Main Models of Concerti Grossi of the Early 18th Century

Main Models of Concerti Grossi of the Early 18th Century Carmel Abramovitch THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MASTER'S DEGREE University of Haifa Faculty of Humanities Department of Music November, 2021 Main Models of Concerti Grossi of the Early 18th Century By: Carmel Abramovitch Supervised by: Prof. Oded Zehavi Dr. Alon Schab THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MASTER'S DEGREE University of Haifa Faculty of Humanities Department of Music November, 2021 Approved by: _____________________________ Date:______________________ Supervisor Approved by: _____________________________ Date:______________________ Supervisor Approved by: _____________________________ Date:______________________ (Chairperson of Master’s Committee) I Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................... III List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... IV List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... VII Preface........................................................................................................................................ 1 1. Background of Concerto and Concerto Grosso ...................................................................... 2 1.a Concerti until Corelli .................................................................................................. 2 1.b The role of Corelli in Concerti Grossi ........................................................................ 9 2. Analysis: Models and Variants............................................................................................. 14 2.a Corelli – Concerti Grossi, Op.6 ..................................................................................... 14 2.a.i Structure and Form ................................................................................................. 14 2.a.ii Instrumentation – Amplified Trio Sonata .............................................................. 18 2.a.iii Textures and Dialogue .......................................................................................... 21 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 25 2.b Vivaldi – L'estro Armónico, Op.3 ................................................................................. 25 2.b.i Structure and Form ................................................................................................. 26 2.b.ii Innovations in Ritornello form .............................................................................. 27 2.b.iii Instrumentation – orchestrating texture ................................................................ 31 2.b.iv Sound and effects – Beyond Texture .................................................................... 35 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 36 2.c Handel – Concerti Grossi, Op.3 and Op.6 ..................................................................... 37 2.c.i Structure, Form, and Diversity in Style .................................................................. 38 2.c.ii Instrumentation with woodwinds........................................................................... 43 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 47 2.d Bach’s Brandenburg Concerti ....................................................................................... 47 2.d.i The Concerti as a Unified Set ................................................................................. 48 2.d.ii Ensemble Concerti – Nos.1 and 6 ......................................................................... 49 2.d.iii Concerti Grossi – Nos.2 and 5 .............................................................................. 53 2.d.iv Middle-Ground – Nos.3 and 4 .............................................................................. 57 2.d.v Modulations in the ritornelli .................................................................................. 59 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 61 3. Manifestation of Concerto Grosso in later times .................................................................. 62 3.a After Handel, Before Bloch ........................................................................................... 62 3.b Resurrection of the Genre .............................................................................................. 72 4. Conclusions – Devising the Models, Collecting the Tools................................................... 79 Carmel Abramoitch – Concerto Grosso con duoi Violini e Viola da Gamba o Violoncello di Concertino obligati e duoi altri Violini, Viola, e Basso di Concerto Grosso con flauto e hautboy opzionali ............................................................................................................................................ 80 References ................................................................................................................................ 81 Scores ....................................................................................................................................... 83 II Main Models of Concerti Grossi of the early 1700s Carmel Abramovitch Abstract The purpose of this study is first and foremost to grant a composer the proper tools in order to write a Concerto Grosso, focusing on the models of the first half of the 1700s. Because there is ambiguity to the term, it seemed there was a need to define what a Concerto Grosso is. The research will address the difference between concertos for multiple soloists, small groups, and between groups – with or without a ripieno, all attributed to the "Grosso” genre, and define various models. To this end, and to understand the genre’s fundamental principles, the study starts with the examination of the Concerto Grosso’s roots and of the concerto in general. The majority of research will be conducted on the five most important collections of the time – Corelli Op.6, Vivaldi Op.3, Handel Opp.3 and 6, and the Brandenburg Concerti by Bach – using analysis of macro aspects such as structure, form, and texture. The observations of several scholars – such as Talbot, BroverLubovsky, Bukofzer, Tatlow, as well as contemporary sources of the baroque – are also imbedded in this study. In addition, some biographical survey is provided – especially of Corelli – in order to give context to the birth of the Concerto Grosso, and better understand its role and development in the musical world. The study will further survey later works on a more superficial level. Supplemented to this research is my own composition, a Concerto Grosso based on the knowledge gained from this study. III List of Figures Figure 1 Giovanni Gabrieli, Concerto XLL Gloria a 16 - an opposition between choirs ......... 3 Figure 2 Giovanni Gabrielli ch.214n sonata 12. polyphonic, with concertante moments ......... 4 Figure 3 Castello sonate prima a2 – soprano 1,2 and figured bass............................................ 5 Figure 4 Torelli, Op.8.i concerto grosso.................................................................................... 6 Figure 5 Cazzati Op.35 triad opening........................................................................................ 7 Figure 6 Cazzati's Op.35 No.11 the strings and continuo keep a homophonic style. ................ 8 Figure 7 Torelli’s Sinfonia G.33 with a robust major triad opening continued by passagework ................................................................................................................................................... 9 Figure 8 Arcangelo Corelli leading a serenata at Piazza di Spagna1, Christofor Schor, 1687 11 Figure 9 Corelli's Op.3 No.8 demonstrates virtuosity in the final allegro ............................... 12 Figure 10 Allemandes - Op.6.on the left, Op.2 on the right .................................................... 12 Figure 11 No.4.ii – The viola and bass give space for a continuo solo ................................... 18 Figure 12 No.2.iv Figures in blue show the interval of the viola from the root note. *Doubled by vln. 1. .................................................................................................................................. 19 Figure 13 Op.6 No.1.iii - four-part fugue in the trio settings. The viola’s entrance depicted in the cello part ............................................................................................................................ 19 Figure 14 No.1.i virtuosic cello ............................................................................................... 20 Figure 15 No.6.v interchanges................................................................................................. 20 Figure 16 No.1.iii "fake" 6-part fugue..................................................................................... 21 Figure 17 Concerto No.4 - last allegro. in blue - single note interchanges between violins. Red - independent cello part ........................................................................................................... 21 Figure 18 No.8 last allegro - ping-pong interchanges ............................................................. 22 Figure 19 Ripieno joins as echo in No.3.i ............................................................................... 22 Figure 20 No.1.ii tutti repetition of theme ............................................................................... 23 Figure 21 No.6.i tutti piano and forte echoing effect .............................................................. 23 Figure 22 No.5.i antiphon effect using dynamics instead of tutti vs soli ................................ 24 Figure 23 No.7 – Andante Largo - Tutti acts in a soft accordance .......................................... 24 Figure 24 Concerto No.8 last movement fade out effect ......................................................... 25 Figure 25 The fugue from No.11 ............................................................................................. 26 Figure 26 No.8.iii opening measurements in imitative texutre ............................................... 27 Figure 27 Scarlatti’s Mentr'io Godo in Dolce Oblio (instrumental reduction from the Oratorio "The Rose Garden") ................................................................................................................ 28 Figure 28 No. 6.i antecedent, fortspinnung & epilogue based on the ritornello's opening theme ................................................................................................................................................. 29 Figure 29 No.12.iii Opening ritornello in the fortspinnung method........................................ 29 IV Figure 30 No.8.i shortened ritornello in Am in a cadence to Em, then modulates to Dm right after.......................................................................................................................................... 29 Figure 31 No.1.i the recurring theme ...................................................................................... 30 Figure 32 No.1.i recurring accompaniment ............................................................................. 30 Figure 33 No.1.iii tutti responds in accordance ....................................................................... 31 Figure 34 No.1.ii violas as bass ............................................................................................... 32 Figure 35 No. 7.i omitting the violas ....................................................................................... 32 Figure 36 No. 10.i solo viola accompaniment ......................................................................... 33 Figure 37 No.10 7-part writing................................................................................................ 33 Figure 38 No.1.ii majestic unisons .......................................................................................... 34 Figure 39 No.1.i pairs in thirds, each in its turn ...................................................................... 34 Figure 40 No.4.i stretto duo..................................................................................................... 35 Figure 41 No.1.i Cello solo in a non-cello-solo concerto ........................................................ 35 Figure 42 No.10 different arpeggios ....................................................................................... 36 Figure 43 No.10 final movement. 8va ..................................................................................... 36 Figure 44 No.7.iii ping-pong ................................................................................................... 36 Figure 45 Op.6 No.5.i,ii - French styled overture ................................................................... 39 Figure 46 Op.6 No.12.i recitative manner ............................................................................... 39 Figure 47 Op.6 No.8.i .............................................................................................................. 39 Figure 48 Op.6 No.3 and No.7 motetic and homophonic opening .......................................... 40 Figure 49 polonaise theme 1 and theme 2 ............................................................................... 41 Figure 50 transition, red for the theme, green for episode, blue for codetta ........................... 41 Figure 51 bar 47 does not stay in the tonic, but modulated to C ............................................. 42 Figure 52 False cadence to G in 69, which is only established in the ending measures ......... 