Viewing invasive species removal in a whole-ecosystem context

454 Review TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution Vol.16 No.8 August 2001 View ing invasive species removal in a w hole-ecosystem context Erika S. Zavaleta, Richard J. Hobbs and Harold A. M ooney Eradications of invasive species often have striking positive effects on native biota. However, recent research has show n that species removal in isolation can also result in unexpected changes to other ecosystem components. These secondary effects w ill become more likely as numbers of interacting invaders increase in ecosystems, and as exotics in late stages of invasion eliminate native species and replace their functional roles. Food web and functional role frameworks can be used to identify ecological conditions that forecast the potential for unwanted secondary impacts. Integration of eradication into a holistic process of assessment and restoration w ill help safeguard against accidental, adverse effects on native ecosystems. Erika Zavaleta* Harold A. M ooney Dept of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. * e-m ail: [email protected] Richard J. Hobbs School of Environm ental Science, M urdoch University, M urdoch, WA 6150, Australia. Invasive alien species interact with other elements of global change to cause considerable damage to managed and natural systems and to incur huge costs to society1. In response, several measures have been developed and deployed to control, contain or eradicate a wide range of invasive species in affected areas. Where possible, ERADICATION (see Glossary) is the favored approach. Control, which reduces the presence of the invader, and containment, which limits further spread, both require indefinite investments of time, tools and money to keep an invader at bay. Although eradication can require large short-term investments, successful removal can be achieved within months or years and gives the best chance for native biodiversity to recover. The results of eradication efforts so far are encouraging and have been detailed recently2. Many case studies demonstrate success for a range of taxa, particularly on small islands and at local scales. Additional examples include the removal of the exotic little red fire ant Wasmannia auropunctata from Santa Fe Island in the Galapagos3 (which resulted in the increase in density of several native ant species), and the nearly complete removal from Laysan Island, Hawaii of the exotic annual grass Cenchrus echinatus, which once covered 30% of the vegetated area of the island (E.N. Flint, unpublished). Successful eradications often lead to dramatic recovery of native species and ecosystems. Removal of introduced rabbits from Pacific islands off Mexico (C.J. Donlan, unpublished) and the USA have allowed recovery of two rapidly declining endemic species of native succulents Dudleya linearis and D. traskiae4. Lowland vegetation on Santa Fe Island has recovered steadily following the removal of exotic goats Capra hircus nearly 30 years ago. However, other cases suggest that more refined and integrated approaches to invasive removal could improve results. Successes are still largely confined to small islands. The ecological context of eradication is http://tree.trends.com increasingly complex. Major damage caused by longestablished invaders, systems that are affected by multiple invaders, and systems that are affected by both invaders and other global changes are now common. In these settings, straightforward deployment of standard eradication tools, such as poisons, trapping and mechanical harvesting, might not accomplish the desired level of recovery of native ecosystems5. We suggest that, although there is a crucial need for the continued development and application of effective eradication methodologies, a parallel need exists to place these methodologies in the context of the overall ecosystem that is being managed. Ideally, there should be both: (1) pre-eradication assessment, to tailor removal to avoid unwanted ecological effects; and (2) post-removal assessment of eradication effects, on both the target organism and the invaded ecosystem. The requirements for successful removal of an invader have been discussed recently2. We focus on the possible impacts that result from the successful removal of invasive species, regardless of the methods employed to remove them. We reviewed recent literature for examples where the successful eradication of invasives had or was likely to have important secondary impacts, a task that was made difficult by the relatively few verified eradication successes that included the monitoring of postremoval system behavior. Eradication: w hat can go w rong Successful eradication efforts have generally benefited biological diversity. However, there is also evidence that, without sufficient planning, successful eradications can have unwanted and unexpected impacts on native species and ecosystems. These inadvertent impacts are of many types. Excessive poisoning of non-target organisms and transfer of poisons up food chains6 are problems that can result from the removal method used7,8. Some eradication efforts fail because they do not eliminate the target organism, because they either miss individuals or do not include steps to reduce post-eradication susceptibility to reinvasion3. Eradication alone might not allow ecosystems to recover, because some invaders change the condition of the habitat so as to render it unsuitable for native species. For instance, in sites from the Middle East to the western USA, high soil salinity is caused by the invasive ice plant Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, and tamarisk Tamarix spp., which makes it difficult for salt-sensitive native species to re-establish9. In these cases, eradication must be followed by additional site restoration. 