A decade of JFM in India

A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Introduction The changing environment in the forestry sector in India has placed new challenges and demands on the JFM approach. As the JFM programme is a decade old, there is a need for policy makers and academicians to review the progress made and goals achieved. Such reviews could generate information to assess the impact of JFM policies and identify issues that need to be addressed. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to understand the impact of JFM on forests that are being protected, as compared to other management systems and its impact on biodiversity, woody biomass, and biomass growth rates. Further, sustainability of management systems that are currently in practice is also discussed. At the outset, it must be admitted that there have been no systematic ecological studies undertaken at the national or state level to understand the impact of JFM on forests with respect to regeneration, biodiversity and biomass growth rates. In most states and villages, there was no baseline data collected prior to initiation of JFM to assess the impacts at a later date. However, there are isolated case studies that have been compiled and synthesized. One of the major criticisms of such an approach is that case studies illustrate only the better managed village systems and no comparison are possible with other village systems that have not managed their forests properly. Unfortunately, we have no estimates either at the national or state level about the number of ‘better’ or ‘poorly’ performing VFCs. Therefore, assessment at the national level becomes extremely difficult. However, ecological implications derived from case studies indicate the direction of change and help designing future studies. Type of forests under JFM in different states A major goal of JFM in all the states is to improve regeneration and productivity of degraded forests. It is difficult to define ‘degraded forests’ in a given area. ‘Degraded state’ is a relative word, referring to the status of a forest patch, adjacent to another patch or relative to the status of the forest patch in the past. Degraded forests in the Karnataka JFM context refer to forest cover that is less than 25% canopy. According to the FSI (1997), the extent of forest area covered under JFM in West Bengal and Haryana are 38% each, followed by Bihar (24%), Madhya Pradesh (23%), Andhra Pradesh (10%) and Orissa (5%). In the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala and Uttar Pradesh, the areas under JFM are less than one per cent. The different categories of forest area under JFM in some states are given in Box 26.1 (on page 276). There are different types of forests, as many as 27 (FSI 1995) in India, that are characterised by stem density, basal area, canopy cover, species composition, stand structure and biodiversity. As a first step a definition for different ecological zones needs to be developed. Further, there is a need to protect and conserve the well-stocked forests to restrict unsustainable extraction. Besides conservation, protection of existing rootstock is also necessary to regenerate degraded natural forests. Vegetation status under JFM: baseline and changed scenario As mentioned earlier, there are no reports of any systematic studies at the national or state level to provide baseline information on the vegetation K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Chapter 26 Box 26.1: Type of forests under JFM in different states ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Participatory forestry in India 276 ■ In Arunachal Pradesh, unclassified forests have been brought under JFM and they consist of degraded forests around human habitation, vulnerable to encroachment and other interference. In Himachal Pradesh, people have raised plantations in PFs and land vested with the government under the Himachal Pradesh Land Ceiling Act of 1972, apart from village common lands. In Nagaland, where the villagers own 83% of the wastelands, the JFM programme is operational on non-governmental land as well as in dense forests. In Jammu & Kashmir, village forests and degraded forests are taken up for JFM. In Madhya Pradesh, degraded as well as well-stocked forests are protected by FPCs. In Punjab, government, private and community forests in Kandi tract that are under the FD’s control have been taken up for protection by the FPCs. In Uttar Pradesh, all the village forests that are not governed under the State Panchayat Forest Act of 1976 can be brought under JFM. However, panchayat forests can also be brought under JFM, if the Panchayat passes a resolution and obtains the Deputy Forest Officer’s (DFO’s) concurrence. In Orissa, the village wood lots and social forestry block plantations raised under SIDA-assisted social forestry projects were brought under protection between 1984 and 1994, after being notified as village forest. In Gujarat, the community can take up afforestation on wastelands. In Karnataka, degraded forests with canopy cover of 0.25 or less are being developed under JFM. However, in tribal dominated areas, community protection is accorded irrespective of the canopy cover. JFM is also practised on non-forest wastelands (C and D class lands transferred for the purpose of JFM to the FD and roadsides, canal sides, and tank foreshores) under the control of the Revenue Department. Selection of sites for JFM in Kerala is on watershed basis, and degraded natural forests as well as plantations are protected. status at the initiation of JFM, to make comparative assessments at a later date. In the following sections, we describe some studies that have recorded changes over a period of time. NATURAL REGENERATION STATUS AND PATTERNS Although natural regeneration has traditionally been an integral part of Indian forestry, adequate data is lacking with respect to pattern of regeneration of different degraded ecosystems, as a result of protection. Further, insufficient information is available on aspects such as growth, performance, and patterns of regenerating species, changes in biomass and yield, total volume of produce, and successional trends, once protection is in place. A study by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI, then Tata Energy Research Institute, 1998) at JFM sites, 10 each in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal indicates positive trends in most of the sites. The regeneration patterns of individual species in different size classes, viz regeneration, recruitment and establishment varied significantly at each JFM site with no clear regeneration patterns. In the absence of such patterns, the variations can possibly be attributed to rootstock availability, individual growth performance of species, history of site degradation, and current management practices since these factors play a crucial role in site recovery of degraded areas. The overall densities in different size classes also varied significantly from site to site (Table 26.1). The regeneration status and patterns in the sampled sites of Bilaspur Circle of Madhya Pradesh reveals that there is improvement in regeneration as a result of silvicultural operations A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts Table 26.1: Regeneration density in the sampled VFCs State Andhra Pradesh Madhya Pradesh West Bengal Name of committee Regeneration density/ha Recruitment density/ha Establishment density/ha Behranguda 1,091 497 471 5 Durgaprasad Jambinagoma Kommugudem Kilagada 1,588 2,456 2,274 6,272 908 284 320 331 127 148 25 43 8.8 2.8 6.1 4.7 Marikamma Muddanpalli Ramavaram 2,131 1,134 8,858 1,563 732 1,083 381 267 123 8.6 7.7 6.8 Sri Rama 2,344 65 0 5.5 Karidongri Paraswara Chepa Karranara 5,240 4,373 6,213 9,427 1,227 773 1,587 1,773 787 267 653 187 7.3 8.2 11.9 8.8 Kanhai Khondra Talpiparia Mandai Mal Khajri Jameri 7,813 3,600 1,412 701 6,240 947 400 252 382 254 187 153 33 89 170 8.9 5.8 4.1 2.6 3.1 Keori Jhataboni B Jagri-Phulbaria Hurhuria 6,240 29,200 3,120 3,280 254 3,400 3,200 720 273 3,200 2,480 3,760 3.4 7.3 1.8 6.2 Jarakushma A Jrarakushma B Nazirdanga Kantaberi 1,280 2,720 19,760 6,000 1,040 640 3,360 80 1,200 800 2,880 3,120 4.2 3.8 6.8 4.4 Saulia Phubung-Phatak Bhanjyan Plungdung 29,040 10,080 6,160 8,160 2,480 1,200 0 800 2,560 120 1,280 0 8.2 4.6 6.2 6.2 2,400 5,560 1,700 560 1,300 720 3.2 6.4 Control 3 Amlabhata 720 0 1,280 254 560 667 5.5 Dudukasira Gangutia Gujamara