42 Figure 53 Op.6 No.8 .iii motives superimposed ...................................................................... 42 Figure 54 Op. 6 No.2.ii Ongoing motive development ........................................................... 43 Figure 55 The overture to the Ode of St. Cecilia's Day........................................................... 43 Figure 56 Op.3 No.2.v orchestrating the continuo section ...................................................... 44 Figure 57 No.6.ii solo for the organ ........................................................................................ 44 Figure 58 Op.6 No.1.i oboes as drums .................................................................................... 46 Figure 59 Op.6 No.5.v uses a, b, c for the oboes ..................................................................... 47 Figure 60 The keys are a fifth apart from C ............................................................................ 48 Figure 61 No.1.i choirs vs choirs (type 1) ............................................................................... 50 Figure 62 No.1.ii soloists are supported with chords (type 2) ................................................. 50 Figure 63 No.1.i unified texture (type 3) ................................................................................ 51 Figure 64 No.1.i antiphon........................................................................................................ 52 Figure 65 No.6.i duo vs duo .................................................................................................... 52 V Figure 66 No.1.i the oboe solo against the violin .................................................................... 53 Figure 67 No.1.iv dovetailing rhythmic horns ........................................................................ 53 Figure 68 No.5.i 32nd runs and quasi violin-duo parts for the cembalo ................................. 54 Figure 69 No.2.i contrasting material between concertino and tutti........................................ 55 Figure 70 No.2.i Order of introduction of soloists .................................................................. 56 Figure 71 No.5 affetuoso fugue ............................................................................................... 56 Figure 72 No.3.i correspondence between the choirs .............................................................. 57 Figure 73 No.3.i correspondence within the choirs ................................................................. 57 Figure74 No.3.i Soloist backed up within the choir. ............................................................... 57 Figure 75 No.3.i False reprise to G minor, real recap. in bar 126 ........................................... 59 Figure 76 No.2.i.103 Am>F .................................................................................................... 61 Figure 77 No.3.i.126 Gm>G ................................................................................................... 61 Figure 78 No.4.i. mm.332-334 Bm>G .................................................................................... 61 Figure 79 No.5.iii.232 modulation without preparation from Bm to D .................................. 61 Figure 80 Beethoven’s triple concerto, the soloists enter, with accompaniment .................... 63 Figure 81 Beethoven's triple concerto - contrasts of soli - tuti ................................................ 64 Figure 82 Brahm's double concerto - powerful introduction................................................... 65 Figure 83 Brahm's double concerto - soft introduction ........................................................... 65 Figure 84 K.299.i bar 68: harp accompanies flute solo ........................................................... 66 Figure 85 K.299.i bar 89 textured as an ensemble concerto. In red – a little trio.................... 67 Figure 86 3 K.299.ii bar 4 textured as amplified trio-sonata ................................................... 68 Figure 87 hob.1/109 concertino group vs orchestra ................................................................ 70 Figure 88 Beethoven's Symphony No.7.i Antiphon (left), acoustic-timbral effects (right) .... 71 Figure 89 Beethoven's symphony No.4.i woodwinds as concertino ....................................... 72 Figure 90 Bloch’s No.1.ii solos ............................................................................................... 73 Figure 91 No.2.i concertino and tutti....................................................................................... 74 Figure 92 Martinu's Concerto Grosso, more like an ensemble concerto or a symphony ........ 75 Figure 93 Vaughn Williams - string quintet concertino, ripieno, and an optional addition of strings ...................................................................................................................................... 76 Figure 94 Schnitke's Concerto Grosso No.1 tocatta ................................................................ 77 Figure 95 Igor Stravinsky - Dumbarton Oaks for Chamber Orchestra (1937-38) .................. 78 VI List of Tables Table 1 Compound movements ............................................................................................... 17 Table 2 Vivaldi's combinations of soloists .............................................................................. 26 Table 3 Handel’s Op.3 instrumentation................................................................................... 45 Table 4 Bach's progression of keys ......................................................................................... 60 VII Preface As a composer, I felt that in order to achieve a master level of proficiency – I had to write a concerto. The genre demands an understanding of the instruments and creativity in terms of texture, and feels to me like a must-have in a composer’s portfolio. The solo concerto, however, did not arouse in me any curiosity, for there are already a plentiful amount in the world. I have heard of the Concerto Grosso and had very little knowledge of it. In addition, as a viol player, I have a soft spot for historically informed performance, and for unusual timbres in general, and so the old style of the concerto seemed like the right choice. 1 1. Background of Concerto and Concerto Grosso 1.a Concerti until Corelli The first examples of concerti are in music for choir, known today as vocal concerti. The word concerto meant both in consort and virtuosically elaborated. Beforehand, the meaning of the word was ambiguous due to the Latin origin concertare – "to compete together" (Newman, 2020). Earliest uses of the word as a musical texture came as early as the 1500s. For example, the venetian anthology Mvsica De Diversi Avttori Illvstri Per Cantar E Sonar in Concerti, published 1584, describes a group of voices and/or instruments playing together (in consorts). Three years later, in 1587, a collection of venetian composers, Andrea Gabrieli and his nephew, Giovanni Gabrieli, was released, titled plainly concerti. This collection contains music for 6-12, and for 16, some of which are for multiple choirs. The concerto below by Giovanni Gabrieli demonstrates different textures between the choirs. As choir 2 and 4 collaborate in homophony, they are answered in a fugal manner by imitative choirs 1 and 3. 2 Figure 1 Giovanni Gabrieli, Concerto XLL Gloria a 16 - an opposition between choirs According to Grove Music Online (Hutchings, A et al., 2001), the concerto is in fact a branch of the sonata, starting with a single violin player per part and progressively becoming a string orchestra. Early sonatas had a polyphonic style not much different from vocal music of the time, which commonly used imitations. The following example by Giovanni Gabrieli, published 1615, is a sonata that starts in an 3 imitative texture, and continues with solos accompanied by the bass. The solos are more brilliant, in contrast with the tutti material. Figure 2 Giovanni Gabrielli ch.214n sonata 12. polyphonic, with concertante moments Castello’s Sonate concertate in stilo moderno is a collection of virtuosic pieces for two or three instruments over figured bass. The ones for two are practically trio sonatas. Also, this is the first appearance of the term concertate in an instrumental context. 4 Figure 3 Castello sonate prima a2 – soprano 1,2 and figured bass Here we already see two foretelling models of instrumental music that can be associated with future concerti grossi such as Torelli’s Op.8 and Corelli’s Op.6. The kind in which the soloistic material contrasts the tutti material, as Gabrieli’s and Torelli’s, and the “stilo moderno”, in which the material itself is competitive, or “concertate”, as Castello’s and Corelli’s. These sonatas are, however, still small both in terms of form and of instrumentation, if compared with the orchestral genre of the concerto. Torelli was the first important composer to publish a collection with the term concerto grosso with his 12 concerti grossi con una pastorale, Op.8, in 1709. However, the title is misleading – as only half are for two concertino violins, while the other six are for solo violin. Before Torelli, second tier composer Giovanni Lorenzo Gregori published his Op.2 in 1698, which includes concerti grossi. Some other collections were published since, such as Valentini Giuseppe’s Concerti Grossi, Op.7. What changed, that now that word “grosso” was added? As opposed to the earlier sonatas, the concertino’s support of the bass was extended with the “reinforcement” of a ripieno of two violins, viola, violone, and organ. Thus, the arrangement becomes larger. Additionally, the forms become more complex. Torelli’s opus makes extensive use of the ritornello form, later to be standardized by Vivaldi. My assertion is that the term “grosso” was yet to imply a type of genre, but was rather a superlative adjective. 5 Figure 4 Torelli, Op.8.i concerto grosso As the orchestras grew, the echoing acoustics in which they played became unfit for polyphonic performance. In Bologna, maestri di cappella of San Petronio – Cazzati (1657–71), Colonna (1674–95), and Perti (1696–1756) – preferred a “robust style that brought into prominence only one instrument at a time” (Grove Music Online, Talbot, 2001) – as can be seen in some of their sonatas (examples below). This robust style was also evident in the homophonic texture with brilliant passagework and concertato dialogues, neglecting imitative polyphony. This style was many times exemplified by sonatas for obligato trumpet written from 1660 onwards by Cazzati, Domenico Gabrielli, and Torelli. The latter two had positions in the San Petronio orchestra. These sonatas, according to Grove, were the origins for the major-triad openings of sonatas thereafter. For reference, all six Brandenburg concerti begin with such a triad. The example sonata by Cazzati shows this motive in a solo context. Note that the soloists do not have reinforcements. The second example by Torelli demonstrates a massively orchestrated sinfonia in the concertato style. The size of the orchestra and of the soloists outnumbers most, if not all concerto grosso of the time. In this case, there is no need to 6 call it a concerto, let alone grosso, since its function is not for private use, such as in the case of sonatas (Mangsen et al., 2001).1 Figure 5 Cazzati Op.35 triad opening 1 Mangsen further discusses the both secular and religious social-cultural context of the sonata in the Grove Music Online. 7 Figure 6 Cazzati's Op.35 No.11 the strings and continuo keep a homophonic style. 8 Figure 7 Torelli’s Sinfonia G.33 with a robust major triad opening continued by passagework It is by now apparent that the concertate style, which featured contrasts between groups, or contrast between soloistic episodes with ritornelli – together with the reinforcement of a ripieno – made the concerto a standalone genre. Starting with Corelli, the following will present standardizations of the concerto grosso model. 1.b The role of Corelli in Concerti Grossi Given how celebrated Corelli's Op.6 was and the impact it had, it is interesting that the Roman composer's concerti grossi were not published until a year after his death in 1714 (Hutchings, A et al., 2001). It should be borne in mind that at least some of these concerti were already performed during his lifetime; and so, Corelli’s impact on other composers began much earlier than the year the opus was released. It is common belief that during Georg Muffat’s visits to Rome in 1681, he attended one of these 9 concerts and studied with Corelli. We attribute to Muffat’s later commentary on his own concerti a lot of our recent knowledge of the topic. The following paragraphs will describe the evolution of Corelli’s career, and with it the evolution of the concerto grosso, mainly in terms of orchestration. Owen Jander (1968) reviews the orchestration of Corelli's concerti at the time of his activity in Rome. He states that, although Corelli had his early education in Bologna, his skills in orchestration were developed in Rome, where he was exposed to vocal music. The Papal States sponsored many of the choirs in Rome, and especially in festive events, the singers would be doubled with instrumentalists (Spitzer & Zaslaw, 2010). In such events of the 1600s, there were several choirs – each joined by a section of similar instruments (e.g., trumpets, or violins and flutes, or basses) and organs. In addition, lead singers had the accompaniment of a violin. Later on, this model evolved into a concerto grosso organization – where instead of several choirs, a ripieno, or cappella, would be doubled with mostly bowed instruments, and a smaller group of soloists, a coro favorito, would be accompanied with two violins and a violone. The older texture of spatial separation between distinct choirs gave way to two different textures – mass and soloistic, quite like the concerti grossi beforementioned, but with one critical difference. The concertino is an independent group, with its own continuo instrumentation. It is this model that is key to the distinction of Corelli’s Op.6 to all other concerti. Such a performance was recorded in a painting by Christofor Schor (Spitzer & Zaslaw, 2010). 