Climate change and tourism in South and Central America

Journal of Sustainable Tourism ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rsus20 Climate change and tourism in South and Central America Diego Navarro-Drazich, Lucas G. Christel, Andrés Gerique, Isabel Grimm, Maria-Luisa Rendón, Liliane Schlemer Alcântara, Yasmin Abraham, Maria del Rosario Conde & Cecilia De Simón To cite this article: Diego Navarro-Drazich, Lucas G. Christel, Andrés Gerique, Isabel Grimm, Maria-Luisa Rendón, Liliane Schlemer Alcântara, Yasmin Abraham, Maria del Rosario Conde & Cecilia De Simón (2023): Climate change and tourism in South and Central America, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, DOI: 10.1080/09669582.2023.2210783 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2023.2210783 View supplementary material Published online: 15 May 2023. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rsus20 Journal of SuStainable touriSm https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2023.2210783 Climate change and tourism in South and Central America Diego Navarro-Drazicha, Lucas G. Christelb, Andrés Geriquec, Isabel Grimmd, Maria-Luisa Rendóne, Liliane Schlemer Alcântaraf, Yasmin Abrahamg, Maria del Rosario Condeg and Cecilia De Simónh a ConiCet-unSJ y universidad del aconcagua, argentina; bConiCet, unSam, argentina; cuniversität of erlangen, Germany; diSae, brasil; euniversidad San ignacion de loyola, Perú; funiversidade federal de mato Grosso, brasil; g unSam, argentina; hConiCet-unSJ, argentina ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY This paper assesses the state of knowledge of climate change and tourism in South and Central America, with a special focus on the characteristics of the tourism sector, the particularities of climate risks of the region and the sectoral GHG contribution. We conducted a scientific literature review (by region and by country) in Spanish, Portuguese and English using publications in the Scopus and Google databases to the end of 2021. In parallel, we performed a search for institutional publications, programs, and strategies on climate change and tourism in South and Central American countries. This analysis identified the main challenges and potentialities between tourism and climate change in the region. Among the main findings is the limited number of studies and lack of primary data to inform policy formulation and tourism planning. Likewise, national, and regional public policies specific to tourism are scarce, while multisectoral climate plans have only recently been developed and, consequently, are difficult to evaluate. Received 4 September 2022 Accepted 1 May 2023 KEYWORDS Tourism; climate change; South America; Central America Introduction The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Report (IPCC, 2021) highlights the unquestionable human influence on global warming. It synthesizes knowledge about the physical foundations of climate change, indicating that recent changes are unprecedented over centuries and even thousands of years, and all regions are already affected by extreme events such as heat waves, heavy rains, droughts and tropical cyclones caused by global warming. Warming from 1.5 °C to 2 °C will be surpassed this century if there is no major and rapid reduction in CO2 and other GHG emissions, and it may still take up to 30 years for temperatures to stabilize (IPCC 2021). According to Lamb et al. (2021), the largest share of global GHG emissions before the COVID-pandemic came from the energy sector (34.2%), followed by industry (24.5%) and Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) (21.3%). In South American countries, the AFOLU and energy sectors accounted for most GHG emissions. South American tourism industry in general has received an irregular but growing attention in the different international reports: IPCC AR4 (2007); IPCC AR5 (2013); IPCC AR6 (2021). CONTACT Diego navarro-Drazich [email protected] Profesor mathus 7714, 5533 Guaymallén, mendoza, argentina Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2023.2210783. © 2023 informa uK limited, trading as taylor & francis Group 2 D. NAVARRO-DRAZICH ET AL. Local economies are often based on the intensive use of natural resources, and in many cases, there is a deep link to neo-extractive policies and practices, which puts the wellbeing of local inhabitants at risk. This includes intensive pressure on ecosystems, uncontrolled urban expansion, and great rates of informal activities as well as irresponsible industrial activities (Grimm et al., 2017). As regards tourism, on the one side, it could place pressure on attractions and destinations (Irving et al., 2015), and on the other side, it could bring development to rural areas and incorporate traditionally vulnerable segments of population into the economy, such as women and indigenous communities (Pieri, 2018). Tourism could place pressure on attractions and destinations (Irving et al., 2015), on the one side; but it is also commonly seen, on the other side, as a means for bringing development to rural areas and incorporating traditionally vulnerable segments of population into the economy, such as women and indigenous communities (Pieri, 2018). To date, the relationship between tourism and climate change in Latin America is still relatively unstudied, although several case studies and some broader analyses have been published. However, the importance of this relationship in the region is threefold: (1) the area comprises several biodiversity hotspots, extraordinarily rich in cultural values; (2) the region is particularly exposed to climate change, with high exposure to extreme events and low adaptive capacity; and (3) tourism is an important economic activity, considering its high contributions to GDP in several countries. In fact, five countries in the region showed tourism’s