0169–5347/01/$ – see front m atter © 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S0169-5347(01)02194-2 Review TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution Vol.16 No.8 August 2001 Box 1. When a harmful exotic harbors an endangered native species Exotic saltcedar Tamarix spp. shrubs have replaced much of the native riparian vegetation of the arid western USA, where they consume large quantities of water, narrow river channels, salinize soil and degrade wildlife habitat a. Saltcedar rem oval has been repeatedly delayed in parts of its range because it provides significant nesting habitat for an endangered native songbird b . The southw estern w illow flycatcher Em pidonax trailii extim us, currently reduced to few er than 500 breeding pairs, nested historically in riparian cottonw ood (Populus spp.)–w illow (Salix spp.) stands in the southw estern USA (Refs c,d). Urbanization, agriculture, fire, water diversion and livestock grazing all contributed to the decline of its native habitat b . The replacem ent of m uch of the habitat that rem ained by saltcedar required the flycatcher to m ake use of the invader, w hich it seem s to prefer in som e areas, despite its reduced breeding successe,f . Stepw ise saltcedar rem oval could strongly benefit the flycatcher by giving native trees the opportunity to re-establish and provide replacem ent habitat g . How ever, som e saltcedar-invaded areas m ight no longer be able to support native vegetation, because low ered water tables and saline soils, the results of saltcedar dom inance, m ight com plicate native re-establishm ent h–j . Region-w ide flood suppression hinders re-establishm ent of flood-associated native species such as cottonw oods and increases the likelihood of saltcedar reinvasion j,k. Managers are confident that, if accompanied by planning and careful restoration, saltcedar removal can benefit the endangered flycatcher as well as other native speciesg. However, poorly planned removal without steps such as flooding and vegetation restoration, might fail, harming an endangered species in the process. References a Zavaleta, E.S. (2000) Valuing ecosystem services lost to Tamarix invasion in the United States. In Invasive Species in a Changing World (Mooney, H.A. and Hobbs, R.J., eds), pp. 261– 300, Island Press b USFWS (1997) Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; final determination of critical habitat for the southwestern willow flycatcher. Fed. Reg. 62, 39129–39147 c Rosenberg, K.V. et al. (1991) Birds of the Lower Colorado River Valley, University of Arizona Press d Sogge, M.K. et al. (1997) A Southwestern Willow Flycatcher Natural History Summary and Survey Protocol, National Park Service e DeLoach, C.J. et al. (1999) In Ecological Interactions in the Biological Control of Saltcedar (Tamarix sp.) in the US: Toward a New Understanding, US Department of Agriculture f McKernan, R.L. and Braden, G. (1999) Status, Distribution, and Habitat Affinities of the Southwestern Willow Flycatcher Along the Colorado River; Year 3 – 1998, US Dept of the Interior–Bureau of Reclamation g Dudley, T.L. et al. (2001) Saltcedar Invasion of Western Riparian Areas: Impacts and New Prospects for Control, US Department of Agriculture h Jackson, J. et al. (1990) Assessment of the Salinity Tolerance of Eight Sonoran Desert Riparian Trees and Shrubs, US Dept of the Interior–Bureau of Reclamation i Shafroth, P.B. et al. (1995) Effects of salinity on establishment of Populus fremontii (cottonwood) and Tamarix ramosissima (saltcedar) in southwestern United States. Great Basin Nat. 55, 58–65 j Taylor, J.P. and McDaniel, K.C. (1998) Restoration of saltcedar infested flood plains on the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge. Weed Technol. 12, 345–352 k Stromberg, J. (1998) Dynamics of Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii) and saltcedar (Tamarix chinensis) population along the San Pedro River, Arizona. J. Arid Environ. 