Monica GondimRelated papers
"Infrastructure planning for cycling 20.1 Planning for bicycles in an integral traffic and transport system." In: Rodney Tolley (Ed.), Sustainable transport
Sustainable Transport. Planning for walking and cycling in urban environments, 2003
When bicycles were first introduced, planning was no problem at all. The only road-building worry was the surfaces and it was not for nothing that Dunlop used its first pneumatic tyre for a bicycle. The first cycle tracks were designed mainly for improving the cyclists' comfort. Planning for cyclists would be easy if the motorcar had not arrived. The arrival of the car caused an enormous change to the road network. In 1938 a bicycle advocate in The Netherlands argued in a pamphlet against bicycle taxes that 'cyclists who in early days could ride on public roads without danger are nowadays pushed aside the road by the increasing and still faster car traffic' (Reitsma, 1938). In the same year, traffic victims were presented as a specific group in statistics of accidents for the first time. Subsequently, for reasons of road safety, cyclists and motor vehicles were separated more often. Though cycletracks were also constructed to ensure a faster, unobstructed flow of more rapid forms of traffic, the approach to bicycle traffic was purely technical in terms of highway management, and definitely not integral. Developments over recent decades have changed the way transport is viewed (CROW, 1992). Rapid increases in living standards have led to an enormous growth in (car) mobility. The other side of this has been the enormous pressure put on the environment in terms of health and safety. Traffic problems can only be solved by an integral approach to transport as a system and although in the present situation all elements of integral planning are included in the construction phase, the system is still far from perfect (Ploeger, 1988).
Socio-Economic Prerequisites for Development Cycling and Pedestrian Network in Residential Districts
Regìonalʹnì problemi arhìtekturi ta mìstobuduvannâ, 2021
The article considers the main social and economic factors that strengthen the existing state of roads in Odessa and lead to redefining of the priorities of the categories of the population traveling by road. As the city has recently been rapidly developing its territories, it is the reason for the consolidation of existing roads and driveways, causing adverse consequences for both the safety of transport users and the environment. Numerous benefits of cycling infrastructure development for the society and economy of the city are shown in this article. First of all, for people-ordinary city dwellers-these advantages are the most important: traffic safety, lower road density, less time spent on travelling to the destination, flexibility of the route, improved air quality and greater ease of maintenance and repair.
Towards a sustainable urban transport system: planning for non-motorized vehicles in cities
Transport and Communications Bulletin for Asia and …, 1999
Overview of special issue on urban cycling: Rationalities, justice, safety, and geographical analysis
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Urban Design: Is there a Distinctive View from the Bicycle
Would urban design considerations and practices be different if the experience of bicycling was given a more central place? Drawing on a review of international literature and practice, this paper compares the characteristics of cyclists with those of pedestrians and motorists, showing that cyclists have a substantial number of unique characteristics that warrant further investigation in terms of a special urban design response. Focusing on four issues—community layout, cycling facilities, analysis and design processes, and detailed design—the paper offers a framework and central considerations for cycling-oriented urban design. It concludes with a call to take the experience of cycling seriously in urban design. This involves moving beyond a concern with safe and convenient facilities and complete networks to a more substantial interest in the experience of the environment from a cyclist's point of view. Urban Design and the Experience of Cycling Would urban design considerations and practices be different if the experience of bicycling was provided a more central place in key dialogues regarding the future of cities? Transportation via vehicles—bicycles, buses, trains, cars, motorbikes, etc.—is a domain dominated by traffic planners and engineers. To best serve such vehicles they have helped build and provide for landscapes of wide travel lanes, continuous rail networks, extensive safety and navigational signage, transit stops and vehicular parking. In contrast, urban designers have long been keen on attending to the pedestrian environment; many regard urban designers as key experts on this area. In so doing, urban designers have focused on the overall form, scale, materials, vegetation and furnishing of the street; and on sidewalks, footpaths and off-street pedestrian paths. Urban designers do have a significant history of engaging with vehicles, however. Some have suggested vehicles as a central organizing principle. Examples include early 20th century parkway planning and mid-century discussions about the formal potential of freeways and shopping centre design. View from the Road by Appleyard et al. (1964) is representative, envisaging urban design from the perspective of the speeding motorist. On the other hand,
Access to the City ---Proceedings Velo City 87 International Congress. Planning for the Urban Cyclist, Martinihal Centre Groningen, Netherlands, 22-26 September, 1987
Proceedings Velocity 87, 1988
If one wants to improve the bike and ride system then one has to begin with searching for the weakest link in the following chain: routes to the station, layout of the station square, parking the bicycle, carriage of bicycles in public transport, bicycle hire, parking for a second bicycle. A good survey is essential to find the weakest link. The best source of information is the cyclist himself. He can indicate the shortest routes and the bottlenecks on this route, as well as problems of safety, detours, and the waste of time at intersections. Generally the problems and so their solutions too, can be considered under two headings: decreasing journey time and availability. The evaluation study of the Delft cycle network has shown many solutions to these problems. The question remains who shall finance the bike and ride system. A plea is given for more governmental financial support. For the covering abstract of the conference see IRRD 816307.