contribution to GDP as higher than 10% in 2019: 16.2% in Belize, 16.6% in Uruguay, 15.6% in Panama, 11% in Honduras, and 11.8% in El Salvador (WTTC, 2020). In light of this, this paper assesses the current state of knowledge of climate change and tourism in South and Central America by conducting a scientific literature review in Spanish, Portuguese and English for publications available by the end of 2021. With a special focus on the characteristics of the tourism sector, the climate risks of the region, and the sectorial GHG contributions, we focused on synthesizing information the impact of climate change on the tourism sector and vice versa. In parallel, we performed a search for institutional publications, programs, and strategies on climate change and tourism in South and Central American countries. The analysis revealed theoretical and geographic gaps in tourism and climate change and its impacts in Central and South America, with only a few publications focused on the connection of climate change and national-scale tourism policy in the region. We prioritized more recent work (post- IPCC Assessment Report 5) as well as literature written by regional authors. It is worth noting a geographic and administrative challenge when performing the regional analysis and comparisons. While many international institutions (e.g. World Bank, CEPAL) summarize data from different countries under the heading "Latin America and the Caribbean," the IPCC does it under "Central and South America" and includes Spanish-speaking Caribbean countries in the “Small Islands Region.” These different regional boundaries hinder comparisons. Due to the lack of specific regional data for Central and South America, we occasionally included statistics that encompass the Caribbean region or Latin America. It is important to note that this research does not include Mexico, as it is part of North America, although in some cases, data are taken from sources that study Latin America, which do include Mexico. Given these geographic challenges, we utilized relevant local cases to illustrate regional particularities of the tourism and climate change nexus. Tourism sector in the region The recent development and major drivers of future tourism development in the region are important factors to consider if the potential impacts of climate change and transition to a decarbonized global economy are to be understood. Between 2010 and 2018, the region experienced an increase of nearly 55% in international tourist arrivals, and the volume of international arrivals to this region was JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 3 more than 200 million people (UNWTO Tourism Barometer, 2019). Argentina was the most visited country in South America, while Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Paraguay, and Peru were experiencing major growth. The region and these countries have been affected by inequalities of COVID-19 pandemic impacts (Gössling et al., 2020), including travel restrictions that highly disrupted the tourism sector (Table 1). However, this growth leads to several challenges, such as overcrowding and infrastructure capacity constraints, as well as threats to both environmental and cultural sustainability (Andreu-Coussut & Salin, 2018). The main global indicators for tourism in Latin America are summarized in Table 1, and clearly show the major impact of the pandemic on tourism in the region. Tourism has contributed to the development of many countries in the region through the improvement of economic, social, cultural, and environmental sectors (UNWTO, 2020). Uruguay, the South American country with the highest GDP growth in terms of tourism (WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2020), demonstrates this as its tourism GDP increased to 16.5% in 2019 (which may also be a vulnerability factor) (Navarro-Drazich & Lorenzo, 2021). Tourism is also known as an employment generator (both in formal and informal sectors), supporting low-income economies and generating different types of jobs, specially in some countries like Belize 46.1%, Panama 16.9%, and Uruguay 16.6% (Navarro-Drazich & Lorenzo, 2021). On the other hand, there are global estimates that tourism has been causing damage to the environment. According to Lenzen et al. (2018), tourism´s global carbon footprint has increased and accounts for about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. In terms of global transport-related tourism emissions represented about 22% of the total transport emissions (UNWTO & ITF, 2019). It should be noted that the environment is a key asset for tourism in this region. South America and the Caribbean region are one of the richest in terms of biodiversity and variety in ecosystems around the world. According to the IADB. (2017), it includes more than 12% mangrove forests, 10% coral reefs, and the largest extension of wet forest (wetlands) worldwide. The region has the highest rate of primary forest loss in the world in 2019 (IPCC., 2020). The main natural assets that appeal to the tourism market, such as the Galapagos Islands, Machu Picchu, Iguassu Falls, Amazon forest and coral reefs, are climate change vulnerable ecosystems and need to carefully integrate conservation plans with sociocultural plans and economic development programs in the long term. According to The World Bank (WB, 2017), some governments, such as Colombia and Argentina, have started to act in an organized manner by applying public policies to protect the environment and minimize possible negative impacts from the tourism sector. The tourism competitiveness of countries such as Bolivia, Colombia, Uruguay, and the Dominican Republic has improved, but overall, the region’s competitiveness is negatively impacted by the perception of safety and security (WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2020) and