A Global Perspective on Migration and Development

2 A Global Perspective on Migration and Development∗ Nina Glick Schiller On a phone booth in Manchester, England – where I now live as a transmigrant – I saw an advertisement that read: ‘Send money home from closer to home.’ It went on to announce that you can send funds to locations around the world from any British Post Office. The Post Office, whose sales operations have now been privatized, has joined businesses around the world that seek to profit from migrant remittances. Spanish banks extend mortgages to migrants living in Spain who are building houses ‘back home’ in Ecuador and elsewhere in Latin America, while appliance stores in Brazil process orders for customers whose source of payment comes from family members living abroad (Lapper, 2007a). Migrants’ money transfers, purchases of costly commodities, and homeland investments figure large in the recent policies of powerful globe-spanning financial institutions, such as the World Bank, which have proclaimed migrant remitters as the new agents of international development (De Haas, 2007; Fajnzylber and Humberto López, 2008; Lapper, 2007b; World Bank, 2006). Meanwhile, researchers of development and migration, while noting the possibilities and contradictions of migrant remittances on sending and receiving localities, take for granted that migrants are both local and transnational actors (Faist, 2008; Fauser, Chapter 6 in this volume). Yet at the same time that the transnationality of migrants is being both routinely documented and celebrated, politicians and the mass media in Europe and the United States are focusing their concern primarily on questions of ‘integration’, portraying migrants’ transnational ties as threats to ‘national security’. In these discourses, migrants are attacked for their supposed lack of loyalty to their new homeland. Politicians, demagogic leaders and media personalities blame migrants for national economic problems, including the growing disparity between rich and poor, the shrinking of the 29 T. Faist et al. (eds.), The Migration-Development Nexus © Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited 2011 30 The Migration–Development Nexus middle class, the reduction in the quality and availability of public services and education, and the rising costs of health care and housing. Calls for tightening borders and ending the influx of migrants are widespread, and countries around the world are shutting their doors in the faces of people desperately trying to flee war, rape and pillage. In the meantime, rates of deportation are rising dramatically. Within these anti-migration discourses, little is said about migrants’ provision of vital labour, services and skills to their new land or their role in the reproduction of workforces – including their sustenance, housing, education and training – in countries around the world. It is true that there is some appreciation for one current in the migrant stream. States as diverse as Singapore and Germany welcome ‘global talent’ in the form of professional and highly skilled immigrants. Yet this differentiation only serves to reinforce the viewpoint that most migrants are undesirable and that migration should cease. What is the response of migration theorists to the present contradictory positions on migration whereby migrant remittances are defined as a vital resource, and yet those who send remittances are castigated and increasingly denied the right to move across borders? To date, migration scholars have not, I would argue, established a critical perspective that can adequately make sense of the contradictions. They have not developed a global perspective that can place within the same analytical framework debates about international migration and development, national rhetorics on migration and refugee policies, and migration scholarship. Instead, migration scholars have adopted the perspective of their respective nation-states. Much of the European and US scholarship on migration confines itself to questions such as: ‘How well do they fit into our society?’; ‘What are the barriers that keep them from fully joining us?’; or ‘Which cultures or religions do not fit in?’. In the United States, migration scholars who see themselves as pro-immigration increasingly embrace what I call ‘born-again assimilationism’ to show that migrants do indeed become part of the national fabric and contribute to it (R. C. Smith, 2006; Waldinger and Fitzgerald, 2004). New assimilationists and integrationists distinguish themselves from the old by updating what they mean by immigrants becoming an integral part of their new society (Alba and Nee, 2003; Heckmann, 2003; Joppke and Morawska, 2002; Morawska, 2003). Although these scholars accept the persistence of ethnic identities, home ties and transnational networks as in some cases compatible with integration, they continue to see migration as a potential threat to the nation-state. They believe that international migration A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 31 warrants investigation because it is fundamentally problematic for the social cohesion of the ‘host society’. For example, Michael Bommes and Andrew Geddes (2000, p. 6) are concerned that ‘migration can be taken as part of a process that erodes the classical arrangement by which welfare states provide an ordered life course for the members of the national community, i.e., for their citizens in exchange for political loyalty’. As Bommes (2005) has noted, ‘assimilationists conceptualise . . . society as a big national collective’. In Europe, the term used is ‘integration’, which is often differentiated from assimilation (Esser, 2003, 2006). Whether the concept being deployed is integration or assimilation, however, most scholars of migration reflect and contribute to an approach to the nation-state that depicts a nation and its migrants as fundamentally and essentially distinct – both socially and culturally. It is likely that future scholars will demonstrate that the revival of the assimilationist theory and the ‘new’ integrationism at the beginning of the 21st century, rather than representing an advance in social science, reflected the neo-liberal project of the restructuring of nation-states. Rescaled but not replaced in relation to regional and global reorganizations of economic and political power, nation-states began, as they did at the turn of the 20th century, and with the assistance of migration scholars, to build national identities at the expense of immigrants. Even scholars of transnational migration, including those who highlight the role of migrants in transnational development projects, are now concluding their articles with reassurances that migrants’ transnational activities are relatively minimal or contribute to their integration into the nation-state in which they have settled (Guarnizo et al., 2003; R. C. Smith, 2006). They have not provided a perspective on migration that explains why major global financial institutions, which portray migrants as agents of development through remittances that sustain impoverished communities, seem unconcerned that these very same people are increasingly disdained and excluded in their countries of settlement. In this chapter, I build on the work of those scholars who advocate an institutional analysis of contemporary migration policies and discourses, but I continue the argument further by proposing a ‘global power perspective’ that can link contemporary forces of capitalist restructuring to the specific localities within which migrants live and struggle. After a postmodern period in which any attempt to use or develop globe-spanning perspectives was dismissed as a ‘grand narrative’, scholars in an array of disciplines, and with very different politics, have once again tried to connect the local and particular with an 32 The Migration–Development Nexus analysis of broader forces. Contemporary globe-spanning trends have been approached as globalization (Mittleman, 1996), network society (Castells, 1996), and