Chapter

Chapter 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable Waste Management and Treatment Methods of Vellalore Dump Yard, Coimbatore Corporation K. Manikanda Bharath , R. Ruthra, Archana Kasinath , and Usha Natesan Abstract The study examined to identify, characterize, and quantify microplastics in Groundwater samples around the municipal solid waste dumpsites, namely Vellalore dump yard, Coimbatore Corporation in South India. We have collected groundwater samples from bore well (15 nos) in 1-L Silanized amber glass bottles with Teflon-lined caps within 2 km distance from the municipal solid waste disposal sites during the post-monsoon season (November 2019) in South India. To evaluate the identification and quantification of microplastic abundance, characteristics (composite, size, colour, shape and surface morphology), and distribution of groundwater performed using LABOMED zoom stereo microscope, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) fitted with Complete Attenuated Reflectance and Scanning electron microscope (SEM) fitted with an energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyser. The total amount of microplastic particles was found to contain freshwater sources among the groundwater samples (n = 15) ranging from 6 and 80 items/L. Vellalore dump yard sampling sites dominant-coloured particles included white (18%), black (32%), red (19%), blue (16%), green (10%), and yellow (5%) respectively. Also, a Polymer type occurs in the following order nylon (70%), pellets (18%), foam (6%), fragments (3%) fibers/PVC (2%) and polythene (1%). The study K. M. Bharath (B) · U. Natesan National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research Chennai, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu 600113, India e-mail: [email protected] R. Ruthra Department of Civil Engineering, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering, OMR, Chennai, Tamilnadu 600119, India A. Kasinath Department of Water and Wastewater Technology, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 Narutowicza St, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024 A. Anouzla and S. Souabi (eds.), A Review of Landfill Leachate, Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-55513-8_5 65 66 K. M. Bharath et al. confirmed the microplastic tracers in groundwater contamination near dump yards. In Vellalore dump yard sampling sites, 90% of microplastics were derived from the fragmentation of the buried waste of the plastics predominantly polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) was presented. These methods for identifying and quantifying microplastics in groundwater is likely to provide a scope for further research into the pathways by which microplastic enter the environment. Keywords Groundwater quality · Microplastic contamination · Solid waste mismanagement · Polymer types · Vellalore dump yard · Hazardous waste 5.1 Introduction Plastic pollution has emerged as a global crisis with profound environmental consequences [29]. The production and consumption of plastic have surged worldwide, generating a substantial increase in plastic waste [33]. Unlike organic materials, plastic does not naturally decompose, leading to widespread environmental accumulation [34]. Concerns are growing that open landfill sites are releasing microplastics into freshwater ecosystems, though research in this area lags behind investigations into land-based sources [22]. Microplastics, due to their small size and persistence, present significant health risks to humans, organisms, and the environment [20]. This unbridled pursuit of industrial development and resource exploitation has negatively impacted all forms of life on Earth, rendering air, water, and soil increasingly unsuitable for living beings and disrupting ecosystems [21]. To combat plastic pollution, many countries have implemented policies and strict regulations on plastic usage and alternatives. However, this has raised concerns about the survival of all living organisms [6]. Microplastics, extremely small plastic debris resulting from product disposal and breakdown, are now ubiquitous in our daily lives, entering the environment directly and accumulating over time [1]. These minute plastic particles, along with associated toxic elements, are readily ingested and accumulate in various organisms, causing environmental harm and potentially entering the human food chain. The issue of microplastics in the environment should be of great concern [2]. Firstly, they can pose health risks, particularly to children who may inhale them. Secondly, the environment acts as a widespread distributor, spreading plastic particles to undesirable locations such as agricultural fields, national parks, seas, and even remote regions like the Arctic and Antarctica [14]. The presence of plastics in such high proportions is a looming problem [7]. While organic components of solid waste are biodegradable and less problematic, plastic waste poses significant challenges in urban and suburban environments due to its non-biodegradable nature [5]. In India, urban areas, including municipalities, are grappling with high levels of plastic waste, with households being significant contributors. Plastics have replaced traditional materials like leaves, glass, and metals as a cost-effective and efficient means of packaging [3]. In our daily lives, numerous materials, including synthetic 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 67 and natural fibers in furniture and textiles, contribute to this plastic waste issue. Despite the urgent need for research on environmental plastic pollution, several challenges persist in understanding the degradation of plastic particles and associated health risks [8]. Microplastics, in particular, carry toxic substances, posing significant threats to microorganisms and ecosystems. These persistent pollutants enter the food chain, exacerbating health and environmental concerns. There is a pressing need for enhanced knowledge and a fundamental understanding of the abundance and characteristics of microplastics, as well as the key challenges they present to sustainable strategies [11]. Due to urbanization and population growth, plastic usage continues to rise, resulting in increased plastic waste and environmental concerns. In India, many urban areas, including Chennai, are grappling with high levels of plastic pollution [3]. The Chennai urban heat island is no exception, with plastic litter emerging as a critical issue affecting both society and the environment. The rapid increase in the use of plastic products has led to a substantial surge in plastic waste in metro cities like Chennai. The challenges posed by rapid urbanization, inadequate waste management, and the contamination of air, water, and soil threaten water sources, contribute to environmental pollution, and increase the risk of flooding and climate change [23]. While some studies have provided valuable insights into the occurrence, distribution, and sources of microplastics in Asian wetlands, rivers, beaches, and estuaries, there remains a significant lack of groundwater data [28]. Comparisons with findings from other regions around the world suggest that microplastic contamination in Asia’s inland waters could be more severe. Some research indicates that plastic particles are not evenly distributed in groundwater samples and are more abundant near dumping sites. However, investigations into the pathways of microplastics in aquatic taxa, bioaccumulation of contaminants, and toxicological impacts, as well as microplastic ingestion in freshwater ecosystems, are still largely unexplored [24]. In recent decades, the use of plastic products has steadily increased, leading to a significant rise in plastic waste in major Indian cities, particularly in Coimbatore. The shift from traditional