Gumma 170 0 617 86 211 88 594 97 140 1,040 443 122 1,073 213 3,040 212 720 148 508 170 988 254 643 112 Control 1 Control 2 Orissa Gundachapad Karlapita Simkhaman Surisapadar Source: TERI 1998. K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Species richness Chapter 26 Participatory forestry in India 278 carried out in these areas. High species richness and diversity (Table 26.1) and high recruitment densities of Anogeissus latifolia, Diospyros melanoxylon, Ougenia oojenensis, Terminalia tomentosa, and Shorea robusta could be attributed to operations such as cleaning, weeding, multiple shoot cutting and singling. Similarly, high regeneration in the Talpiparia Village Forest Protection Committee (VFPC) under the Chindwara Circle (Madhya Pradesh), can be linked to extensive soil and moisture conservation (SMC) work, construction of cattle-proof trenches (CPT), plantations along bunds, and cutback operations such as cleaning, weeding, multiple shoot cutting, singling, etc. Protection from grazing and illicit felling has also been effective. In contrast, lack of silviculture treatment is evident from the poor regeneration turnover and low species richness and diversity in the Khajri VFC of Chindwara Circle. Likewise, extensive biotic interference in the form of felling and grazing due to inclusion of intruders from the adjoining state of Gujarat has resulted in low regeneration status, undulating vegetation profiles, and failure of gap plantations in the Keori VFPC under Jhabua forest division of Madhya Pradesh. In Andhra Pradesh, positive trends of regeneration and patterns were observed at least in 70% of the sampled sites. The combined results of SMC measures (eg, rock dam, gully plugging, etc) and subsequent silviculture operations and protection measures (eg, social and/or vegetative fencing) adopted during the course of the programme has resulted in reduced runoff rate, increased soil accumulation, and consequently improved regeneration. While most of the sites had high plant densities in the regeneration class only, sites such as Behrunguda, Durgaprasad and Muddanpalli had high recruitment densities. Field observations in the forests of Midnapore, Bankura and Darjeeling forest divisions of West Bengal revealed that anthropogenic interference continue to play a crucial role in regeneration. A closer look at Table 26.1 reveals that regeneration densities are higher in community managed areas as compared to unprotected areas (control). Similarly, higher establishment densities in community managed areas as compared to control sites may be attributed to low biotic pressures at these sites. Heavy grazing, illicit felling, and undulating vegetation profiles are the field evidences of degraded condition of control sites. Excessive leaf collection is affecting nutrient retranslocation from soil to plants in Bankura (north) forest division leading to poor regeneration and turnover (TERI 1998). Further, mass fruiting of sal has hampered regeneration turnover of other species in these forests. However, overall regeneration patterns in different classes, at different sites revealed that vegetation is changing gradually. Impact of protection on forest regeneration Case studies from EERN assessments of vegetation status in 25 locations in nine states (Ravindranath et al 2000) reveal that unregulated grazing and extraction lead to degradation and loss of vegetation and affect regeneration. The degraded forests in the majority of EERN study locations have been under protection for periods ranging from 3 to over 100 years. Protection and management practices include regulated grazing and extraction of forest products, selective retention of tree species, and silvicultural operations. The impact of protection on vegetation has been assessed by comparing PAs with unprotected ones and social forestry plantations in the vicinity. Some key findings are: (i) Longer period of protection enhances regeneration and tree diversity: In the Western Ghats of Karnataka, the forests protected by the Kugwe village community for over a 100 years has 91% of its trees in the >10 cm DBH category (establishment class). In some localities in Orissa, such as Gadabanikilo, with over 50 years of protection, 74% of the trees are in the establishment category. Hunasur in the Western Ghats, with more than 100 years of protection history, has the maximum number of tree species (62), while Gadabanikilo in Orissa has 56. (ii) Unprotected grazing hampers regeneration: Comparison between protected and unprotected A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts Figure 26.1: DBH distribution of trees in selected locations. patches of some of the study villages showed there was no regeneration of trees in the unprotected patches, due to unrestricted grazing. (iii) Presence of coppice shoots ensures quicker regeneration, leading to domination of a species. This was observed in the sal forests of Midnapore, West Bengal; the teak-dominated forests of Baluji Na Muvada and Asundariya in Gujarat; and in the Terminalia sp regeneration of Alalli and Hunasur of Karnataka. Sustainability of tree species regeneration It is important to ensure the long-term sustainability of economically and ecologically important tree species through adequate regeneration. If a large number of individuals of a species are present in the lower DBH classes, it indicates the potential sustainability of regeneration of that species. Gadabanikilo, Bhagawatichowk and Kapasgaria have a good representation of tree species in the lower DBH classes, which signifies good regeneration (Figure 26.1). Further, in these locations, the extraction of firewood is less than 50% of the annual biomass productivity. The presence of a large percentage of trees in the <10 cm DBH class in most locations is an indicator of the positive impact of protection arrangements. However, in Bada Bhilwara of Rajasthan, the percentage of trees in the >10 cm regeneration is 56% while trees in the <10 cm class are 44%. Only 6% of the trees are in the 510 cm regenerating class. AFFORESTATION THROUGH PLANTATIONS Raising plantations on degraded forest areas (<25% canopy) and regeneration of less degraded forests is the dominant activity of JFM in Karnataka. In Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka, where JFM was implemented between 1993 and 2000, some 12,050 ha of plantations had been raised on degraded forests till 1998-99 (Table 26.2 on page 280), accounting for 1.5% of the total forests and 28% of the open forests in the district. The area brought under plantation was the highest in 1998-99, constituting 31% of the total plantation raised since its inception. Among the five forest divisions in the district, nearly 24% of the total plantations raised was in Sirsi. In each of the other four divisions, between K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Chapter 26 Table 26.2: Area afforested under JFPM (area in hectares) Division Haliyal Yellapur Karwar Honnavar Sirsi Uttara Kannada 19931994 180 250 200 300 690 1, 620 19941995 19951996 19961997 19971998 19981999 Total 240 275 370 285 389 1 ,559 290 250 246 180 418 1 ,384 522 225 594 474 446 2, 261 350 215 443 327 208 1 ,543 925 2,507 530 1,745 560 2,413 934 2,500 734 2,885 3 ,683 12, 050 Source: Bhat et al, 2000. JFPM was multipurpose. 