empire (Hardt and Negri, 2000). Yet, ironically, many migration scholars who study cross-border population movements remain inured to concepts of society and culture that reflect historic nation-state building projects. These projects obscure the past and contemporary transnational fields of power that shape political and economic development. A global power perspective on migration could facilitate the description of social processes by introducing units of analysis and research paradigms that are not built on the methodological nationalism of much migration discourse. It would allow researchers to make sense of local variation and history in relation to transnational processes and connections. Such a framework would allow us to identify contradictions and disjunctures in contemporary scholarship, as well as forms, spaces, ideologies and identities of resistance to oppressive and global relations of unequal power. One chapter cannot, of course, do more than outline such an alternative analytic framework. In sketching a different approach to migration and development that builds on a global power perspective, this chapter briefly (1) offers a critique of methodological nationalism; (2) addresses neo-liberal restructuring of localities of migrant settlement and ongoing connection; (3) situates the topic of remittances within transnational social fields of uneven power; and (4) analyses the countervailing hegemonic processes that are encapsulated in state migration policies and development discourses. I want to be clear from the very beginning that by eschewing methodological nationalism and establishing a global framework for the study of migrant settlement and transnational connection, I am not saying – and have never argued – that the nation-state is withering away. I am asserting that to understand the restructuring of globe-spanning institutional arrangements, including the changing role and continuing significance of states, we need a perspective that is not constrained by the borders of the nation-state. This is because nation-states are positioned and transformed within global fields of power, and consequently these fields affect the migration process, including movement, settlement and transnational connection. At the same time, through their connections between places and their actions that affect places, migrants are active agents of contemporary transformations on local, national and global scales. My particular interest is the way in which migrants’ settlement and transnational connections both shape and are A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 33 shaped by the contemporary restructuring of capital and the scalar repositioning of specific localities (Glick Schiller et al., 2006; Glick Schiller and Çağlar, 2009, 2010). Tracing the lineages of methodological nationalism in migration scholarship A growing number of social theorists have argued that methodological nationalism has been central to much of Western social science (Beck, 2000; Martins, 1974; A. Smith, 1983; Wimmer and Glick Schiller, 2002a, 2002b). Methodological nationalism is an ideological orientation that approaches the study of social and historical processes as if they were contained within the borders of individual nation-states. Nationstates are conflated with societies, and the members of those states are assumed to share a common history and set of values, norms, social customs and institutions. Some writers label this orientation the ‘container’ theory of society to highlight that most social theorists, including Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and Talcott Parsons, have contained their concept of society within the territorial and institutional boundaries of the nation-state (Basch et al., 1994; Urry, 2000; Wolf, 1982). A methodological nationalist perspective in migration scholarship led to the separation of development studies from the study of immigrant incorporation into a new country. To reject methodological nationalism requires migration scholars to recover an approach to migration that does not use nation-states as units of analysis but rather studies the movement of people across space in relationship to forces that structure political economy. These forces include states but are not confined to states and their policies. Furthermore, national and international policies are considered within the same analytical lens (Nye, 1976). I am calling for scholars to recover rather than develop a global perspective on migration, since aspects of this approach were widespread during the period of globalization that took place from the 1880s to the 1920s. At that time, there was broad interest in the diffusion of ideas and material culture through the migration of people. Scholars such as Friedrich Ratzel (1882) treated all movements of people over the terrain as a single phenomenon linked to the distribution of resources across space. Ratzel’s writing reflected the assumptions of his times, namely, that the movements of people were normal and natural. The fact that migrants came and went and maintained their ties to home by sending back money to buy land, initiate businesses, and support families and village projects – all this was understood as a typical aspect of 34 The Migration–Development Nexus migration. Workers migrated into regions in which there was industrial development and returned home or went elsewhere when times were bad. England, Germany, Switzerland, France, the United States, Brazil and Argentina built industrialized economies with the help of millions of migrant labourers, who worked in factories, fields, mills and mines. In general, during that era of globalization and imperial penetration, most European countries abolished the passport and visa system that they had installed in the first half of the 19th century (Torpey, 2000). The United States did not restrict migration from Europe and required neither passports nor visas. This period of unequal globalization was shaped by fierce competition among many states for control of far-reaching transnational commercial networks. The wealth and workforce of many nations were produced elsewhere, and colonial projects were the basis of the accumulation of nationally based capital. Governmental regimes increasingly deployed the concepts of nation, national unity and national economy in ways that obscured the transnational basis of their nation-state building projects. The people who lived in these states faced increasing pressure to use a single national language, to identify with a national history, to understand their practices and beliefs to be part of a national culture, to equate concepts of blood and nation, and to be willing to sacrifice their lives for the nation’s honour. Both international migrants and citizens of migrant-receiving states sought explanations for the rapid changes they were experiencing. Political theories and social movements that could speak to global transformations flourished, including international socialism, anarchism, pan-Africanism, feminism, nationalism, scientific racism and anti-imperialism (Bodnar, 1985; Gabaccia and Ottanelli, 2001; Gilroy, 1992; Potts, 1990; van Holthoon and van der Linden, 1988). However, state officials, politicians and intellectuals supported nationalist ideologies that portrayed individuals as having only one country and one identity. In so doing, they contributed to the view that immigrants embodied cultural, physical, and moral characteristics that differentiated them from their host society and therefore merited study. It was at that moment – and in conjunction with the mounting pressure to delineate national borders more firmly by closing them – that a scholarship of immigrant settlement took shape. The transnational social fields of migrants and their engagement in internationalism and other forms of non-state-based social movements increasingly were seen as problematic and finally disappeared from view. The study of migration was divided between demographers and geographers, who A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 