school, the requirement for co-ordination in this respect, and the broadening of the aspects with regard to hardware and software from a teacher-oriented towards a school- and subject department-related viewpoint. These di€erent characteristics are listed in italics in the column under the ICT phase 2 model in Table 4. These developments can be regarded as typical for a second phase in the ICT implementation in a school for secondary education. 4.3. Example of ICT implementation model 3 A summary of the data from the example of school 2 gives the following suggestions for modelling. In the third phase, there is an ICT policy for the school as such, and for the di€erent locations in particular. This is predominantly evident from the itemised and co-ordinated purchase of hardware, software and the best possible matching in training for as many teachers as possible. From an ICT point of view, the time has come for some form of coherence between the di€erent sections. What was most striking for the third phase or the third model for ICT implementation, respectively, was the emphasis on detailing and consequences of ICT in an entire location or school. Related to this were the purchase and the e€ects of the introduction of hardware and software from a school and subject department perspective, in conjunction with broad training of subject teachers in ICT. This development led to the determination of characteristics listed under implementation model 3 in Table 4. This model represents a third step in the school development with respect to ICT implementation: see the cells in italics in the column under ICT phase 3 model in Table 4. 276 T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 4.4. Examples of ICT implementation model 4 An example of a core problem in school 4 was the suitability of software viewed from the didactic and cognitive requirements that must be posed on the pupils. Pupils with a cognitively relatively low score posed speci®c didactic requirements which are hardly met, if at all, in the existing software. In addition, there was a requirement for software for, for example, dyslexic pupils. In addition to this, the incorporation of ICT in this school also required special, pedagogical didactics. The social relationships among pupils as well as between the teacher and the pupils were constantly prioritised where it concerned the ability to bring about cognitive learning processes. The ICT potential could only provide support if the social learning conditions were also met. A related example is school 7, which had a long tradition in making the educational supply a ¯exible one and in enhancing the independence and accountability of pupils. The ICT developments were subsequent logical steps in a pedagogical, didactic and educational perspective. In this school, it was deemed important to achieve this type of perspective, more or less shared by the teachers and the school management. Teachers and management of school 7 worked at and contributed to the required ICT training of their own teachers. In addition, attention was being paid to creating as many workplaces in the school as possible. The ICT co-ordinator regarded these as a joint learning environment for both pupils and teachers. There were plans for a large lecture room where large groups of pupils could receive instruction. According to the ICT coordinator, many lines of thought were still `non-ICT' where the potential of working with ICT could be applied. An example given by him was the need to place the multimedia centre in the library itself, where the multimedia centre is only a virtual one. This means that the centre can be accessed from any ICT workplace in school or at home. Schools 4 and 7 demonstrated that after the initial acquisition of hardware and software, the emphasis was primarily focused on the potential to further apply ICT to support the pupils' learning processes. This could mean, for example, the relevance of the pupils' beginning characteristics, the inclusion of diagnostics and progress, the increasing independence from time and place of learning processes, and the required training and professionalisation of teachers wherever necessary. Both schools represented the increased focus on the software's potential to be applied systematically, to support the pupils' learning processes. In this respect, there were increasing demands on hardware, software and other facilities. This mutually dependent subject matter was expanding as well as touching the core of ICT development in education. As such, one can speak of an evident fourth phase of ICT implementation in a school. This phase required a re-examination and speci®cation of the software in conjunction with a suitable didactic realisation of the teaching-learning situations within ¯exible organisational frameworks. The main characteristics in relation to this fourth model in the ICT implementation are listed in italics in the column under the ICT phase 4 model in Table 4. 4.5. Characterising ICT implementation phases 1 4 The data and examples of the phases 1 4 suggest that the introduction and implementation of ICT in a school for secondary education seem to be a phased process through a coherent step-bystep development. This development is expressed in new forms of increasingly active, independent and often also co-operative learning, in learning that is less time- and location-de®ned, and in a T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 277 more productive coherence of or a possible (partial) integration between subjects. This occurs in a more ¯exible school organisation which is better geared towards di€erences between pupils. Because of the complex structure of secondary education, however, di€erent sectors within one and the same school may be in di€erent phases of the implementation process. Concrete examples are di€erences between subject-speci®c departments, between educational types within a location, or di€erences between locations. The empirical results also demonstrate that support for the ICT implementation process is codependent on other characteristics of the school, the actual implementation phase in