packaging methods like leaf wrappers, brown paper, and metal cups to plastic packaging, driven by hygiene concerns, highlights the unique properties of plastics such as versatility, inertness, and flexibility. Consequently, plastics have become the preferred choice for packaging, resulting in substantial profits for companies while burdening the public with the environmental cost of plastic waste cleanup. Currently, the disposal of plastic waste is by incineration and landfill in Coimbatore, which is a threat to the environment. The former is not environmentally friendly and sustainable since this may release carbon dioxide, a major contributor to global warming (greenhouse effect). The latter is not also desirable since plastic is non-degradable. However, very little has been yet done in this area. Hence the earlier the plastic waste menace problem is tackled the better it would be for the environment and sustainable livelihood. The main objective of this study is to establish a cohesive framework that combines plastic waste management strategies with contemporary analytical technology for the purpose of mitigating microplastic contamination and promoting environmental sustainability. Moreover, in order to enhance sustainability by satisfying our collective needs without exacerbating the 68 K. M. Bharath et al. adverse impact or exhaustion of the remaining ecological resources. Furthermore, In order to illustrate the advantages of prioritizing the rise in recycling of materials and energy over landfilling, this study aims to examine the resulting reduction in environmental impact, diminished health dangers, decreased consumption of energy resources, lower economic costs, and ultimately the promotion of sustainable waste management. 5.2 Study Zone The study area of Coimbatore is situated in the southern part of India, approximately 494 km southwest of Chennai. Coimbatore is a prominent city in the state of Tamil Nadu, covering an expansive area of approximately 246 sq. km. With a population of over 1.6 million people as of the 2011 census, it is one of the major urban centers in the region. Coimbatore is divided into multiple zones and wards, making it a diverse and densely populated city in its own right. The topography of the Coimbatore region is characterized by a generally flat terrain, with elevations ranging from about 400–600 m above mean sea level. The climate in Coimbatore is tropical, with distinct wet and dry seasons. The lowest recorded temperature in the city is around 15 °C, while the highest can reach up to 40 °C, with relative humidity levels typically fluctuating between 60 and 80% [30]. Coimbatore, much like Chennai, experiences significant influence from seasonal monsoons. The two primary monsoon seasons affecting the area are the southwest monsoon, which typically arrives in June and lasts until September, and the northeast monsoon, which arrives from October to December. The city receives a substantial amount of its annual rainfall during these monsoon periods. On average, Coimbatore receives around 700 mm of rainfall annually, with the southwest monsoon contributing approximately 400 mm, and the northeast monsoon contributing the remaining 300 mm. Groundwater plays a critical role in meeting the water needs of Coimbatore’s growing population. As of the last census in 2011, the city’s population stood at approximately 1.6 million people. Coimbatore, like many urban areas in India, generates a significant amount of solid waste. On average, each person in the city produces an estimated 985 g of solid waste daily. It has been reported that Coimbatore generates about 2500 tons of solid waste per day across its various zones, with municipal authorities responsible for managing a substantial portion of this waste. The Vellalore Dump Yard, also known as the Vellalore Solid Waste Management Plant, is a waste disposal facility located in Vellalore, a suburban of Coimbatore in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu (Fig. 5.1). It is one of the primary locations for waste disposal and management in the Coimbatore Municipal Corporation area. The Vellalore Dump Yard is situated in the Vellalore area on the outskirts of Coimbatore city in Tamil Nadu, India. The facility is primarily used for the disposal of solid waste generated in Coimbatore and its surrounding areas. It serves as a dumping ground for the waste collected from households, commercial establishments, and industries in the region. 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 69 Fig. 5.1 Vellalore Dump Yard investigation and data collection equipment and tools The Vellalore Dump Yard has faced significant environmental concerns and controversies over the years. Improper waste management practices, including open dumping and burning of waste, have resulted in air and water pollution, odor problems, and adverse health effects for nearby residents. These issues have led to protests and legal actions in an effort to address and mitigate the environmental impact. The unabated disposal of waste has resulted in persistent odors and a general nuisance for the surrounding communities. Residents have raised concerns about the quality of life and the negative impact on their daily lives. The proximity of the dump yard to residential areas has raised significant health concerns. Prolonged exposure to air pollutants and contaminants from the dump yard has been linked to respiratory illnesses and other health issues among local residents. 70 K. M. Bharath et al. 5.3 Materials and Methods The methodology of the research includes four main components that are interlocked (geology, hydrology, biotechnology, remote sensing), which will be combined with existing technologies and models to produce more accurate and fine-tuned maps for human health risk in well-established landfills environments [31]. This review will determine the concentration of microplastic in soil, surface, and groundwater in and around the landfill site. Extraction of MP from sieved sediment samples was done as per National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) protocol. The wet peroxide oxidation (WPO) and density separation [32] using ZnCl2 to separate MPs through floatation. The supernatant was then filtered using Whatman GF/A filter paper (25 mm) and air dried and stored in petridish. The materials and methodology of the microplastic analytical process are shown in the Fig. 5.2. Preliminary observations will be carried out using stereomicroscope (Labomed CZH4) to estimate the morphology and color. Microplastics were visually identified and measured according to their physical characteristics [18]. The number, shape (fiber, film, pellet, fragment), color (white and colored), and size of the plastics will be noted and discussed. The collected particles will be further observed and documented using a Scanning Electron Microscope for the characterization of MPs like colour, morphology, and texture. In addition, Raman analyses will be performed for further identification. The surface elemental composition was determined in SEM coupled energy-dispersive X-ray spectra (EDX) [15]. The microplastic classifications and Densities of plastic materials its applications given in the Table 5.1. 5.4 Problems and Mitigation Measures 5.4.1 Improper Waste Management Practices and Their Environmental and Health Implications at Vellalore Dump Yard The Vellalore Dump Yard, located on the outskirts of Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, has long been a subject of concern due to its enduring practice of open dumping and waste burning. These waste management practices have not only had severe environmental repercussions but have also emerged as a significant public health hazard for the communities residing in close proximity. This article provides a comprehensive examination of the detrimental effects and consequences arising from these improper waste management practices. 