15 and 20% of the area was brought under plantation. Participatory forestry in India 280 A comparison of the total area afforested in the pre-JFPM with the JFPM period (Table 26.3) shows that there was no significant difference, indicating that introduction of JFPM did not lead to any additional large-scale afforestation in the district. Thus, it is likely that the magnitude of funding may not have changed between the preJFPM and JFPM period, but only the source of funding changed, with marginal impact on the rate of afforestation in the district. In fact, the total area afforested in the district during 1997-98 and 1998-99 has declined considerably compared to the pre-JFPM as well as the initial years of the JFPM phase. The total area afforested under the Western Ghats Environment and Forestry Project (WGEFP) during 1993-94 and 1998-99 was 44,227 ha. Of this, non-JFPM activity accounted for 32,177 ha and JFPM activity for 12,050 ha, constituting 73% and 27% of the total plantations raised in the Kanara circle, respectively. Thus, afforestation under JFPM was not a major component of the WGEFP activities. The area brought under JFPM plantation was highest in 1998-99, which was the last year of the WGEFP project. The reasons and rationale behind such a pattern of planting is not clear. The model of plantation adopted under Table 26.3: Plantation raised under WGEFP project – JFPM vs Non-JFPM Mode of 1993- 1994- 1995- 1996- 1997- 1998- plantation 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2, 261 1, 543 3, 683 517 446 300 Multi-purpose model Mostly open area Fuelwood model Some what open area Regeneration model Encroachment Artisanal model Pavitra vana Fodder farm Social Security Plantation Sub-total Grand total Area under JFPM 1, 620 1, 559 1, 384 Area under Non-JFPM 1, 990 2, 930 4, 159 531 932 206 1, 383 2, 954 790 1, 017 933 383 1, 018 6 ,102 7 ,722 6 ,571 8 ,130 8 ,106 9 ,490 7 ,095 9, 356 3, 581 2, 709 2, 358 660 21 407 5 3 2 ,059 3, 602 818 1, 116 10 2 ,244 5, 927 A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts Table 26.4: Plantation area per VFC and household under JFPM in Uttara Kannada Division Haliyal Yellapur Karwar Honnavar Sirsi Uttara Kannada Plantation area/VFC (ha) Plantation area/household (ha) 52 42 39 34 38 40 The area afforested under the JFPM programme was 40 ha/VFC at 0.44 ha/household in the district. The average area per VFC is in the range of 34-52 ha in the different divisions. The availability of plantation per household and per VFC was not uniform; for instance, Haliyal division enjoys the maximum benefit of 52 ha/ VFC and 1.08 ha/household, while Honnavar division has the lowest area, with 34 ha/VFC and 0.22 ha/household (Table 26.4). 1.08 0.64 0.43 0.22 0.52 0.44 appreciation of timber over time. Teak (Tectona grandis) was planted only in one of the five JFPM plantations raised, while none of the social forestry plantations had this species. Social forestry plantations gave relatively more emphasis to NTFP species, in order to meet subsistence requirements. Emblica officinalis was included in three out of the five JFPM plantations but was included in all social forestry plantations. The non-timber species included Mangifera indica, Sapindus emarginatus and Syzygium cuminii. Biodiversity conservation SPECIES CHOICE Studies have shown that social forestry in India is dominated largely by eucalyptus, Acacia auriculiformis, A. mangium and Casuarina equisetifolia (Ravindranath and Hall 1995). The species composition, which was assessed in four villages for social forestry and five villages for JFPM in the Sirsi forest division of Uttara Kannada district, indicates the choice and level of community participation. Firewood species dominated both social forestry and JFPM plantations, accounting for 63% and 61% of the trees, respectively. Acacia auriculiformis forms a major proportion (over 40%) in both the plantations (Table 26.5 on page 282). Higher proportion of timber species was planted under the JFPM programme (23%) compared to social forestry plantations (10%). It was understood from conversations with the local communities that they preferred timber species over non-timber species, primarily due to value The impact of JFPM on conservation of natural forests is yet to be assessed, as even in the absence of the JFPM programme, a large part of the 12,050 ha would have been covered under the social forestry programme. However, it is significant to note that 28% of the degraded forest land has been reclaimed. JFPM, till now, has largely concentrated on establishing new plantations on fully degraded forest lands, which had canopy cover of lower than 25%. Key forest management strategies followed under the JFPM programme were plantation and regeneration models (Table 26.6 on page 283). The plantation model was implemented to establish new plantations on degraded forest land. Under this model, plantations dominated by the acacia species were raised. After the harvest of these plantations, the FD plans to undertake mixed species plantations. Firewood species such as acacia and to some extent local species such as matti (Terminalia crenulata), nandi (Lagerstroemia microcarpa), honne (Pterocarpus marsupium) and NTFP yielding species such as mango (Mangifera indica), and halasu (Artocarpus integrifolia) K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Chapter 26 Table 26.5: Species composition in JFPM and social forestry plantations Species Kalgadde Nidgod Kangod Ghattikai Illimane Total Percent JFPM Plantations Firewood Species Acacia auriculiformis Casuarina equisetifolia Acacia mangium Timber Species Terminalia spp. Tectona grandis Pterocarpus marsupium Lagerstroemia lanceolatus Other Timber Species NTFP Species Emblica officinalis Mangifera indica Syzygium cuminii Sapindus emarginatus Other NTFP Species Total Participatory forestry in India 282 627 124 74 9 834 Bedkani Firewood Species Acacia auriculiformis Casuarina equisetifolia Acacia mangium Timber Species Terminalia spp. Tectona grandis Pterocarpus marsupium Lagerstroemia lanceolatus Other Timber Species NTFP Species Emblica officinalis Mangifera indica Syzygium cuminii Sapindus emarginatus Other NTFP Species Total 9,000 600 489 76 23 12,000 26 900 2 3 6 4 10 17 656 13,000 3,500 5,000 1,100 900 1,300 400 17,600 17,600 2,000 1,210 28 29,926 2,228 12,097 50 400 500 1,000 3,000 8,000 1,600 665 420 3,976 8,000 2,002 1,168 1 ,461 200 500 1,000 300 1,200 28,000 500 1,400 2,360 1,462 1,925 40,872 164 28 35 130 59 1,704 864 1,928 3,364 1,902 3,210 72,126 61.35 41.49 3.09 16.77 23.02 5.51 11.09 2.78 1.62 2.03 15.62 1.20 2.67 4.66 2.65 4.45 100 Social Forestry Plantations Thyarsi HeggodGunjgod mane 800 3,500 10,000 13,500 4,500 3,000 43,500 8,600 8,000 750 1,500 3,050 2,550 1,000 1,000 1,000 4,650 900 3,000 1,200 500 15,600 4,550 2,400 2,950 400 95,600 3,100 1,850 1,900 450 6,000 1,500 28,800 30,000 dominated the multipurpose model adopted under this programme. Even though the regeneration model was part of the management strategy, it was largely neglected. 8,000 1,200 19,200 62.87 45.50 9.00 8.37 10.04 3.19 1.05 4.86 0.94 26.67 16.32 4.76 2.51 3.09 0.42 100 Rather, the focus was on the expensive, conventional, plantation model. The regenerated model was not significantly different from the plantation model adopted during the pre-JFPM period, under the social forestry programme. The A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts Table 26.6: Forest management strategy followed in JFPM Condition of the forest land Open, eroded and less fertile Very thin forest, not much eroded Management strategy followed Plantation model Monocultures (mostly with acacia); Felling/clearing of plantations; Mixed species plantations Regeneration model st 1 year – no operation in the forest (stop collection of firewood, NTFP, timber and grazing); nd 2 year – thinning of the forest to allow regeneration and planting new seedlings where regeneration is poor regeneration model requires full participation of the local community at all stages, particularly in the initial years, to protect the regenerating forest and to regulate extraction and grazing. Biomass growth rates GROWTH RATES OF BIOMASS IN REGENERATING FORESTS EERN studies in 25 locations in nine states have estimated above-ground biomass growth rates. High biomass growth rate is essential for meeting the biomass demands of communities. Biomass returns from regenerating forests will motivate communities to strengthen their efforts at protecting and managing degraded forest lands. If forest protection is effective, the growing stock of the regenerating forest increases with the age of the forest. The rate of regeneration also depends on vegetation type (dominant species), soil, rainfall and other factors. The growth rates of regenerating forests under protection are presented in Table 26.7. The extent of standing biomass in relation to the age of the forests, gives a fair estimate of the impact of protection. High growing stock is recorded in the protected forests of Karnataka with a longer history of protection. The standing stock is about 343 and 266 tonnes/ha in Baluji Na Muvada (Gujarat) and Hunasur (Karnataka), respectively. The Mean Annual Increment (MAI) of woody biomass in PFs ranged from 2.18 tonnes/ha/year in Kharikamathani, Midnapore (West Bengal), to 9.75 tonnes/ha/year in Baluji Na Muvada, Panchmahals (Gujarat). The average MAI in the study areas is about 4.35 tonnes/ha/year, which is higher than the national average of 0.91 tonnes/ ha/year for natural forests (FSI 1995). The MAI of the plantations is in the range of 1.64 tonnes/ ha/year (Ritti, J&K) to 9.75 tonnes/ha/year (Baluji Na Muvada, Gujarat) in contrast to the national MAI of 3.6 tonnes/ha/year for plantations (Seebauer 1992). Thus, the overall MAI of protected and regenerating forests is comparable to, or higher than, the national MAI of plantations under social forestry. The factors contributing to biomass productivity have not been assessed by EERN. However, it has been observed that protection and regulation of firewood harvesting has contributed to moderate to high growing stock in all locations under JFM and CFM. CURRENT EXTRACTION OF FIREWOOD VS ANNUAL BIOMASS PRODUCTION Degradation of forests, particularly growing stock, occurs when woody biomass extraction exceeds annual biomass production. It is not possible to state exactly what percentage of the current annual woody biomass production can be sustainably removed. But, if the current rate of extraction is higher than the current rate of annual biomass production, it is a sure indicator of degradation. EERN has carried out a comparative assessment of current extraction of fuelwood versus annual biomass production (Figure 26.2 on page 287). In the study locations, the range of extraction of K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Chapter 26 Table 26.7: Impact of forest protection and management on biodiversity, mean annual increment, and annual woody biomass production in PFs Participatory forestry in India 284 1 Location and region Area (ha) Gadabanikilo, Orissa Kutling, Orissa Nabra, Orissa Kaluasar, West Bengal Kharikamathani, West Bengal Uthannayagram, West Bengal Kapasgaria, West Bengal Bhagawatichowk, West Bengal Bada Bhilwara, Rajasthan Asundariya, Gujarat Baluji Na Muvada, Gujarat Kunbar, Gujarat Rampur, Gujarat Garda, Gujarat Alalli, Karnataka Hunasur, Karnataka Kugwe, Karnataka Halakar, Karnataka Dabbar, J&K Johnu, J&K Ritti, J&K Vondrujola, Andhra Pradesh Chandrayyapalem, Andhra Pradesh Juttadapalem, Andhra Pradesh Kannaram Colony, Andhra Pradesh 60 248 48 90 50 14 7 6 57 2 Period No. of under tree protection species (years) /ha 2 Basal area 2 (m /ha) Growing 1 stock (t/ha) 56 31 23 13 20.56 7.8 2.2 21.00 185±15 3 11 4.00 546 9 18 24.00 207±17 5.88 25 5 8 11.32 124.4±10 3.53 53 612 182 122 188 120 100 73 120 194 20 50 10 20 200 11 9 8 11 4 4 6 20 100 100 72 20 10 5 2 3 20 36 31 11 10 23 32 62 43 33 23 26 18 18 10.48 13.42 14.43 44.91 2.00 3.00 1.20 13.8 33.1 24.50 10.5 12 3.5 1.1 118.9±10 138±11 144.74±12 343.47±28 3.38 3.92 4.11 9.75 1.81 1.99 1.66 4.03 7.55 5.98 3.38 2.58 2.07 1.64 450 2 25 105 2 40 100 2 35 187.58±15 MAI (t/ha/ year) 5.25 2.88 2.26 5.33 2.18 141.94±12 265.82±22 210.4±18 119.1 128.9±10 2 Growing stock = 50.66 + 6.52 (BA) R = 0.711, SE of X is 0.53; SE of Y is 94.1; where BA = (GBH) /4p, and GBH is the girth 3 2 of the tree. Growing stock is not estimated for villages where the basal area is less than 10 m /ha 2 MAI = 2.84 % of the growing stock A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts Figure 26.2: The demand for firewood and current extraction from the PF firewood from the PF varied from complete lack of extraction to an extraction rate higher than the annual biomass increment. In Alalli (Karnataka), the current extraction is insignificant. In most other locations – Kapasgaria, Kunbar, Bada Bhilwara, Baluji Na Muvada, Asundariya, Garda and Kugwe – the extraction rate is less than 25% of MAI of biomass. In, Hunasur, Bhagawatichowk and Rampur, it is 25 to 50%; in Dabbar and Kharikamathani, the extraction is greater than 50%. In Nabra, Kutling and Halakar it is higher than the mean annual biomass production. But in Nabra and Kutling, the leaf biomass has also been included, leading to higher biomass extraction rates. In some villages (Vondrujola, Chandrayyapalem, Juttadapalem of Andhra Pradesh), the current extraction rates are zero or insignificant as the forest is young and the forests have been under protection and regeneration for less than three years. Thus, in a majority of locations under CFM and JFM systems, the current rates of extraction are not unsustainable. This is largely due to the successful enforcement of firewood extraction regulations. GROWING STOCK The growing stock status and tree densities per hectare in the sampled JFM sites reveal a positive impact of the JFM strategies on growing stock. While maximum augmentation of volume and tree densities per hectare in the lowest girth class in Behranguda, Marikamma and Durgaprasad committees in Andhra Pradesh is likely to be the outcome of effective protection efforts, low tree density and volume per hectare in this class in Kilagada may be attributed to poor management practices (TERI 2000). Most of the increment in tree densities per hectare was observed in the 20-40 cm basal girth class in Behranguda, Muddanpalli, Marikamma, Ramavaram, and Jambinagoma committees. The volume per hectare was highest in forests protected by Marikamma, Ramavaram, Durgaprasad, Behranguda, and Muddanpalli committees. The observation of growing stock data in Madhya Pradesh revealed that the maximum influx of timber volume and tree densities per hectare in the lowest diameter class (less than 20 cm basal girth) is highest in the Bilaspur Circle and Talpiparia Committee of Chindwara forest division. It has emerged from field observations that the most important reason for augmentation of tree densities and volume per hectare in the lowest class is the consequence of sound management practices and effective protection efforts. The low accession of timber volume per K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Chapter 26 hectare in the lowest diameter class in Khajri and Kewri may be attributed to poor management practices. Similarly, the substantial increment in the lowest basal girth class reflects positive impacts of the protection activities in the state of Orissa. While maximum accretion of timber volume per hectare in the lowest class was seen in Dudakasuria, Gujamaria and Karlapita committees, the tree densities per hectare in this class were highest in Gangutia, Karlapita and Sinkhaman. The increment in timber volume and densities per hectare in the lowest basal girth class can be attributed to effective JFM strategies at these sites. In contrast to the above, poor volume and tree densities per hectare in the lowest girth class at the Amalphata, Gumma and Kotlapita sites are a result of poor management strategies adopted in the wake of JFM. Participatory forestry in India 286 The comparison of volume and densities per hectare in the surveyed JFM areas in West Bengal revealed that the growing stock as well as density of establishment class of control site compares poorly with the corresponding JFM sites. The maximum augmentation of volume in the lowest girth class in Kantaberi, Jhataboni, and Hurhuria committees of West Bengal is the result of better protection strategies in the wake of JFM strategies. The growing stock inventory by the FSI (1996) in Bankura, Midnapore, and Purulia districts of West Bengal also revealed similar results. BIOMASS CONSERVATION PROGRAMMES In addition to afforestation and forest regeneration activities, firewood conservation programmes such as distribution of efficient ASTRA cookstoves and biogas plants have been intensively implemented in Uttara Kannada district. For the VFC members, 8,828 ASTRA cookstoves and 650 biogas plants have been installed. The impact of JFPM on the ongoing, large, biomass conservation programme is small but crucial for forest conservation in the district. BIOMASS NEEDS UNDER THE JFPM PROGRAMME Firewood, fodder, leaf manure, small timber, bamboo, and other NTFPs are basic biomass needs of the people in Uttara Kannada district, and these needs have to be met from the forest. Paddy growers, artisans and the landless are dependent on forests for various requirements. A majority of arecanut farmers meet their biomass needs, particularly leaf manure, from betta (privilege lands granted to areca garden owners) lands. Firewood: Efforts were made by the FD to meet firewood requirements of the locals by raising 1,536 ha of firewood plantations under the nonJFPM programmes. Further, firewood species were planted under all plantation models. No exclusive plantations with predominantly NTFP species were raised to meet the requirements of the landless and the artisans (except a few bamboo plantations). However, some NTFP species have been planted in multipurpose models. The plantations raised