40, 133–155 455 increases in exotic plant populations. Removal of one invader can lead to increased impacts of another invader; for example, when removal of exotic prey leads to increased predation on native prey by exotic predators10. Finally, removal of invasive plant species can reduce habitat or resources available for native fauna if the removal is not accompanied by further restoration measures (Box 1). These unexpected outcomes will become more probable both as the variety of interacting invaders contained in an ecosystem increases, and as exotics in late stages of invasion largely or wholly eliminate native species and replace their functional roles. Although researchers have begun to explore the implications of multiple, interacting invaders, little attention has been paid to the implications of these interactions for eradication efforts. Secondary effects: a conceptual framework A useful basis from which to tackle when and why secondary effects of eradication occur is that systems containing invasives function according to the same basic principles as do other systems. Invaded systems can, therefore, be considered using the frameworks that are usually used to analyze community and ecosystem dynamics. Trophic cascades in m ultiply invaded system s A large literature has been devoted to how food-web interactions limit populations of producers, consumers and predators11–13. Much work has been done on the relative roles of top-down regulation of food-web components by higher-level consumers or predators, and of bottom-up regulation of populations by food availability or resource limitation. Evidence from several ecosystem types shows that both top-down and bottom-up population regulation of producers and consumers occur under some conditions14–16. The existence of these regulatory links can give rise to TROPHIC CASCADES16,17 (but see Ref. 13). When combined with the use of simple terrestrial food webs6 (Fig. 1), this framework helps to explain how many animal eradications have allowed population recovery of native species. Removal of an exotic predator can release native prey from strong top-down regulation, increasing prey abundance with potential cascading impacts on other food-web components, including native predators (Fig. 1b). Similarly, exotic herbivores in the absence of predators can become sufficiently abundant to exert top-down pressure on native plants14. Removal of these herbivores can lead to rapid recovery of native plant populations4. Predator–prey interactions Successful eradications can also have undesired effects that result from the successful removal of the invader. In several cases, removal of one exotic species has led to the establishment or increase of one or more other invasive species. For example, several eradications of exotic herbivores have been linked to http://tree.trends.com However, the presence of multiple invaders at different trophic levels complicates matters. Consider the case where an exotic predator and an exotic prey species co-occur (Fig. 1c). Removal of the invasive predator only could lead to MESOPREDATOR RELEASE (release of the invasive prey from top-down Review 456 Fig. 1. Idealized food webs indicating trophic interactions between species. Closed boxes represent exotic species and open boxes represent native species. Arrow thickness indicates the strength of trophic interaction. Font size represents population size. (a) shows a community containing a single exotic predator. In (b), removal of this predator increases native prey populations. (c) shows a community containing both an exotic predator and an exotic herbivore. In (d), removal of only the exotic predator releases the exotic herbivore population, with cascading impacts on two plant species. (e) shows a community containing both an exotic herbivore and an exotic plant species. In (f), removal of the exotic herbivore only releases the exotic plant population. TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution Vol.16 No.8 August 2001 (c) (a) Predator 2 Predator 1 Consumer 2 Consumer 1 Plant 1 Plant 2 (e) Predator 1 Predator 3 Consumer 3 Plant 3 Plant 4 (b) Consumer 1 Plant 1 Predator 2 Consumer 2 Plant 2 Consumer 2 Consumer 1 Plant 1 Predator 2 Plant 2 Predator 3 Consumer 3 Plant 3 Plant 4 Predator 1 Consumer 3 Plant 3 Plant 1 Predator 2 Consumer 2 Consumer 1 Plant 4 Plant 2 Predator 3 Consumer 3 Plant 3 Plant 4 (f) (d) Predator 1 Predator 1 Predator 2 Predator 3 Consumer 1 Consumer 2 Consumer 3 Plant 1 Plant 2 Plant 3 Plant 4 Predator 1 Consumer 1 Plant 1 Predator 2 Consumer 2 Plant 2 Predator 3 Consumer 3 Plant 3 Plant 4 TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution regulation) (Fig. 1d). If the exotic prey consume native species, the removal of the exotic top predator could lead to net negative impacts on native populations of conservation value18. For example, exotic cats on Stewart Island, New Zealand, prey upon the kakapo Strigops habroptilus, an endangered flightless parrot. However, the diet of the cats consists overwhelmingly of the three species of exotic rats on the island19. Cat eradication would probably increase the impact of rats on the kakapo as well as on other native biota unless rats were simultaneously removed. The potential for mesopredator release following cat eradication is widespread. Introduced rats Rattus spp., house mice Mus musculus, and/or rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus co-occur with exotic cats on 22 islands where the diets of cats have been studied. In nearly every case, cats exert important top-down controls on these other exotics by preying heavily on rabbits if they are present, and heavily on rats if rabbits are not present20 (Table 1). Mice are also an important part of the diet of feral cat on islands at temperate, but not tropical, latitudes20. The potential for these trophic effects is probably strongest on islands lacking native predators; however, it applies, in principle, to any