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … Fig. 5.2 Microplastic extraction and counting methods adopted in Landfills environments 71 72 K. M. Bharath et al. Table 5.1 Several classifications and densities of plastic materials its applications Plastic class Density (g/cm3 ) Applications Expanded polystyrene (styrofoam) 0.01–0.04 Electronics, cups in vending machines, refrigerator liners Low-density polyethylene 0.89–0.93 Packaging, general-purpose containers, shower curtains, floor tiles High-density polyethylene 0.94–0.98 Milk containers, detergent bottles, tubing Polypropylene 0.83–0.92 Packaging, bottle caps, ropes, carpets, laboratory equipment, drinking straws Polyethylene terephthalate 0.96–1.45 Soft drink bottles, food packaging, thermal insulation, blister packs Polyamide (nylon) 1.02–1.16 Textiles, toothbrush bristles, fishing lines, automotive Polystyrene 1.04–1.1 Packaging foam, disposable cups, food containers, CDs, building materials Polymethyl methacrylate (acrylic) 1.09–1.20 Polyvinylchloride 1.16–1.58 Pipes, window frames, flooring, shower curtains Polyester 1.24–2.3 Textiles Polytetrafluoroethylene 2.1–2.3 Soft drink bottles, food packaging, thermal insulation, blister packs Polyethylene 0.91–0.96 Supermarket bags, plastic bottles Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene 1.06–1.08 Musical instruments, printers, computer monitors, drainage pipes, protective equipment 5.4.1.1 Open Dumping Open dumping at the Vellalore Dump Yard involves the uncontrolled disposal of solid waste in an unrestricted manner. This practice has resulted in the piling up of vast amounts of garbage without any effective containment or containment liners. Over time, this unregulated accumulation of waste has led to several adverse consequences: • Land Degradation: Open dumping has caused significant land degradation in the surrounding areas, as the waste gradually encroaches upon and disrupts natural ecosystems and habitats. • Odor Emissions: The accumulation of waste, coupled with its decomposition, emits foul odors that affect the quality of life for local residents. These odorous emissions contribute to discomfort and distress among the community. • Aesthetic Decline: The unsightly heaps of garbage are not only a source of pollution but also degrade the visual aesthetics of the region, impacting property values and overall well-being. 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 5.4.1.2 73 Waste Burning Waste burning is another alarming practice at the Vellalore Dump Yard. This involves the incineration of waste materials in the open air, releasing a plethora of harmful substances into the atmosphere. The implications of waste burning are multifaceted: • Air Pollution: Burning waste generates a complex mixture of air pollutants, including particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, dioxins, and heavy metals. These pollutants deteriorate air quality and can have dire consequences on respiratory health, particularly for those residing in the vicinity. • Health Impacts: The toxic emissions from waste burning pose acute and chronic health risks to nearby communities. Respiratory problems, cardiovascular issues, and a heightened risk of cancer have been associated with prolonged exposure to these pollutants. • Environmental Consequences: Beyond its effect on human health, waste burning contributes to environmental degradation by releasing greenhouse gases and contributing to climate change. The persistence of open dumping and waste burning at the Vellalore Dump Yard stands as a stark illustration of the challenges posed by improper waste management. The consequences span a wide spectrum, encompassing environmental degradation, public health hazards, and adverse socio-economic effects. It is imperative that effective and sustainable waste management practices be implemented urgently to mitigate these detrimental impacts and ensure the well-being of the local community and the environment. This research underscores the pressing need for immediate action and policy reforms to address the longstanding issues at the Vellalore Dump Yard. 5.4.2 Air Pollution from Waste Burning at Vellalore Dump Yard 5.4.2.1 Particulate Matter (PM) Emissions • Sources: The open burning of waste materials, which often include plastics, paper, and organic matter, releases fine particulate matter (PM) into the air. PM is categorized based on its size, with PM2.5 (particles with a diameter of 2.5 µm or smaller) and PM10 (particles with a diameter of 10 µm or smaller) being of particular concern. • Health Impact: Inhaling PM can have serious health consequences. PM2.5 particles are small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream. Prolonged exposure to PM is associated with respiratory diseases such as bronchitis, aggravated asthma, and can lead to cardiovascular problems, including heart attacks and strokes. 74 K. M. Bharath et al. • Visibility: PM emissions also reduce visibility, affecting not only air quality but also posing safety hazards on roads and for transportation. 5.4.2.2 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) • Sources: Waste burning releases a variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) into the atmosphere. These compounds can originate from plastics, paints, solvents, and other materials commonly found in waste. • Health Impact: VOCs can have both short-term and long-term health effects. Short-term exposure can cause eye, nose, and throat irritation, headaches, and nausea. Long-term exposure to certain VOCs is associated with more serious health issues, including damage to the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system. Some VOCs are also classified as carcinogens. • Environmental Impact: VOCs can contribute to the formation of groundlevel ozone and smog, which have detrimental effects on the environment and ecosystems. 5.4.2.3 Hazardous Chemicals: • Sources: The waste disposed of at the Vellalore Dump Yard may contain hazardous chemicals such as heavy metals (lead, mercury, cadmium), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and dioxins and furans. These chemicals can be released during combustion. • Health and Environmental Impact: Exposure to these hazardous chemicals can result in a range of health problems, from developmental issues in children to cancer in adults. Additionally, these pollutants can persist in the environment and accumulate in the food chain, impacting wildlife and human health. 5.4.2.4 Respiratory Problems and Health Risks: • Exposure: The poor air quality resulting from waste burning poses significant health risks to nearby residents who are consistently exposed to noxious fumes. Children, the elderly, and individuals with preexisting respiratory conditions are particularly vulnerable. • Health Consequences: Respiratory problems such as coughing, wheezing, and exacerbation of asthma symptoms are common among individuals exposed to the polluted air. Long-term exposure can lead to chronic respiratory diseases and a higher risk of respiratory infections. In conclusion, the practice of burning waste at the Vellalore Dump Yard has dire consequences for air quality in the vicinity. It releases a complex mixture of harmful pollutants, including particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, and hazardous chemicals, which have far-reaching health implications for local residents 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 75 and environmental repercussions. Addressing this issue requires urgent measures to curb waste burning and implement proper waste management practices that prioritize public health and environmental protection. 