What does maintenance of infrastructure mean for pedestrians and cyclists – A knowledge summary
2018
This report summarises knowledge concerning the impact of the maintenance of bicycle and pedestrianinfrastructure. The aim of the literature review was to compile existing knowledge on operation andmaintenance of the transport infrastructure for pedestrians and cyclists, the highlight how operation andmaintenance affect pedestrians and cyclists, in terms of accessibility, safety and security. The reviewedliterature revealed a number of issues of relevance concerning the importance of maintenance ofinfrastructure for pedestrians and bicyclists. There are very few studies on vulnerable road users’ abilityto travel with the same transport quality as the other road users, especially in rural areas and in smallercities. Furthermore, a change in attitude in decision makers and planners is needed to give walking andcycling a higher status. Moreover, studies analysed in this report have shown that the pedestrianinfrastructure is not perceived to be as well developed as the one for motorised...
DRAWING BOOK
CYCLEWAYS
MONICA GONDIM
Mônica Fiuza Gondim
DRAWING BOOK:
CYCLEWAYS
Author
Mônica Fiuza Gondim
Translater
Frank Hanson
Illustration
Camila Vale
Graphic Design
Eduardo Freire
Breno Rocha
Editor
Mônica Fiuza Gondim
All rights reserved. No portion of this book
may be reproduced, by any process or
technique, without the express written
consent of the publisher.
ISBN: 9798654082435
Independently published
Original title
Cadernos de Desenho: Ciclovias
Published 2006: ISBN 978-85-906631-0-8
DRAWING BOOK:
CYCLEWAYS
Mônica Fiuza Gondim
4|5
To Victoria and Duda
6|7
It was a great pleasure to write this book while surrounded by a special group of
professionals and friends including Camila Vale, Tiago Veras, Vânia Frank, Fernanda
Rocha, Geovana Cartaxo, Eduardo Freire, Aloisio Ximenes, Sueli Rodrigues, Marcus
Vinicius, Danielle C. Holanda, Mario Azevedo and Helio H. Holanda.
I am also very grateful to my colleagues and students from Architecture and Urban Design
Department of Unifor University and from the Department of Transport of the Federal
University of Ceara, DET-UFC.
SUMMARY
10 | 11
Summary
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................15
CHAPTER 1 - SUSTAINABLE DESIGN ...................................................................................................................19
1.1 Sustainable design ........................................................................................................................................ 21
1.1.1 Accessibility ............................................................................................................................................ 22
1.1.2 Negotiability ............................................................................................................................................ 23
1.1.3 Smoothness of the journey ................................................................................................................... 23
1.1.4 Safety....................................................................................................................................................... 23
1.1.5 Environmental well-being .................................................................................................................... 24
1.1.6 Amenities ................................................................................................................................................ 24
CHAPTER 2 - ROADS AND VEHICLES ...................................................................................................................27
2.1 The hierarchy of the streets .......................................................................................................................... 28
2.1.1 Local roads ............................................................................................................................................. 29
2.1.2 Collector roads ....................................................................................................................................... 29
2.1.3 Arterial roads ......................................................................................................................................... 29
2.1.4 Express highways .................................................................................................................................. 30
2.2 The Design of the street ................................................................................................................................ 30
2.2.1 Tracks for vehicles .................................................................................................................................. 30
12 | 13
2.2.2 Parking..................................................................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 3 - PEDESTRIANS...............................................................................................................................35
3.1 The pavement ................................................................................................................................................. 36
3.1.1 The connecting passage ........................................................................................................................ 37
3.1.2 The walk-way .......................................................................................................................................... 39
3.1.3 The lane for street furniture and trees ................................................................................................. 39
3.1.4 The safety lane ...................................................................................................................................... 45
3.1.5 Ramps to allow vehicles access ........................................................................................................... 45
3.1.6 Ramps to allow pedestrians access ..................................................................................................... 45
3.2 Islands and bedded Areas ............................................................................................................................ 47
CHAPTER 4 - BICYCLES ....................................................................................................................................51
4.1 Cycling accidents ........................................................................................................................................... 52
4.2 The infra-structure for the circulation of bicycles ..................................................................................... 53
4.3 Measurements ............................................................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER 5 - ROADS FOR CYCLISTS ....................................................................................................................59
5.1 A linear system and an interconnecting system ........................................................................................ 61
5.2 Conditional factors ......................................................................................................................................... 62
Summary
5.2.1 The bicycle and the type of road ............................................................................................................ 63
5.2.2 The bicycle and the running of the roadway ....................................................................................... 63
5.2.3 The bicycle, the intersection and the pedestrian crossing ................................................................ 64
5.2.4 The bicycle and bus-stops ..................................................................................................................... 65
5.2.5 The bicycle and the parking area ......................................................................................................... 66
CHAPTER 6 - CYCLELANES ON THE ROAD ............................................................................................................69
6.1 Cyclelanes on roads for a linear or non-circular journey ......................................................................... 72
6.2 Cycleway on the road with an interconnecting journey ............................................................................. 74
CHAPTER 7 - THE CYCLELANE ON THE PAVEMENT.................................................................................................77
7.1 The cyclelane with a linear journey ............................................................................................................. 82
7.2 The cyclelane with an Interconnecting journey .......................................................................................... 85
CHAPTER 8 - THE CYCLEWAY .............................................................................................................................89
8.1 The cycleway on linear and interconnecting journeys .............................................................................. 95
CHAPTER 9 - THE CYCLEWAY, CYCLELANE AND SHARED LANE ...............................................................................99
9.1 Linear and interconnecting journeys......................................................................................................... 100
CHAPTER 10 - BIBLIOGRAPHY .........................................................................................................................103
INTRODUCTION
16 | 17
Every kind of journey begins with the
in an atmosphere of noise, frustration and fumes.