system in which exotic predator populations take advantage of abundant exotic prey. The effects of mesopredator release can cascade to alter ecosystem-scale properties as well as altering native populations. Studies before cat eradication on subantarctic Marion Island showed that the cats ate Table 1. Importance of exotic rats in the diet of introduced cats on islandsa Islands w ithout introduced rabbits Occurrence of rats in diet (%) Islands w ith introduced rabbitsb Occurrence of rats in diet (%) Galapagos: Isabela Santa Cruz Lord How e Raoul Little Barrier Stewart Cam pbell 73 88 87 86 39 93 95 Gran Canaria Te Wharau, NZ Kourarau, NZ Orongorongo, NZ M ackenzie, NZ Kerguelen M acquarie 4 3 Trace 50 2 0 3 aData Predator 3 from Ref. 20. NZ, New Zealand. b Abbreviation: http://tree.trends.com many exotic house mice, which prey heavily upon a flightless endemic moth Pringleophaga marioni, which is important to nutrient cycling21–23. Removal of the cats only might have allowed increases in mouse populations, causing cascading declines in endemic moth abundance and, ultimately, changes in soil nutrient availability. When exotic predators and prey co-occur, eradication of only the exotic prey can also cause problems by forcing the predator to switch to native prey. In New Zealand, introduced rats R. rattus and possums Trichosurus vulpecular are an important part of the diet of the stoat Mustela ermina, an exotic mustelid10. Efforts to remove all three species by poisoning the prey species had an unexpected result: the stoat populations were not eliminated by either the prey eradication or the poison application and, in the absence of abundant exotic prey, the stoats switched their diets to native birds and bird eggs. Without prey eradication, the co-occurrence of exotic predators and exotic prey can impact heavily on native prey populations by HYPERPREDATION. The availability of abundant exotic prey can inflate exotic predator populations, which then increase their consumption of indigenous species24. This phenomenon was first elaborated to explain why native Australian mammals suffered population declines in areas invaded by cats only if exotic rabbit and mouse densities were also high25. The removal of exotic prey to curb hyperpredation of native species by exotic predators has been suggested26. However, managers must consider carefully whether native populations can withstand further, temporary increases in predation when the inflated predator population no longer has exotic prey to sustain it. Herbivore–plant interactions When exotic herbivores and plants co-occur (Fig. 1d), control or eradication of only the exotic plants could, in theory, lead to increased exotic herbivory on native plants. However, we do not know of a case in which this has occurred. This might reflect the paucity of successful plant eradications, the prioritization of Review TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution Vol.16 No.8 August 2001 animal removals from multiply invaded ecosystems, or an absence of strict bottom-up regulation of exotic herbivores by plant biomass availability. When exotic herbivores and plants co-occur, eradication of the herbivores only can lead to release of exotic plants from top-down control (Fig. 1f). In nearly all documented cases where exotic plants co-occur with exotic herbivores on islands, herbivore removal has had mixed results for native vegetation (but see Refs 27,28). Feral herbivore removal from Santa Catalina Island, Channel Island National Park, led to an increase in native species richness, but also to large absolute and relative increases in cover by exotic annuals29. Rabbit eradication on Round Island, Mauritius, led to strong recovery of three endemic or locally restricted tree species (Latania loddigesii, Pandanus vandermeerschii and Hyophorbe lagenicaulis) and six reptile species [two skinks (Leiolopisma telfaririi and Scelotes bojerii), three geckos (Phelsuma guentheri, P. ornata and Nactus serpensinsula) and a snake (Casarea dussumerii)], including five endemics30. However, rabbit removal also caused the spectacular release of a previously sparse exotic grass Chloris barbata, rendering it a significant component of the vegetation on the island30 (Box 2). Asiatic water buffalo Bubalus bubalis eradication from Kakadu National Park, Australia spurred large-scale regeneration of the wetlands of the park31. However, alien plant species also proliferated, in particular, introduced para grass Brachiaria mutica, which now covers approximately 10% of the major floodplain habitats in the park. Although the removal of feral pigs Sus scrofa, sheep Ovis aries and goats has allowed some native plant species to recover slightly in Hawai’i32, many Hawai’ian lowland grasslands have responded to ungulate removal with increases in the cover of flammable exotic grasses33. Accompanying increases in fire frequency accelerate a positive feedback loop among invasive grass establishment, fire, and loss of native woodlands and forest34. The effects of exotic herbivore removal on native vegetation, under certain circumstances, might also have indirect negative effects, because of the presence of other exotic animals. Rabbit removal on Macquarie Island in the Southern Ocean led to