by the conditions in which the tourism value chain operates to deliver products and services. To ensure tourism flows, accessibility to destinations, and quality of living in local communities (mostly located in sub urban or rural areas), there are basic services that need to be addressed, such as waste management and access to clean water affected by the lack of overall sustainability (Gascón, 2022). Table 1. indicators for tourism in latin america (WttC, 2020). indicator total contribution of travel and tourism in global GDP (bn) total contribution of travel and tourism in global GDP (%) total contribution of travel and tourism to employment (mn) total contribution of travel and tourism to employment (%) international Visitor Spend (uSD bn) international Visitor Spend (% total exports) Domestic Visitor Spend (uSD bn) 2019 2020 266.9 uSD bn 157.3 uSD bn 8.1% total economy 5.1% total economy 17.01 mn Jobs 13.03 mn Jobs 8.0% total employment 6.6% total employment 45.5 bn uSD 6.8% total exp. 13.9bn 2.3% total exp. 149.8 bn uSD 93.3bn uSD 4 D. NAVARRO-DRAZICH ET AL. The future of tourism development in the region becomes more complex if we consider environmental activism among individuals, communities, and organizations that take a stand to defend human rights, their land, and the environment. South America and the Caribbean show high rates of crimes against activists. Of the over 227 environmentalists and land defenders murdered globally, these crimes are concentrated in South America and the Caribbean countries, including 65 in Colombia and 20 in Brazil, followed by Honduras (17), Guatemala (13), Nicaragua (12), Peru (6), Costa Rica (1), and Argentina (1) (GLOBAL WITNESS, 2021). The sectors involved in this persecution of activists are deeply relevant for regional economies because they overlap with activities such as logging, mining and extractive activities, illegal crop substitution, agribusiness, access to water and roads, and land reform (GLOBAL WITNESS, 2021). Solving cultural and environmental degradation and taking climate action that is supportive of a tourism economy is highly challenging amidst economic and political instability. Methodological approach: bibliometric analysis Climate change is a rapidly developing area of research in most disciplines. However, as reflected in the latest IPCC assessment reports (Hall, 2012), there remains a significant gap in terms of regional studies on tourism and climate change in South and Central America, as Scott et al. (2015) noticed for the Fifth Assessment Report (IPCC AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). To provide a more detailed and current assessment of the relevant knowledge in the region, we carried out a literature review of scientific papers in Spanish, Portuguese, and English. We only included those studies where tourism aspects were explicitly mentioned as part of the research or results. The journals examined were those included in the Scopus database, which includes those reviewed for sufficiently high quality according to the h-Index, CiteScore, and the SCImago and SNIP Journal Ranks. We searched for references to tourism, climate change and cognate terms in English (“touris*,” “leisure,” “global,” “warming,” “greenhouse,” “emissions,” “CO2”) in “South” and “Central” America and in each country of the region, excluding Mexico and the Caribbean Island states. A total of 26 publications were found with Scopus and included in our analysis. Other publication, such as books, chapters, plans, reports, theses, and presentations, were excluded as they have not necessarily peer reviewed and are not typically included in Scopus or similar databases. We found 22 additional scientific papers in Spanish and Portuguese using the Google and Google Scholar search engines using the keywords words “turismo/ turístico/turística” and “cambio climático/mudança climática.” This illustrates the importance of including diverse language searches in any bibliometric analysis and the need to utilize search engines/data bases that can locate multi-lingual scientific literature. Results and discussion Linguistic, temporal and spatial patterns in the references Between 2009 and 2021, 48 papers about tourism and climate change were published in relation to Central and South America: 26 in English, 19 in Spanish and 3 in Portuguese (Table in Supplementary Material). Until 2018, scientific production did not exceed four papers per year: four in 2011; three in 2010, 2012, and 2016; two in 2009, 2013, and 2014; one in 2017 and 2018; and none in 2015. But since 2019, the publication of papers has increased significantly: seven in 2019, ten in 2020 and nine in 2021 (Figure 1). The spatial distribution of the papers found can be organised into three groups: countries studied in more than five papers (11 Brazil, 8 Peru, 5 Costa Rica, and 4 Argentina), countries analysed in two papers (Ecuador, Bolivia, Belize, Chile, and Colombia) or less (Suriname, Panama, JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 5 Figure 1. number of papers regarding tourism and climate change in Central and South america per year and language (Source: Scopus database, Google and Google Scholar). Honduras, and Cuba), and countries for which no research is recorded. As pointed out by Navarro-Drazich (2002: 103), there is a clear relationship between the distribution of research and the countries with a larger capacity for scientific production. And although countries with economies more dependent on tourism may be more concerned about climate change, the evidence shows that the distribution is uneven in this regard: there many papers on dependent and non-dependent countries, just as there are few and none papers on dependent and non-dependent countries. Climate risk Thematic issue From the perspective of the study object, more than one third of the