pedestrian – whether it is a trip from the
Urban and transport planning usually gives
house to the car, from the office to the car-park or
priority to long journeys made by motorised
the car to the shop. Even motorists, astronauts,
transport. The plans seek to enable the transport
pilots, mechanics and sailors are pedestrians
of vehicles, particularly cars, to run as smoothly
for a part of the time. Travelling on foot is a
as possible and involves widening streets, building
feature of every kind of journey, of whatever
viaducts, roundabouts and underground car-parks.
length, when one is switching from bus to car,
Moreover, the transport manuals show every
underground, boat or train.
means possible for altering the size of the tracks,
The bicycle allows one to make longer
road intersections and highways but have almost
journeys. As it is a cheap form of transport, it is
nothing to say about pavements and cycle paths.
accessible to the whole population and offers
There is also a complete signalling system designed
greater mobility to people from the lower classes
for vehicle traffic and the fitting of necessary
who rely on public transport. It does not pollute the
accessories. In contrast, a large part of the cities
atmosphere and takes up little space in the
lack any infrastructure and do not have any effective
roadway network. As well as this, cycling has
rules to ensure that cyclists and pedestrians
the added attraction of being enjoyed as a sports
can have comfortable, safe journeys, which makes
and leisure activity.
this kind of transport difficult and less attractive.
In spite of the importance of walking or
The priority given to cars allows cities to expand
cycling, these means of transport tend to be
and this has the effect of increasing the distances
neglected in many cities. As a result, pedestrians
that have to be covered by pedestrians and cyclists.
are often faced with narrow pavements which
Urban planning has concentrated on widening streets
are badly maintained and full of obstacles. As for
and thus narrowing pavements, which results in
cyclists, they lack any zone of their own and have
pedestrians being more exposed to the risk of being
to jostle with vehicles to find a space on the road,
hit when crossing the road. The removal of trees from
Introduction
the avenues to provide more space for the cars has
encouraging travel on foot or by bicycle.
an adverse effect on the environment for passers-by.
The purpose of this handbook is to define the
Increasingly, environmental damage arising from the
parameters that can allow a road network to cater
use of the car is being felt by everybody, users and
for the needs of cyclists and that takes account
non-users alike.
of the interfaces of different means of transport,
With the publication of the Buchanan Report
particularly pedestrians. As a way of bringing
(1968) and the ratification of Agenda 21 in 1992, there
together the particular features of each kind of
has been a shift in attitudes regarding the relation
transport, this handbook attempts to make the
between transport and the city. The car, which is
different technical parameters - affecting cars,
one of the main factors responsible for carbon gas
buses, bicycles and pedestrians – compatible with
emissions in the world, has begun to be regarded as
each other and to suggest measures for a
the major villain in air pollution and urban decay.
sustainable design. What is proposed is to include
Travelling on foot or by bicycle which has been
cycleways in the urban network, reduce potential
so neglected in urban transport planning in recent
conflict, prevent accidents and maintain a constant
decades, has become a matter of interest. Together
flow of traffic. These recommendations can serve
with public passenger transport, they are now being
both to introduce improvements in the existing
given greater prominence and are generally regarded
roadway system and to open up new routes. The aim
as more amenable form of transport as well as more
is to ensure that an amicable sharing of roads by
socially just and less polluting.
different forms of transport does not just
City planning now looks more favourably
remain
an impracticable theory. Its main
on pedestrians and cyclists, and buses, trams
objective is to work out designs that show that
and
it
the
underground
are
becoming
more
is
really
feasible
to
introduce
an
valued. Nonetheless, cities must be provided
infrastructure for bicycles in the road network
with an infrastructure designed to meet every
both in small towns and large cities.