35 studied movement between nation-states, and sociologists, who studied settlement and assimilation. As a result of that moment, several complementary but differentiated logics were deployed: (1) the sociology of migration was situated exclusively within national territories; (2) the notion of national origin was racialized through the popularization of the concept of national stocks; (3) assimilationist theory was developed within the hegemonic narrative of race and nation; and (4) national stocks came to be seen as differentiated by culture and were designated either as ‘nationalities’ or as ‘national minorities’ who resided within a state of settlement. Current scholarship on migrant incorporation and transnational connection continues to be shaped not only by these past approaches but also by the current historical conjuncture in which the leaders of migrant-receiving states are emotively legitimating national discourses and narratives. Today, the ‘ethnic group’ continues to serve as the primary unit of analysis with which to study and interpret migration settlement, transnational migration and diaspora. Often termed ‘communities’, the ethnic group has become the bedrock of studies of migrant settlement. This remains true despite a voluminous historical and ethnographic literature that (1) identifies the constructed nature of ethnic identities and ethnic group boundaries; (2) includes detailed ethnographies of institutional processes through which ethnic categories and identities are constructed and naturalized by local and transnational actors; and (3) provides copious accounts of divisions based on class, religion, region of origin and politics among the members of the supposedly ‘same’ group (Barth 1969; Brubaker, 2004; Çağlar, 1990, 1997; Glick Schiller, 1977, 1999; Glick Schiller et al., 1987; Gonzalez, 1988; Kastoryano, 2002; Sollors, 1989). The use of ethnic groups as units of analysis is a logical but unacceptable consequence of the methodological nationalism of mainstream migration studies. The problematic framing of migration research in terms of ethnic groups within nation-states obscures the effects of the global restructuring of capital on the population, both migrant and non-migrant, in a specific locality. Even studies of migrants’ transnational connections that seemed to offer an analytical perspective beyond the nation-state have tended to examine specific ethnic trajectories and have said little about the ways in which the restructuring of economic, political and social capital affects specific forms of migrant settlement and transnational connections. Few researchers have noted the significance of locality in shaping migrants’ transnational social and economic fields. 36 The Migration–Development Nexus In short, the methodological nationalism of many migration scholars, reflecting the entanglements of disciplinary histories with nationstate building projects, precludes them from accurately describing the transnational social fields of unequal power that are integral to the migrant experience. Because their scholarship is built on units of analysis that developed within nation-state building projects, few migration scholars situate national terrains and discourses within an analysis of the restructuring of the global economy, the rescaling of cities, and the rationalization of a resurgent imperialist agenda. Addressing the neo-liberal restructuring of localities of migrant settlement and ongoing connection Working within a Marxist framework, David Harvey (2003, 2005) and a number of geographers have emphasized that while one can talk about the intensification of global processes of capital flow and flexible accumulation, capital reproduction always comes to ground somewhere. Since capital is ultimately a social relationship, when it is reconstituted in a specific place, the process destroys previously emplaced social relationships and the infrastructures and environments in which they were situated and constructs others. Although differentiated in terms of the path-dependent trajectories of a specific place, the effects of the restructuring of capital are not confined to only one place; rather, the transformation of one place affects many others. The reconstitution of capital disrupts previous arrangements of power and structures new relationships of production, reproduction of labour, distribution and consumption that extend into other localities. The process of the creation and destruction of capital – as it represents the concentration of relationships of production within time and space – is an ongoing feature of capitalism. Beginning in the 1970s, however, this general process was reconfigured on a global scale through the uneven and disparate implementation of a series of initiatives widely known as the ‘neo-liberal agenda’. Neo-liberalism can be defined as a series of projects of capital accumulation that have reconstituted social relations of production in ways that dramatically curtail state investment in public activities, resulting in the reduction of state services and benefits and the diversion of public monies and resources to develop private service-oriented industries from health care to housing (sometimes in arrangements termed ‘public-private partnerships’). At the same time, the neo-liberal project also relentlessly pushes toward global production through the elimination of state intervention in a host of economic A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 37 issues – from tariffs to workers’ rights – including the organization of labour, space, state institutions, military power, governance, membership and sovereignty (Harvey, 2005; Jessop, 2003). Neo-liberalism has allowed for the creation of wealth by destroying and replacing previous relations of production, consumption, and distribution and by generating new forms of desire. These transformations have affected the quality of life of migrants and natives alike. Neo-liberal projects take the form of specific sets of ideas and policies that may or may not be successfully implemented. These ideas are held, shaped, defended and contested by a range of actors, including social scientists, whether or not they are directly linked to policy. The broader projects involve not just the domain of economics but also politics, cultural practices, ideas about self and society, and the production and dissemination of images and narratives. Neo-liberal plans are implemented on the ground and differentially, depending not just on different national policies but also on specific local histories, including that of migration. The work of geographers on the neo-liberal restructuring of capital and space highlights the various mechanisms that require all places to compete for investments in new economies (Brenner, 2004; N. Smith, 1995). All of the resources that cities have, including their human resources, which encompass the migrants and their skills and qualities, acquire a new value and become assets in this competition. Migrants are not only part of the new, just-in-time sweatshop industries that accompany the restructuring of some cities. They also provide highly skilled labour that contributes to the human capital profile of various cities. The ‘cultural diversity’ of migrants is an important factor in the competitive struggle between cities. Beyond the marketing of ethnic culture, migrants contribute to the cultural industries of the cities in which they are settling, from media to cuisine, fashion and graphic design (Çağlar, 2005, 2007; Scott, 2004; Zukin, 1995). The place and role of migrants in this competition might differ, depending on the scalar positioning of these cities. The implementation of neo-liberal agendas disrupted fixed notions of nested, territorially bounded units of city, region, state and globe. The scholarship on neo-liberalism documents the ways in which all localities have become global in that none are delimited only by the regulatory regime and economic processes of the state in which they are territorially