papers (17) do not address a specific empirical object of study or tourism destination. Either because they are equivalent to a literature review at the global level or because they characterize the problem of tourism and climate change in general terms and follow the structure of a monograph or because they focus on the development of a method. There are almost twenty publications whose subject of study transcends a specific country: 7 on the world, 5 on the Latin American region (and the Caribbean in a couple of cases), and 5 on two or three countries. The rest of the publications (31) analyzed particular tourist destinations. The main themes can be organized into three groups. On the one hand, concern about the impacts of climate change on tourism in half of the papers (22). On the other hand, the issues of adaptation (9), vulnerability (9) and mitigation (8). And finally, the topics with less exposure analyze perceptions (5), risks (3), causalities (3), trends (1) and potential (1). More than thirty papers (31) analyze cases of specific tourist destinations in which they offer tourist activities distinctive of certain types of tourism. In this sense, coastal tourism or sun and beach tourism is the subject of study in almost half of these papers (14). Arguably, sun and beach destinations are more economically dependent on tourism and consequently are of greater concern than climate change impacts more on coastal destinations. To a lesser extent, 6 D. NAVARRO-DRAZICH ET AL. cases of ecotourism (6; four of which concern mountain environments), glacier and tourism (3), and rural or community or local tourism (4) are studied. Finally, there is one research on climate change and archaeological tourism. In general, the perception of climate change risk in the tourism sector in South American countries appears to be low (Rodríguez & Acevedo-Navas, 2021), although in Central American countries bordering the Caribbean, this is higher (Dick-Ford et al., 2020), probably because they are already more affected by hurricanes and other extreme weather events. González-Rodríguez & Acevedo-Navas (2020) focus exclusively on the theme and the also conclude that in the region, climate change is not perceived as an immediate threat to South America’s tourism sector. Methodologies used Ten percent of the papers (5) deployed a methodology consisting of enquiries to various actors of the tourism-environmental system (tourists, residents, providers, experts) through oral and written interviews, surveys or reviews (“Perception” on Supplementary material). It is important to note the difference between enquiries to experts, to know appreciations and projections on the phenomenon, and to residents, providers or tourists (supply or demand actors) to determine the degree of information on the subject and their perceptions. The two types of enquiries are expressed in similar proportions. Papers highlighted We highlight seven works post AR5. They focus on the impact of climate change on particular tourist destinations (not monographs or literature review). Additionally, they are based on enquiries to experts (not on perceptions) and/or secondary sources: climatic, geographic and human reports from major world scientific bodies, scientific publications, plans and policies, or records of historical series on natural and social phenomena. The post-AR5 scientific literature highlighted focuses on a few countries, with two cases each: Brazil and Costa Rica. Argentina, Peru and Colombia are analyzed with one article each. Most of the papers were published in 2020 and 2021. The theme present in almost all research was "Economic development/growth." More than half of the publications were also concerned with "sea level rise and coastal change." The least addressed aspects were "Human health risks" and "Ocean temperatures and acidification." Regarding the level of adaptation strategies research, four articles develop a descriptive level, one article a policy analysis/formulation level and two articles a policy implementation level (Table 2). Picón et al. (2014) present the impacts of climate change on the North Pacific coast of Costa Rica. On the one hand, they expose the competition in land use between sun and beach tourism and other population dynamics (commercial, social and cultural). On the other hand, they also present the morphological and ecological modifications of the coastline (increased erosion, shrinking of beaches). DA Silva Santos and Marengo (2020) present the impacts of climate change in the major Brazilian tourist destinations Camboriú, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador and Santos (identified in previous research by Marengo et al., 2017). Expected natural events include coastal flooding, sea level rise, intense and frequent storms, extreme drought, water shortages, and landslides (such as those recently recorded in Rio). These would impact the built structures of the coast, causing socioeconomic impacts and destabilization of the tourism system. It is shown that tourism in Brazil presents high vulnerability given that 1. the activity is strongly concentrated in the sun and beach model (two-thirds of the tourist flows in Brazil; additionally, this country is among the ten countries with low elevation coastal zones), 2. there is a lack of research on the phenomenon and 3. consequently, there are few adaptation measures - indeed, the National Table 2. Scientific literature after iPCC ar5 (2013). Destination authors brazilian coast Picón et al., 2014 Da Silva Santos Hartley-ballestero & & marengo, Suárez-espinoza, 2020 2020 Costa rica x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 1st generation 1st generation 4th generation - Descriptive - Descriptive – implementation Pinamar, argentina brazilian coast rural Peru Colombia Puccio et al., 2020 De Paula et al., 2021 Gabriel-Campos