kind of requirement for making possible and
CHAPTER 1
SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
20 | 21
During the 20th Century, urban planning
traffic congestion which prolonged the time spent
adopted the car as the main means of
in travelling. It also aggravated the problem of
getting around and tended to neglect the
atmospheric, sound and visual pollution in the
importance of public transport or journeys made
urban environment. It is generally believed that
by pedestrians and cyclists. The car became
the growth of the cities, together with the
the key factor in the design of roads. As a result,
increased volume of motorised transport, has
previously unoccupied land was absorbed into the
been a key factor in the deterioration of
urban network and this caused an expansion of
environmental conditions in the whole planet.
cities and towns. There was a new organization
As a result of this situation, the United Nations
of space, accompanied by a growth of residential
Conference for Environment and Development was
boroughs which were often far way from
held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. This conference
commercial centres; this increased the number
sought to reach an agreement between nations
of journeys by car required to meet the everyday
about the need for a new model which was called
needs of the people.
Sustainable Development. This model was based
In Brazil, this pattern of development also
on the assumption that transport, the division and
led to the growth of poor residential areas on the
use of land and the quality of life in a town or city,
outskirts of the cities that were far from centres
all play a significant role in the design of roadway
of employment. In fact, the lower classes who did
systems. In the early 1990s, following the U.N.
not own their own vehicles were seriously affected
Conference where a policy document was drawn
because the found themselves at an increased
up and subsequently ratified as Agenda 21 by the
distance from the centres of commerce and
Federal Senate in 1997, transport planning in Brazil
services without enjoying the benefits of comfort
began to implement the new strategies.
and speed provided by the car.
Agenda 21 warned of the problems arising
The growth in the use of private vehicles, even
from the increase of the rate of motorised
for short journeys, led to a progressive increase in
transport, especially in developing countries, and
Chapter 1 - Sustainable Design
the need to harness the scarce resources used in
road system and public transport. This model
the motor-way infrastructure so that the benefits
of roadway design (which is described here as
could be shared by everybody in a fair and equal
sustainable) can also help in reducing the volume
manner. The upper or middle classes who drove
of traffic and amount of pollution. It can thus
cars should not be in a privileged position. The
improve people’s health, make the environment
document recommended setting up sustainable
pleasanter and add to the safety and comfort of
transport plans in every country which included the
the pedestrian and cyclist.
following measures:
• givingprioritytonon-motorisedmeansof
transport (pedestrians and bicycles);
1.1 SUSTAINABLE DESIGN
Ramsay (1995) argues that to sustain
• encouragingcollectiveformsoftransport;
non-motorised forms of transport successfully,
• discouragingtheuseofcars;
the following requirements must be met:
• reducingenergyconsumption.
Whereas the development plans in the 20th
Century had given priority to the road-system
• accessibilitytodifferentpartsofthetown/
city;
• negotiatingtherightofwayatroad
network, sustainable planning regarded the
junctions or roadways shared with other
movements of pedestrians and cyclists, together
types of transport;
with public transport, as key elements. However,
if it is to be effective, the city must build up an
infrastructure that is suitable for going about
on foot or cycling and should include plans for
cycle-lanes which can be proved to be safe and
pleasant for the cyclists. Moreover, these lanes
should provide access to a wide range of
destinations, while also being integrated with the
• asmoothflowoftrafficavoidingdeviations
and bottlenecks;
• safetyontheroadways,cross-roadsand
parking-bays;
• environmentalconvenienceproviding
protection from harsh climatic conditions;
• arelaxedwayofensuringapleasant
environmental experience.
22 | 23
1.1.1 Accessibility
The city should provide priority paths for
cyclists and pedestrians, which interconnect
the boroughs and give access to leisure-spots,
schools, commercial premises and services such
as transport terminals. The routes chosen within
the roadway network should be well planned to
ensure the users feel safe and at ease. As Barton
Table 1.1: Footpaths
Destination
Maximum distance
(m)
Elementary and early primary school
600
Late primary school
1000
Daily shopping
600
Weekly shopping
1000
Leisure centres for the elderly
600
Bus stop
400 a 600
Public transport stations
1000
Sports grounds
500 a 1000
Sports centres
1000 a 1500
The work-place
1000 a 1500
Source: PRINZ, D., 1980
(1995) points out, having signs which are easy to
identify and good quality lanes, are significant and
perhaps decisive factors in forming someone’s
habit to walk or cycle.