based. The state itself is rescaled to play new roles by channelling flows of relatively unregulated capital and participating in the constitution of global regulatory regimes enforced by the World 38 The Migration–Development Nexus Trade Organization (WTO) and international financial institutions. To emphasize the processual, competitive and political aspects of the spatial restructuring of capital, some geographers speak of ‘rescaling’. They note that when localities change the parameters of their global, national and/or regional connectedness and lines of power that serve to govern territory, they in effect ‘jump scale’ (Swyngedouw, 1997). Rather than understanding the local and global scale as either discrete levels of social activities or hierarchical analytical abstractions, as in previous geographies of space, ‘the global and the local (as well as the national) are [understood to be] mutually constitutive’ (Brenner, 2001, pp. 134–135). Localities do, however, differ in their positioning in terms of globespanning hierarchies of economic and political power. I am using the term locality to encompass the analysis of both rural and urban places within the analytic perspective I am constructing. However, I build on a theoretical framework on the rescaling of locality that focuses on the contemporary competition among cities. I extend this framework later in the chapter to the effects of migrants’ transnational fields and state actions on the growth of inequality between rural areas. The scalar positioning of a locality – its success in competing for investments in local development and services, and in the case of cities in attracting highly skilled new economy workers – shapes the incorporation, if differentially, of all residents of that locality. Hence, the research framework I am suggesting – what I call a ‘locality analysis’ of a global power paradigm – places migrants and natives in the same conceptual framework. Locality analysis turns our attention to the relationships that develop between the residents of a place and institutions that are situated locally, regionally, nationally and globally, without making prior assumptions about how these relationships are shaped by ethnicity, nationality or national territory. All of these factors and others that affect opportunity structures remain a matter for investigation. Although scale theorists have said almost nothing about migrant incorporation, it is evident that a locality analysis built on that scholarship provides important theoretical openings with which to approach the significance of locality in migrant incorporation. The relative positioning of a place within hierarchical fields of power may well lay the ground for the life chances and incorporation opportunities of migrants and those who are native to the place. In order to understand the different modes and dynamics of both migrant and transnational incorporation, we need to address the broader rescaling processes affecting the cities in which migrants are settling. A scalar perspective can bring into this discussion the missing spatial aspects of socio-economic power, A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 39 which is exercised differently in various localities. The concept of scalar positioning also introduces socio-spatial parameters to the analysis of locality in migration scholarship (Glick Schiller and Çağlar, 2009, 2010). For students of migration, this perspective reminds us that migrants, as part of the processes of capital reproduction, are agents of the reshaping of localities. Migrants become part of the restructuring of the social fabric of the several localities to which they may be connected through their transnational networks and become actors within new forms of governing territory. Of course, migrants’ roles in each place are themselves shaped in the context of rescaling processes. At the same time, pathways of migrant settlement are shaped by the opportunity structures and restrictions of particular places, including the type of labour needed and the way that labour is recruited and organized within those places. It is through making this type of locality analysis that we can assess the variety of ways that migrants contribute to the opportunity structures of various locations and the degree to which they become one of several factors in the restructuring of a place. This places the migrants as actors within larger global forces and moves our discussion beyond the limitations of a model of migration, development and remittances. Some of the roles that migrants play as agents of global restructuring are described in the transnational migration literature but are not sufficiently analysed within broader processes of capital development and destruction. Other migrant contributions are rarely acknowledged because they are not clearly visible through an ethnic lens. My list of forms in which migrants serve as agents of restructuring and rescaling includes their role in contributing to the rise of property values, gentrifying neighbourhoods, creating new industries or businesses, developing new trade connections and patterns of marketing and distribution, and changing patterns of consumption. Contingent on the positioning of a place globally, migrants make different kinds of contributions, which, depending on the stance of the observer, may be judged good or bad. Take, for example, the role of migrants as gentrifiers both in their place of settlement and in localities to which they are transnationally connected. In cities of settlement, which are in the process of successful restructuring, migrants may contribute to the reinvention of urban neighbourhoods previously considered undesirable by buying property in particular localities where property values have been low (Goode, 2010; Salzbrunn, 2010). Migrants may be well placed to buy property because they are able to draw on family credit or pooled resources to invest in and improve the 40 The Migration–Development Nexus housing stock or local neighbourhood businesses (Glick Schiller et al., 2006). Thus, migrants may stabilize, restore or gentrify neighbourhoods and may even contribute to the global marketing of a city. Migrant investments in housing and property may transform neighbourhoods within their transnational social field in ways that increase economic opportunities or economic disparities between localities. The global cities literature (Friedmann, 1986; King, 1991; Sassen, 1991) offered a scholarship that could address the dynamic relationship between global flows of capital and the restructuring of spatialized relationships. Looking at a small handful of cities, urban scholars have noted that their prominence has been linked to their dependence on the migration of highly skilled professionals and on migrants who staff the related service sector of the new economy. Global cities, however, often were described as exceptions, as if all other cities and migration flows reflect only the dynamics of national terrains and policies. Consequently the utility of this scholarship for the theorization of locality, rescaling and migration generally has not entered into either migration theory or discussions about migration and development. To note that migrant departure, settlement, and transnational connections are shaped by the positioning of localities and regions within globally structured hierarchies of economic and political power would disrupt the homogenization of the national terrain that is imposed by migration theory and echoed in development discourses. Placing remittance flows within transnational social fields of uneven power A transnational social field is a complex of networks that connects people across the borders of nation-states and to specific localities (Glick Schiller, 2003, 2006). Here I use the term ‘social field’ to refer not to a metaphoric space but to a set of social relations, unequal in terms of the power of the various actors, through which people live their lives. Transnational social fields are networks of networks