et al., 2021 orjuela martínez et al., 2021 x x x x x x x x x x 1st generation - Descriptive x 1st x 4th generation generation – – Policy implementation 3rd generation – Policy JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM average and extreme temperatures altered precipitation patterns extreme weather (flood, fire, drought, storms/ hurricanes) Sea level rise and coastal change ecosystem/biodiversity change ocean temperatures and acidification Human health risks Social disruption/security (including population displacement) economic development/growth Level of adaptation strategies research (Klein et al., 2017) north Pacific, Costa rica 7 8 D. NAVARRO-DRAZICH ET AL. Policy on Climate Change does not consider tourism as a strategic sector for Brazil, nor is tourism specifically included in the National Adaptation Plan. Hartley-Ballestero and Suárez-Espinoza (2020) note that the information available on the environmental performance of tourism-related businesses is scarce and incomplete, so there is little input to construct indicators that would allow an accurate analysis of sustainability. This creates gaps when formulating policies against climate change in relation to tourism. In fact, Costa Rica does not have explicit actions for the tourism sector but benefits from conservation actions developed in protected areas. Beyond tourism, a few adaptation programs have been implemented as first efforts to address climate change. However, the results of the actions are not convincing in terms of their effectiveness in guaranteeing the reduction of negative effects: the policy approach is more reactive than preventive. It can therefore be said that tourism is one of the sectors least prepared for the risks and opportunities posed by climate change in the country. Furthermore, the paper raises the paradox that the continuous growth of tourism produces pollution and loss of regenerative capacity of the environment that constitute the scenario and attraction of tourism. The study by Puccio et al. (2020) seeks to describe the disaster risk of the coastal tourist destination Pinamar in Argentina. Based on the DesInventar Disaster Inventory System, the hazard of natural threds in Pinamar is related to the social vulnerability of its community, resulting in a very low vulnerability given that those hazards are not dangerous. This research questions DesInventar’s sources and, consequently, its results, in particular, how the danger is low when 15% of homes have no roof or walls and when Pinamar’s beaches are exposed to the threat of strong winds (Sudestadas), which produce significant material damage (not recorded by national newspapers, which are DesInventar’s source). It also questions whether urban growth presents low vulnerability based on sufficient available territory for urban expansion. In this regard, the authors develop a map of anthropogenic soil degradation in which they show that such expansion would occur at the expense of the sand dunes. Finally, they recommend diversifying secondary sources of information and using reliable and updated data. DE Paula et al. (2021) examines the coastal erosion in relation to lodging facilities and the value of rates on two beaches on the northeast coast of Brazil. One of them has a low density in accommodation distribution and daily rates practiced in tourism. The other beach has a lower risk of erosion, and the means of accommodation are concentrated. Coastal erosion has affected tourism in the region, influencing the choice of accommodation entrepreneurs. As a result, there is a concentration of tourist accommodations in areas without coastal erosion, influencing in the distribution of tourist facilities and their daily rates. So, there is a direct connection between tourism income and the beaches with coastal erosion. Gabriel-Campos et al. (2021) explore the case study of Quebrada Verde, Peru, a rural community in the Andes Mountains, specifically its possibility to enhance its resilience to both simultaneous risks: the pandemic and climate change. They find that the community is unbalanced prepared. Orjuela Martínez et al. (2021) analyze the impact of climate change and the ways adaptation strategies are implemented in Valle del Cauca, Quindio and Tolima: jurisdictions that presented the best performance in the 2019 Colombian Regional Tourism Competitiveness Index (ICTRC) on environmental resource management. All three cases have carried out strategies and actions aimed at identifying and reducing the effects of climate change following national guidelines. However, the recent implementation of the Integrated Climate Change Management Plans (PIGCCT) makes it difficult to recognize their performance. The paper urges to continue generating ICTRC measurements to visualize the evolution of variables over time and be able to make comparisons. It is also suggested to evaluate the implementation of the PIGCCT, the level of budget execution and the application of the National Climate Change Policy, as well as to strengthen the actors and institutions created for this purpose. It is also recommended to have information disaggregated by sectors to specifically establish the effect caused by tourism so JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 9 that decisions can be made in each of the territories and subsectors of the productive chain and to promote the incorporation of climate change variables in the formulation of local and regional development plans. Level of research In four papers the level research of climate change research is at the descriptive level, two at the policy level and one at the implementation level, following Klein et al. (2017). According to the authors, the first level of adaptation research was mostly descriptive. In that first step, the priority of climate change researchers was to better understand the