10 Figure 8 Arcangelo Corelli leading a serenata at Piazza di Spagna1, Christofor Schor, 1687 In 1675, the Church of San Giovanni dei Fiorentini hired instrumentalists for the performance of San Eustachio, an oratorio by Antonio Masini. For the performance, the list of "concertino" players included two violins, a lute, a harpsichord, and two violoni. The list of "violini del concerto grosso" included six violins, and then four alto violas, four tenor violas, and four basses. The list even stated that the players had only two rehearsals before the event. Among these players was young Arcangelo Corelli, listed as "il Bolognese" (the name by which he was known due to his origin). In the mid-1680s, Corelli’s career evolved from playing in concerts to composing and producing them, as he received patronship from the Cardinal Benedetto Pamphili, a well-known collector of arts and a librettist himself.2 Some features of the Corellian concerto have roots in the sonatas published during this time, that would 2 The Cardinal's most successful and resonant work was the oratorio Il Trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno, set to music in the spring of 1707 by Georg Friedrich Handel, guest in Rome (Mercantini, 2014). 11 moreover serve as models for other composers well into the 18th century (Talbot, 2001).3 Op.2 of 12 chamber sonatas, dedicated to Pamphili and published in 1685, is a collection for two violins and continuo, in the four-movement format of a prelude and three dances or connecting movements (essentially dance suites). Op.3 of trio sonatas was published in 1689. Both opuses’ texture is mostly choral (especially in Op.2), however in Op.3 one may find fine instrumental passageworks that would fit a virtuosic concerto part. Figure 9 Corelli's Op.3 No.8 demonstrates virtuosity in the final allegro Some resemblance may be found between the sonatas and the concerti grossi. Peter Allsop (1999) notes that the allemandes, such as in Op.2 No.3, resemble the penultimate movement of Op.6 No.3, in which the violins play parallel thirds above a quaver bass. Figure 10 Allemandes - Op.6.on the left, Op.2 on the right In 1690, Pamphili left for Bologna and Corelli got a new patron – Cardinal Ottoboni, with whom he remained until his death. It was in this time that Corelli published Opp. 4 and 5, which, according to Allsop (1999), were partially the grounds Despite the many references to Corelli’s sonatas (published 1681–1700) as normative, the four-movement model usually attributed to him (slow–fast–slow–fast) is present in only half of his published sonatas. 3 12 for some of the movements of Op.6; specifically, Op. 4 No.9 (tempo di gavotte) became No.2’s finale, and Op.5 No.8 is similar to the finale of Op.6 No.3. Under these patronages, Corelli’s status grew as he managed, conducted and composed for orchestra, as well as took care of wages and transportation for the instrumentalists, and so came to arguably be the only Roman musician able to manage a full orchestra. The critic G. M. Crescimbeni testified that the mass of his orchestras was often larger than a hundred participants, including the combination of winds and strings, and was astonished at how well they sounded without the risk of discord (Spitzer & Zaslaw, 2010). Corelli’s role in concerti grossi is therefore twofold: 1) in its unique orchestration of two opposing groups – the trio sonata against (or supported by) the full ripieno; 2) in the four-movement structure based on sonata da camera and da chiesa. However, the former form of concerto grosso, as Torelli’s, continued to develop alongside it. The following chapter will get into the depths of this matter and see how the two models evolved and/or merged. 13 2. Analysis: Models and Variants The purpose of this chapter is to devise models of concerti grossi starting with Corelli's Op.6, and continuing to Vivaldi's Op.3 L'estro armonico, Handel's Concerti Grossi Opp. 3 and 6, and Bach's Brandenburg Concerti. The analysis will focus on macro aspects such as structure, form, texture, and orchestration/instrumentation. These aspects will be the building blocks of the concerto grosso models, as they essentially convey different ways of managing parts in terms of melo-rhythmic material and timing (tutti, solo, primary material, secondary material, one after another, together at once, etc.). Consequently, other subjects, such as harmony, rhythm, and tonality, are of lesser importance, and as such will also be analysed, albeit in passing. Eventually, the analysis will yield a general understanding of the genre’s design – as well as some tricks-of-thetrade for composing an extraordinary concerto grosso. For this matter, the order of the pieces in this chapter is chronological, from Corelli through Vivaldi and Handel. Bach, as the most diverse and experimental, was saved for last. 2.a Corelli – Concerti Grossi, Op.6 Op.6, published in 1714 as Concerti Grossi con duo violini e violoncello di concertino obligati e duoi altri Violini, Viola e Basso di Concerto Grosso ad arbitrio, che si potranno radopiarre includes 12 concerti – eight of which are free concerti )Allsop 1999) with multiple movements, and four chamber concerti. Since the original publication wasn’t arranged with numbered movements, and because of the many tempo changes and sometimes very brief sections – it is at times hard to decide what is considered a movement at all.4 Only in the chamber concerti (Nos. 9-12) there is a title for every dance. 2.a.i Structure and Form Generally, there are three types of distinct forms in every concerto of this opus: compound movements, binary, and fugues. The free concerti mostly begin with a slow introduction (Nos. 1, 4, 5) or a short declarative vivace (Nos. 2, 7, 8), which is then followed by one or more compound movements of changing tempi. No.8 begins with a 4 One can see recordings that had five tracks for No.2 (Musica Amphion 2012), for example, whereas other recordings or score publishers divided it to four movements (Europa Galante, 2007; Waldemar Woehl, 1937). No.8 has seven movements in the recordings by Musica Amphion. And 5 by Europa Galante. 14 short introduction and a fugue, similar to the sonata da chiesa, only to continue with a compound movement. No.3 does not contain a compound movement at all. Curiously, Nos. 3 and 8 are the only concerti in a minor key. They are therefore much like the sonata da chiesa. The four concerti da camera, go by the same principles of the chamber sonatas, discussed in the previous chapter. The distinction between the free concerti and the chamber sonatas may be ambiguous – as No.12, for example, has only two named dances, but three free movements. In comparison, Allsop recognized that No.3 ends with both an Allemande and a Giga. Other free concerti include dance-like movements as well. Corelli’s compound movements display dramatic contrasts, with their transitions from broad introductions to faster vigorous sections, often interrupted by sudden adagios or general pauses. Each section has its own character, depicted by a subject or effect and tempo, and goes through tonal changes and development until it resolves back to the tonic at its end. The table below demonstrates this model: 15 No.1.i Intro: 1-11, D Maj. No.2.i Intro: 1-9, F Maj. No.4.i Intro: 1-4, D Maj. A: 12-20, D Maj. A2: 21-27, Bm B subito: 20-21, Bm A: 10-39, F Maj. A: 5-25, D Maj.-A Maj. B: 40-51, Fm B: 26-51, A Maj.-D Maj. 16 B2: 28, A Maj. Intro2: 52-60, C Maj. A3: 29-36, A Maj. A2: 61-98, C Maj. B3: 37-39, D Maj. C: 99-107, F Maj. No.5.i Intro: 1-9, Bb A: 9-29, Bb Maj. G.P 29-31, Bb Maj. Table 1 Compound movements 17 B: 32-61, Bb Maj. -Dm B2: 62-72, Bb Maj. Coda: 73-76, F Binary forms are widely used in second or later movements. No.1.ii (largoallegro) is clearly a minuet, for example, with the allegro being a virtuosic variation on the former's harmonic progression. No.4.iii (vivace) is also a minuet, and its final allegro is a Gigue, with a virtuosic coda. There are binary movements in duple meters as well, for example No.3.iii (vivace), and No.5's final allegro. It is worth mentioning that Concerto No.5 is the only one in this collection without a vivace movement. 2.a.ii Instrumentation – Amplified Trio Sonata As mentioned, the concerti grossi are based on a trio (concertino) and a ripieno (sometimes referred to as concerto grosso). The parts in the collection’s original edition were titled: violino primo del concertino, violino secondo del concertino, and violoncello del concertino; plus the ripieno: violin primo / secondo del concerto grosso, alto viola, and basso del concerto grosso. The instruments of the ripieno either double the concertino or support the continuo with realization. Unlike common practice, Corelli’s concertino cello part includes figures and serves multiple purposes. First, in a fully orchestrated performance, the cello would be doubled by a lute or the like, separately from the ripieno, thereby creating a dialogue between groups. As Muffat wrote: “as to the little choir or trio [. . .], let it be played singly [. . .] with the accompaniment of an organist or theorbo player“ (Strunk, 1950). Other than supporting with harmony, the additional continuo player has an important role in No.4.ii, where the concertino, along with the ripieno violins, plays nothing but chordal progressions. The violas and bass join intermittently, when needed. This space created in their absence allows the continuo player to take on a solo. Figure 11 No.4.ii – The viola and bass give space for a continuo solo The trick, however, is that the concerti are also very much playable without the ripieno, by a trio-sonata group, where the part of the viola isn’t needed since the 18 continuo player is able to harmonize the bassline. To cite Muffat: “Should you be short of string players, or wish to try over these concertos with only a few, you may form a perfect little trio, at all times necessary. [. . .] and to this may be added, for the greater ornamentation of the harmony, a harpsichord or theorbo, played from the very same part”. Theoretically, a small performing group is not required to purchase all the parts, as they were printed in separate volumes (the first edition is available in the IMSLP for demonstration). It is a smart commercial strategy, because it saves money for users – both by having less players and parts to pay for. The extent to which Muffat’s claim could be stressed is uncertain. Did Corelli actually write the concerti starting with the trio? It is almost certain that the fugues were written in four-parts, and not for trio, as Allsop (1999) suggests.5 Yet, harmonically, they can still be played in a trio context and retain good harmony. That is to say, the viola parts will never play the thirds of a consonant chord, or have part in a dissonance progression. Hence, the level of saturation is kept by the trio. Furthermore, to solve the viola’s absence in the beginning imitations, the concertino cello plays the first notes. 8 5 8 5 3* 6* 5 5 8 5 5 5 Figure 12 No.2.iv Figures in blue show the interval of the viola from the root note. *Doubled by vln. 1. Figure 13 Op.6 No.1.iii - four-part fugue in the trio settings. The viola’s entrance depicted in the cello part 5 Allsop makes a thorough analysis on the subject of whether the opus was truly designed as a trio-sonata from the start. 19 Other than functioning as a bass in a trio context, the concertino cello also has independent parts, and even very demanding passages. The first allegro of No.1 starts with a virtuosic example indeed, not only for the persistent six-bar long semiquavers, but also for the inconsistency of the melodic patterns, as well for the use of chromatic notes. The harmony changes every half measure. Combined, these elements create an intense part for the cello. Figure 14 No.1.i virtuosic cello The viola has some important roles as well, but is given very little rhythmic independence outside four-part fugue writing. It often helps to accent certain elements in the other parts. The example from No.7.v shows how it colours the cello when jumping octaves. Like the interchanges of motives between the violins, there are now also interchanges of thickness in the lower parts. Figure 15 No.7.v interchanges In fugues, the ripieno has a sophisticated way of creating different thicknesses. In No.1.iii, for example, there are only 4 melodic lines, but 6 entrances are distributed 20 between the parts, thus creating a six-grade thickening of the texture. It almost creates the illusion of a six-part fugue. Figure 16 No.1.iii "fake" 6-part fugue 2.a.iii Textures and Dialogue Every concerto in this collection covers a diverse array of textures. There is always a chordal movement, or at least an opening section. Imitations are extant, often with an accompaniment. Some techniques are instrumental in nature, while some are influenced from vocal concerti. Instrumental techniques are not particularly verbal, but they are very effective. Interchanges of motives between the concertino violins is a feature Corelli was fond of, as seen in the figure from No.6.v above. Some instances demonstrate game-like interchanges between but a single note. Below are examples from No.4 and the last allegro of No.8. Figure 17 Concerto No.4 - last allegro. in blue - single note interchanges between violins. Red - independent cello part 21 Figure 18 No.8 last allegro - ping-pong interchanges Antiphony between the concerto grosso and the concertino is a demonstration of Corelli's influence by the vocal concerti. Unlike older styles of polychoral textures, the concertino joins the ripieno in the amplified echoes (e.g., No.3.i). Muffat instructs that tutti parts must be in full tone, and that piano parts should be played "at once so softly and tenderly that one barely hears them" (Oliver Strunk, 1950, p. 451). Another instance is an amplified repetition of a whole theme, such as in No.1.ii. In a trio performance, the group should play these instances in piano and forte. This is not always mentioned, but there are instances of these cases when the ripieno is silent (e.g., No.6.i). Figure 19 Ripieno joins as echo in No.3.i 22 Figure 20 No.1.ii tutti repetition of theme Figure 21 No.6.i tutti piano and forte echoing effect (reduction from continuo realization) The ripieno does not always act as an amplification, in the sense of creating bigger forte parts. No.5.i creates a dialogue of piano and forte fully orchestrated. In this fashion it may be interpreted more as a rhetorical effect than an antiphon – a sort of word painting. 