Moreover, when planning the preferred
tracks for pedestrians and cyclists, it is important
Table 1.2: Comparison of speed between different types of transport
Types
Average Speed
Pedestrian
5 km per hour
Cyclist
15 km per hour
Bus
20 km per hour
Car
30 km per hour
to take into account the different distances covered
can cover a distance equivalent to that of a bus
by each category. The length of a pedestrian’s
and perhaps go faster than a car travelling a short
journey does not usually exceed 1 km or 1.5 km,
distance in a congested area (Table 1.2).
the maximum journey that a young person is
As explained in a manual by GEIPOT (1983),
willing to go on foot to reach a leisure facility or
the ideal distance for a bicycle is between 800m
an adult to reach a railway station or the
– 3 km, while a normal journey from the home
underground (Table 1.1).
to the place of work is 5-6 km. Most journeys of
In a comparison of the speeds (Table 1.2) and
distances less than 3 km in urban areas can
the distances covered by the different categories
be made by bicycle provided that there is an
of transport, it can be noted that when travelling
infra-structure which offers safety and comfort.
a short distance in a congested area, the bicycle
Chapter 1 - Sustainable Design
1.1.2 Negotiability
a journey. This might be the reason why there has
Planning a system that allows a constant
been no concern about applying technical criteria
flow of pedestrians and cyclists in built-up areas
when constructing lanes that are suitable for the
is a difficult undertaking because of the effects
bicycle or pedestrian. As a result, pedestrians are
of other means of transport. The system of
obliged to skirt round obstacles and vehicles that
footpaths and cyclelanes can be characterised
block their passage and cyclists have to face the
as discontinuous and subject to interruption
fury of the traffic.
by the motorised traffic that forms the basis of
geometric, urban design.
The purpose of sustainable design is to
remove all obstacles and settle any conflicts so
The network of pedestrians and cyclists
as not to prolong the journeys of pedestrians and
usually runs parallel with that of vehicles. At
cyclists. At the same time, it should be taken into
the same time, the interweaving of a continuous
account that detours away from congested roads or
thread of motorised transport causes repeated
traffic going at great speed, may entail an increase
interruptions and conflicts. To avoid this, the
in the amount of road surface, although it offers a
intersecting points of different types of transport
gain in safety and convenience.
must be handled in a suitable way so that the
journeys are not interrupted and priority is
given the pedestrians and cyclists in the process
of negotiating with the road traffic.
1.1.4 Safety
Cyclists generally make use of preferential
roads so that they have priority at the crossroads
and avoid the constant need to reduce their speed
1.1.3 Smoothness of the journey
or to stop at junctions with local roads. At present,
The cyclist, like the pedestrian, has more
in Brazil there is a lack of public safety which is a
manoevrability when travelling on roads than any
further disincentive to going on foot or bicycle.
alternative form of transport and is in a better
Pedestrians and cyclists prefer the risk of going
position to overcome any obstacles encountered in
along main roads in the midst of high-speed
24 | 25
traffic to making journeys where they are in greater
out their patrols. Strengthening security gives rise
danger of being attacked.
to a number of benefits: a greater use of public
Planning the safety of pedestrians and cyclists
should include the following:
space for recreation, more lively activity among the
street traders and an increase in urban tourism.
• appropriatemeasurestoavoidorsettle
conflicts;
• reconcilingdifferenttypesoftransport
1.1.5 Environmental well-being
The growth of trees in urban areas improves
within the roadway system, with priority
the quality of the landscape and environmental
being given to non-motorised transport;
atmosphere of the streetscape. As Milano (1994)
• adaptingthewarningsignalstoensurethat
points out, the presence of vegetation enhances
non-motorised transport is given priority
spaces of social recreation. In addition, it plays
over other vehicles;
an important role in reducing visual pollution and
• improvingthesystemoftraffic-lightsatthe
crossiroads;
• maintainingthepavementsandsigningto
ensure the highest standards of safety.
The problem of potential danger spots such
as crossroads must be addressed by improving
improving the people’s state of physical and
mental health. The growth of trees benefits the
city and, in particular, pedestrians and cyclists in a
number of ways such as the following:
• it reduces the risk of sunstroke and
provides welcome shade;
the signing system and introducing raised ground
• it acts as a wind-break;
levels or mechanisms to reduce the speed of the
• it reduces the level of atmospheric
motorised vehicles.
It should be stressed too that the flow of
pollution;
• it helps to muffle the noise of the city.
pedestrians and cyclists should be a prime concern
of the public safety services. Clear identification of
the main routes can help the police when carrying
1.1.6 Amenities
Having good paving, trees and well-lit roads
Chapter 1 - Sustainable Design
is a way of encouraging people to walk or cycle,
impact of speed, noise and fumes caused by the
and, at the same time, ensuring that this habit
vehicles. Flower-beds and an attractive range
will be sustained. Moreover, it is a good idea
of paving-stones can make the landscape more
to provide suitable amenities which can serve
pleasant. Similarly, choosing roads that are
the requirements of the user for example,
appropriate to the nature of the architecture
the need for facilities associated with rest,
and the use of the ground can help make the
communication
journey more attractive.
or
obtaining
information.