unavoidable impacts and to think of possibilities of adapting to those impacts. The second generation of adaptation research began to ask normative questions, asking what the study field should be researching and what successful adaptation should be. Adaptation policies are the object of the third-generation adaptation research, especially to financial mechanisms to develop adaptation action. The fourth generation of adaptation research focused on analyzing implementation, that is to say adaptation action. The recorded climate alterations were always exposed from secondary sources. Orjuela Martínez et al. (2021) advanced the presentation and quantification of public policies on adaptation in Colombia but did not analyze the results because their implementation has been recent. It should be noted that these are general actions not necessarily related to tourism. Likewise, Hartley-Ballestero and Suárez-Espinoza (2020) went beyond identifying impacts to propose guidelines for policies on climate change and tourism, including adaptation actions and GHG reductions from tourism activity. They also described and identified the analysis criteria and evaluated the implemented programs. It should be added that marine acidification is one of the phenomena least noted in the papers but one of the most worrisome for AR5 (Magrin et al., 2014: 1544). Also the article by Gabriel-Campos et al. (2021) studies local policies, particularly the (weak) relationship between a community with other local organizations to prevent and react to climate change. It is interesting to note that all the papers denounce that nonexistent, discontinuous, scarce or outdated measurements serve as inputs for further research and for public–private decision making. This is particularly evident in Puccio et al. (2019 and 2020). Many papers also note with alarm the absence of specific policies to reduce the effects of climate change on the tourism sector, although it is one of the most affected activities. In this sense, the tourism system often benefits from plans and actions designed for other sectors or general policies to address climate change that are recent and, consequently, with results that are too incipient to be analyzed. At the same time, the effects of tourism on climate change are also of concern to researchers but continue to be a neglected issue. All this is evidence of a certain divorce between science and policy in the region. In this sense, Grimm et al. (2012) also denounce the discrepancy between scientific, ideological and political discourses. For tourism, the lines of action on adaptation usually consider the tourism sector within other broader sectors, e.g. the economic sector. The literature on the subject highlighted not only the need to reduce GHG emissions through adaptation to new scenarios but also how important it is to raise awareness among tourism sector stakeholders to achieve significant changes (De Sousa Melo et al.; 2016). For this reason, the objectives and strategies of the plans analyzed extensively include sensitization policies. Among the strategies proposed are disaster risk management, ecosystem conservation, waste management, preservation of water resources, measures focused on vulnerable groups, health and food security, land use, and resilient infrastructure, among others (ECLAC, 2020). Likewise, only two countries have developed climate action plans and specific strategies for the tourism sector. On the one hand, Uruguay analyzed climate scenarios in its coastal zone and established steps to implement adaptation and reduction measures for tourism operators 10 D. NAVARRO-DRAZICH ET AL. and companies, industry associations, governments, communities and the financial sector (MVOTMA, 2011). On the other hand, Chile, a country highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, has also worked on the expected climate change effects and seeks to strengthen capacities and transfer knowledge to key actors, promoting the analysis of the vulnerability of destinations of tourist interest, decongestion measures and good tourism practices (CONSEJO DE MINISTRO PARA LA SUSTENTABILIDAD Y COMITÉ DE MINISTROS DEL TURISMO, 2019). Carbon risk: Latin America’s carbon footprint and tourism contributions Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from Latin America represent less than a tenth of the total global annual emissions, according to statistics from the World Resources Institute published by the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL, 2021). In the same way, Bárcena et al. (2018) observed that the structure of the partial contributions of GHG emissions is quite different from other parts of the world, with a relevant share of land use change as source and a cleaner energetic system. To address this problem, all the countries of the region have included climate action lines within their strategic plans for sustainable development. According to an analysis carried out by the Regional Observatory of Planning for the Development of Latin America and the Caribbean (CEPAL, 2020). Virtually all the national plans present specific actions that aim at reducing or adapting to climate change to a greater or lesser extent. In fact, according to a World Bank report, nearly every country in the region has updated its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) for climate adaptation and mitigation, and many have committed to achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. Despite this partial progress in national commitment, only a select group of countries-Chile, Uruguay, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, and Colombia-have submitted long-term strategies (LTS) to achieve this net-zero goal (WORLD BANK, 2022). As an example of the disparity in regional NDCs, the World Wild Fundation (WWF) developed an index to assess the updated NDCs