5.4.3 Water Pollution from Contaminants Leaching into Groundwater at Vellalore Dump Yard 5.4.3.1 Contaminant Sources • Percolation Through Waste: The waste disposed of at the Vellalore Dump Yard contains a diverse range of contaminants, including heavy metals, organic chemicals, and hazardous substances. Over time, rainwater can percolate through the accumulated waste, dissolving and carrying these contaminants into the underlying soil and groundwater. 5.4.3.2 Groundwater Contamination • Pathways: The contaminants that leach into the groundwater can follow various pathways, including infiltration through the waste itself and lateral movement through the subsurface. These pathways enable the pollutants to gradually reach and contaminate the local groundwater aquifers. 5.4.3.3 Drinking Water Supply Contamination: • Public Wells and Boreholes: Many communities in the vicinity of the Vellalore Dump Yard rely on groundwater from public wells and boreholes as their primary source of drinking water. The contamination of these water sources can have severe implications for public health. • Well Vulnerability: Contaminants such as heavy metals and organic chemicals can render well water unsafe for consumption. Exposure to contaminated water can lead to acute and chronic health issues, including gastrointestinal problems, organ damage, and an increased risk of certain cancers. 5.4.3.4 Adverse Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems: • Surface Water Bodies: In addition to contaminating groundwater, pollutants can also find their way into nearby surface water bodies, such as rivers, streams, and ponds. This can result in the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. • Impact on Flora and Fauna: Aquatic flora and fauna are particularly vulnerable to changes in water quality. Contaminants can disrupt the balance of these 76 K. M. Bharath et al. ecosystems, leading to fish kills, altered species compositions, and reduced biodiversity. 5.4.3.5 Long-Term Environmental Impact • Persistence: Some contaminants, such as heavy metals, can persist in the environment for extended periods, posing a long-term threat to both human health and the environment. • Bioaccumulation: Certain contaminants can bioaccumulate in the food chain, meaning that organisms at higher trophic levels can accumulate higher concentrations of toxins. This can have far-reaching consequences for the health of wildlife and, indirectly, for human populations that rely on these ecosystems for resources. 5.4.3.6 Mitigation and Remediation: • Monitoring and Assessment: Continuous monitoring of groundwater quality in the affected areas is essential to assess the extent of contamination and its impact on drinking water sources. • Remediation Measures: Implementing remediation measures, such as groundwater treatment and wellhead protection zones, can help mitigate the spread of contaminants and protect drinking water supplies. • Waste Management Improvements: Addressing the root cause of the issue requires a shift toward proper waste management practices that prevent the leaching of contaminants in the first place. In conclusion, water pollution resulting from contaminants leaching into groundwater at the Vellalore Dump Yard presents a multifaceted challenge. It not only jeopardizes local drinking water supplies but also has adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems. Addressing this issue necessitates a comprehensive approach that includes monitoring, remediation, and improved waste management practices to safeguard both human health and the environment. 5.4.4 Odor Nuisance from the Vellalore Dump Yard 5.4.4.1 Odor Sources • Decomposing Waste: The primary source of foul odors at the Vellalore Dump Yard is the decomposition of organic waste materials. As waste degrades, it produces various gases, including hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methane (CH4), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which can emit pungent and unpleasant odors. 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 5.4.4.2 77 Factors Contributing to Odor Emissions • Waste Composition: The composition of the waste in the dump yard, which includes a mixture of household waste, industrial waste, and other materials, influences the types and intensity of odors produced. • Temperature and Weather: Weather conditions, such as temperature and wind direction, can impact the dispersion and concentration of odors. High temperatures can intensify odor emissions, while wind can carry odors over longer distances. • Moisture Levels: The presence of moisture in the waste can accelerate decomposition and increase odor production. • Waste Disturbance: Activities such as waste dumping and compacting can disturb waste layers, releasing trapped gases and exacerbating odor issues. 5.4.4.3 Impact on Quality of Life • Health Concerns: Prolonged exposure to foul odors can lead to various health issues, including headaches, nausea, and respiratory discomfort. It can also worsen existing respiratory conditions like asthma [12]. • Discomfort: The constant presence of unpleasant odors affects the quality of life for residents in the surrounding areas. It can lead to discomfort, annoyance, and distress among the local population. • Social and Economic Impact: Odor nuisance can have social and economic implications, including reduced property values, difficulty attracting businesses or new residents, and impacts on tourism and local businesses. 5.4.4.4 Community Complaints • Frequent Complaints: The persistent odor issues at the Vellalore Dump Yard have resulted in frequent complaints from residents in the nearby communities. • Community Activism: Local residents and community groups have actively advocated for solutions to address the odor problem and improve their living conditions. 5.4.4.5 Mitigation Measures • Odor Control Technologies: Various odor control technologies, such as landfill gas collection and treatment systems, can help capture and neutralize odorous gases before they are released into the atmosphere. • Waste Management Practices: Implementing better waste management practices, including waste segregation, can reduce the production of odorous gases. • Buffer Zones: Establishing buffer zones and vegetative barriers around the dump yard can help mitigate the dispersion of odors to nearby residential areas. 78 5.4.4.6 K. M. Bharath et al. Regulatory and Compliance Measures • Environmental Regulations: Government agencies may have regulations in place to address odor emissions from landfill and waste management facilities. Compliance with these regulations is essential to minimize odor nuisance. In conclusion, the odor nuisance originating from the Vellalore Dump Yard is a significant concern for local residents, impacting their quality of life and well-being. Addressing this issue requires a combination of technological solutions, improved waste management practices, and regulatory compliance to mitigate the impact of foul odors and provide relief to the affected communities. 5.4.5 Health Concerns Due to Proximity to Vellalore Dump Yard 5.4.5.1 Respiratory Illnesses • Airborne Pollutants: Residents living near the dump yard are at an increased risk of respiratory illnesses due to prolonged exposure to airborne pollutants. The burning of waste and the release of particulate matter (PM) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can irritate the respiratory system [10]. • Conditions: Common respiratory problems include coughing, wheezing, exacerbation of asthma symptoms, bronchitis, and upper respiratory tract infections. Prolonged exposure may contribute to the development of chronic respiratory diseases [27]. 5.4.5.2 Skin Problems • Contact with Contaminated Water: In areas where groundwater is contaminated due to leaching from the dump yard, residents may be exposed to contaminated water during daily activities such as bathing and washing clothes. • Skin Irritation: Contaminants in water can lead to skin problems, including irritation, rashes, and dermatitis. 