during the project period could supply firewood and other products in the future. So far, nearly 27,700 households are covered under the JFPM programme with 12,050 ha of plantations, which are expected to provide 73,200 tonnes of firewood annually (assuming a production of 6 tonnes/ha/year), and meet the requirement of 36,150 households, assuming a consumption of 2 tonnes/household/annum. Thus, plantations raised under JFPM are sufficient to meet the firewood requirement of the beneficiary households under the programme. Grazing: The livestock population in the district is 504,000. Lack of adequate pasture lands leads to high grazing pressure on forests and degraded forests. This problem is enhanced as plantations raised in the degraded forests under the JFPM programme are closed to grazing in the initial three years. The FD raised only 3 ha of fodder plantation during 1997 under its non-JFPM programme (Table 26.3). It has not made any alternative arrangements to meet the grazing or fodder requirement of cattle. The graziers have to shift to other areas, which increase distance and human efforts required to graze the cattle. A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts DEMAND FOR FIREWOOD AND SUPPLY FROM PFS Meeting the firewood demand sustainably seems to be one of the critical goals of forest protection and management in all locations, both under JFM and CFM. Firewood is obtained from diverse sources, including the PF. The estimates of sources of firewood made under the EERN studies are presented here (Ravindranath et al, 2000). In Kutling and Nabra of Orissa, the rate of extraction of firewood is higher than the demand (140 to 160%). But this includes the leaf biomass that is collected by the communities to parboil rice. So, the actual woody biomass extracted may not be unsustainable as there are restrictions on collection of firewood from the PF. Firewood is also sold outside the village. In Kharikamathani (West Bengal), the community collects about 50% of the required amount of firewood from the PF. Extraction from the PF is between 25 to 50% of the demand for firewood in Khanamuri, Nemainagar, and Bhagawatichowk, and Kugwe and Hunasur. In Kapasgaria, Asundariya, Baluji Na Muvada, Kunbar and Garda, firewood extraction from the PF is below 25% of the demand. In Alalli (Karnataka), firewood is not extracted from the PF even though the growing stock is 142 tonnes/ha. In Hunasur and Kugwe, the villagers collect dry and fallen wood from the nearby RF to supplement their collection from the PF. In Kunbar, Garda and Rampur, agriculture residue, dung, and other tree sources are the supplementary sources of fuel. But the pressure for firewood finds these communities shifting their search to neighbouring village forests, common lands, and RFs, which could lead to degradation of these areas. The status of other sources of firewood has not been surveyed in this study. But, it is important to understand how firewood extraction regulations in the PF in a given village is affecting (a) the regeneration status of other firewood sources, and (b) the different socioeconomic groups in the village. Alternate fuel sources or fuels are available to the landed and the affluent. Firewood extraction regulations, hence, are more likely to affect the landless and other poorer communities. Even if the villagers shift their fuel extraction activities to other places, there would be a net improvement at landscape level, as land degradation would have continued under ‘business as usual scenario’. DEPENDENCE OF COMMUNITIES ON FORESTS FOR NTFPS The dependence of communities on forests is assessed by analysing the diversity of NTFPs collected and used, percentage of household gathering, quantities gathered, and income generated from NTFPs. Diversity of NTFPs NTFP contribution could be a critical factor, probably next only to firewood, in motivating communities to protect and manage the forests. But there is little understanding of the dependence of rural and indigenous communities on forests for NTFPs, and the contribution of NTFPs to the livelihood of these communities. Agriculture is the main occupation of the villagers in the study areas. All socioeconomic groups, including large and small farmers and the landless depend on the forests for firewood, albeit in varying degrees. Households extracting NTFPs for basket weaving, rope making, leaf-plate making, etc, are dependent on forests for their livelihood. Some vegetables and tubers are also collected for use as food. NTFPs contribute to the regeneration and sustainability of the forests. Field studies show that a large diversity of NTFPs is extracted in some locations. Some important observations regarding NTFP collection practices from EERN studies (Ravindranath et al 2000) are given below. ■ In sal forest zones (West Bengal and Orissa) – Sal leaves (green and dry), brush sticks, seeds, mahua flowers and seeds are the major NTFPs collected. ■ Other zones – Butea and kendu leaves, mushroom (Orissa and Gujarat), bamboo, fodder and broomstick (melaghar); ■ Extraction of tree-based NTFPs is higher than K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Chapter 26 ■ the area covered by dense forests has ranged from about 4% in Borigam and Yapalguda to 8% in Kishtapur (Table 26.8). The data also show some decrease in scrubland and a small increase in open forests, indicating that forest protection by communities has made a difference to ecological conditions. from other plant forms such as medicinal herbs, mushroom and climbers (Midnapore, Udala). A number of NTFPs are available, but not extracted, in the Western Ghats, Karnataka, Jammu and Kashmir. Some of the commonly occurring and dominant NTFP yielding tree species are: sal, mahua, beedi and palash in West Bengal and Orissa; beedi leaves in Rajasthan and Gujarat; bamboo, Garcinia and Terminalia species in Karnataka (Western Ghats); tamarind, gum from Sterculia urens; leaves of Bauhinia vahlii for making plates in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, and honey in Tripura. An overall improvement of 4.25% of forest cover is observed in Andhra Pradesh between 1996 and 1998. Medak district achieved highest improvement in forest cover (38.6%) followed by Nalgonda (35.8%). East Godavari, Krishna, Mehboobnagar and west Godavari districts did not achieve any change with respect to forest cover. However, Nizamabad and Kurnool districts indicated forest degradation during the assessment years (4.25% improvement in forest cover in two years is a remarkable change brought in through JFM). However, it is not clear if the change is only through JFM activities or is a result of different afforestation programmes in the districts. Forest cover Participatory forestry in India 288 Forest cover change has been documented through satellite imageries in Andhra Pradesh. There are two studies indicating the changes in forest cover in the state. One indicates the changes at the micro (local) level, the other at the district level (Table 26.8 & 26.9). Alternate developmental programmes for success of JFM Remote sensing data indicate an improvement in the forest cover of the three villages ranging from 3 to 6% over the two-year period (1996-1998). The satellite-based data indicate a substantial decrease in the forest areas devoid of trees, called ‘blanks’ ranging from 25 to 40%. The increase in NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS In community forest managed areas where the major interest of the community is in NTFPs for meeting sustenance needs, revenue generated Table 26.8: Changes in forest cover based on satellite imagery, 1996-1998 Category Yapalguda 1996 1998 Kishtapur % 1996 1998 change Blanks 12.84 9.04 Scrubs 34.96 34.52 Open 85.26 87.00 Dense 132.71 139.22 Total 265.77 259.76 % forest cover 82.01 87.08 Borigam % 1996 1998 change -30.00 18.66 11.12 -1.26 71.54 63.94 2.05 202.81 208.63 4.91 112.09 121.42 — 405.1 405.11 6.18 77.73 81.47 -40.41 -10.62 2.87 8.32 — 3.74 % change 92.12 120.73 102.81 107.25 422.91 49.67 68.60 129.49 112.78 112.03 422.90 53.16 -25.53 7.26 9.70 4.46 3.49 Note: ‘blanks’ refers to an area devoid of tree and scrub; ‘scrub’ refers to lands with crown density of less than 10%: ‘open’ refers to forests with crown density ranging from 10 to 40%; ‘dense’ forests have a crown density exceeding 40%. Source: Andhra Pradesh report, D’ Silva 2001. A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts Table 26.9: Forest