which the school is involved, the speci®c choices with respect to the next step to another implementation phase, the concrete support or facilities the school can obtain and supply for this, and the control over and modelling of the school's own learning processes. The involvement and commitment of the pupils may be decisive, however. Quite often, the pupils have a sound knowledge of what experience is necessary in this ICT ®eld. As a result, their wishes with respect to possible improvements of hardware and software are quite pronounced, but they acknowledge that not everything is possible at school. They appreciate teachers who are committed to ICT, even if the teachers are less ICT competent than the pupils. A school often requires support when weighing the right advantages and disadvantages and making the appropriate decisions with respect to a policy plan and the ICT co-ordination, the purchase of the proper hardware and software, ensuring the availability of adequate and innovative training, and gaining insight into future organisational and ®nancial scope in terms of hardware, software and the professionalisation of teachers. In this respect, support is also required for making the step to a possible ICT implementation model 5 from the empirically determined implementation models 1 4. Making this step is the prerequisite for starting a theoretical extrapolation from the development recognized in the models 1 4. 4.6. Towards implementation model 5 The deployment of ICT may contribute to a more speci®c description and recording of initial characteristics and the ensuing learning activities and progress of pupils. This in relation to the actual characteristics of educational provision and/or content. Both aspects allow for more detailed diagnostics and evaluation of intermediate and ®nal learning e€ects with pupils (cf. Crowe & Zand, 2000a). ICT recording and continuous evaluation during learning processes may, as a result, serve as a diagnostic tool to assess the level and nature of cognitive or social aspects of learning of individual pupils or groups of pupils. Phase 5 of the ICT implementation in a school for secondary education could then be characterised by a lasting interest in ICT from all sectors in the school. This would mean a co-ordinated deployment of software (in particular, applications that would bring about subject integration and organisational ¯exibility). Education could be structured from the perspective of the pupils. This process requires integration of hardware (equipment, devices and remaining facilities), software, and the curriculum, as well as opportunities for the professionalisation of teachers, school management and support sta€. Pupils and parents could be involved in providing quality-enhancing details. The school organisation as such can be characterised by the integration of the ICT facilities and developments at the various levels. This means giving attention to ¯exible relations and working structures with organisation levels above the school level. A concrete illustration of this as yet 278 T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 theoretical ®fth ICT implementation phase is incorporated in the column under model 5 in Table 4. To put into operation a continuous teaching and learning supply, including appropriate diagnostics and assessment, is of pivotal importance for model 5. Such a framework can function in a ¯exibly organised curriculum whereby learning is much less time- and location-related than is currently the case in secondary education. This would allow for better matching and ®ne-tuning of the contents of the various subjects taught at school. ICT indicators for, e.g. diagnostic and ®nal assessments should make it relatively easy to verify whether or not the educational changes introduced through ICT have the desired e€ects on the pupils. The results of these factual evaluations can, in turn, serve as input for renewed feedback to the school with respect to its educational goals and achievements and its ICT policy. 4.7. From model 1 to model 5 The second research question addressed the intervention or support actions which could promote ICT implementation processes in secondary schools. In this respect, the classi®cation into ®ve phases-cum-models of ICT implementation includes multiple suggestions for everyday practice to support the step from model 1 to model 2, from model 2 to model 3. Furthermore, the earlier classi®cation into eight conditions in relation to ICT innovation processes according to Ely (1999) can be used for each transition. Concrete sets of suggestions for school management, teachers, and other persons or organisations, like governments, were also based on the data of the present study. A summary of the models and related intervention or management measures to potentially support the step to a next model has been included in Table 5. The various intervention measures from Table 5 can provide the school management with possible support of the ICT innovation process in practice. In this way, schools can learn from other schools' experiences. In addition, the completion of these activities, including the deployment of appropriate ICT, will continue to yield insight into conditioned substantive, material, ®nancial or any other prerequisites that will enable schools a `step' up the innovation process ladder. 