Planting trees alongside the roads reduces the
CHAPTER 2
ROADS AND VEHICLES
28 | 29
The design of roads has a great effect
on means of transport.
on the safety, comfort, enjoyment and
Design can serve to encourage or discourage
functioning of means of transport. It can either
the use of a car too and, as a result, either increase
liberate or restrict the everyday movement of
or reduce the degree of visual annoyance of parking
pedestrians and cyclists. Those who are most
areas and the environmental impact arising from
affected by the quality of road design are the
the emission of pollutents and noise.
disabled, pregnant women, the elderly and people
with shopping-bags, cases or push-chairs.
2.1 THE HIERARCHY OF THE ROADWAY
Pavements which are uneven and/or blocked
Urban roads conform to a hierarchical
by features of the urban landscape hamper
system that depends on the extent to which their
movement on foot and are an obstacle to people in
main functions and priorities require designs
wheel-chairs. Wide roads, unlike narrow streets,
to meet their particular needs. Roads can be
increase the speed of vehicles. The narrowing of
classified into main, secondary and local, or
streets in tree-lined avenues forces people to drive
express, arterial, collector and local. Spirn (1995)
more slowly. Standardised paving, as well as the
states that the movement is the goal of the
careful arrangement of objects and trees alongside
arterial and express ways and the accessibility
the pavements, improves the streetscape and raises
and environment quality are more important
the value of plots of land and buildings.
for collector and local streets.
Design also has a great influence on the
Roads in natural surroundings do not
way the transport system functions and can be
represent a type of road but rather a quality
a contributory factor, or cause, of accidents,
since they derive their attractiveness from the
traffic congestion or conflicts in the roadway
natural resource of the scenery. The way these
system. Indirectly, it can influence the way
roads are classified depends on their functions
economic activities are carried out and the kinds
within the roadway system: express arterial,
of urban work that always depend, to some extent,
collector or local.
Chapter 2 - Roads and Vehicles
comprises
the boroughs. They serve both passenger and
different physical and operational features which
local transport and are used for bus journeys. The
can be classified with regard to the importance of
maximum speed limit is 40 km per hour. Owing
each user: pedestrian, bicycle, car, lorry or bus.
to the bus services provided, the link roads are
Thus
the
roadway
system
attractive to the business and service sector. This
2.1.1 Local roads
commerce attracts a considerable number of
These are roads for traffic of an essentially
pedestrians, cyclists and car-users and leads to a
local character where the maximum speed limit
need for suitable pavements, an infra-structure for
is 30 km per hour; they provide space for the
cyclists and parking bays. It is important to plant
movement of pedestrians away from the vehicles.
trees alongside the roads to give shade against
The requirements of traffic have less influence
the intensity of heat and lessen the effects of
in determining the size of local roads as there
environmental pollution.
is less demand for parking-space. Although it
varies from town to town, in Brazil, local roads
2.1.3 Arterial roads
are required by pedestrians as space which
The main purpose of these roads is to meet
can be used for leisure activities, especially in
the needs of the heavier traffic which consists of
residential areas where the buildings are
cars, buses and lorries with a maximum speed
designed for recreation and are not separated
limit of 60 km per hour. It is not advisable to
from the roads by walls. In fact, the local roads
allow parking alongside the pavements as the
are largely designed for pedestrians, cyclists and
manoeuvres of vehicles attempting to park can
a few cars but are not suitable for bus routes.
upset the flow of the traffic.
Arterial
2.1.2 Collector roads
roads
cross
through
different
boroughs and serve motorised traffic over long or
These are the main streets that provide a
medium-sized distances. Being a passenger route,
link between two arterial roads or an entry into
they tend to attract a large number of commercial
30 | 31
and service premises that add to the intense flow
and distinct functions such as the pavement, road
of buses and cars, as well as of pedestrians and
surface, parking spaces, traffic islands, a central
cyclists.
kerb and even a cycle-lane. The importance of each
On
arterial
roads,
higher
degrees
of
feature depends on the mode of transport that is
atmospheric, sound and visual pollution can be
predominant. The pedestrian is confined to the
found which in most town localities require the
pavement, the cyclist to the cycle-lane and the
planting of trees along both sides of the road to
motorised transport to the roadway.
mitigate the annoyance of motorised transport.
A close analysis of each of these elements
The arterial roads that make up part of the bus
confirms that if there is any surplus space on the
transport system need suitably-placed bus-stops
verges that can be utilised for transport that is not
and lay-bys are needed to reduce the adverse
motorised, this will improve the flow of the system
effects of heavy traffic.
and be a way of using public financial resources to
the maximum benefit. The formation of the street
2.1.4 Express highways
These are roads for long-distance journeys
and its surrounding area will have an influence on
its fluidity, convenience and every aspect of safety.
made by motorised vehicles with a maximum
speed of 80 km per hour in urban areas without
traffic-lights. They are usually dual-carriageway
2.2.1 Tracks for vehicles
The
roadways
designed
for
motorised
with the roadways divided by a central kerb. To
vehicles consist of one or more separate tracks
avoid accidents, there are U-turns and footbridges
separated by a central kerb. The track is divided
for pedestrians as well as turnings into parallel
into two or more traffic lanes which may be of
side-lanes.
different sizes depending on the classification of
the road within the roadway system and the need
2.2 THE DESIGN OF THE ROAD
The roadway consists of different features
for speed or a smooth flow of traffic.