cover change in JFM dominated districts of Andhra Pradesh (in sq km) District Adilabad Ananthpur Chittor Cuddapah E. Godavari Guntur Kurnool Nellore Prakasham Karimnagar Khamnagar Krishna Mahbubnagar Medak Nalgonda Nizamabad Rangareddy Srikakulam Visakhapatnam Vizianagaram Warrangal W. Godavari Total Dense forests 1996 1998 1,859 2,077 155 303 1,615 147 292 125 578 574 2,224 33 171 11 0 115 21 34 1,190 120 926 267 10,760 209 351 1,615 167 289 202 739 619 2,461 33 228 12 41 209 70 43 1,234 152 1,095 267 12,113 Open forests 1996 1998 2,449 159 1,012 2,233 1,237 412 1,176 515 840 751 2,561 69 656 82 39 331 127 247 1,728 412 1,240 189 18,465 from timber in the future holds little meaning or value in the beginning. In order to retain community interest, it would be essential to promote and enhance the yield of NTFPs on a long-term basis, possibly through silvicultural interventions. The time gap between current protection and future yield is too large, to sustain the interest of communities. The review of the JFM programme in Andhra Pradesh revealed that efforts are being made to plant grafted varieties of NTFP species in blocks, forest blanks and along trenches, homesteads, and agriculture bunds. The strategy is to hasten economic returns in the earliest possible time and thereby sustain the interest of the beneficiaries. About 450 ha of forest land in patches of 5 to 10 ha each was brought under plantations of Emblica 3,013 328 1,589 2,416 1,237 453 1,244 566 873 786 2,872 69 1,018 163 129 373 157 309 1,725 505 1,192 189 21,206 Scrub forests 1996 1998 1,745 1,387 2,606 1,843 230 920 1,698 1,246 2,213 757 1,944 296 1,921 480 464 948 485 371 887 561 1,169 133 24,305 1,332 1,302 2,011 1,750 230 935 1,555 1,218 2,447 789 1,706 296 1,502 619 513 883 372 303 934 505 1,154 133 22,489 % change 6.096 5.433 0.954 3.151 0.000 5.139 -2.464 5.302 11.787 5.379 4.607 0.000 0.000 38.569 35.785 5.093 -5.371 0.460 2.313 6.313 3.178 0.000 4.256 officinalis, Terminalia bellerica, Annona squamosa, Bambusa species, etc, over the last three years in the JFM areas of Bankura (south) division of West Bengal. In Madhya Pradesh, the major thrust is on plantation of Emblica officinalis, Bambusa and Jatropha species in homesteads and along agriculture bunds. Most of these species have been planted because of their products/fruit yielding potential that commences from the fourth year onwards. In Gujarat, the focus is to manipulate silviculture systems in such a way that productivity of locally desirable species is enhanced at the first stage. As many as 21 NTFP species having multipurpose uses have been part of the plantations (Guhathakurta 1992; Pathan 1994). In arid and semi-arid regions of India, the major K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Chapter 26 focus of the JFM programme is on grass production rather than tree regeneration. According to the FD of Madhya Pradesh, local communities in Jhabua were benefited from 780,000 grass pulas (worth Rs 1.170 million) in 1997. These pulas were produced from community managed forests. A study by Bahuguna (1993) points out that the FD increased its revenue up to 1.2 million during 1993 by utilising land for fodder production with community participation in Indore Circle of Madhya Pradesh. Ramanathan and Sharma (1998) mention that Amakatra, Denka, and Gorakhal committees in Harda forest division of Madhya Pradesh harvested 81 tonnes of grass in 1993, 114 in 1995, 600 in 1997, and 800 in 1998. Similarly, the FD of West Bengal has also introduced fodder cultivation in specified plantations as an intercrop. For instance, in Midnapore (East) division, about 460 ha were covered with forest grasses during the last five years. Participatory forestry in India 290 REDUCTION IN FIREWOOD CONSUMPTION Traditionally rural people have been collecting firewood from the forests without being restricted. It is estimated that about 40 million tonnes of firewood is produced in India against an estimated current demand of 296 million tonnes (Anon 1999), thus leaving a wide gap of 256 million tonnes. Of the total firewood being used in the country, only 23% is from private homesteads, while the rest comes from forests or other areas. Restrictions imposed on firewood collection and/ or adoption of energy efficient devices, therefore, can be viewed as an indicator of reduced forest dependency. The mainstay of the JFM programme in Andhra Pradesh is to reduce firewood reliance of the forest by fringe communities popularising energy efficient devices in these areas. The review of the Andhra Pradesh JFM programme revealed that about 134,746 stoves and 1,678 biogas units have been supplied to VSS areas, so far. According to a TERI (1998) study, the average household firewood consumption per day has declined between 22 and 50% with a mean value of 28% due to increased usage of fuel-efficient devices in Andhra Pradesh. Moreover, hike in average family income due to increased wage employment under JFM resulted in cessation of commercial firewood head loading, thereby reducing the pressure on forests. Although such arrangements may be temporary, the point that needs to be highlighted is that if compensated for the losses they incur as a result of protection, people’s cooperation in forest protection can be assured. In West Bengal, fuel-efficient cooking devices have been adopted in forest fringe areas (TERI 1998). The study revealed that about 2,000 Banjyoti chullahs were distributed in 24 FPCs of south Bankura. Similarly, 2,000 each Shambhu and Deepak chullahs were supplied to local communities by the Midnapore East forest division under the JFM programme. It has been estimated that the Banjyoti chullah is capable of reducing firewood requirement by 40%. In Madhya Pradesh, 169 and 245 smokeless stoves were distributed to Kanhai-Khondra and Paraswara committees of Bilaspur forest division. Similarly, 9 biogas plants, 50 smokeless stoves, 28 kerosene stoves, and 26 kisan sigries were supplied to committee members of Talpiparia. Likewise two biogas plants were introduced besides distribution of smokeless chullahs in the Jameri committee of Jhabua forest division. Thus, in states where the JFM programme is being implemented, firewood conservation programmes such as smokeless stoves and biogas plants are disseminated to reduce the pressure on forests for firewood. It is, however, not very clear as to what proportion of firewood is being saved using these devices. One of the estimates at the national level shows that 11 million tonnes of fuelwood are conserved per year by 28 million stoves. PROMOTION OF AGRO-FORESTRY AND PLANTATIONS IN HOMESTEADS Agro-forestry can be used as one of the important sources for biomass production to reduce forest dependency. Successful JFM experiences have suggested that in most cases alternative sources of firewood were available to the locals. For instance, the task of community participation became easier in southwest West Bengal because A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts of the large-scale agro-forestry activities in the region. In Midnapore and Purulia districts, plantations of Acacia auriculiformis and eucalyptus have led to reduction (up to about 50%) in firewood dependency on the forest. Similarly, Prosopis plantations in and around villages led to the success of JFM in Eklingpura (Udaipur, Rajasthan) at zero opportunity cost. Similarly TFRI (1997) reported that agro-forestry promotion in JFM areas of Sambalpur district of Orissa was finding favour with farmers. AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT Under the transformed village resource development philosophy of JFM, the thrust is on judicious use of presently available land resources and adoption of new production systems for sustained and optimum return (Bahuguna 1993 & 1994). While providing stakeholders with forest usufructs is the first step in the process, the ultimate aim is to provide alternatives to usufructs being used to reduce reliance on forest resources. For instance, an increase in food grain production not only adds to the local economy, but also helps in producing adequate fodder as a result of increased straw production. This consequently helps in reducing reliance on forests for fodder. This expanded version of JFM is observed in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana where agriculture land development is an integral component of the JFM programme. This, however, requires increased