23 Figure 22 No.5.i antiphon effect using dynamics instead of tutti vs soli Other frequent uses of the ripieno are the support of a choir to soloists on key notes, such as V-I progressions, or a whole cadence. The following figure from the andante largo of No.7 demonstrates these short cadences between measures. In this example, the ripieno plays an unordinary role of accenting the rests of the concertino cello. This musical sentence, without the ripieno, would sound quite different with only the second violin playing the third of the chord on the first beat. The ripieno, therefore, plays the root. Figure 23 No.7 – Andante Largo - Tutti acts in a soft accordance Finally, an example from the first edition where dynamics are used to create an echoing tail as a closing section – from Forte to Pianissimo. Examples such as this show that in Corelli’s time there was already a spectrum of dynamics, and a wide range of expressive use of this spectrum. 24 Figure 24 Concerto No.8 last movement fade out effect Conclusions This opus was designed in Corelli’s unique way, starting from the use of his own structures and the amplified trio sonata orchestration. He used compound movements and free structures in addition to his own standard, originated in his sonatas. The core of his instrumentation is in the trio. It is as if the music was originally for the trio, with arrangements made for the ripieno, as suggested by the term “amplified trio sonata”, often used to describe Op.6. The concertino cello, alongside a continuo player, has a big part in maintaining this balance, and the viola adds mostly thickness to the texture and, in some cases, independent rhythmic parts. Textural dialogues exist on a few levels – between the soloists, and between the ripieno and the concertino. Playful instrumental techniques are frequent between the soloists, and the ripieno often functions like the vocal concerti in antiphons or to amplify certain sections or parts, but also has gestures that were not available to the trio. Thanks to Georg Muffat’s commentary, we have a lot of information on the execution of these concerti. However, the assumption that the concerti are fully performable in a trio scenario is not without consequences. To be fair, I am not convinced that this was Corelli’s main objective – as evidenced by some parts of the ripieno whose absence would truly be a compromise. The Corellian model, at any rate, depends on the wholeness of the trio, as it also affects the purpose and management of the ripieno, and of the contrasts between tutti and soli sections. 2.b Vivaldi – L'estro Armónico, Op.3 Op.3 was published in 1711 as a collection of 12 concerti. Vivaldi did not name the concerti “grossi”, and yet Op.3 is designed very much like Torelli’s concerti grossi, Op.8. The dozen concerti include various combinations of soloists (a third of them for one soloist, see table 2 below), with a similar ensemble of four violin parts, three movement structure, and the use of the ritornello form. Even though Torelli is probably the first to embody the ritornello form in the concerto genre, it is due to Vivaldi’s sophisticated innovations in 25 Torelli’s model, that this model TYPE NO. AND KEY became one to be imitated by many VIOLINO SOLO 3-G 6-Am European DUE VIOLINI 5-A 8-Am 2-Gm 11-Dm 1-D 4-Em 7-F 10-Bm composers. Vivaldi composed as many as 500 concerti. DUE VIOLINI E His success, however, also brought VIOLONCELLO critique. According to Brover- QUATTRO VIOLINI Lubovsky (2008), he was often considered unlearned by his 9-D 12-E QUATTRO VIOLINI E VIOLONCELLO Table 2 Vivaldi's combinations of soloists contemporaries, and was thought to have "bad-harmony", which, in that time, would mean lack of counterpoint and/or melody in the bass line. As Charles Avison wrote: “Of the first and lowest Class, are Vivaldi, Tessarini, Alberti, and Locatelli, whose Compositions being equally defective in various Harmony and true Invention, are only a fit Amusement for Children.” He blamed “the extreme of an unnatural modulation” as being responsible for “that oblivion to which they are deservedly destined.” (Avison, 1752, p.34). Avison also condemned Vivaldi’s use of effects, such as imitating voices of animals. We shall observe these accusations later. 2.b.i Structure and Form The core structure of the concerti consists of three movements – fast, slow, fast. Nos.2, 4 and 7 begin with an additional slow prelude and No.10.ii is preceded by a Largo interlude. There are but a few fugues, such as in No.11, after the opening (which is itself imitative); but otherwise, imitative textures are reserved to the opening measurements of some movements. Among these: No.1.i, No.2.i, No.8.iii, No.11.i and iv, No.12.ii. Figure 25 The fugue from No.11 26 Figure 26 No.8.iii opening measurements in imitative texture As to binary forms, these are commonly found in final movements, as expected. Even though they are not titled as dances, they do have similarities in rhythm and style to them. – No.2.ii Sarabande, over-dotted No.2.iv – Gigue No.3.iii No.6.iii – Rigaudon No.7.v – Minuet There are movements in the style of a dance, but that are not binary: No.4.i has a Sarabande rhythm; No.4.iv is a Gigue; No.11.ii is a Loure with a ritornello that recurs at its end. Most of the first allegro movements are in ritornello form (e.g., Nos.3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12), and final movements are not binary either – such as Nos.6.iii and 12.iii. Slow ritornello movements are rare. The two distinct ones are Nos.8.ii and 12.ii. It so happens that No.12 is entirely ritornelli! Whether the concerto is for solo or multiple soloists, it is of no consequence in this matter. 2.b.ii Innovations in Ritornello form 27 Walter Kolneder asserted that "it is doubtless true that the ritornello aria was the model [Vorbild] for the solo concerto form” (Solie, 1977, pp. 32-33). Such arias by Alessandro Scarlatti would have an instrumental prelude that returns in the end, and often in the middle of the aria as well. His Aria, Mentre io godo in dolce oblio, is an example of an introducing ritornello which is then repeated by the singer. Figure 27 Scarlatti’s Mentr'io Godo in Dolce Oblio (instrumental reduction from the Oratorio "The Rose Garden") Vivaldi’s implementation of the ritornello form has variations. The distinct cases hold some characteristics – primarily that the movement starts off with full instrumentation (or with at least the group of soloists) and develops on the Fortspinnung method.6 6 Fortspinnung (English: spinning-forth) is a German term conceived in 1915 by Wilhelm Fischer.) 28 Figure 28 No. 6.i antecedent, fortspinnung & epilogue based on the ritornello's opening theme The below example from No.12.iii demonstrates an opening ritornello. The opening theme of descending triads is introduced by the first and third violin (blue). The triadic motive is then “spun-out” into an entire phrase (red), and, in this case, then moves to the bass and meets an epilogue and a full cadence (yellow). Figure 29 No.12.iii Opening ritornello in the fortspinnung method The movement also ends with the ritornello, albeit not fully, thus creating a brief reprise or da capo. Finally, the ritornello recurs during the length of the movement modulated – to the relative key and/or to a close key. In this manner, the ritornello form has many common features with fugues. The shortened ritornelli are also a characteristic of Vivaldi’s concerti. The following example shows how brief they may be. So brief, that they modulate without any proper procedure. In No.8.i in A minor, the recurring cadence to the dominant by the tutti is followed immediately by the same cadence to the subdominant. This may well be an example of Avison’s “extreme of an unnatural modulation”. Figure 30 No.8.i shortened ritornello in Am in a cadence to Em, then modulates to Dm right after Tai-Chun Tseng (1991) categorizes six types of ritornelli: 1. The beginning tutti (e.g. No.6.i and ii); 2. The movement begins with solo(s) (e.g. all of the concerti for 4 violins; 3. The movement has an A-B-A'-B' section at the beginning (assuming Tseng meant tutti-solo-tutti-solo with according material, an example is No.9.ii); 4. New 29 material concludes the movement (e.g. No.12.iii); 5. Two kinds of recurring tutti material are used (e.g. No.4.ii); 6. Contrasting material is presented in the middle (somewhat like an expanded ABA form, e.g. No.1.iii). I argue that not every repeated element makes for the ritornello form. Less distinct ritornelli are mostly those that start off with a solo. These might have a recuring figuration, but not always distinct motives and even less distinctive themes. No.1.i is a fitting case. The movement begins with a one-time theme, and continues with solos with a recurring accompaniment, of which some recur modulated (see figures below). One may think of it as an interesting take on the ritornello principle – where the tutti parts are the episodical sections, and the soli are recurring. But for the purposes of definition – this movement is everything that the ritornello form is not. Figure 31 No.1.i the recurring theme Figure 32 No.1.i recurring accompaniment In addition, recurring themes are typical for final movements, due to their dance-like nature. No.1.iii has a Gigue-like rhythm that starts as a solo and is later joined in tutti (somewhat like Corelli’s Op.6 No.1.ii). 30 Figure 33 No.1.iii tutti responds in accordance Another feature of Vivaldi's ritornelli is a tutti section developing as a solo. A well-known instance is found in No.6.i in A minor, where the soloist actually continues the music in a Fortspinnung, as opposed to play new material, or simply showing off string crossings and passageworks. This feature grants wholeness to the form, as both the tutti and the solos contribute to the development of the music. This kind of form is plausibly the basis for the classical double-exposition. More on this in chapter 6. 2.b.iii Instrumentation – orchestrating texture The Vivaldian orchestra is very much like Torelli’s, as stated, with some differences. Here there is no concertino group. Instead, the four violin parts are for violins primo – quarto. The ones that have solos, when they do, are called obligato. Additionally, there are two viola parts. To sum up, whatever the number of soloists, there are always four violinists, two violas (mostly identical parts), cello, and violone and cembalo. This type of orchestration allows the composer more variety in the “thickness” of texture, especially with the violas, and furthermore – he is not bound to 4 parts. Vivaldi utilizes this ensemble in various ways. An obvious setting of the ripieno is to accompany the soloist(s) in homophony. Vivaldi often leaves the violins with the accompaniment of the violas. This method is recognizable in Albinoni's concerti as 31 well. It is also comparable with the Corellian model, by leaving a “thinner” trio in contrast to the tutti (e.g., No.1.ii). The other variant of "emptying" the texture is to omit the violas (e.g., No.7.i) Figure 34 No.1.ii violas as bass Figure 35 No. 7.i omitting the violas Vivaldi uses this method to create an extreme contrast in texture in No.10. The concerto begins with a solo for two violins and the first viola (which is quite miserable, 32 so to speak). On the fifth measure, the texture changes from extremely thin to the thickest possible, with seven independent parts. Figure 36 No. 10.i solo viola accompaniment Figure 37 No.10 7-part writing The seven-part ensemble also plays in unison alla marcia, such as in the opening of No.5. According to Tseng, Johann Joachim Quantz commented on this 33 effect in good favour and recommended it be played in a lofty or majestic mood. He then presents the opening of No.1.ii (largo e spiccato) as a good example. Figure 38 No.1.ii majestic unisons The solo parts, in terms of texture, are simple and clear with little counterpoint – indeed gallant. Even when he employs all four violins as soloists, Vivaldi manages to keep a simple approach. They either play each in turn, or as pairs in thirds – each pair in turn. Figure 39 No.1.i pairs in thirds, each in its turn In sections of falling fifths, he commonly employs the duo in stretto, as accustomed in this progression. 