major increases in cover by a native tussock grass Poa foliosa, which is the preferred habitat of the introduced ship rat. Tussock expansion could bring the rats into contact with burrow-nesting bird colonies on the island, which have escaped rat predation so far35. Herbivore removal from islands has strong negative effects on vegetation in some cases. The removal of sheep and cattle Bos taurus from Santa Cruz Island led to an explosive expansion of exotic fennel Foeniculum vulgare, starthistle Centaurea solstitialis, and other introduced herbs, increases in relative cover of exotics, but the observable recovery of only one native species, Bishop pine Pinus muricata, after nine years of monitoring36–38. Moreover, the sudden expansion of exotic forbs provided abundant food for feral European bee Apis mellifera, colonies, and complicated eventual bee eradication from the island39. The greatest potential for negative impacts on native vegetation perhaps exists when herbivore eradication removes the disturbance that is necessary to suppress establishment of late successional (tree or shrub) exotics40. The removal of feral cattle from degraded grasslands on San Cristobal Island in the Galapagos allowed previously suppressed exotic guava Psidium guajava to grow rapidly into dense, extensive thickets41. Box 2. Replacing extinct herbivores in the M ascarene Islands Before their extinction, tw o species of giant tortoise (Geocholone triserrata and G. inepta), endem ic to the M ascarene Islands, brow sed the native vegetation and dispersed fruits of endem ic trees such as the Ile aux Aigrettes ebony Diospyros egrettarum . Trade in tortoise m eat, together w ith the introduction of rats and pigs in the 16th–18th centuries, extirpated the native brow sers from the archipelago. Introduced goats Capra hircus and rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus replaced the tortoises as herbivores, suppressing num erous introduced grazing-intolerant plant species until the late 20th century. How ever, the eradication of exotic herbivores from Round Island and Ile aux Aigrettes in the 1970s and 1980s released populations of exotic w eeds such as Chloris barbata on Round Island and false acacia Leucaena leucocephala on Ile aux http://tree.trends.com Aigrettes. Native tussock-form ing grasses declined on Round Island, and increasingly tall exotic vegetation threatened lowgrow ing endem ics such as Aerva congesta, now found only on Round Island. To restore and m aintain native vegetation, scientists at the M auritian Wildlife Foundation are exploring the introduction of a taxonom ic and functional I 457 substitute for the extinct tortoises, the Aldabran tortoise G. gigantia (Fig. I). Four adult Aldabran tortoises w ere released into a fenced enclosure on Ile aux Aigrettes in Novem ber 2000, and the first post-introduction vegetation survey took place in M ay 2001. Viable fruits of the endem ic ebony have already been found dispersed in tortoise feces away from parent trees. It is hoped that the introduced tortoises w ill not only shift the com petitive balance in favor of native plants, but also restore the broader functional roles of their extinct congeners in the ecosystem s of the M ascarene archipelago. Reference a North, S.G. et al. (1994) Changes in the vegetation and reptile populations on Round Island, Mauritius, following eradication of rabbits. Biol. Conserv. 67, 21–28 458 Fig. 2. An adverse effect of eradication. The photographs show a cam p site on Sarigan Island, Com m onw ealth of the Northern M ariana Islands, before (a) and after (b) successful eradication of feral goats Capra hircus and pigs Sus scrofa in 1998 explosively released a previously undetected exotic vine Operculina ventricosa. Arrow s in (b) indicate the locations of the tw o buildings visible in (a). Reproduced, w ith perm ission, from Curt Kessler, Zoology Unlim ited. Review TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution Vol.16 No.8 August 2001 for other biota. The case of Tamarix (Box 1) illustrates how, under certain conditions, consideration of this kind of undesirable impact can be important. (a) Conclusion (b) TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution In most settings, removing introduced herbivores is an important and reasonable first step in ecosystem restoration. However, in some cases (particularly on islands without native herbivores), herbivore removal might actually cause harm if there are no concurrent efforts to control exotic vegetation (Fig. 2). The clearest benefits from exotic herbivore removal are likely to occur in settings that are still dominated by native vegetation. In other settings, close monitoring after herbivore removal, as well as pre-eradication assessment, can help reduce unexpected negative consequences of the removal of invasives42. Native species dependence in exotic-dominated habitats Acknow ledgements We thank Curt Kessler, Josh Donlan, John M aurem ootoo, Robert Bensted-Sm ith, Bernie Tershy, Rick Van Dam , Dick Veitch, and Ingrid Parker and her lab group for their helpful input. Increasingly, exotic species have been present in ecosystems for long enough to dominate or replace native species and habitats. In these cases, an ecosystem or functional