irrigation infrastructure in addition to use of high yielding varieties and fertilisers, bringing changes in cropping patterns and developing unproductive agriculture fields through the soil and moisture conservation approach. Marginal and medium farmers are being encouraged to adopt mixed farming and multi-crop systems for stability and sustainability of the farming unit. A study by TERI (1998) concluded that adoption of modern agriculture technologies under the JFM programme have resulted in increased agriculture production leading to social well-being of farmers. Various strategies have been adopted in different committees to this effect. For instance, members of the Talpiparia Committee of Chindwara Forest Division undertook soil conservation activities amounting to 186.5 cu m, worth Rs 40,000 in 10 ha of their agriculture lands. Additionally, 271 cu m of productive soil was added onto 8 ha of agricultural land in 1996. Further, the committee also distributed low interest credits to marginal and medium farmers for dry season crops. This resulted in substantial increase in agriculture productivity besides changes in cropping patterns. Cultivation of cash crops such as soyabean, wheat and vegetables has increased while traditional crops such as maize, sorghum and rice has declined. Further, farmers have started cultivating a third crop in their agriculture fields. In Bilaspur Forest Division of Madhya Pradesh, the Kalidongri Committee members have purchased eight diesel pump sets by accessing low interest credits. Construction of a diversion channel in 1997 resulted in increased irrigation land of 122 acre. This has resulted in a change in the cropping pattern. Traditional crops with poor nutrient quality and yield such as kodu/kutki have been replaced by high-yielding varieties of wheat, pigeon pea, and yellow mustard. Further, villagers have started growing vegetables in the summer season. In the Paraswara Committee of Bilaspur Circle, construction of a stop dam in 1996 has brought about 32 ha dry agriculture land under irrigation. Additionally, 75 farmers undertook soil and moisture conservation activities such as laying canals in their agriculture fields in 1997. Thus, an area of about 60 ha has further come up under irrigation through gravity. Here too, the minor millets (kodu/kutki) have been replaced by rice, the staple crop of the villagers. They are hopeful of an increase in the next crop due to increased access to irrigation facilities, and their ability to afford seeds of high yielding varieties and fertilisers as a result of employment generated through JFM. In the Karra Nara Committee of Bilaspur Circle, more and more villagers are getting involved in dry season agriculture due to increased access to irrigation facilities. Bahuguna (1993 & 1994) also draws similar conclusions in Harda and Jhabua Forest Divisions K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Chapter 26 of Madhya Pradesh. According to Samarthan and Participatory Research in Asia (1998), more and more village communities are getting involved in agriculture as a result of increased irrigation facilities for the last three to four years in the Kharpawar VFPC of Pachmari (Madhya Pradesh). In Haryana, construction of 86 earthfill dams by the FD in 52 JFM villages having 633.64 ha m water storage, has resulted in better distribution of water from existing dams in about 2,854 ha of agriculture land (TERI 1998). The development of agriculture in JFM areas in Andhra Pradesh has been a result of maximising use of fertilisers, shifting from traditionally grown low-yielding nutrient-deficient crops to highyielding nutrient-rich varieties, ploughing agriculture fields before sowing crops, and increasing irrigation infrastructure. Implications for vegetation management Participatory forestry in India 292 The findings from diverse ecological regions of India have demonstrated that JFM has resulted in significant increase in plant diversity and biomass production. There are evidences to show that experiences with community forestry in degraded forest lands have been relatively successful over the last 10 years. Over 14 million ha of degraded forest lands have been brought under JFM. A large proportion of this area has potential for regeneration. These fragile ecosystems can be regenerated to meet economic and ecological needs of the local communities, along with increasing productivity of timber species. Regulating biotic interference and following insitu and ex-situ soil and moisture conservation approaches are the first step to creating favourable conditions for regeneration. Various silvicultural treatments assist germination and growth rates of seedlings. Gap plantation of locally desirable species can generate additional forest products. Some of the implications for JFM at the national level (Ravindranath et al 2000) are given below. Natural regeneration as an option for revegetation of degraded lands through JFM India has vast areas of degraded land or wastelands, estimates of which vary from 42 to ■ 130 million ha, of which, according to one estimate, 82 million ha are available for tree planting. The FD has mainly concentrated on afforestation through block plantations (largely under social forestry programmes). Annually, about 1 to 1.25 million ha of tree plantations are raised at a per ha cost of over Rs 15,000 to 25,000 (Ravindranath and Hall 1995). These social forestry plantations are dominated by species such as Eucalyptus sp., Acacia auriculiformis, Casuarina equisetifolia, Tectona grandis and Pinus sp. At the current rate of conventional afforestation and budget allocation, vast tracts of degraded lands would continue to get further degraded and biomass shortages likely to get accentuated. This has adverse implications for biodiversity and watershed functions. Several studies have shown the potential for promotion of natural regeneration as an option for revegetating degraded lands, in diverse situations. Local communities have adopted the approach of protection and promotion of natural regeneration. The EERN studies have shown that this method facilitates moderate-to-high biomass growth rates. The investment required is negligible, and there is the added advantage of promoting biodiversity. Thus, there is a need to seriously consider the promotion of natural regeneration as an option for reclaiming vast, degraded forest lands. If the lands are too degraded, no rootstocks exist, and no sources of good seeds nearby are available, the regeneration process will be slow. It is necessary to conduct studies to identify and grade the degraded lands where natural regeneration or assisted natural regeneration is feasible. Certain categories of land may require soil and water conservation measures. Only a small percentage of degraded lands may require plantation forestry. Further, there is a need to develop silvicultural and soil conservation practices to enhance the rate of regeneration. Promotion of natural regeneration requires the involvement of local communities. Policies to promote community institutions are necessary to promote natural regeneration. Natural regeneration is a cost-effective approach to regenerating degraded lands. A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts Protection and grazing practices under JFM Protection from indiscriminate extraction and regulation of grazing is necessary for promotion of forest regeneration. Restriction of grazing in the initial years is mandatory. The EERN studies have shown that regulation of grazing and greenwood extraction is necessary and feasible. If the local communities are genuinely involved, employing a guard, fencing, trench digging, and other physical barriers, often adopted by the FD at enormous expense, would not be necessary. A total ban on grazing for long periods may not be necessary where coppicing species dominate. But even here, a ban on grazing initially may lead to regeneration of other species. Banning or regulation of grazing, though desirable in disturbed or degraded forest areas, may have adverse implications for livestock-owning families, particularly the landless and marginal farmers, as they may not have any private land to graze their cattle. ■ In locations such as Uttara Kannada in Karnataka, a combination of barbed wire fences, cattle proof trenches, and a salaried guard protect plantations raised under JFM, during the first three years. The EERN study showed that many