that link individuals directly or indirectly to institutions located in more than one nation-state. These linkages are part of the power dynamics through which institutionalized social relations delineate social spaces (Basch et al., 1994; Glick Schiller, 2003, 2004, 2005). The term ‘field’ refers to the linkages between individual migrants within territorially situated social relationships: taxation, employment, education, policing, property ownership, law and public policy, for example. The concept of transnational social fields that I am advocating does resonate with A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 41 Bourdieu’s notion of fields of power but does not distinguish discrete cultural, social and political domains of power. Instead, building on classic social anthropology and geographers’ recent interest in networks, I focus on social relations that intersect and transform discrete territorially based and historically specific social spaces of local community, village, city or state (Epstein, 1969; Mitchell, 1969; Leitner et al., 2007; M. Smith, 2001). Geographers have theorized the social construction of space in relationship to transnational networks but their work has not been adequately utilized by migration scholars despite the popularity of spatial metaphors in transnational studies. Migrants who send remittances may reconfigure social relations as part and parcel of the transnational processes that reconstitute localities. These localities may be hometowns, but migrants may also choose to invest in property and businesses in capital or key cities that were not their places of origin. Migrants’ labour, cultural and social capital, and agency contribute to the positioning of localities within unequal transnational relationships of power. The transnational social fields of migrants can contribute to, be shaped by or contest the local or transnational reach of various states’ military, economic and cultural power. Migration processes cannot be seen as a sui generis activity with an internal dynamic that can be studied in its own right, without reference to the global-local interface of the reconstitution of capital. This is not to deny that one can track the development of an internal logic within a migration stream, as Douglas Massey (Massey et al., 1998) has done so well in his research on Mexican migration. As migration takes on its own logic with transnational networks, a specific migration trajectory and the networks that connect places become part and parcel of the restructuring of those places. And each place has its own particular history, as Jennifer Robinson (2006) has argued in calling for an appreciation of each city as ‘ordinary’. In order to make sense of migration processes and their variations, however, we need to theorize not only the agency of migrants, whose networks restructure a specific locality, but also the global flows of capital of various kinds, which contribute to stark differences between the competitive positioning of different localities with consequences for all the inhabitants of each city and town involved. A global power perspective that addresses migration and its relationship to the neo-liberal restructuring of locality leads us to a more nuanced view of the impact of remittances than is currently available in the migration and development field. This global perspective highlights the dual role played by migrant remittances in relation to the 42 The Migration–Development Nexus impact of neo-liberal restructuring. On the one hand, the impact of the privatization of public services is somewhat deflected as migrant remittances pay for vital needs, such as health care, education and infrastructure. On the other hand, remittance flows within a neo-liberal context highlight locational disparities that are no longer addressed by state policies that would aim to even out regional disparities. On the contrary, as the flow of wealth becomes concentrated in specific localities, and as these towns and cities reposition themselves within local and even global economies through this restructuring, states may further these disparities. For instance, they may facilitate air travel and other infrastructural developments and industries such as tourism in areas developed through migrant remittances, while other places become backwaters whose residents are severely disadvantaged. Yet studies of development and migration tend to ignore both the specificities of localities that migrants connect through their networks of social relations and the insertion of these locations within broader structural disparities of wealth and power. It is important to assess how we frame our questions and analyses and to identify which migrants and which localities are winners or losers because of the role played by migrants in restructuring processes. The implications of this perspective are many for the study of processes termed ‘development’ in sending countries and ‘urban restructuring’ in settlement countries. Migrants are seen as remittance senders without sufficient discussion of how migrants are positioned in a new locality in terms of class and occupation, why migrants should want to send remittances, and to whom and where their transnational relations extend. Migrants’ cultural values offer an insufficient explanation as to why migrants send large amounts of remittances and frequently support family members living elsewhere. Such explanations cannot address the fact that migrants from around the world – with different concepts of family and moral obligation – engage in very similar behaviour when confronted by similar migration contexts. The contexts that facilitate migrants sending remittances and investing in localities within their transnational field seem to be related to the conditions faced by migrants in their place and country of settlement, as well as those that confront relatives and other members of their social network who have been ‘left behind’ or who are living elsewhere. Because discussions of migration and development have increasingly taken the sending of remittances for granted, we have insufficient research on this subject. Nevertheless, existing ethnographies and surveys about the remittance-sending contexts have indicated A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 43 that remittances are sent under one or more of the following conditions: (1) when children, spouses, or parents are left behind; (2) when migrants face insecure conditions in a place of settlement because of racism, anti-immigrant sentiment or other forms of political, social or economic discrimination; (3) when migrants secure a steady income in their place of settlement, whatever its size or source; (4) when migrants suffer great status loss through the migration process and a remittance-receiving economy provides them with opportunities to maintain or improve their status and class position; and (5) when a possible remittance-receiving locality – whether a hometown or elsewhere – provides alternative economic possibilities, allowing the migrants to ‘hedge their bets’. These factors taken together help explain whether or not a migrant establishes and maintains a transnational social field. By linking migrants’ remittance-sending patterns and motivations to the conditions that they experience in specific localities, we can better account for why some people remain committed to sending remittances or making investments transnationally, while others disengage. The restructuring of localities through neo-liberal processes described above has had variable impacts, in some cases facilitating and in others diminishing the ability of migrants to send remittances. For example, neo-liberal policies have lead to the increased hiring of parttime workers and the inability of migrants to find steady employment. The privatization of public services may, however, mean that there is more demand for low-wage migrant labour and more possibilities for migrants to send money regularly to their hometown or homeland. In the home locality, structural