submitted by Latin American countries in 2020/2021. By evaluating five key areas - ambition, systemic change, inclusiveness and participation, contribution to sustainable development, and tracking progress - WWF concludes that most countries have increased their mitigation targets, but they "fall far short of what science says we need to limit global temperature rise to 1.5 °C" (WWF., 2021:4). A closer look at the individual NDCs shows that only the NDCs of the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica and Suriname reach the higher qualification in the WWF standard, while the NDCs of México and Brazil score in the lower segments of the index. Despite the fact that most countries in the region have expanded the sectoral coverage of their NDCs, among the largest economies in the region, only Colombia translates this expansion into specific sectorial targets. In particular, and as an indication of the scope and ambition of the NDCs of Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic, tourism is mentioned as an important structural sector. In the case of Costa Rica, the country proposes the sustainable use of biodiversity and biotourism in biological corridors as a strategy to support jobs and livelihoods in the context of climate change (WWF., 2021). Within the actions to reduce climate change impacts, energy is one of the most indicated sectors in the NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions), mentioned in all of them, transport and waste management. The strategies that are implemented in them have a direct impact on the fundamental activities of tourism, such as transport, access, accommodation services, gastronomy, transfers, among others. In this sense, the goal of transforming the energy system to reduce fossil fuel stands out strongly. Those aims linked to changes in land use, waste management, and transport efficiency are also highlighted (Samaniego et al., 2019 & Bárcena et al., 2020). JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 11 In addition to the inclusion of climate change in development plans, a few countries of the region have prepared specific documents to address this problem, creating strategies to decarbonize their economies (Vergara et al., 2016). This is the case of Costa Rica, which developed a plan to decarbonize in a staggered manner and advance to a green economy (Rona et al., 2019; MINAE, n.d.). Another relevant case is Colombia, with its national energy plan that, among its objectives, raises energy efficiency to reduce GHG emissions (UPME., 2019). Both are part of the project deep decarbonization routes in Latin America and the Caribbean, where countries such as Ecuador, Peru and Argentina are also involved (IDB & DDPLAC, 2019). Despite these partial advances in climate policy, tourism discussion is not a relevant issue for these national initiatives. A quick review of the regional NDCs shows that tourism does not appear as an important priority in the design of NDCs. The search for key words (tourism and tourist) shows three significant trends. A first group of countries, such as Venezuela, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Ecuador and Peru, do not even mention tourism in their NDCs. A second group, made up of Argentina, Bolivia, Belize, Brazil, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Uruguay, Guatemala, and Honduras, mention the tourism sector between 1 and 2 times in their NDCs. These references are mostly contextual and focus on mitigation. Specifically, cases such as Argentina, Bolivia and Guatemala emphasize how adapting to climate change can generate secondary mitigation benefits for tourism. A third group, limited to Chile and Colombia, identify tourism as a key sector in their NDCs and outline specific strategies for it. In the case of Chile, a strict timetable for sectoral adaptation plans is specified. Specifically, the tourism sector must develop its specific plan by 2026. Meanwhile, Colombia identifies "tourism and industry" as one of its priority economic sectors and encourages it to include climate change considerations in its planning instruments and to implement adaptation measures. Scientific literature regarding tourism and the generation of GHGs in Central and South America indicates that the sector is contributing to the increase in CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. We do not find regional overall data of the GHG contribution of the tourism sector, but there is interesting information available for Brazil, the most studied experience, and a local case in Argentina. Analyzing Brazil, Dubois and Ceron (2020) found that while reasonable strategies would maintain the contribution of tourism to national GHG emissions in 2030 at a level comparable to those currently observed in highly developed nations, between 2030 and 2050, tourism emissions would continue to grow, while national emissions would decline. Tourism could therefore become a major burden on national policies on the reduction of climate change impacts (Dubois & Ceron, 2020). In the event that biofuel use in aviation as a sustainable option would become widespread in Brazil, this would also have a major direct impact on land use (Ceron & Dubois, 2021). Additionally, DE Sousa Melo et al. (2016) evaluated the impacts of tourism in a Brazilian conservation unit based on the production of organic and inorganic garbage and the consumption of fuel in both land and water travel. In the analysis of the results, automobiles, as the principal mode of transport, contribute a significant amount of GHG emissions. The results also highlight that the production of waste, both per capita and per hour, is higher than the average waste generation of residents in Brazil and visitors of the world (p. 512). This is in line with Tabatchnaia-Tamirisa et al. (1997), who showed how tourists consume greater amounts of resources -water, energy, materialsthan residents. Along the same lines, Gareis and Ferraro (2014) set out to research Mar del Plata experience, a sun-and-beachtourist destination in Argentina with marked seasonality, to analyze variations in energy and material consumption. Given that fuel energy is imported, the authors analyzed the amounts and types of fuel sold by wholesalers and retailers. Then, based on this information, they estimated the CO2 emissions generated from its use. Once again, the results show that there is a relationship between peaks in fuel consumption and the months of greatest tourist activity. 