5. Discussion The research reported here explored the most important characteristics and phases in the ICT implementation process and its potential improvement in secondary schools. It was conducted in 10 Dutch secondary schools that varied in background characteristics. The empirical results were used to model the multilevel change process related to ICT implementation and included the potential support of the ICT implementation. The ®rst research question addressed the issue of which characteristics or models seemed most relevant to describe ICT implementation processes in secondary schools. The outcomes suggest the existence of ®ve successive ICT implementation models summarised in Table 4. They include: 1. incidental and isolated use of ICT by one or more teachers; 2. awareness of the relevance of ICT for the school and subject-related departments; 3. ICT co-ordination and hardware facilities in the entire school; 279 T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 Table 5 Information and Communication Technology (ICT) implementation models and potential intervention actions for school management Intervention condition Actions Model 1: incidental and sporadic use of ICT by one or more teachers Dissatisfaction with status quo Address lagging behind in ICT area; Knowledge Disseminate information to enhance awareness of the relevance of ICT; organise or participate in an ICT seminar; focus on `ICT literacy'; Resources Allocate future budgets for hardware, software and training; Time Allocate time for information and training purposes; Rewards Hand out certi®cates to trained teachers or ICT-competent pupils; Participation Draft an ICT policy plan; Commitment Appoint an ICT co-ordinator and a system operator; Leadership Integrate ICT co-ordination into Senior Management Model 2: awareness of the relevance of ICT for the school and subject-related departments Dissatisfaction with status quo Identify bottlenecks and potential ICT deployment in curriculum audit; Knowledge Focus on pedagogical uses of ICT; involve teachers in training; Resources Outline school policy for division of labour, means, procedures and ®nances against a longer time span; install workplaces for teachers; Time Allocate time for professionalisation; Rewards Allocate additional means for vanguard subject departments; initiate projects to stimulate the use of PCs at home; Participation Confer with ICT committee and subject departments; Commitment Establish an ICT committee that includes representatives of subject departments; Leadership Create a project organisation for the required developments at school Model 3: ICT co-ordination and hardware facilities in the entire school Dissatisfaction with status quo Address the ICT potential in both subjects and the school as such; Knowledge Enhance professional dialogue inside as well as outside the school; Resources Establish an Intranet connection as well as a connection to ``Kennisnet'' (Knowledge Net); select software from the perspective of pupil characteristics and the relevance of the learning process; Time Allocate time for meetings and co-operation between teachers; Rewards Stimulate participation in software user groups; Participation Confer with all sections in the school on ICT via the 'small decision-making groups' and the ICT committee; Commitment Initiate small decision-making groups; initiate projects of innovative ICT use; integrate ICT into the curriculum; focus on pupil-centred education and on collaborative learning; Leadership Update the ICT policy plan Model 4: didactic innovation and ICT education support Dissatisfaction with status quo Elaborate on contents/organisational potential of subject integration; Knowledge Ensure regular updates and enhancements of knowledge with all participants; in doing so, use all expertise available Ð both within and outside the school; Resources Adapt the school building(s) to new forms of learning; Time Allocate time for the development/design of new applications; (continued on next page) 280 T. Mooij, E. Smeets / Computers & Education 36 (2001) 265±281 Table 5 (continued) Intervention condition Actions Rewards Stimulate teacher participation in (international) networks and development groups; Realise `shared decision making' in relation to ICT and educational innovation; Integrate results from innovative projects into daily practice; make learning less time- and location-dependent; Evaluate and update the innovation process systematically Participation Commitment Leadership Model 5: integrated ICT support for learning processes 4. didactic innovation and ICT education support; and 5. integrated ICT support for learning processes: cf. actions of Model 4. The second research question concerned the intervention or support actions which may promote ICT implementation processes in secondary schools. In this respect, the information in Table 5 gives an overview of possibilities for support of the ICT innovation process in secondary education. Gradual implementation of ICT in schools will yield additional insight into conditioned substantive, material, ®nancial or other prerequisites. This would enable other schools, in turn, to climb the innovation ladder. This will be of importance for the creation of both school practice and government policy. ICT could even assume a double role. The ICT indicators for various types of users at di€erent levels can be collected longitudinally to explicitly de®ne and evaluate developments in areas such as educational material development, diagnostics and assessment, application and software development and design, pedagogical and organisational conditions and e€ects, learning processes or learning e€ects in, for example, speci®c social or cognitive areas for vulnerable pupils, stimuli required to make learning more ¯exible (less dependent on time and location), or overstepping traditional boundaries between school subjects. Both school and national policies can then gradually focus on concrete pedagogical and ICT conditions that must be met in schools to implement ICT model 5. This requires the acknowledgement, however, that not all developments can be achieved by the schools, particularly if optimalisation requirements need to be integrated (cf. Mooij et al., 2000; Smeets et al., 1999). Finally, it should be noted that the outcomes are based on a relatively limited number of schools. Research in other schools would be desirable to underpin the validity and generalisation of the ®ve models. Moreover, the possible intervention measures listed in Table 5 need to be veri®ed for e€ects in longitudinal or development research. References Barron, A. (1998). Designing Web-based training. British Journal of Educational Technology, 29(4), 355±370. BECTa (1998a). IT Policy: how to write a whole-school IT policy document. Information Sheet. Coventry: British Educational Communications and Technology agency. 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