34 Figure 40 No.4.i stretto duo Unlike Corelli’s cello, Vivaldi’s cello part is not figured and does not require an additional continuo player. In addition, the difference between concerti with or without cello obligato is not absolute. For example, in No.1 there are solos for the cello, despite its title. Figure 41 No.1.i Cello solo in a non-cello-solo concerto 2.b.iv Sound and effects – Beyond Texture Vivaldi's orchestrated sonorities in an inventive way. He employed many special colouristic effects that were quite ahead of his time, including muting7 and pizzicato, which sadly was not implemented in this opus (Talbot, 2001). The well-known passage in No.10.ii, where each of the four solo violins arpeggiates in a different manner, is a representative instance. In No.10.iii, Vivaldi achieves unique sonorities by using extremely high notes on the violin. 7 Consulting with various peers, muting might actually refer to slurred notes, unlike the more common practice of stroking each note. The phrase “mute strokes of the bow” was mentioned by Agazzati in 1607 (Strunk, 1950) 35 Figure 42 No.10 different arpeggios Figure 43 No.10 final movement. 8va The opening of No.11, where two violins play in a very close cannon, is a fine example as well. The exchanges of overlapping ascending-descending triads create a very intriguing sound effect. It might be an impression of an echo carried in vast valleys and mountains, or otherwise the ring of distant church bells. Today, this effect is often achieved by electronic means, for example delay effects. The opening then develops and uses descending scales on top of a pedal point, also in cannon. The effect remains still. This type of thinking is unlike traditional imitations and exchanges of motives. A final example of Vivaldi's unique sonorities in this opus would be from the No.7.iii – where the violins interchange motives to create bisbigliando: Figure 44 No.7.iii ping-pong Conclusions Like Torelli, Vivaldi’s three-movement structure is simple, as the movements are distinct and expected – albeit adding a short introduction or interlude, as compared 36 to Corelli’s compound movements. Ritornello forms are where he keeps the ear intrigued, as there are many options for the management of recurrence. He develops and spins-forth motives into solos and modulations like a fugue, thus keeping the listener in a fresh state at all times. Vivaldi’s strength is in his use of the ensemble. Unlike most concerti, the independence of seven parts allows great versatility in texture and thickness. The violas have an important role when the bass is left out, and the use of two violas gives more options still. The sound and effects he invented are exciting and fun, but also gimmicky. I can relate to Avison’s harsh opinion, to a degree. Nonetheless, the opus’s success may well be attributed to Vivaldi’s creativity to that end, just as much as to his structural model. 2.c Handel – Concerti Grossi, Op.3 and Op.6 Handel’s relation to the concerto grosso has roots in his vocal works composed in Rome, where he stayed between 1707-1710. Among his patrons there were Cardinals Pamphili and Ottoboni, whom we recognize as the patrons of Corelli. The oratorio La resurrezione (1708) was performed with the assistance of Corelli and his large orchestra of at least 45 players (Hicks, 2001). Prior to this, the operatic oratorio il Trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno (1707) included highly developed concerto grosso arias, and an orchestral sonata. This sonata is the earliest example of an organ concerto. In it, a concertino of violins and oboes alternates with the solo organ, making this a concerto grosso de facto (Bukofzer, 1947). Given his time under the patronage of the Roman cardinals, it is clear how Handel gained expertise in Roman style concerti. This is evident in both opuses 3 and 6. Albeit Handel was a German composer, and so he had his own style which was in fact a mixture of styles. In the context of Op.6, Bukofzer specifies that the merging of styles and forms characterizes this opus as a typical "late" baroque collection. In the Autumn of 1710, Handel reached London, where he continued writing Italian operas and was received with great admiration and success. The first opuses were published long after his move to London. The solo sonatas, Op.1, and trio sonatas, Op.2, were published by John Walsh in 1732 and 1733. It seems a common process with publishers to start off with sonatas as the first opuses before continuing with concerti, as this was the case with Corelli and Vivaldi as well, while all three already 37 had concerti in their repertoire. For that matter, Op.3 of concerti grossi (a.k.a. “oboe concertos”) is said to have been published without the composer's approval. Instead, Walsh simply combined several of Handel's existing works and grouped them into six "Concerti Grossi". The concerti themselves (or at least the movements that comprise them) were composed throughout the first decade of his life in London, except for the last movement of No.6, which was a version of the overture to Il pastor fido for organ and orchestra (Hicks, 2001). This overture also exists in several other forms. Opp.3 and 6, published 1734 and 1741, are largely based on the principles of the Vivaldian Op.3 and the Corellian Op.6 models, accordingly. Observing a more modern take to this genre, written at least two decades later by an Italian grand composer such as Handel, has great value for this study’s perspective. What changed and what remained? As a derivative of that question - what is fundamental and what is superficial? How did Vivaldi’s innovations affect the more traditional Corellian model? As opposed to Op.3, Op.6 was composed consciously as a collection of Grand Concertos, through September-October 1739. Considering its similar design to Corelli’s Op.6, Handle’s Op.6 is truly a homage to Corelli. The musical content, however, is more diverse in style, as well as more sophisticated and up-to-date. 2.c.i Structure, Form, and Diversity in Style Starting with the simpler case, the Grand Concertos Op.6 have either four or five movements, taking Arcangelo Corelli’s concerto da chiesa and concerto da camera as models, with the exception of No.9 which ends with both a Menuet and a Gigue, making a total of six movements. Curiously, if we include the adagio interlude, Corelli's No.9 also had six movements, ending with a Minuet as well. Unlike Corelli’s, Handel’s structure was not so diverse, beginning always at a moderate tempo. The division of the movements is also clearer, without the compound movements that characterize Corelli’s first movements. On the other hand, Handel’s first movements are very diverse in style. For example, both No.5 and No.10 begin with a French-like overture; starting with an over-dotted rhythm, followed by an up-beat fugue (No.5.ii and No.10.i.21, marked allegro). 38 Figure 45 Op.6 No.5.i,ii - French styled overture An Italian accentuation can be recognized in No.12.i, with declarative rhythm and appoggiaturas, responded to with soft air soli. Figure 46 Op.6 No.12.i recitative manner No.8 begins with a soft Allemande, and No.7 with a Sarabande. The rest have a pleasing motet-like or homophonic texture to them, such as No.6. Figure 47 Op.6 No.8.i 39 Figure 48 Op.6 No.3 and No.7 motetic and homophonic opening There are several structural models in Op.3. Fast-slow-fast is found in No.1. No.3 includes brief slow introduction. No.2 has five movements; the first three are fast-slowfast, and the remaining two dances. No.6 has only two fast movements, which are sometimes performed with a slow cadenza between them. 8 A Corellian concerto da camera is found in No.4, and a concerto da chiesa in No.5. This is clearly a tailored collection of various structural models, with some invention by Walsh, allegedly. No.2, for that matter, has a Corellian structure of multiple movements, with the rhetoric of Torelli’s fast-slow-fast at its beginning. 8 Recording in this manner by Combattimento Consort Amsterdam, 2007. Link: https://open.spotify.com/artist/4gMvnN95G04oiw69npjpN2?si=fda15102261c4e21 40 Common to both opuses is the extant use of ritornello forms. Among the Vivaldian type, Handel uses more modern forms with returning themes. The ritornelli type forms in Op.3 and Op.6 can be categorized by the behaviour of the modulations: 1. Vivaldian – Refrain recurs in different keys. 2. Rondo – Refrain recurs in the same key. 3. Extended Rounded-Binary – Refrains recur in B sections with development. The classic Vivaldian type is more commonly found in Op.3 in all its numbers. Instances are found in Op.6 as well, e.g., No.1.ii and No.11.i. Examples of Rondos are found in Op.3 No.5.iii and Op.6 No.12.ii. The thematical material between the refrains is another differentiation between a Rondo and a Vivaldian ritornello; in the rondo, these parts are not soloistic episodes, but rather new subjects played by the concertino. Type 3 requires further discussion. In these cases, the form behaves in some manners close to the classical first-movement form. The most-mentioned example is in the polonaise No.3.iv from Op.6. This movement includes two themes – where the second is in the dominant (bar 21). Figure 49 polonaise theme 1 and theme 2 They are connected in bar 11 by a transition that begins with the first theme modulated to the dominant, with a short episode that concludes with a codetta. Figure 50 transition, red for the theme, green for episode, blue for codetta After the double bar-line, the theme returns in the mediant (the relative minor’s dominant). The second theme then joins in continuous modulations and resolves to the reprise in bar 47 – where it supposedly stays in the tonic. I concur with an analysis 41 suggested by Willner (1989), where he states that the reprise in bar 47 represents not a return to the tonic, but something of an interpolation between the development and the long-span cadential motion from C to D and finally to G, which is falsely established in bar 69 and continues to the final codetta in the two ending measures. I will extend this argument by stating that the tonality of the whole dance is in question– is it not really Phrygian B? With all the above mentioned, this polonaise, and the use of polonaise in general, shows the diversity that Handel implemented into the fundamentals of the concerto grosso. Figure 51 bar 47 does not stay in the tonic, but modulated to C Figure 52 False cadence to G in 69, which is only established in the ending measures No.8.iii also holds a classical rhetorical quality, in that its theme begins with a rhythmic pronounced motive in forte and proceeds to a softer responsorial motive by the trio in bar 3. The theme later modulates to the relative minor, after which it enters a development section in bar 15, where now modulations occur more intensely. In addition, the themes are played superimposed and are further manifested by the bass. The music keeps evolving until the reprise of the second theme in the tonic in the last two measures. Figure 53 Op.6 No.8 .iii motives superimposed Considering the kind of theme progression, it is quite standard for a ritornello form. What makes this similar to a miniature sonata form is: a) the absence of solos, and b) the rhetorical contrast of motives. Fugues are also extant in both opuses. Double fugues, specifically, are common in Op.3 and may be found in Nos.2.iii, 3.i (with solos), and 5.ii. There is one in Op.6 – 42 No.3.ii. These double fugues are a testimony to the Italian style passed on to Handel by his teacher in youth – Zachow (Bukofzer, 1947). He adds that, as much as Handel enriched the church sonatas with different styles, his solo sections remained as conservative as Corelli’s - rarely to assume thematic independence. No.2.ii is a free form fixated on a single motive that spins forth and develops throughout, as a ricercar. The movement starts with the trio and includes some solos based on the same motive. It is by now quite evident that Handel had a soft spot for this demisemiquaver note pattern, as we have seen from the three reviewed movements above. I would say pieces such as this give a glimpse to greater pieces in the future of orchestral music – such as Beethoven’s symphony No.5. Figure 54 Op. 6 No.2.ii Ongoing motive development 2.c.ii Instrumentation with woodwinds The first thing that comes up when looking at both these opuses are the use of oboes and flutes, not to be found in most Italian concerti. The same kind of instrumentation is found in Handel’s vocal music, where he would often empower the violins with oboes and the bass with bassoons. In fact, it is said that many of the concerti in both opuses are derived from drafts of his cantatas or operas (as well as from other composers’ works) (Vickers, 2014). Figure 55 The overture to the Ode of St. Cecilia's Day Op.6 was originally published “for violins e.c. in seven parts”. The parts are arranged almost identically to Corelli’s, having a concertino of two violins, two concerto grosso violins, viola, cello with figured bass, and continuo. In recent editions, oboe parts are also available in Nos.1, 2, 6 and parts of No. 5. These parts were found 43 in autographs of the composer and some copies, but in the original publication were removed for unknown reasons (Redlich, 1968). Op.3, being assembled from older pieces, has a variety of instrumentations. So much so that it differs between movements. The title states Con Due Violini e Violoncello di concertino Obligati e Due Altri Violini Viola e Basso di Concertino Grosso Ad Arbitrio, so it presumed to be a Corellian concerto, though the content shows otherwise. If anything, most the concerti in there have the following instruments in common: two obs., four vlns. (two concertino and two concerto grosso), two vlas., two bsns., and continuo. No.2.ii, for