12 D. NAVARRO-DRAZICH ET AL. Finally, facing the lack of general trends for the tourism industry in the region regarding climate change strategies, we use some case studies found in the literature to illustrate both relevant experiences and proposals. In Peru, (Biberos-Bendezú & Vázquez-Rowe, 2020) showed that the use of cable cars for tourist transport has demonstrated its value, while specific studies in Tambopata, Peru (Kirby et al. 2010), highlighted the potential of aboveground carbon sequestration through the conservation of forests for ecotourism. Additionally, Machu Picchu, the main hotspot in Cusco (Peru), is taking measures to become a “carbon zero destination,” and the Ministry of Environment along with the Peruvian Hotel Society (In Spanish, SHP) have started a pilot program to decarbonize including 16 private hotels. For the case of the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador, Eras-Almeida et al. (2020) considered it necessary to study the implementation of a tourism energy fee to support sustainable energy initiatives. Conclusion After a profuse review of the literature, we identify three key challenges and potentialities in the links between tourism and climate change in South and Central America. First, we find a lack of actualized data and a need for uniformity in measuring the region because the ways of dividing the world into regions are dissimilar among institutions. On the one hand, there are geographic perspectives that belong to the natural sciences scope (e.g. used by the IPCC) that consider specific countries. On the other hand, there are economic considerations as well as institutional practices in terms of treating and analyzing data (transnational organizations such as WTTC and the UNWTO). Therefore, we tried to solve this by considering data and reports from the LAC region. There is a need to use more standardized parameters to treat South America, Central America and the Caribbean based on common agreements that may lead to better comparisons and more accurate treatment of information. In general, Latin American economies show a low dependency in terms of the share of tourism in GDP, and one of main challenges for the tourism sector and their sustainability are related to political instability, economic inequalities, degradation of culture and environment (neo extractivism practices and high pressure on resources), as well as conditions and perception of safety and security. Additionally, as we exposed, the high number of crimes registered among environmental activities and communal leaders evidence the need to take a stand in terms of conservation rules and private–public measures to support sustainability and to guarantee both accessibility and an image of safety in tourism. Second, we identify that the analyzed region is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world, and its richness and variety of resources show a huge tourism attractiveness potential. It reinforces the requirements to work toward active measures and continuous research to fight against climate change. Tourism arises as an alternative activity for generating different virtuous cycles in the region. This industry can improve local and national incomes and employment, act as a green alternative to reduce the dependence of large climate change contributors such as mining or oil extraction, and confront illegal local fishing and woodening activities that put pressure on resources. While tourism may improve local and national incomes and employment, the growth of tourism has repercussions that need to be evaluated to identify whether there is a net benefit to the region by having tourism or if the social and environmental impact caused by tourism growth and development cannot be justified. Third, this literature review also shows specific debts in terms of available knowledge on tourism and their link with the environment and climate change. One generic problem is the scarcity of regulations, plans and specific government programs for the reduction of impacts and adaptation of tourism to climate change and GHG reduction from tourism activity. Another problem is that scientific studies are still needed in key areas: main attractive components of each country (tourism resources, tourism attractions, tourism landscapes, tourism routes, tourism JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 13 zones/areas, tourism macroproducts); main tourism services (accommodation, transportation, gastronomy, information, marketing); and tourism employment. Facing this situation, we propose two alternative ways to fill this knowledge gap. One is the active involvement of international and regional organizations (OAS, CARICOM, SELA, CELAC, ProSur, ALADI, Pacific Alliance, Intergovernmental Coordinating Committee of the Countries of the La Plata Basin, Mercosur, ACTO, Parlatino) in tourism issues to promote the activity and to organize research and training programs. Second, we argue the importance of encouraging applied tourism research in the region. Together, these methods would be a valuable input both for the development of tourism products and for the formulation of promotion strategies. 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