of the slow growing species, such as Terminalia paniculata, T. crenulata, T. tomentosa, Emblica officinalis, Syzigium cuminii, Buchnania lanzan and Careya arborea, had regenerated during the initial nongrazing period. These were grazed when the protected plantations were opened for grazing after three years. Only the fast growing species such as Acacia auriculiformis and Casuarina equisetifolia survived. Under the JFM situation, as in Midnapore where sal coppice shoots dominate, grazing may not be a major issue except probably during the first year, till coppice shoots grow beyond the height where the cattle can damage them. But in locations such as those in Karnataka, where regenerating forests are dominated by germinating seedlings, protection may be necessary. If the experience of CFM villages is considered, an appropriate participatory arrangement avoiding expensive method, could be evolved for protection of regenerating forests. To reduce adverse implications for livestock-owning households, regenerating forests in villages could be considered for grazing regulations on a block-byblock basis. For example, one-third of the land could be excluded from grazing for three years, followed by the second block for the following three years. Vegetation management practices for JFM In many states, silvicultural practices, species choice, protection, and harvesting practices adopted for plantations raised under JFM are identical to the social forestry programme. The EERN case studies (Ravindranath et al 2000) revealed that communities under CFM have adopted diverse protection, grazing and harvesting practices. There is, therefore, a need to assess the vegetation management (planting, protection, harvesting, etc) practices required under participatory forestry programmes such as JFM. Vegetation practices should take into consideration socioeconomic aspects in addition to rainfall, soil, and other physical factors. ■ Sustainability of firewood extraction from JFM forests The EERN studies (Ravindranath et al 2000) have clearly shown that regulation of firewood extraction is very critical and communities have realised its importance. It is however, difficult to define exactly or prescribe at what stage of regeneration could communities start extracting firewood, and what would be the sustainable mode and rate of extraction. Communities could, however, use some ‘thumb rule’ to determine extraction rates, monitor the impact of extraction practice on vegetation, and readjust the extraction practice. For example, by using simple field ecological methods, community members could estimate the DBH of trees, basal area, standing biomass (growing stock) and MAI of woody biomass. About a third of MAI could be potentially extracted as firewood (assuming 1/3 of MAI will be in twigs and thin branches and 2/ 3 in the main trunk and large branches). They could monitor the impact of this extraction on growth of DBH and regeneration and, based on the findings, increase or decrease the extraction ■ K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Chapter 26 rates. In situations of severe shortages of firewood, the potential harvestable limit could be up to 50% of the MAI. But the impact needs to be monitored and extraction rate, accordingly adjusted. Further, research and monitoring is necessary to define the specific parameters of extraction for different locations. Experimental trials may also be required to suggest extraction practices in different forest zones. Extraction of NTFPs and sustainability Interestingly, there are no regulations on NTFP extraction in most locations investigated. Overextraction of leaves, seeds, and flowers is likely to affect long-term forest regeneration and sustainability. Currently, little or no information is available on the yields of NTFPs, sustainable modes and rates of extraction. Long-term monitoring is required to assess the yields and impact of NTFP extraction practices. ■ Participatory forestry in India 294 Participatory forest monitoring and adaptive forest management for JFM One of the main goals of participatory management of forests is to ensure sustainable flow of woody biomass and NTFPs. Sustainable modes and rates of extraction need to be location, forest type, and species specific. The response of vegetation to a given extraction practice will have a long gestation period. Given the large diversity of locations, with socioeconomic and ecological variations, the only feasible option is to enable village communities or VFC members or village teachers and students to monitor the status of vegetation, develop and adopt practices, monitor their impact, and accordingly modify them. Such an approach could be termed as Adaptive Forest Management (AFM). the decision-making processes at the village level as well as planning and policy-making at the Forest Division, state and national levels. To promote AFM, there is a need to develop a simple methodology to enable local communities to monitor and assess the impact of protection or extraction practice. A set of indicators and methods has to be developed and communicated to identified members of the local community. Though, village community members do observe the changes in vegetation, it is necessary to undertake systematic monitoring and record changes for comparison and assessment. Initially, participatory monitoring could be launched in a few locations on a trial basis and knowledge gained from the experience. Subsequently, it could be extended to other locations. References 1. Anon (1999): National Forestry Action Programme in India. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi. 2. Bahuguna, V.K. (1993): Forestry in EcoDevelopment: An Experience in Jhabua Forest Division. RCWD, IIFM, Bhopal. –––––– (1994): Forestry in EcoDevelopment: An Experience from Jhabua Forest Division. RCNAEB, IIFM, Bhopal. Bhat, P.R., Jagannatha Rao, Indu K. Murthy, K.S. Murali & N.H. Ravindranath (2000): Joint Forest Planning and Management in Uttara Kannada: A Micro and Macro-level assessment. In Joint Forest Management and Community Forestry in India: An Ecological and Institutional Assessment. (Ed) N.H. Ravindranath, K.S. Murali and K.C. Malhotra, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co Pvt Ltd, New Delhi. D’Silva (2001): Ecological effects of Joint Forest Management in India: A case study from Adilabad district. Andhra Pradesh Working Paper Series, Asia Network Series. ■ Sustainable forest management practices cannot be prescribed. They have to evolve locally, given the diversity and variation in climate and culture. There is a need to promote the AFM approach in many locations and judge feasibility by experience. Research and monitoring findings by external institutions should feed information into 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. FSI (1995): State of Forest Ministry of Environment Dehradun. FSI (1996): State of Forest Ministry of Environment Dehradun. Report 1995. and Forests, Report 1996. and Forests, A decade of JFM and its ecological impacts 8. FSI (1997): State of Forest Report 1997. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Dehradun. 9. FSI (1999): State of Forest Report 1999. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Dehradun. 10. Guhathakurta, P. (1992): Is management of coppice sal forests on short rotations sustainable? Wastelands News, Vol 7, No1. 11. Pathan, R.S. (1994): Emerging trends in sustainable use plan: tending and harvesting JFM areas. Wastelands News Vol 9, No 4, pp 20-25. 12. Ramanathan, B. and Sharma, A. (1998): Joint Forest Management in Harda: A Status Study. Study Commissioned by Worldwide Fund for Nature, India, pp 1-42. 13. Ravindranath, N.H., K.S. Murali and K.C. Malhotra (undated): Joint Forest Management and Community Forestry in India: An Ecological and Institutional Assessment. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co Pvt Ltd, New Delhi. 14. Ravindranath N.H. and D.O. Hall (1995): Biomass, Energy and Environment: A Developing Country Perspective from India. Oxford University Press, London. 15. Seebauer (1992): Review of Social Forestry Programmes in India. GWest Bengal Gesselschaft Fur Walderhaltung und Waldbewirtschaftung GMBH, Michelstadt, Germany. 16. TERI (2000): Green Beginnings – Joint Forest Management in Jhabua. Tata Energy Research Insititute and SIDA, pp 1-185. K.S. Murali, Indu K. Murthy, B.C. Nagaraj, and N.H. Ravindranath Enjoying benefits of forest protection