example, has both a solo oboe and two celli soli, while No.2.v does not specify soloists at all, though it does feature unique instructions that foretell the modern independence of the bass in orchestras – by specifying senza\con violone in the bass line. Handel also instructed as to when one or both cembalos should be played. Figure 56 Op.3 No.2.v orchestrating the continuo section Some movements are written in four parts throughout. No.3 is entirely a duo for violin and oboe or flute (as mentioned in the first edition) with a four-part accompaniment. In No.1.ii, Handel adds two recorders. The most intriguing of instrumentations are in No.6, with the addition of the organ solos. The organ begins as an obligato but gets soloistic episodes for the right hand and left hand accompaniment. Figure 57 No.6.ii solo for the organ 44 It is a modest demonstration, but probably the first of its kind and an appetizer for the later Opp. 4 and 7. Handel’s concerti for organ had a pragmatic use to be played during parts of his oratorios. This is also true for Op.6, where some of these concerti are told to have been played before and after its publication during Handel’s performances (Burney, 1785). Instrumentation Changes in mvmts No.1 2 ob., 2 vln., 2 vla. ,2 fgt., cont. ii – 2 flt (or rec.), solo ob., unison fgt. (cemb., vlc., violone) No.2 2 ob., 2 solo vln., 2 rip vln., vla., cont. ii - solo ob., solo vlc. Cont.; iii – no (2 cemb., 2 violoni) solo vlns. No.3 flt. or ob., 2 rip vln., vla., cont. (cemb., vlc., violone) No.4 2 ob. + 2 vln., fgt., vla., cont. (cemb., ii – solo oboe; iii –oboes and vlns vlc., violone) solos No.5 2 ob. + 2 vln., vla.,., cont. (cemb., vlc., i, ii – unison ob., ii – indie vlc., iii – violone) unison 2 ob. + 2 vlns. No.6 2 ob., 2 vln., vla., cont (org., cemb., ii – vlc. + fgt., obligato org. fgt., vlc., violine) Table 3 Op.3 instrumentation Op.6’s debatable addition of oboes adds another layer of possibilities to Corelli’s model. The very beginning of No.1.i is a fine example of an orchestral festivity that would otherwise be mundane with the absence of the oboes. The oboes’ march-like rhythm on root notes practically orchestrates them as drums and trumpets. After that, the oboes double the violins. 45 Figure 58 Op.6 No.1.i oboes as drums Other uses are found in No.5.v, where the oboes either a) add power to certain motives, b) keep the beat with short notes, or c) exchange notes. 46 a b c Figure 59 Op.6 No.5.v uses a, b, c for the oboes Conclusions Why then was Op.3 named concerti grossi at all? If it was good enough for the publisher, it suffices. Handel’s structural and formal design imbues that of Corelli’s and that of Vivaldi’s, but added the German taste of variety, as well as more modern options such as rondos. His use of bridges and insertion of second themes on the dominant is a modern technique unseen in former examples. The instrumentation with woodwinds, derived from his vocal music, makes the concerti closer to a symphony. Not only do they bring power and extra voices, but they also add timbre and rhythm. The organ solo is an unconventional addition, as it opens the opportunity for continuo instruments to be part of the concertino as well. In most other senses, Opp.3 and 6 are loyal to Corelli’s model – a concertino, amplified by the four-part concerto grosso. 2.d Bach’s Brandenburg Concerti The six Brandenburg concerti were dedicated to the marquis Christian Ludwig on March 24th, 1721, during Bach’s service in Köthen, where most of his concerti were written. Like Handel’s Op.3, it includes half-a-dozen concerti, with different 47 instrumentations, where some of the concerti had older versions. Originally, No.1 was composed as a sinfonia (BWV1046a), perhaps for the cantata composed for the birthday of the Duke of Weissenfels (BWV 208). No.6 is said to have been composed as early as 1710, but according to Boyd, the style of the piece does not support this theory (Boyd, 1983). Moreover, No.6’s instrumentation fits the characters in Köthen – as the bass violists may well have been his patron, Prince Leopold, and C. Ferdinand Abel, the prince’s teacher. In almost every aspect, Bach’s collection brings novelty to the genre, and this may well be the purpose of arranging these concerti together for the marquise, whom Bach hoped to impress perhaps in order to assume a new job. All the Brandenburg concerti have the 3-movement structure (as most of Bach’s concerti in general), except for the first concerto, which has an additional special movement. It is well established in studies of Bach’s music that the year 1713, two years after the publication of l’estro armónico, marks a dramatic change in his compositional style (see Wolff & Emery, 2001, Tatlow, 2015). During that year in Weimar, he created his arrangement of the A minor concerto RV522 for the organ. Bach appears to have been especially intrigued by the Vivaldian Fortspinnung-type ritornello. (Marissen, 1995). Due to its nature, the Brandenburg collection is ideal for examining the various possibilities of the Vivaldian model, as well as other models not discussed in this study. 2.d.i The Concerti as a Unified Set The first approach for me to study this collection, and any collection published by Bach, would be to investigate the unity of the set as a whole. Just as observing how single concerti are structured, in Bach’s opus there may be plans that take this analysis to a higher level – how a collection is structured. This question may yield intriguing answers. To start with simple factors: 1) all six begin with an arpeggiated triad, 2) the keys are all a fifth or two away from C, 3) all are in a major key, 4) all are based on the three-movement structure. No.6 No.1& 2 Bb maj. F maj. C No.3 & 4 No.5 G maj. D maj. Figure 60 The keys are a fifth apart from C A great deal of the research on how Bach planned his music is focused on symmetry. Some of the latest and most important ones were those carried out by Ruth Tatlow. Tatlow reveals how Bach achieved numerical perfection by arranging the total 48 number of bars across his collections. She explains how Bach planned the collection’s total bars to be 2220, with Nos.4 and 5 together having 1110. This creates the perfect proportion of 1:1 in 2:4 concerti. It seems that his plan was carried out with technical difficulties, as he ended up with 2500 total bars. She theorises how Bach’s revisions made the 1:1 proportion work despite these difficulties, and also addresses his apology for the “imperfections” in the dedication to the marquise. As fascinating as it is, the details are beyond the scope of this work. Marissen (1995) suggests another kind of symmetry in the collection’s order. The first and last (Nos.1 and 6) he defines as “ensemble concerti” – meaning, pieces without consistently detached soloistic subgroups. Nos.2 and 5 are concerti grossi – pieces with clearly defined concertino and ripieno groups (without figures for the cello). The middle concerti, Nos.3 and 4, juxtapose the two styles at the centre of the collection. I’ve also found that Marissen’s idea works when looking at the final movements of each concerto. No.1.iv and No.6.iii are dances; Nos.2.iii and 5.iii are fugues, while No.3.iii is a fugal-gigue and No.4.iii is a fugal-ritornello. Let us examine the concerti through Marissen’s categories: 2.d.ii Ensemble Concerti – Nos.1 and 6 Although in both concerti the whole ensemble often works together to create a single texture, the different nature of the ensembles means different kinds of textures, quite like the orchestration of early vocal concerti before concerto grosso. No.1 is written for four different choirs – strings (including a piccolo violin and the continuo), double reed (three ob., bassoon), and a pair of horns. A very similar ensemble to No.1 was used by Vivaldi – apart from having two instead of three oboes – in four concerti (RV568, 569, 571, and 574). In BWV1046a – the original version – the ensemble was without the piccolo violin, and the allegro, as well as the polonaise in the minuet movement, was not yet added. It is probable that the cantata had an even earlier lost version (Boyd, 1983). This might explain the unusual tuning of the piccolo violin – tuned a third, instead of a fourth, higher than a regular violin, and also the unusual nature of its soloistic parts, which are not as fluent as Bach would typically compose for the instrument or violins in general. The hierarchy of such an ensemble is fluid and allows many combinations. There are three distinct combinations: 1) choirs vs choirs, as the strings play accompaniment, 2) soloists vs soloists (except the horns, which always play together), the rest of the choirs playing accompaniment, 3) all work together to create a unified texture, almost in a tutti. 49 Figure 61 No.1.i choirs vs choirs (type 1) Figure 62 No.1.ii soloists are supported with chords (type 2) 50 Figure 63 No.1.i unified texture (type 3) In contrast, No.6 has a mostly simpler hierarchy – violas as soloists, viols as tenor, and bass (the cello part also participates as a soloist throughout the piece). It is a rare combination, as the opposite functions are far more common between violas and viols, and even then, one viol is enough as a soloist. The interaction between the choirs is managed differently in the two-ensemble concerti. Antiphony is used broadly in No.1, especially in the first movement. In No.6 both the violas and viols participate in the episodical sections – each pair with its own material. 51 Figure 64 No.1.i antiphon Generally, the violas’ virtuosic runs overshadow the viols. This is understandable, considering that the prince was one of the participants, and that he was probably an amateur. This texture allowed the prince to play at his level, without standing out if anything went wrong. Figure 65 No.6.i duo vs duo In both concerti’s adagios, the orchestration is reduced, as the horns in No.1.ii and the viols in No.6.ii remain idle. Generally, the episodic content is based on conservative canons and sequential runs, as opposed to the use of arpeggios and other techniques, as we have seen with Vivaldi. In No.1.iii, the oboes remain as reinforcement for tutti parts in most, and the 52 solos are saved for the piccolo violin and the horns. The first oboe does get a beautiful soloistic counterpoint solo with the piccolo violin in mm.55-60. Figure 66 No.1.i the oboe solo against the violin Bach’s use of the horns in the menuetto is different. as if replacing dovetailing marching drums. They best shine in the last trio, with the oboes playing counterpoint in unison. The oboes and horns are in the same range in this example, so sometimes they overlap. It is unconventional for the oboe to play beneath the horns, but this apparently works very well. Figure 67 No.1.iv dovetailing rhythmic horns 2.d.iii Concerti Grossi – Nos.2 and 5 In these two concerti, much like the Corellian model, one could easily play the music with the concertino alone, and still keep the music harmonic and whole. Unlike the traditional concerto grosso, these two are not very homogeneous in terms of instrumentation. Concerto No.2 is notorious for its supposedly unbalanced instrumentation of the concertino, which involves a trumpet, recorder, oboe, and violin (Boyd, 1983). This argument likely stems from modern performances with modern instruments. In this case, the trumpet may definitely overpower the rest of the instruments, especially the recorder, and is given extremely difficult high notes to play. However, with authentic instruments and circumstance (acoustics) of Bach’s time, the balance is quite manageable (Boyd, 1983). Additionally, according to Boyd, this form of instrumentation may stem either from Bach’s unorthodox approach to organ registration, or simply because these were the instruments at hand at the time. This 53 implies that there’s much to be learnt of Bach’s orchestration, and Baroque orchestration in general, from music for organ, and vice versa. No.5.i is renowned for the long virtuosic cadence for the cembalo, making it virtually the first concerto for the instrument. Interestingly, the manuscripts of the first version from 1710 (BWV1050a) had two cembalo parts – concertato and continuo. The reasoning for the second cembalo being removed is uncertain. One reason could be logistical, and another might suggest that accompanying a soloing cembalo with a continuo will conceal it. Figure 68 No.5.i 32nd runs and quasi violin-duo parts for the cembalo As expected of a concerto grosso, No.2’s episodic material mostly creates contrast with the tutti’s, rather than playing brilliant passages. The exposition of No.2.i, for example (which ends with the falling fifths on m.33) introduces the four soloists each in its turn, weaving them between the tutti materials. The first two are introduced in the tonic, while the latter two in the dominant, while each time, the former soloist undertakes the accompaniment. 