adjustment policies may lead to the reduction of transportation services and less public security. The reduction of services and growing insecurity may curb investments in businesses or new housing. But privatization may also provide opportunities for investment in areas such as transportation or private security services. The countervailing hegemonic processes encapsulated in state migration policies and development discourses Culture remains an important variable in a global power analysis of migration, but cultural differences between natives and migrants within a nation-state are not assumed to be the central topic of concern. Instead, a global power analysis queries not only points of contention in which migrants are constructed as culturally different but also the domains of commonality, social relations, openness and conviviality between migrants and natives. Migration scholars often fail to address 44 The Migration–Development Nexus daily social activities that unite migrants and natives within workplaces, neighbourhoods and leisure activities. They also disregard the forces that construct differences, such as the intersections of the globalpolitical economy and local forms of differentiating power, including those that racialize, feminize and subordinate regions, populations and localities. As a means of addressing these concerns, Ramón Grosfoguel (2008) argues for an analytical framework that he calls the ‘colonial power matrix’. He is developing a scholarship that analyses the role of repressive force and discursive power with regard to the North/South divide. Building on the work of Anibal Quijano (2000), Grosfoguel (2008, p. 2) speaks of the coloniality of power as ‘an entanglement or . . . intersectionality . . . of multiple and heterogeneous global hierarchies (“heterarchies”) of sexual, political, epistemic, economic, spiritual, linguistic and racial forms of domination and exploitation . . . [T]he racial/ethnic hierarchy of the European/non-European divide transversally reconfigures all the other global power structures.’ Grosfoguel emphasizes that the concepts of racial and gender differences and the hierarchies that they substantiate are central to the legitimization of the location and dominance of finance capital in Northern states and institutions. The coloniality of the power framework addresses the disparities of wealth and power that link together the lack of development in the global South, the root causes of migration flows, and the interests of migrants and financial institutions in investments and remittance flows. This framework brings together in a single analytical structure the processes of capital accumulation, nationstate building, the restructuring of place and the categorization of labour by race and gender. When applied to migration scholarship, the coloniality of power approach allows us to better understand the current contradictory forces that denigrate migrants while celebrating migrant remittances. We can assess how constructions of migrants are used to dehumanize certain sectors of the workforce in order to legitimate more readily their insertion in neo-liberal labour demands. The national discourses of exclusion – which portray migrants as unskilled, threatening and disruptive invaders and which seem rampant in states around the world, from Singapore to Italy – contribute to the current neo-liberal labour regime. Dehumanized through rhetorics of national difference, migrant labour, which is increasingly contractual, meets the needs of localized neo-liberal restructuring more efficiently than the previous, and still current, situation of family reunion, asylum and the use of undocumented workers as a form of flexible and politically silenced labour. A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 45 Over the last few decades, growing international competition led to the development of global assembly lines, with de-industrialized centres of capital in North America and Europe and the movement of factories to far-flung regions, where labour is cheap and unregulated. Tariff barriers were demolished, and untaxed export-processing zones were established throughout the world. Today, agricultural and industrial corporations based in Europe and North America increasingly face a contradiction in their production processes – the balance between near and far production. This contradiction is heightened by the huge rise in the price of oil and hence transport, which means it is more profitable to locate production processes closer to areas of high consumer demand. One increasingly popular solution is to use a workforce that is cheap and controllable. As many observers in Europe have pointed out, these contradictions will be heightened by the low birth rate and aging composition of European and North American populations (Castles, 2006). For several decades, undocumented migrants – first in the United States and increasingly in Europe – made up the quiescent, hyperexploited and flexible workforces needed within urban restructuring processes. They furnished labour not only for agriculture but also for ‘just-in-time’ production close to centres of capital and for the various domestic and service industries needed in restructured cities geared toward consumer industries and tourism. In some countries in Europe, such as the United Kingdom, asylum-seekers and refugees have provided this form of labour, legally and illegally. The denigration and criminalization of asylum-seekers and the growing capacity of bio-surveillance measures to limit mobility are essential features of a transition to a form of labour more fitted to the production needs of neo-liberal economies. It seems likely that we are witnessing a movement toward an EU labour regime made up of circulating labour from within the European Union and new and very controlled forms of contract labour from elsewhere. As Steven Vertovec (2007, p. 2) has pointed out: ‘Circular migration is . . . being advocated as a potential solution (at least in part) to a number of challenges surrounding contemporary migration.’ The expansion of the EU labour market by the inclusion of accession states with labour policies that emphasize the merits of circulation are part of this larger policy shift. Contract workers and labour circulation are now hailed as arrangements that benefit all parties, and short-term labour contracts are increasingly part of the production process for agricultural and factory work in places as disparate as Canada and Albania. 46 The Migration–Development Nexus Migration researchers are contributing to the legitimization of new forms of exploitation by emphasizing the benefits of transnational remittances while neglecting to address the severe and permanent restriction of rights that accompanies short-term contract work and the decreasing access of migrants to naturalization. Some migration scholars have continued to sing the praises of circular short-term migration with regard to development. For example, Alejandro Portes (2007, p. 272) has asserted: ‘Cyclical migrations work best for both sending and receiving societies. Returnees are much more likely to save and make productive investments at home; they leave families behind to which sizable remittances are sent. More important, temporary migrants do not compromise the future of the next generation by placing their children in danger of downward assimilation abroad.’ This kind of rosy picture reinforces the desirability of the new migration regime of contract labour, which makes migrant settlement increasingly difficult. New migration laws leave migrants with only short-term options. Absent from this scenario of the benefits of circular migration are the increasing difficulties of sustaining any form of viable existence in many sending areas. Also absent are the dehumanizing aspects of short-term labour contracts with their dramatic restrictions on, or denial of, rights and privileges to the individuals who are producing wealth, paying taxes and sustaining infrastructures and services to which they have no entitlement. The mantras about migrants as major agents of development are also part of this new global labour regime. International financial institutions have made migrant remittances a growing industry just at the moment when migrants may be less interested in transnational strategies and yet less able to choose to settle permanently in a new land. Transnational migration has in part reflected a strategy on the part of migrants to avoid committing themselves since they were unsure of the long-term welcome they might receive in the states in which they were settling, even if citizenship rights were available and utilized. However, migrants sending remittances did make certain assumptions about the viability of local economies in the sending states. They assumed that there would be enough security of persons and enough of an opportunity structure for those with capital to support their own investment in a home and family. Increasingly, these assumptions no longer hold in many regions of the world due to environmental degradation, destabilization because of structural adjustment policies, and the hollowing out of national economies through trade agreements such as NAFTA and through WTO restrictions. The result is continuing waves of migration A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 47 as well as a possible growing lack of interest among migrants in investing in their homelands. This may be linked to an increased desire to reunite families in the country of settlement and to unilateral rather than simultaneous incorporation. Transnational migration and connection are not inherent features of migration but rather reflect conditions in both localities. By examining the relations between the neo-liberal restructuring of capital and the need for an ever more controllable and flexible workforce, the connections between the various and seemingly disparate trends in migration policy and discourse begin to emerge. Nationalist rhetoric and exclusionary policies pave the way for production regimes that rely on the capacity to control labour. The faceless migrating workforce is portrayed as potentially lawless border invaders who require restriction, regulation and contractual constraints that limit their rights to change employers or challenge working conditions. The depersonalization of labour as contractual services allows for labour policy statements in which the separation of workers from home and family, without rights of settlement and family reunion, becomes good economic policy. The depersonalization of the process allows such workers to be categorized as unskilled, despite the fact that many of them have relatively high degrees of education and may be nurses, doctors, teachers or university professors. Their willingness to migrate is integrally related to the structural adjustment and privatization policies in their home localities that reduced wages and ended state-funded public services that had provided employment for professionals. At first glance, the ‘global war for talent’, in which multinational corporations compete for highly educated workers, would seem to stand outside the emerging labour regime that I am describing. However, short-term contracts with restructured rights of settlement are increasingly part of this labour market as well, although in many countries highly skilled professionals are still being allowed to settle. Such shortterm contracts often regulate high-tech workers to ensure that the current workforce gives way to the next wave of newly educated and eager bodies and brains. Moreover, the very prominence and desirability of the sought-after few highlight the disposability of the faceless many, despite the fact that both labour streams are needed to sustain many contemporary cities. The dehumanization of migrants allows for them to be manipulated and controlled as various forms of unfree contracted labour. Meanwhile, migrant professionals can be welcomed in specific places as contributors to the neo-liberal restructuring and rescaling of various cities. Also, 48 The Migration–Development Nexus migrant remittances can be relied on to transmit foreign currency to families, localities and regimes left behind, enabling their inclusion, however unequally, in global patterns of consumption and desire. In short, these seemingly discrepant narratives are part of the globally structured and locally situated mutual reconstitution of social relationships and values that a global power perspective allows us to analyse. Such a perspective also facilitates advocacy of alternative policies and agendas that would allow for environmental protection, public services, increased economic and social opportunities, and an equitable redistribution of profits including social security systems that provide benefits to those who produce the wealth. It is insufficient, however, to reduce the flood of anti-immigrant sentiments to a justification for exploitative labour. Returning to the coloniality of power framework and using it as part of our global perspective on migration can yield further insights into the current moment of anti-immigrant attacks and contradictory discourses. At the same time, this perspective highlights how US and European imperialist projects are simultaneously justified and obscured through a politics of fear that portrays migrants as the chief threat to national security. I have noted that states are still important within the globe-spanning economic processes that mark our contemporary world, but of course not all states are equal. Unequal globalization rests on a framework of imperial states that serve as base areas for institutions that control capital, the productions of arms and military power. These powerful states claim and obtain rights and privileges in states around the world and define the institutional limits of less powerful states. The core imperial states also are the key players in institutions that claim to be global, including the World Bank, the WTO and the United Nations Security Council. Increasingly, theorists on the right and the left have recently returned to the concept of imperialism to understand the unequal relationships between states. They stress the significance of warfare, but often ignore the relationship between neo-liberal restructuring, migration and the construction of images of the foreigner as enemy and terrorist (Cooper, 2003; Ferguson, 2004; Harvey, 2003; Ikenberry, 2002; Mann, 2003; Reyna, 2005). In the face of intense global economic, political, social and cultural interconnections and of growing inequality due to racialized and gendered hierarchies, the popularization of the notion of the migrant as the outsider rehabilitates earlier myths that nation-states contain homogeneous cultures shared by native populations. Once again, the migrant is constructed to reinforce and validate the nationalism that continues A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 49 to socialize individuals to identify with their nation-state. Once again, a discourse that presents the world as divided into autonomous nationstates is becoming hegemonic. Increasingly, as states are hollowed out in terms of infrastructure and discrete realms of economic production and are ever more integrally linked to production and consumption processes elsewhere, state narratives stress national identities and cultural difference. In short, nation-states are increasingly identity containers that maintain and disseminate images of the nation as a society that have little to do with the contemporary, transnational institutional structures within which social life and relations of power are produced. The fewer services and rights that states provide for their citizens and the more that they produce citizens who have been educated to identify as customers enmeshed in cultures of consumption rather than forms of civic and social engagement, the more these states promote discourses of social cohesion and national community. The inside is increasingly constructed in relation to framing foreigners