framework might be useful in which one asks whether removal of the invader will largely or entirely remove from the system a function necessary to other biota in it. For example, an invasive plant species might provide usable habitat for native fauna in the absence of original vegetation. Rapid removal of the invader without restoring native vegetation might not only increase the chances of a new invasion, but also leave native fauna without cover or food. Several examples of the potential for this type of problem have been described43. However, examples of successful eradications that actually led to such habitat loss have not been identified. This most probably reflects the lack of successful eradications of plants, which usually provide habitat http://tree.trends.com The type of species being removed, the degree to which it has replaced native taxa, and the presence of other non-native species can affect the eventual impacts of removal of an invasive species. Managers can take some simple steps to reduce surprise outcomes. Preassessment, including qualitative evaluation of: (1) trophic interactions among exotics and between natives and exotics; and (2) potential functional roles of exotics, is necessary for managers to anticipate the need for special planning. Post-eradication monitoring is also extremely valuable, not least because it allows managers to document the positive outcomes of eradication successes. It also provides the opportunity to learn from mistakes and gives managers the chance to curtail negative effects before they become severe. More frequent ecological studies that take advantage of eradication programss as being large-scale ecosystem experiments will speed the accumulation of knowledge about system responses to exotic species removals. Specific guidance for tailoring eradication efforts to complex situations is emerging. In the case of stoat–rat–opossum eradication in New Zealand10, follow-up study showed that the timing and method of poisoning used were important in determining stoat population declines (as a result of secondary poisoning) as well as determining effects on native birds44. A model of interactions between exotic cats and rabbits found that simultaneous removal of both species maximized the chances of success, but suggested that the next best alternative was to remove rabbits first and cats later26. Data from several cases show that attempts to restore a native species without removing all invaders that consume it are likely to fail45. Many attempts to reintroduce native marsupials to areas from which they have been extirpated have failed because of the presence of uncontrolled exotic terrestrial predators such as cats and foxes Vulpes fulva. Success rates of reintroductions are an order of magnitude greater (82% versus 8%) on islands without exotic predators46. As they accumulate, these kinds of analyses – whether based on post-eradication data or modeled on ecological principles – will enable the design of better eradication and restoration strategies. Invasive species eradication is an increasingly important component of the conservation and management of natural ecosystems. However, in natural systems, a shift in emphasis from strict invasives management towards broader ecosystem restoration goals is required. This will place more emphasis on the full diagnosis of causal factors and the desired ecological outcomes of eradications47. As knowledge about effective eradication methods accumulates, attention should turn to combining such methods with broader ecological principles to form cost-effective removal strategies that accomplish overall restoration goals. Review TRENDS in Ecology & Evolution Vol.16 No.8 August 2001 459 Glossary Eradication: rem oval of every individual and propagule of an invasive species so that only reintroduction could allow its return. Hyperpredation: abnorm ally high predation of indigenous prey species by a predator population that is inflated by the availability of highly abundant exotic prey. References 1 Mooney, H.A. and Hobbs, R.J., eds (2000) Invasive Species in a Changing World, Island Press 2 Myers, J.H. et al. (2000) Eradication revisited: dealing with exotic species. Trends Ecol. Evol. 15, 316–320 3 Abedrabbo, S. (1994) Control of the little fire ant, Wasmannia auropunctata, on Santa Fe Island in the Galapagos Islands. In Exotic Ants: Biology, Impact, and Control of Introduced Species (Williams, D.F., ed.), pp. 219–239, Westview Press 4 Clark, R. and Halvorson, W.L. (1987) The recovery of the Santa Barbara Island live-forever. Fremontia 14, 3–6 5 Donlan, C.J. et al. (2000) Island conservation action in northwest Mexico. In Proceedings of the Fifth California Islands Symposium (Browne, D.H. et al., eds), (CD-Rom), Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History 6 Innes, J. and Barker, G. (1999) Ecological consequences of toxin use for mammalian pest control in New Zealand: an overview. N. Z. J. Ecol. 23, 111–127 7 Cory, J.S. and Myers, J.H. (2000) Direct and indirect ecological effects of biological control. Trends Ecol. Evol. 15, 137–139 8 Simberloff, D. and Stiling, P. (1996) How risky is biological control? Ecology 77, 1965–1975 9 El-Ghareeb, R. 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