5.4.5.3 Gastrointestinal Issues • Contaminated Water and Food: If groundwater or local crops are contaminated with hazardous substances from the dump yard, residents may ingest these contaminants through water consumption or the consumption of contaminated produce [19]. 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 79 • Gastrointestinal Distress: Ingesting contaminated substances can result in gastrointestinal problems, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. 5.4.5.4 Increased Cancer Risk • Carcinogenic Substances: Some of the pollutants found in waste, such as certain heavy metals and organic chemicals, are known or suspected carcinogens. Prolonged exposure to these substances can increase the risk of cancer among nearby residents [26]. 5.4.5.5 Neurological and Developmental Effects • Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals: Children and pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to the effects of exposure to hazardous chemicals, which can have neurological and developmental impacts [25]. 5.4.5.6 Mental Health Implications • Psychological Stress: Living in proximity to a dump yard, with associated health concerns and unpleasant odors, can lead to psychological stress and reduced quality of life. Residents may experience anxiety, depression, and a sense of helplessness [9]. 5.4.5.7 Vulnerable Populations • Children and the Elderly: Children and the elderly are often more susceptible to the health effects of pollution due to weaker immune systems and preexisting health conditions. 5.4.5.8 Monitoring and Medical Care • Health Surveillance: Local health authorities should conduct health surveillance to monitor residents’ health in proximity to the dump yard and provide timely medical care and interventions as needed. • Public Awareness: Raising public awareness about the potential health risks associated with living near a dump yard is crucial so that residents can take preventive measures and seek medical attention if necessary. In conclusion, the proximity to the Vellalore Dump Yard raises serious health concerns among nearby residents. Prolonged exposure to air pollutants and the potential contamination of groundwater can result in a range of health issues, including 80 K. M. Bharath et al. respiratory illnesses, skin problems, gastrointestinal distress, and an increased risk of cancer. Addressing these health concerns requires comprehensive monitoring, healthcare access, and public awareness initiatives to protect the well-being of affected communities. 5.4.6 Lack of Waste Segregation at Vellalore Dump Yard 5.4.6.1 Ineffective Waste Separation • Mixing of Materials: The dump yard often receives mixed waste streams, including household waste, industrial waste, construction debris, and organic matter, without proper separation. This results in a chaotic jumble of materials that are difficult to manage or recycle effectively. • Loss of Valuable Resources: Without waste segregation, valuable resources such as metals, plastics, paper, glass, and organic waste that could be reused, recycled, or composted are often lost in the general waste stream. 5.4.6.2 Environmental Impact • Reduced Recycling Rates: The lack of waste segregation hinders recycling efforts. Recyclable materials that could be diverted from landfills end up being buried, contributing to the depletion of natural resources and increased landfill space requirements. • Wasted Organic Matter: Organic waste, such as food scraps and yard waste, when mixed with general waste, decomposes in landfills, producing methane, a potent greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change. 5.4.6.3 Economic Implications • Lost Economic Opportunities: Proper waste segregation can create economic opportunities by facilitating recycling and composting industries. When recyclable and organic materials are disposed of in landfills, these economic potentials remain untapped. 5.4.6.4 Operational Challenges • Waste Sorting Difficulties: The presence of mixed waste at the dump yard makes waste sorting and disposal more challenging and costly. It requires additional labor and resources to separate materials manually, which may not be fully effective. 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 5.4.6.5 81 Health and Safety Concerns • Hazards for Waste Workers: Waste workers who manually sort waste at the dump yard are exposed to health and safety risks when dealing with unsegregated waste. This includes the potential for injury and exposure to hazardous materials. 5.4.6.6 Aesthetic and Environmental Pollution • Visual Impact: The presence of mixed waste contributes to the unsightly appearance of the dump yard, impacting the visual aesthetics of the area and diminishing the overall quality of life for nearby residents. • Environmental Pollution: The decomposition of unsegregated organic waste generates odors and releases pollutants into the air and groundwater, contributing to environmental pollution. 5.4.6.7 Need for Education and Awareness • Community Education: Encouraging waste segregation at the source, such as at households and businesses, is essential. Community education programs can help raise awareness about the importance of proper waste separation and its positive environmental and economic effects. 5.4.6.8 Policy and Infrastructure Improvements • Regulatory Frameworks: Implementation and enforcement of waste segregation regulations can help address this issue. Penalties for improper disposal of segregated waste can incentivize compliance. • Infrastructure Upgrades: Investment in infrastructure, including waste sorting and recycling facilities, can enhance the efficiency of waste segregation and recycling processes. In conclusion, the lack of waste segregation at the Vellalore Dump Yard results in a multitude of challenges, including reduced recycling rates, environmental pollution, economic losses, and operational difficulties. Addressing this issue requires a multifaceted approach that includes community education, regulatory enforcement, and improvements in waste management infrastructure to encourage proper waste separation and promote more sustainable waste management practices. 82 K. M. Bharath et al. 5.4.7 Ecological Disruption Due to Vellalore Dump Yard 5.4.7.1 Habitat Destruction • Encroachment: The establishment and expansion of the dump yard have led to the physical encroachment on natural habitats, including wetlands, grasslands, and woodlands. These areas were once crucial for local wildlife species. 5.4.7.2 Soil Contamination • Leaching of Contaminants: The dumping of waste at the site can result in the leaching of contaminants into the surrounding soil. These contaminants can affect soil quality and fertility, making it less suitable for plant growth. 5.4.7.3 Water Contamination • Groundwater and Surface Water: As mentioned earlier, contaminants from the dump yard can leach into groundwater, potentially affecting local water sources. This can disrupt aquatic ecosystems and impact aquatic species. • Contaminated Runoff: Rainwater runoff from the dump yard may carry pollutants into nearby streams, rivers, or ponds, affecting aquatic life downstream. 5.4.7.4 Biodiversity Decline • Loss of Native Species: The disruption of natural habitats and the presence of pollutants can lead to a decline in native flora and fauna. Some species may be directly harmed by pollutants, while others may lose their habitat or food sources. • Invasive Species: Dump yards can create conditions that favor the establishment of invasive species, which can outcompete native species and further reduce biodiversity. 