The signing of the traffic-lanes helps to
Chapter 2 - Roads and Vehicles
control the line of traffic and avoid disorderly
driving or the risk of accidents. The size of the
Table 2.1: The average size of motorised vehicles
Type of vehicle
Average size
Small-sized car
1,80
track can be estimated to correspond to the size
Medium and large-sized car
2,10
of the predominant vehicles (Table 2.1) and their
Minibus
2,25
Bus
2,40
distance from vehicles alongside depends on the
Refuse-van
2,40
speed limit. For a journey that allows travelling
Truck
2,55
and overtaking with a high degree of safety and
Table 2.2: Distances between vehicles at different speeds
comfort, the distance between vehicles is in the
Types of Street and Speed
Distance between vehicles (m)
range of 0.45m –1.20 m (Table 2.2). The greater
Express (< 80km.p.h)
1,05 a 1,20
Arterial (<60km.p.h)
0,90 a 1,05
Collector (< 40 km.p.h)
0,75 a 0,90
Local (< 35km.p.h)
0,45 a 0,75
the speed, the greater the distance between
adjacent vehicles must be. A track of a greater width
encourages higher speeds.
Thus, the width of the lane of the local
correspond to the size of cars. The division of the
roads is estimated with regard to the size of cars
lanes should start from the left (referring to the
while the collector and arterial streets are wider to
direction of the traffic) so that enough extra space
accommodate larger vehicles like buses and
remains for the track on the right which is most
lorries. If account is taken of the sizes of vehicles
affectedby the driving and stopping of large-sized
(with additional allowance made for overtaking),
vehicles.
the lanes designed in urban areas range from
2.55m to 3.75m, 3,90m is used for shared lane.
The best size for a bus lane is a width of
3.3m (Table 2.3). The lane on the right and adjacent
Different width sizes can occur on the same
to it should be 3.0m minimum so as not to slow
track. For link and arterial streets, the size of the
down the journey or make overtaking difficult. The
lane on the right is mainly designed to cater for
further lanes should be the smallest section and
buses. The adjoining lane should allow large
be 2.7m. A lane of 2.55m is only recommended in
vehicles to overtake others. The third lane should
areas where there is a low number of vehicles.
32 | 33
It is advisable to locate parking-spaces on the left
of the road.
2.2.2 Parking
A parking-space is a place reserved for
Since requirements for the use of space vary,
stationary vehicles. These places can be located
it is advisable to draw up a list of the minimum,
alongside the lanes or built into the pavements or
recommended and maximum measurements
central kerbside. Parking is often not planned as
for the flow of vehicles in the right-hand lane.
a part of the physical structure but authorised for
This varies in accordance with the classification of
operational reasons, and one factor which must be
different categories of road (Table 2.4). The
taken into account is the total width of the road.
lowest widths admissible are only recommended
There are only five angles which can be
for short stretches of road or roads with
employed for parking along a road of 0, 30, 45, 60
a low volume of traffic. If the roads are too
or 90 degrees. Each of these require different
wide, they tend to be overused and this leads
measurements both for the parking space and for
to pile-ups or bottlenecks, dangerous overtaking
the manoeuvre of parking itself and they all have
and increases of speed at unsafe levels.
different advantages and disadvantages.
The measurements of a parking-space for
Table 2.3: Measurements recommends for lanes in corridors of bus
Position
Minimum width
acceptable
Minimum width
recommended
Maximum width
a normal-sized car are 2.25m X 5.0m. This space
Right hand lane
3,00
3,30
3,90
is calculated on the basis of the size of the car,
Central lane
2,70
3,30
3,90
Left hand lane
2,70
3,30
3,90
Parking at 0 degrees
2,25
2,40
2,55
needed for opening the doors. In some cities
the smallest size that can be allowed for a
Table 2.4: Measurements of right lane recommends
Right hand lane
Categories of street
including any added accessories and the room
vehicle is 2.1m. The ideal size is 2.4m. The space
Minimum width
acceptable
Minimum width
recommended
Optimum width
Local
2,70
2,85
3,00
Collector
3,00
3,30
3,45
Arterial
3,30
3,45
3,60
needs 4.75m while 60 degrees needs 5.5m and
Express
3,60
3,75
3,90
90 degrees needs 5.0m.
positioned at 0 degrees to the pavement should have a
minimum size of 5.5m. The space at 45 degrees
Chapter 2 - Roads and Vehicles
Parking-spaces which are parallel to the
suitable for the seated motorist or passenger.
cycle-lane should, whenever possible, have a width
When the planned space is parallel to the
of 2.4m to prevent doors of vehicles from being
pavement, it must be of a width that offers a space
opened on to the cycle-lane. Parking-space for
to accommodate wheel-chairs off the street. This
users of wheel-chairs in urban roads must be
should be affected in a way that can allow
easy to locate. For example, they can be put close
all the movement needed for getting into or
to a group of buildings near a pedestrian-crossing.
out of a car and for folding or unfolding the
These spaces should be thought of as being
wheel-chair safely.