as the source of disruption – as being responsible for the decline of social services and of community. The more that ordinary citizens in states around the world find their futures circumscribed by poverty or lack of social mobility, the more they are told by political leaders that the problems are caused by persons from elsewhere. Anti-immigrant discourse remains a nation-state building process, a ritual of renewal that engages its participants in defining their loyalty to a country by differentiating them from stigmatized and racialized others. Conclusions Migration studies too rarely address the global system that is reducing the opportunity for social and economic equality and justice around the world and the human costs of new short-term labour contracts. While potent critiques have been made of each strand of the contemporary and apparently contradictory narratives that address migration and development, the critiques remain encapsulated within different literatures. This has made it too easy to keep debates about migration separate from discussions of neo-liberal restructuring and the human toll that this agenda exacts around the world. Short-term labour contracts resurrect older forms of indenture, with limited rights and mobility. Families separated by migration regulations that allow no family reunion means the reproduction of social life at great personal sacrifice, with parents separated from children and spouses from each other, and elderly parents left to survive without the assistance of children. Developing a global 50 The Migration–Development Nexus power perspective on migration that directs attention to the contemporary neo-liberal moment allows us both to establish a research agenda that calls attention to the human costs of neo-liberal restructuring and to trace its various trajectories and the resistance it engenders. A global perspective on migration can provide an analytical lens that would allow scholars of migration and development to think beyond the reimposition of nationalist interests yet not endorse unequal globalization. Migration studies are at a crucial juncture. We can follow the pattern of the past, let our research be shaped by the public mood and the political moment, and revive old binaries, fears and categories. Or we can engage in research that clarifies this moment by developing new frameworks for analysis. In short, we need a new scholarship that can build on our understanding of global processes and highlight them, so that we can actually document how migrants live their lives as constitutive actors in multiple social settings. This scholarship will reconstitute migration theory so that it explains current observations and facilitates new ones. To do this, we need to discard methodological nationalism so that our units of analysis do not obscure either the mutual dialectic constitution of the global, national and local or the presence of imperial globe-spanning power and its internal contradictions, its inability to provide consistent development, and its dependence on migrant labour. The new scholarship should popularize the concept that migration and development processes are part of global forces experienced by people who move and those who do not move. This means that migration scholars must enter into the public debate about social cohesion by putting aside methodological nationalism and identifying the forces of globalization that are restructuring the lives of migrants and nonmigrants alike and by speaking to the common struggle of most people of the world for social and economic justice and equality. When delimited by their methodological nationalism, migration theorists confine their units of analysis to the nation-state and the migrant. They are thus unable to track structures and processes of unequal capital flow that influence the experience of people who reside in particular localities. Migration scholars often fail to look at the relationships between migrants and natives that are not framed by concepts of cultural or ancestral difference. Furthermore, they ignore the way in which local institutions that incorporate residents of states in a variety of ways are configured by power hierarchies that interpenetrate in states and regions. Development discussions that laud migrant remittances yet do not address transnational fields of unequal power serve to obfuscate rather A Global Perspective on Migration and Development 51 than promote analysis. Many states dominated by imperial power and its new regulatory architecture are struggling because a sizable proportion of their gross national product is channelled into debt service, leaving migrants to sustain the national economy through their contributions. Meanwhile, remittances and the flow of migrant capital across borders contribute to the profitability of banks and other financial institutions (Guarnizo, 2003). A global perspective on imperial power can also facilitate our ability as socially engaged scholars to theorize the contradictions of imperial dilemmas and find ways in which they can contribute to progressive social transformation. But we can do this only if we set aside bornagain assimilationism and other forms of integrationist theory that posit migrants as disruptors of national communities. It is necessary for migrants and natives of countries around the world who find their lives diminished by unequal globalization to understand what the problem is and what it is not. It is not putative hordes of illegal aliens or migrants’ transnational connections that are threatening the majority of people in the imperial core countries. Rather, we need to draw attention to the ways in which anti-immigrant rage and subjective feelings of despair, the precariousness of life, and life’s unmet aspirations reflect and speak to the global fragility and exploitive character of contemporary capitalism, its restructuring of economies, labour regimes and states, and its dependence on war and plunder. Note This article appeared originally in Social Analysis, 53 (3), Winter 2009, pp. 14–37. It has been slightly revised thanks to suggestions from Thomas Faist and Gudrun Lachenmann. Portions of this article are based on a paper co-authored with Ayse Cağlar entitled ‘Migrant Incorporation and City Scale: Theory in the Balance’, which was delivered at the conference ‘MPI Workshop: Migration and City Scale’, in Halle/Salle, Germany, in May 2005. Earlier versions of this article were delivered at the Second International Colloquium on Migration and Development, ‘Migration, Transnationalism, and Social Transformation’, Cocoyoc, Mexico, 26–28 October 2006; the Volkswagen Foundation Conference on Migration and Education, Hamburg, Germany, 22–23 February 2007; the RDI Conference on New Essentialisms, Paris, France, 22–25 May 2007; and the ZiF Conference on Transnational Migration and Development, Bielefeld, Germany, 30 May–1 June 2007. I wish to express my thanks to the conference organizers and participants, who are not responsible for the perspective of this article. Special thanks are extended to the James H. Hayes and Claire Short Hayes Professorship of the Humanities, which I held; to Burt Feintuch, at the Center for the Humanities, University of New Hampshire, for summer support; to Günther Schlee, at the ∗ 52 The Migration–Development Nexus Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, for broader conceptualizations of integration and conflict; to Hartwig Schuck, for formatting and website posting; and to Darien Rozentals, for editorial assistance. References Alba, R. and Nee, V. (2003) Remaking the American Mainstream: Assimilation and Contemporary Immigration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). Barth, F. (1969) Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference (Boston: Little, Brown). Basch, L., Glick Schiller, N. and Szanton Blanc, C. (1994) Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterritorrialized NationStates (New York: Gordon and Breach). Beck, U. 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