5.4.7.5 Impact on Migratory Species • Migration Routes: Dump yards located along the migration routes of birds and other wildlife can disrupt their annual journeys, leading to exhaustion, reduced breeding success, and potentially affecting the populations of these species. 5.4.7.6 Ecosystem Functionality • Disrupted Ecosystem Services: Natural ecosystems provide vital services, such as pollination, water purification, and nutrient cycling. The disruption caused by 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 83 the dump yard can impair these services, affecting the overall health and resilience of the local environment. 5.4.7.7 Long-Term Consequences • Cumulative Effects: The ecological disruption caused by the dump yard can have long-term, cumulative effects on local ecosystems. These effects may extend far beyond the dump yard’s operational lifespan. 5.4.7.8 Conservation Efforts • Habitat Restoration: Efforts to mitigate the ecological disruption may involve habitat restoration projects that aim to reclaim degraded areas and create suitable habitats for native species. • Wildlife Corridors: The establishment of wildlife corridors or protected areas in the vicinity can help maintain connectivity between fragmented habitats, allowing species to move and maintain genetic diversity. • Monitoring and Research: Ongoing monitoring and research are essential to assess the impact of the dump yard on local ecosystems and inform conservation efforts. In conclusion, the presence of the Vellalore Dump Yard has resulted in significant ecological disruption, including habitat destruction, soil and water contamination, a decline in biodiversity, and potential harm to migratory species. Addressing these ecological issues requires a concerted effort involving habitat restoration, wildlife corridor creation, and ongoing research to mitigate the long-term consequences on the local environment. 5.4.8 Public Outcry and Protests Against Vellalore Dump Yard 5.4.8.1 Environmental and Health Concerns • Growing Awareness: Over time, as the environmental and health issues linked to the dump yard became more evident, local residents, environmental activists, and concerned citizens became increasingly aware of the negative consequences of its operations. • Health Impact: The visible impact of pollution, the prevalence of foul odors, and the rising health concerns have galvanized the community to take action. 84 5.4.8.2 K. M. Bharath et al. Community Mobilization • Local Residents: Residents in the vicinity of the dump yard, who have directly experienced the adverse effects of its operations, have been at the forefront of the protest movement. • Environmental Activists: Local and regional environmental groups and activists have played a pivotal role in organizing and mobilizing communities against the dump yard. 5.4.8.3 Key Issues and Demands • Improved Waste Management: Protesters and activists have called for immediate improvements in waste management practices, including waste segregation, recycling, and the reduction of waste burning. • Relocation of the Dump Yard: A prominent demand has been the relocation of the dump yard to a more suitable location, away from residential areas, to protect public health and the environment. • Environmental Compliance: Demonstrators have urged authorities to ensure that the dump yard complies with environmental regulations and standards. 5.4.8.4 Protests and Demonstrations • Rallies: Public protests, rallies, and demonstrations have been organized to draw attention to the issues surrounding the dump yard. • Petitions: Citizens have initiated petitions and signature campaigns to formally present their concerns and demands to local authorities and government bodies. 5.4.8.5 Legal Actions • Court Petitions: Some activists and concerned citizens have taken legal action by filing petitions and lawsuits against the dump yard. These legal actions aim to hold responsible parties accountable and seek remedies for environmental and health damages. 5.4.8.6 Media Coverage • Media Attention: The issues related to the Vellalore Dump Yard have received substantial media coverage, including print, broadcast, and online outlets. This coverage has helped to raise awareness and garner public support. 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 5.4.8.7 85 Collaboration with Environmental Organizations • NGOs and Environmental Groups: Local environmental organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have joined forces with the affected communities to provide support, resources, and expertise in addressing the issues associated with the dump yard. 5.4.8.8 Government Response • Policy Revisions: In response to the protests and public outcry, local and regional authorities may consider revising waste management policies and regulations to address the concerns raised by the community. • Dialogue: Government officials may engage in dialogues and negotiations with community representatives to find mutually acceptable solutions. In conclusion, the environmental and health concerns associated with the Vellalore Dump Yard have sparked significant public outcry and protests. Local residents, activists, and environmental groups have united to demand improved waste management practices, environmental compliance, and, in many cases, the relocation of the dump yard to safeguard public health and protect the environment. The collective efforts of these concerned individuals and organizations underscore the importance of community engagement in addressing pressing environmental issues. 5.4.9 Legal Actions and Petitions Regarding Vellalore Dump Yard 1. Petitions to Authorities • Formal Appeals: Concerned citizens, community groups, and environmental activists have submitted formal petitions to various government authorities at the local, state, and national levels. These petitions outline the issues associated with the dump yard and present specific demands for improved waste management and environmental compliance. 2. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) • Demand for EIA: Some legal actions and petitions have called for a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the Vellalore Dump Yard’s operations. An EIA evaluates the environmental and social consequences of a project or facility and is often a requirement under environmental regulations. 3. Court Petitions and Lawsuits • Seeking Remedies: Concerned individuals and organizations have taken legal action by filing petitions and lawsuits against the dump yard’s operators, local authorities, and government agencies. These legal actions seek remedies 86 • 4. • 5. • 6. • • 7. • 8. • K. M. Bharath et al. for environmental violations and health hazards caused by the dump yard’s operations. Compliance with Regulations: Court petitions often emphasize the importance of ensuring compliance with existing environmental regulations and standards. Injunctions and Compliance Orders Court Orders: In response to legal actions, courts may issue injunctions or compliance orders that require specific actions to be taken by the dump yard operators or local authorities. These orders can mandate changes in waste management practices, pollution control measures, or even the closure and relocation of the facility. Public Interest Litigation (PIL) Community Advocacy: Public interest litigation (PIL) is a legal mechanism that allows concerned citizens and organizations to bring legal actions in the interest of the public and the environment. PIL has been used in some cases to advocate for improved waste management practices and the protection of local ecosystems. Advocacy and Awareness Building Legal Support: Environmental and legal advocacy organizations have supported affected communities in their legal actions and petitions by providing legal expertise, resources, and guidance. Media and Public Awareness: Legal actions and petitions have often been accompanied by media campaigns and public awareness initiatives to garner