54 Figure 69 No.2.i contrasting material between concertino and tutti 55 1. Vln Ob 2. Vln Rec 3. Ob Trt 4. Rec Figure 70 No.2.i Order of introduction of soloists The second and third movements in these concerti are plain fugues, with no solo episodes. Both Nos.2.ii and 5.ii are reduced to a concertino + bass. No.2.ii is also without the trumpet. This allows an expansion of the contrast between the movements. No.5.ii is marked affettuoso, which is quite modern on its own, and the cembalo’s right hand takes the role of a soloist, just as much as the flute and violin. It begins with a descending bass, and even though the melody is in dotted rhythm, Bach manages to create a lyrical piece for three parts and continuo. Figure 71 No.5 affetuoso fugue 56 2.d.iv Middle-Ground – Nos.3 and 4 The fusion of the two types of concerti – ensemble concero, and the concerto grosso – is done in different manners in the two middle concerti. No.3 is scored for only strings and continuo, while No.4 is for two recorders, violin, and ripieno. The strings in No.3 are deployed in groups of three violins, violas, and celli (in the third movement the celli play the same part). Thus, No.3 resembles the choirs of No.2, with the difference of having a homogeneous ensemble. There are three types of texture in No.3. The choirs either correspond among themselves or between one another, making an interesting complex of a concerto grosso within each choir, but also between them. There are also soloistic moments, where the rest of the choir amplifies certain motives, and the other choirs accompany the solo. Figure 73 No.3.i correspondence within the choirs Figure74 No.3.i Soloist backed up within the choir. No.4 is designed as a more complex Figure 72 No.3.i correspondence between choirs heterogenous concerto grosso, and so it resembles Nos.2 and 5. The violin solo is not really part of the concertino group, and not only because it was absent in the older version. If the recorders are in lead of the main subjects, the violin often does its best to disrupt the clarity of the concerto grosso texture. This is especially recognizable when it plays ongoing 32nd notes (No.4.i mm.187-208) on top of a simple ritornello. Other than that, it mainly plays soloistic arpeggios, or joins the ripieno parts. It also gets full solos. I would then argue that the fourth concerto is a fusion of concerto grosso with the solo concerto – where there are three hierarchal levels: the ripieno, the concertino of recorders, and the soloist. 57 Boyd suggests that No.3.i goes by the aria-da-capo key patterns. The A section ends in bar 46 in the tonic. B on the third degree in bar 77, and the da capo (A2) ends again in the tonic. Unlike the conventional da-capo, A2 modulates to new areas (such as Am in 97 and Gm in 114) and even brings new figurations in the ritornello. This is not, in my opinion, a fair comparison, as this is obviously not an aria by any other means of theme or texture – but rather in ritornello form, which, as we’ve seen, derived from the arias in the first place. The modulation of the theme to Gm is somewhat like a false recapitulation, which continues to develop until the true reprise in 126, where it turns back to G and closes the movement. 58 Figure 75 No.3.i False reprise to G minor, real recap. in bar 126 No.3.ii is very peculiar. The two-chord movement would be fitting as a transition from a slower movement in E minor, but it is a complete stand-alone. The best assumption is that the chords were simply an accompaniment for an improvisational cadence by one (or more) of the lead players. No.4.ii has little place for solos. Even the mischievous principal violin almost exclusively doubles the first violin. The recorders are still in lead, and so, the concerto grosso texture is retained. No.3.iii is in binary form, where the B section is thrice as long as the A section. It is a Gigue-like movement, within a double counterpoint texture (like his inventions and sinfonias for clavier), with multiple modulations. No.4.iii is a fugue with solo episodes. 2.d.v Modulations in the ritornelli It is remarkable how far Bach goes with the modulations in the ritornello of the first movements. Interestingly, when returning to the tonic in the final ritornelli – Bach makes little to no preparation between the new key and the tonic, rather simply jumps back in. This is especially felt in Nos.2.i, 3.i, and 4.i, and, albeit not in ritornello form, in 5.iii. 59 The table below shows the progression of keys. No.1.i No.2.i Bar Key Section Bar Key Section 1 F Rit. 1 F Rit. & Eps. 5 C Rit. 17 C Ep. 13 F Ep. 33 Gm Falling fifths 18 C Ep. 36 Dm Rit. 24 Bb Ep. 56 Bb Rit. 33 Dm Ep. 68 Cm Rit. 44 C Ep. 77 Cm Falling fifths 48 Am Phrygian Ep. 80 Gm Rit. 52 Gm Ep. 99 Am Rit. 57 F False reprise 102 72 F Reprise 103 No.3.i G.P F Reprise No.4.i Bar Key Section Bar Key Section 1 G Rit. 1 G Rit. 31 C Ep. 23 D Rit. 47 G Vln solo 57 G Rit. & vln. solos 54 Em Rit. 137 Em Rit. 70 Bm Rit. 209 C Rit. 77 G Fugato 286 G Ep. 97 Am Rit. 325 Bm Rit. 119 Gm False reprise 345 G Reprise 126 G Reprise 369 D>G Rit. No.5.i No.6.i Bar Key Section Bar Key Section 1 D Rit. & Ep. 1 Bb Rit. & Ep. 19 A Rit. 32 F Rit. 39 Bm Rit. 46 Cm Rit. 101 A Rit. 56 Dm Rit. 110 D Ep. 66 Gm Rit. 154 A Cembalo solo 86 Eb Rit. 219 D Reprise 103 Bb Reprise Table 4 Bach's progression of keys 60 The figures below demonstrate these harsh tonicizations. Figure 76 No.2.i.103 Am>F Figure 77 No.3.i.126 Gm>G Figure 78 No.4.i. mm.332-334 Bm>G Figure 79 No.5.iii.232 modulation without preparation from Bm to D No.6.ii is also worth mentioning here. As a fugal movement, it keeps modulating on and on. In general, the tonality of the piece is quite vague, as the signature has only two flats, starting in the key of Eb, but ending on a Phrygian cadence in D (or, rather, a dominant cadence in Gm). Conclusions 61 Bach’s symmetrical design is a compositional concept beyond that of any other design. The collection keeps symmetrical ratios within the total bars, the type of concerti, the types of movements, and the keys. Whether all these theories were truly Bach’s scheme is not of interest here. The outcome is evident and inspirational. The instrumental options were rich, and they allowed kinds of texture both conventional and exotic. There were different types of contrasts and combinations of choirs, soloists, concertinos, and even soloists on top of concertinos. Finally, he used a continuo instrument – the cembalo – as a soloist. In many other terms, the Brandenburg concerti were uninventive, which keeps the mind at rest. The Vivaldian structure was used throughout, although the fourth movement of No.1 was another inventive addition. Bach did not use many flamboyant tricks in his orchestration, such as little echoes or repetitive soloistic patterns for the violin. He also did not make much use of the small-large interchanges of concertinoripieno, common in concerti. It might seem his concerti are not an effort to be the best concerti grossi, but rather – to demonstrate the best of Bach’s abilities in the context of the genre. 3. Manifestation of Concerto Grosso in later times This chapter aims to follow how principles of the concerto grosso continued, even though concerti grossi became practically extinct after the second half of the 18th century, and continue to its resurrection in the 20th century. The discussion will also be more philosophical and superficial in nature as to set some ground for further research, based on the conclusions of this study. 3.a After Handel, Before Bloch Solo concerti continued to develop in the Vivaldian fast-slow-fast model. The ritornello form, specifically the kind that begins with a ritornello and continues with a solo based on the ritornello (such as Nos.6 and 8 from l’estro armonico), was imbued with the sonata form and became what is known as the Double Exposition sonata form (Simon, 1957). The formula for modulations didn’t change, starting with the fifth and going to more distant keys during the second third of the piece, where now would be the development section. Additionally, all of the following examples have the threemovement structure. The classical concerto had also versions for multiple soloists. Even so, they were never given the “grosso” title. The abstention from using the term pushes away 62 relations to the Corellian model. Concerti such as Beethoven’s triple concerto do not even have the soloists perform before the tutti exposition ends. Only then, the soloists enter – each in turn. Afterwards, the tutti parts only support the soloists with some harmonic figurations or vise-versa – creating contrasts to the soloists. Doubling of the soloists’ material is not part of the texture. And so, an important portion of the musical material is in the hands of the tutti alone – a contradiction to the very principal of the concerto grosso, at least of the Corellian model. Figure 80 Beethoven’s triple concerto, the soloists enter, with accompaniment 63 Figure 81 Beethoven's triple concerto - contrasts of soli - tuti The Classical model has changed very little in these aspects, and become standard for the genre. The only major change came with Mendelssohn’s violin concerto, where the exposition and the main material were carried by the soloist at the beginning of the movements, who, according to Leon Botstein, became the protagonist of musical ideas (Hutchings, A et al., 2001). In that sense, the concerto feels again like an amplified sonata. This opened other expressive options, such as the double introductions in Brahms double concerto – a powerful introduction for the cello and soft one for the violin. 64 Figure 82 Brahm's double concerto - powerful introduction Figure 83 Brahm's double concerto - soft introduction The uncommon pieces called sinfonia concertante have many shared properties with the concerto grosso. Examples are Mozart’s Concerto for Harp and Flute K.299, composed in 1778, as well as Haydn’s Sinfonia Concertante for Violin, Oboe, Faggot, and Cello Hob.1/105, composed in 1792. All three movements in K.299 begin with a double exposition. Hob.1/105.i does so as well, but movement ii is in free form with 65 sonata elements (for example, the bridge that begins on bar 13 and establishes the dominant key), and iii is a rondo. Both ii and iii are without a double exposition. As to the concerto grosso elements, even though these sinfonias are also soloistic in nature, especially Mozart’s, there are similarities to the concerto grosso in terms of orchestration, the harp in K.299 could take both bass and treble parts, as we’ve seen in Handel’s organ solos, and, along with the flute, create a trio concertino. Much like the Brandenburg concerti, Haydn’s ensemble brings many options. Below are different textures of the concertino groups: 1) the harp accompanies the flute with chordal figurations; 2) the flute and harp have independent motives; 3) the harp plays parallel thirds or sixths with the flute (in the red example, the motive is split between the right and left hands; 4) the right hand of the harp functions as a soloist with the left as bass, along with the flute the texture is of a trio sonata. Figure 84 K.299.i bar 68: harp accompanies flute solo 66 Figure 85 K.299.i bar 89 textured as an ensemble concerto. In red – a little trio. 67 Figure 86 3 K.299.ii bar 4 textured as amplified trio-sonata Haydn’s sinfonia concertante shows more resemblance to the traditional concerto grosso in movement iii in the sense of a small group versus a larger group. 68 69 Figure 87 hob.1/109 concertino group vs orchestra Orchestral principles from the concerto grosso were also vivid in instrumental pieces – such as in keyboard pieces or sinfonias. We have already seen how these instrumental pieces were sometimes transformed into concerti grossi by Handel (or rather by his publisher) and Bach themselves (see the corresponding chapters). Considering the influence these composers had, it is very likely to assume these 70 principles continued into more modern music by composers who learned from their scores. Beethoven admired Handel, and held Sebastian Bach in high esteem. As quoted by Ries, his pupil: “Of all composers Beethoven valued Mozart and Handel the highest, then Sebastian Bach. If I found him with music in his hand or laid out on his desk, it was sure to be some composition of one of these heroes.” (Macardle, 1960). Handel’s oratorios were quite famous, and Bach’s counterpoint was renowned. Beethoven indeed was acquainted firmly with both. Even if he was less familiar with their concerti – one can see how the spirit of the concerti grossi was passed on to his symphonies, through study of these kinds of pieces. Remnants of the genre are quite pronounced in his little antiphons between the wind choir and the strings, for example, or the acoustical and timbral effects he created with the woodwinds. To an extent, Beethoven often treats his wind section as a concertino, and the strings as ripieno. Figure 88 Beethoven's Symphony No.7.i Antiphon (left), acoustic-timbral effects (right) 71 Figure 89 Beethoven's symphony No.4.i woodwinds as concertino 3.b Resurrection of the Genre Throughout the 19th century, practically no new concerti grossi that relate to the Corellian model were composed. It is not until 1925, with Bloch’s Concerto Grosso, that the genre was brought back to the stage. In 1953, Bloch’s second concerto grosso premiered. Both concerti are made up of four movements. No.1 has the extended Torellian structure fast-slow-dance-fast. and No.2 resembles a sonata da camera with a French overture, and continues with a slow-fast-slow structure. No.1 also used the ritornello form quite traditionally. The two concerti are different in type. No.1 is for string orchestra and piano obligato, and soloists are extracted from the orchestra. No.2 was stricter to the traditional concerto grosso, as it clearly made a distinction between the concertino (string quartet) and the ripieno (string orchestra) (Udina i Cobo, 1985). The idea of having a quartet instead of a trio-sonata group as a concertino is a natural adaptation to contemporary aesthetics, where the four-part counterpoint is dominant. The solo material in both concerti is not flamboyant, but quite expressive. 72 Figure 90 Bloch’s No.1.ii solos 73 Figure 91 No.2.i concertino and tutti Many compositions titled concerto grosso have been published since. Among the composers are Maritnu (1937), Vaughn Williams (1950), and Schnittke (six concerti dated 1977-1993). Additionally, Stravinsky’s Dumbarton Oaks concerto for chamber orchestra is heavily inspired by the ensemble concerti from the Brandenburg collection. Below are examples from their works. They feature different instrumentations, and therefore different textures. They either rely on choirs, as in ensemble concerto (Martinu, Stravinsky), a concertino (Williams), or a string ensemble – like Vivaldi’s Op.3 (Schnittke). Proper to neo-classicism, the main difference to their Baroque counterparts is in the modern orchestration, especially in extended tonality or a tonality. Textural innovations in these examples: V. Williams extended the idea of a modular ripieno by adding additional optional strings. Schnittke extended the fourviolin independence to a whole symphonic section. 74 Figure 92 Martinu's Concerto Grosso, more like an ensemble concerto or a symphony 75 Figure 93Vaughn Williams - string quintet concertino, ripieno, and an optional addition of strings 76 Figure 94 Schnittke's Concerto Grosso No.1 tocatta 77 Figure 95 Igor Stravinsky - Dumbarton Oaks for Chamber Orchestra (1937-38) In 2020, researcher and founder of ensemble Modo Antiquo, Federico Maria Sardelli, composed a five-movement Concerto Grosso nello spirito di Corelli. Unlike Corelli, the ripieno is reinforced with wind instruments (as the composer himself is a flutist). The recording of the concerto is available on the ensemble’s YouTube Channel.9 In the avant-garde scene, Wolfgang Rihm, one of the most fertile composers since the 70’s (to this day he composed 15 quartets), released his single-movement concerto for quartet and orchestra, Dithyrambe. Rihm utilizes the orchestra mainly to color the quartet, and to further express its energy. Rihm’s approach to the concerto is thus a take on the Corellian model because it is virtually an amplified quartet. There are few solos for the quartet. Some can be heard at ~7:00 or ~24:00 when the music tones down. Sections without the quartet are even harder to find. A digression from the model 9 Sardelli’s concerto: https://youtu.be/xz-Z4Y47beg 78 can be heard at around 3:45, the orchestra takes melodical freedom as the quartet enters a static episode. I based my examples on the performance by the Arditti Quartet and Luzener Sinfonieorchester (KAIROS, 2009).10 I would end this chapter by mentioning special performances of rock and metal music. A typical rock band has a rhythm section of guitars and drums – equivalent in essence to the basso continuo – and a lead singer and/or lead instrument as soloists. Metallica, for example had twice recorded a concert where their music was “amplified” by an orchestra. These were released as S&M in 1999 (arranged by Michael Kamen) and S&M2 in 2019 (arranged by Kamen and Bruce Coughlin). There is additionally the practice of contrasting riffs in terms of acoustic, or “clean” guitar without drums and bass, versus distortion guitar, with drums and bass, in Progressive Metal music. Examples can be heard throughout the oeuvre of celebrated Swedish band, Opeth.11 In studio versions, the acoustic guitar is amplified by distortion guitars when called for, where on live stage the guitarists simply turn off the distortion and remain with a “clean” electric guitar. 4. Conclusions – Devising the Models, Collecting the Tools Throughout this thesis, we’ve seen the concerto is more than a genre – it is a musical element. Vocal music and sonatas were sometimes written with a “concertate” texture using different techniques. The instrumental concerto is, then, an orchestral version of such music. I am still not convinced, however, that concerto grosso is a genre at all, rather a model of orchestration for concertato music given a superlative title and standardized by Corelli. As history advanced, Corelli’s and Handel’s models became old fashioned, while Vivaldi’s concerti became more popular. I now believe I was driven to investigate this genre because I felt it was romanticized by neo-classical composers, who did not have the knowledge we have, thanks to modern research. Composers mentioned in this work took little freedom in structural and formal norms. The play was mostly in contrast and textures. Instrumentation was a subject only Bach seemed to give a considerable amount of thought to, and through it he had a larger Rihm’s concerto: https://open.spotify.com/track/2yEUviJv1MNKLJeDPAzW1Z?si=6e136ed115204b34 11 Opeth – The Drapery Falls: https://open.spotify.com/track/3OhcMJk4hCebfDH1h4Z8mX?si=ee3e61443c1d4509 10 79 box of tools to play with the concertate element. Bach even had a concertate element between the Brandenburg concerti themselves, as they all correspond with one another and had contrasts in some respects. As a composer, I now know that there are many other ways for me to research through composition the element of contrast and dialogue, as well as the conventional texture of voices, timbre, material, forms, structure, and design. Today we have an instrument none of the mentioned composers had – electronical amplification. One can find many options with this instrument: amplified versus acoustic instruments; with versus without effects; playback versus live performance. Totally new ideas can come to mind – old versus new instruments, contrast of genres, contrast of styles. I know at least some, if not all, of these ideas are nothing new, but I now have a different perspective on them. My own composition, which comes with the thesis, is not as inventive. There is a lot to learn, and there is much to process. My composition is, in essence, a means to that. I will add that this is going to be my third composed concerto. The other two, which I am very proud of, as experimental as they are, were composed without the knowledge I gained during this process. Carmel Abramovitch – Concerto Grosso con duoi violini e basso di concertino obligati e duoi altri violini, viola, e basso di concerto grosso con flauto e hautboy a piacere After having written various rather unconventional concerti, this concerto grosso is designed rather traditionally. It was composed during the study itself and is therefore part of the research itself. It has four movements: 1) ritornello; 2) adagio air; 3) double-fugue based on Corelli; and 4) rondo-suite, like the structure of the menuet from Bach’s Brandenburg concerto No.1. The instrumentation is derived from Handel’s Op.6. Thus, the piece was almost entirely planned as a trio with a modular orchestra. Additionally, I chose to optimize the concertino bass part to the viol and replace an oboe with a flute. This way, the concertino will be well-suited to the ensemble I run. Like the neo-classisists, the concerto uses tonal progressions and meters that were unconventional until the 20th century. The counterpoint remains fairly traditional as well, for aesthetical reasons. Since the piece is intended for a baroque ensemble, I chose to leave instructions to a minimum, specifying very little slurs, and rarely any other articulation. Dynamics are more diverse than the average baroque concerto, but still depend on the expertise of the performer, and the decisions of the conductor – be it one of the soloists or the cembalist. 80 References Allsop, P. (1999). Arcangelo Corelli: new Orpheus of our times. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Avison, C. (1752). An essay on musical expression (1st ed.). London: C. Davis. Brover-Lubovsky, B. (2008). Tonal space in the music of Antonio Vivaldi. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Bukofzer, M. F. (1947). Music in the baroque era from Monteverdi to Bach. New York. Burney, C. (1785). 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Some stylistic observations of Vivaldi’s violin concerti opus 3 (Thesis). Michigan State University. Udina i Cobo, J. M. (1985). Ernst Bloch, between us: bio-bibliographical bulletin: Bloch’s (1885-1977) presence between us on the centenary of his birth. Enrahonar. Quaderns de Filosofia, 12, 55. https://doi.org/10.5565/rev/enrahonar.815 Vickers, D. (2014, December 8). G. F. Handel’s Compositions HWV 301-400. Retrieved November 9, 2021, from web.archive.org website: https://web.archive.org/web/20141208200238/http://gfhandel.org/301to400.ht ml Wentz, J. (2012, October). Couperin: Les Nations - Brilliant Classics. Retrieved October 25, 2020, from www.brilliantclassics.com website: https://www.brilliantclassics.com/articles/c/couperin-les-nations/ Willner, C. (1989). Analysis and Interpretation in the Performance of Handel’s Concerti Grossi, op.6. The Musical Times, 130(1753), 138. https://doi.org/10.2307/1193821 Wolff, C., & Emery, W. (2001). Bach, Johann Sebastian. Oxford Music Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.6002278195 Scores Bach, J. S. (1956). Sechs Brandenburgische Konzerte BWV 1046-1051 (H. Besseler & A. Dürr, Eds.). Kassel: Bärenreiter Verlag. van Beethoven, L. (1862). Triple Concerto, Op.56 (C. Reinecke, Ed.). Leipzig: Breitkopf und Härtel. van Beethoven, L. (1938). Symphony No.7 (M. Unger, Ed.). Leipzig: Ernst Eulenburg. van Beethoven, L. (2008). Symphony No. 4 in B-flat Major, Op. 60 (CCARH Team, Ed.). Retrieved from https://imslp.org/wiki/File:PMLP01585-beethoven-sym4-ccarh.pdf Bloch, E. (1925). Concerto Grosso. Retrieved from https://imslp.org/wiki/File:PMLP85812Bloch_(1925)_Concerto_Grosso_1_(score).pdf Brahms, J. (1888). Concert (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://s9.imslp.org/files/imglnks/usimg/6/64/IMSLP248383-PMLP06525Brahms_83 _Double_Concerto_for_Violin_and_Cello_and_Piano_Op102_(Simrock)_scor e.pdf Castello, D. (1644). Sonate concertate in stil moderno, libro secondo (1st ed.). Bartolomeo Magni: Bartolomeo Magni. Cazzati, M. (2004). SONATE A 2, 3, 4 e 5 CON ALCUNE PER TROMBA OPERA 35 (L. Girodo, Ed.). Retrieved from https://imslp.org/wiki/File:PMLP670606CAZZATI_Sonate_a_2_3_4_e_5_op._35_Bologna_1665.pdf Corelli, A. (1714). Concerti Grossi (1st ed.). Retrieved from https://s9.imslp.org/files/imglnks/usimg/7/78/IMSLP40726-PMLP28008corelli_op6.pdf Corelli, A. (1937). 12 Concerti Grossi Für Streichorchester opus 6 (W. Woehl, Ed.). Leipzig: Edition Peters. Gabrielli, A., & Gabrielli, G. (2011). Canto Concerti di Andrea et di Gio: Gabrielli (S. Cassola & B. Schiffels, Eds.). Retrieved November 24, 2021, from Gabrieli, A + G Concerti 1587 mod. Part smc-bsch website: https://imslp.org/wiki/File:PMLP171814Gabrieli,_A%2BG_Concerti_1587_mod._Part_smc-bsch.pdf Handel, G. F. (1959). Sechs Concerti Grossi Opus 3 (F. Hudson, Ed.). Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag. Handel, G. F. (1961). Zwolf Concerti Grossi Opus 6 (A. Hoffmann & H. F. Redlich, Eds.). Kassel: Deutsche Händelgesellschaft. Haydn, J. (2007). Sinfonia Concertante (D. Exemplo, Ed.). Retrieved from https://imslp.org/wiki/File:PMLP71618-15_-_Haydn__Sinfonia_Concertante_-_Partitur.pdf Martinů, B. (1948). Concerto Grosso. Vienna: Universal Edition. Mozart, W. A. (1983). Konzert (F. Giegling, Ed.). Kassel: Bärenreiter-Verlag. Schnittke, A. (1977). Concerto Grosso No.1. Vienna: Universal Edition. Stravinsky, I. (n.d.). Dumbarton Oaks Concerto. Retrieved November 25, 2021, from Scribd website: https://www.scribd.com/document/466119613/StravinskyDumbarton-Oaks-concerto-pdf-pd-pdf Torelli, G. (2015). Sinfonia in C (G.33) (M. Rondeau, Ed.). Retrieved from https://imslp.org/wiki/File:PMLP648703-TorG33Sco.pdf Torelli, G. (2021). Concerto 1 op.8 (P. A. Karlsson, Ed.). Retrieved from https://imslp.org/wiki/File:PMLP212319-Torelli_op_8-1_C.pdf 84 Vaughan Williams, R. (1950). Concero Grosso. Retrieved from https://imslp.org/wiki/Special:ImagefromIndex/130369/vyun Vivaldi, A. (n.d.-a). L’Estro Armonico - Libro Primo (D. Keber, Ed.). Retrieved November 24, 2021, from IMSLP website: https://imslp.org/wiki/File:PMLP06105-L%27Estro_Armonico_-_Libro_Primo.pdf Vivaldi, A. (n.d.-b). L’Estro Armonico - Libro Secondo (D. Keber, Ed.). Retrieved from IMSLP website: https://imslp.org/wiki/File:PMLP06105L%27Estro_Armonico,_Libro_Secondo.pdf 85 ‫מודלים מרכזיים של קונצ'רטו גרוסו‬ ‫בראשית המאה ה‪18-‬‬ ‫כרמל אברמוביץ'‬ ‫תקציר‬ ‫מטרתה של עבודה זו היא בראש ובראשונה להעניק למלחין את הכלים הראויים לכתיבת קונצ'רטו גרוסו‪,‬‬ ‫תוך התמקדות במודלים של המחצית הראשונה של המאה ה‪ .18-‬כיוון שקיימת אי‪-‬בהירות במונח התגלם‬ ‫גם הצורך להגדיר מהו קונצ'רטו גרוסו‪ .‬המחקר יבחן את השוני בין קונצ'רטים למספר סולנים‪ ,‬קבוצות‬ ‫קטנות‪ ,‬ובין קבוצות – עם או ללא ריפיינו – אשר כולם מיוחסים לז'אנר ה"גרוסו"‪ ,‬וכן יגדיר מודלים שונים‪.‬‬ ‫למטרה זו‪ ,‬וכדי להבין את העקרונות היסודיים של הז'אנר‪ ,‬העבודה מתחילה באבחון השורשים של‬ ‫הקונצ'רטו גרוסו וקונצ'רטו בכלל‪.‬‬ ‫המחקר ברובו יתנהל על חמשת האוספים החשובים של התקופה – קורלי אופ' ‪ ,6‬ויולדי אופ' ‪,3‬‬ ‫הנדל אופוסים ‪ 3‬ו‪ ,6-‬והברנדנבורגים של באך – ע"י ניתוחם של היבטים עיליים (‪ )macro aspects‬כגון‬ ‫מבנה‪ ,‬צורה‪ ,‬ומרקם‪ .‬הבחנותיהם של חוקרים – כגון טאלבוט (‪ ,)Talbot‬ברובר‪-‬לובובסקי (‪Brover-‬‬ ‫‪ ,)Lubovsky‬טטלאו (‪ ,)Tatlow‬כמו גם של מקורות בני התקופה – משולבים גם הם בעבודה זו‪ .‬נוסף על‬ ‫כך מסופק סיקור ביוגראפי במידה הרלוונטית למחקר – ושל קורלי בהרחבה – וזאת בכדי להעניק הקשר‬ ‫לבריאת הקונצ'רטו גרוסו‪ ,‬והבנה טובה יותר של מטרתו והתפתחותו בעולם המוזיקה‪ .‬יצירות מאוחרות‬ ‫יותר יסוקרו בהמשך למחקר ברמה שטחית יותר‪.‬‬ ‫מצורפת למחקר זה יצירה שנכתבה על ידי‪ ,‬קונצ'רטו גרוסו המבוסס על הידע הנרכש מהמחקר‬ ‫עצמו‪.‬‬ ‫מודלים מרכזיים של קונצ'רטו גרוסו‬ ‫בראשית המאה ה‪18-‬‬ ‫מאת‪ :‬כרמל אברמוביץ'‬ ‫מנחה‪ :‬פרופ' עודד זהבי‬ ‫מנחה‪ :‬ד"ר אלון שב‬ ‫עבודת גמר מחקרית ( תזה ) המוגשת כמילוי חלק מהדרישות‬ ‫לקבלת התואר "מוסמך האוניברסיטה "‬ ‫אוניברסיטת חיפה‬ ‫הפקולטה למדעי הרוח‬ ‫החוג למוסיקה‬ ‫נובמבר ‪2021‬‬ ‫מודלים מרכזיים של קונצ'רטו גרוסו‬ ‫בראשית המאה ה‪18-‬‬ ‫כרמל אברמוביץ'‬ ‫עבודת גמר מחקרית ( תזה ) המוגשת כמילוי חלק מהדרישות‬ ‫לקבלת התואר "מוסמך האוניברסיטה "‬ ‫אוניברסיטת חיפה‬ ‫הפקולטה למדעי הרוח‬ ‫החוג למוסיקה‬ ‫נובמבר ‪2021‬‬