support and inform the public about the issues surrounding the dump yard. Collaborative Approaches Negotiations: Legal actions may also lead to negotiations and dialogues between community representatives, environmental activists, and government authorities. These discussions aim to find solutions that balance environmental protection and public health with practical waste management needs. Accountability and Transparency Demand for Accountability: Legal actions and petitions underscore the importance of accountability and transparency in waste management practices. They seek to hold responsible parties accountable for environmental violations and health hazards. In conclusion, legal actions and petitions have been instrumental in addressing the issues at the Vellalore Dump Yard. They serve as a formal and structured means for concerned individuals and communities to advocate for better waste management, compliance with environmental regulations, and the protection of public health and the environment. These legal efforts highlight the importance of the rule of law in ensuring that environmental concerns are addressed and that the rights and well-being of communities are protected. 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 87 5.4.10 Mitigation Measures and Environmental Policies and Guidelines that Can Be Implemented or Suggested for the Vellalore Dump Yard 1. Waste Segregation and Recycling • Implementation: Encourage and enforce waste segregation at source, where households and businesses separate recyclables, organic waste, and nonrecyclable materials. • Recycling Infrastructure: Invest in recycling facilities and promote recycling programs to divert recyclable materials from landfills. • Composting: Establish composting facilities to manage organic waste, reducing methane emissions from decomposition. 2. Proper Waste Management • Landfill Upgrades: Upgrade the dump yard to modern landfill standards with lined cells and landfill gas collection systems to minimize groundwater contamination and methane emissions. • Daily Cover: Implement a daily cover system to reduce odor emissions and prevent scavenging by animals. 3. Waste-to-energy (WtE) Facilities • WtE Plants: Consider the construction of Waste-to-Energy (WtE) facilities that can convert non-recyclable waste into energy, reducing the volume of waste sent to landfills and providing an additional source of energy. 4. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) • Mandatory EIAs: Enforce the requirement for an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) before establishing or expanding dump yards. EIAs should assess potential environmental and health impacts and suggest mitigation measures. 5. Air Quality Monitoring • Continuous Monitoring: Install air quality monitoring stations in and around the dump yard to track pollutants, such as particulate matter (PM) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This data can inform timely actions to address air pollution issues. 6. Groundwater Protection • Groundwater Monitoring: Implement a comprehensive groundwater monitoring program to detect and address any contamination promptly. • Wellhead Protection Zones: Establish wellhead protection zones around nearby drinking water wells to safeguard them from contamination. 7. Buffer Zones and Land Use Planning • Buffer Zones: Create buffer zones around the dump yard to limit its impact on neighboring communities. These zones can include green belts and vegetative barriers to absorb odors and pollutants. • Land Use Policies: Enforce land use policies that prevent the development of residential or sensitive land uses near dump yards. 88 K. M. Bharath et al. 8. Public Awareness and Education • Community Engagement: Engage with the local community through educational programs, workshops, and public meetings to raise awareness about waste management practices and environmental protection. • Reporting Mechanisms: Establish mechanisms for residents to report environmental concerns, odors, and violations for prompt action. 9. Regulatory Enforcement • Stringent Regulations: Strengthen environmental regulations and compliance standards for dump yards, including waste management, air quality, and groundwater protection. • Penalties: Impose penalties for violations to incentivize adherence to regulations. 10. Closure and Relocation Plans • Closure Procedures: Develop a comprehensive closure plan for the dump yard, outlining the steps and procedures for its eventual closure in a way that minimizes long-term environmental impact. • Relocation: Explore options for relocating the dump yard to a more suitable location away from residential areas. 11. Sustainable Waste Management Practices • Zero Waste Initiatives: Promote the adoption of “Zero Waste” principles, aiming to reduce waste generation, increase recycling and composting rates, and minimize landfilling. • Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): Implement EPR programs, where producers are responsible for managing the waste generated by their products, encouraging more sustainable product design. 12. Stakeholder Collaboration • Multi-stakeholder Committees: Establish multi-stakeholder committees involving government agencies, environmental organizations, waste management experts, and affected communities to oversee dump yard operations and propose improvements. 13. Long-Term Monitoring and Reporting • Environmental Impact Assessments: Require periodic Environmental Impact Assessments to evaluate the ongoing environmental and health impacts of the dump yard and recommend further mitigation measures as needed. • Transparency: Ensure transparency in reporting environmental data and compliance status to the public. These comprehensive measures, policies, and guidelines can help address the environmental and health challenges associated with the Vellalore Dump Yard while promoting sustainable waste management practices and safeguarding the well-being of local communities and ecosystems. 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 89 5.5 Conclusions In developing countries, only limited work has been done on microplastic occurrence in water and soil ecosystems. Plastic particles are one of the parts of our day-to-day life and affect our lifestyle. In India and developing countries, the problem of waste management is increasing the consumption or use of plastics. The main source of microplastics in groundwater are surface runoff, wastewater effluent, open dumping, and open burning, which is the main specific source for sampling sites. Proper waste management scheme is needed to implement the pollution of microplastics and mitigate these problems in developing countries. We can follow basic remediation methods such as the use of bio-based or decomposable polymers, engineering tools and biotechnological tools, etc. We believe that further research and review of differences are of great significance to prioritize the adoption of solutions and the creation of innovative strategies that would be useful in the future. Considerable progress has been made in recent years in the knowledge of Micro and Nano Plastic contamination of freshwater ecosystems, but this new field of water research still preserves several key challenges. These initial investigations call for further research efforts to better understand the source and fate of microplastics in freshwater ecosystems. There is an immediate need for extensive and in-depth research to overcome the research gap to allow for a more detailed risk assessment of microplastics in groundwater and to promote national policies to address these problems. Recommendation Establishing four ultramodern recycling plants, in the major cities of the country in particular urban and sub-urban zones. Education of the populace about the consequences of indiscriminate littering will be an ongoing concern of this research and skill training. Creating a direct value in plastic waste so as to attract scavengers to collect these plastic wastes from the ground for recycling. This will also attract itinerant waste buyers to start moving from house to house to buy plastic waste. Acknowledgements The authors express their gratitude to the Director of the National Institute of Technical Teachers Training and Research (NITTTR), under the Ministry of Education, Government of India, located in Taramani, Chennai-600 113, India, for their assistance in facilitating the work and providing the necessary software for data analysis. References 1. Bakir A, Rowland SJ, Thompson RC (2014) Transport of persistent organic pollutants by microplastics in estuarine conditions. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 140:14–21. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ecss.2014.01.004 2. Bellas J, Martínez-Armental J, Martínez-Cámara A, Besada V, Martínez-Gómez C (2016) Ingestion of microplastics by demersal fish from the Spanish Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts. 90 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. K. M. Bharath et al. Mar Pollut Bull 109(1):55–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.026. Epub 2016 Jun 8. PMID: 27289284 Bharath KM, Natesan U, Ayyamperumal R, Kalam SN (2020) Microplastics as an emerging threat to the freshwater ecosystems of Veeranam lake in south India: A multidimensional approach. Chemosphere 264(Pt 2):128502–128502 Bharath KM, Muthulakshmi AL, Usha N (2022) Microplastic contamination around the landfills: distribution, characterization and threats—a review. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health 100422 Brennan RB, Clifford E, Devroedt C, Morrison L, Healy MG (2017) Treatment of landfill leachate in municipal wastewater treatment plants and impacts on effluent ammonium concentrations. J Environ Manage 188:64–72 Brennan RB, Healy MG, Morrison L, Hynes S, Norton D, Clifford E (2016) Management of landfill leachate: The legacy of European Union Directives. Waste Manage 55:355–363 Browne MA, Crump P, Niven SJ, Teuten E, Tonkin A, Galloway T, Thompson R (2011) Accumulation of microplastic on shorelines worldwide: sources and sinks. Environ Sci Technol 45:9175–9179. https://doi.org/10.1021/es201811s Cole M, Lindeque P, Halsband C, Galloway TS (2011) Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 62:2588–2597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar polbul.2011.09.025 Derraik JGB (2002) The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 44:842–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025-326X(02)00220-5 Dris R, Gasperi J, Mirande C, Mandin C, Guerrouache M, Langlois V, Tassin B (2017) A first overview of textile fibers, including microplastics, in indoor and outdoor environments. Environ Pollut 221:453–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.12.013 Duggan J (2005) The potential for landfill leachate treatment using willows in the UK—a critical review. Resour Conserv Recycl 45(2):97–113 Duis K, Coors A (2016) Microplastics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment: sources (with a specific focus on personal care products), fate and effects. Environ Sci Eur 28:2. https://doi. org/10.1186/s12302-015-0069-y Frias JPGL, Gago J, Otero V, Sobral P (2016) Microplastics in coastal sediments from Southern Portuguese shelf waters. Mar Environ Res 114:24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marenvres. 2015.12.006 Ghosh A, Kumar S, Das J (2023) Impact of leachate and landfill gas on the ecosystem and health: research trends and the way forward towards sustainability. J Environ Manage 336:117708 Gopikumar S, Raja S, Robinson YH, Shanmuganathan V, Chang H, Rho S (2021) A method of landfill leachate management using internet of things for sustainable smart city development. Sustain Cities Soc 66:102521 Horton AA, Svendsen C, Williams RJ, Spurgeon DJ, Lahive E (2017) Large microplastic particles in sediments of tributaries of the River Thames, UK e abundance, sources and methods for effective quantification. Mar Pollut Bull 114:218–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul. 2016.09.004 Huffer T, Hofmann T (2016) Sorption of non-polar organic compounds by microsized plastic particles in aqueous solution. Environ Pollut 214:194–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol. 2016.04.018 Kamaruddin MA, Yusoff MS, Rui LM, Isa AM, Zawawi MH, Alrozi R (2017) An overview of municipal solid waste management and landfill leachate treatment: Malaysia and Asian perspectives. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24:26988–27020 Kole PJ, Lohr AJ, Van Belleghem FGAJ, Ragas AMJ (2017) Wear and tear of e tyres: a stealthy source of microplastics in the environment. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14:1265. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14101265 Kumar V, Sharma N, Umesh M, Chakraborty P, Kaur K, Duhan L et al (2023) Micropollutants characteristics, fate, and sustainable removal technologies for landfill leachate: a technical perspective. J Water Process Eng 53:103649 5 A Review of Landfill Leachate with Environment Impacts: Sustainable … 91 21. Luo H, Zeng Y, Cheng Y, He D, Pan X (2020) Recent advances in municipal landfill leachate: a review focusing on its characteristics, treatment, and toxicity assessment. Sci Total Environ 703:135468 22. Manjula G, Rajagopalan V, Nayahi NT (2019) Environmental assessment of solid waste dump site. J Environ Biol 40(4):758–762 23. Manoj N, Gandhimathi A (2020) Environmental impact assessment of ground water quality around Vellalore dumping yard. Int Res J Eng Technol 7(2) 24. Napper IE, Thompson RC (2016) Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines: effects of fabric type and washing conditions. Mar Pollut Bull 112:39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.09.025 25. Nizzetto L, Futter M, Langaas S (2016) Are agricultural soils dumps for microplastics of urban origin? Environ Sci Technol 50:10777–10779. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b04140 26. Postacchini L, Ciarapica FE, Bevilacqua M (2018) Environmental assessment of a landfill leachate treatment plant: impacts and research for more sustainable chemical alternatives. J Clean Prod 183:1021–1033 27. Pratheba S, Johnpaul V, Balasundaram N (2020) Study on environmental contamination and assessment of the impact of municipal solid waste on soil at the Vellalore dumping yard, Coimbatore City. In: IOP conference series: materials science and engineering, vol. 1006, no. 1. IOP Publishing, p. 012026 28. Ramakrishnan A, Blaney L, Kao J, Tyagi RD, Zhang TC, Surampalli RY (2015) Emerging contaminants in landfill leachate and their sustainable management. Environ Earth Sci 73:1357– 1368 29. Remmas N, Manfe N, Zerva I, Melidis P, Raga R, Ntougias S (2023) A critical review on the microbial ecology of landfill leachate treatment systems. Sustainability 15(2):949 30. Shanthi P, Sundari PM, Meenambal T (2013) Evaluating the physico-chemical characteristics of municipal solid waste in Coimbatore City, Tamilnadu. Nat Environ Pollut Technol 12(1):69 31. Siddiqi SA, Al-Mamun A, Baawain MS, Sana A (2022) A critical review of the recently developed laboratory-scale municipal solid waste landfill leachate treatment technologies. Sustain Energy Technol Assess 52:102011 32. Teng C, Zhou K, Peng C, Chen W (2021) Characterization and treatment of landfill leachate: a review. Water Res 203:117525 33. Vaverková MD (2019) Landfill impacts on the environment. Geosciences 9(10):431 34. Wijekoon P, Koliyabandara PA, Cooray AT, Lam SS, Athapattu BC, Vithanage M (2022) Progress and prospects in mitigation of landfill leachate pollution: Risk, pollution potential, treatment and challenges. J Hazard Mater 421:126627