CHAPTER 3
PEDESTRIANS
36 | 37
Every kind of locomotion involves a
their movements are restricted by physical
degree of walking. Travelling on foot can be
handicaps or not, these people can be regarded as
a complete journey or a means of supplementing
People with Reduced Mobility or People with
another form of transport, whether it be to gain
Restricted Ability. The design of the roadway must
access to a car, bus, the underground, train or
serve to help everybody get around, as well as
a bicycle. Pedestrians usually just go from one
offering safety and ease in the act of walking
block to another and their routes are interrupted
and making the street a universal space.
by the flow of cars. The continuous thread of
For a design to be sustainable, pedestrians,
motorised traffic dominates the scene and
cyclists and public transport must be given priority.
weaves the pattern and spatial organization of
To achieve this, the functions of each kind of route
the town or city. The overlapping of roadways
must be clearly set out and the peculiarities of each
causes a sequence of interruptions in the
form of locomotion catered for so that accidents
pedestrian areas which are dotted with crossroads
can be avoided and traffic allowed to flow freely.
that often fail to provide the minimum degree
3.1 THE PAVEMENT
of safety.
The
category
includes
The pavement is an area that is designed
children, adults and the elderly, each age group
for the movement of people – it is at a higher
varying in its degree of agility and awareness.
level than the road and close to the buildings.
The pedestrians might include handicapped
Pavements should provide enough space to allow
people with problems of disability and sight.
pedestrians to pass by whether in wheel-chairs or
They
their
baby push-chairs. The pedestrians usually require
factors
about 0.75 m of space for their movements
apart from physical disability such as having
(Figure 3.1). There are variations of 0.05m with
push-chairs,
wheelchairs
regard to children, wheel-chairs and people
and children strapped to the body. Whether
with crutches. On the basis of this estimate, two
might
movements
of
also
and
pedestrians
be
by
shopping
restricted
other
in
external
trolleys,
Chapter 3 - Pedestrians
pedestrians occupy 1.5m and three pedestrians
pavement which only serves the pedestrians.
2.25m, including the distance between them
The part for street furniture and trees (SFT) is
(Figures 3.2 and 3.3).
designed for posts, benches and bus-stops, as
The width of the pavement must also allow
well as trees and any kinds of objects the city
the placing of urban features such as posts and
needs. In cities or towns which have signs on the
benches, as well as trees to provide shade against
ground for people with poor sight, the part must be
excessive heat and to counter the effects of
resurfaced with different material from the walking
pollution. When estimating the measurements, it
lane to prevent any obstacles appearing.
should be taken into account that the movements
The safety lane (SL) corresponds to the
of the pedestrian are affected by the presence of
minimum distance required by pedestrians,
walls and shop-windows of the buildings and the
cyclists and objects (Figures 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7).
proximity of the street.
In towns where the ground is marked with
The pavement consists of four different lanes
(Figure 3.4):
1 - the connecting passage with the
buildings (CP)
2 – the street furniture and trees or shrubs
(SFT)
signs, the safety lane must be placed between
the pedestrian lane and the cyclelane (Figure 3.6).
The ground is usually surfaced in a way
that
can
warn
the
partially-sighted
where
the pavement ends or where the walk-way
can be found.
3 - the walk-way (WW)
4 – the safety lane (SL)
3.1.1 The connecting passage (CP)
The connecting passage [CP] with the
The connecting passage may be of different
buildingsadjoins the sites of the buildings.
sizes. When placed alongside walls in the vicinity
It corresponds to the distance that pedestrians
of local roads, it should have a minimum width
usually keep from the buildings. The lane
of 0.3m. In residential areas, here there are
walk-way (WW) corresponds to the part of the
spaces in front of the buildings; the minimum width
38 | 39
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.4
CP
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
CP
SL
Figure 3.6
CP
Figure 3.5
WW
WW
SL
SL
Figure 3.7
WW
SFT
CP
WW
SFT
SL
Chapter 3 - Pedestrians
should be 0.45m or 0.6m when there are buildings.
be more liberal and allow the pedestrian more
The same measurements should be adopted in
scope for movement and enjoyment.
commercial roads where there must be a
minimum width of 0.9 m so that pedestrians have
enough space to look at the shop-windows.
Table 3.1 Widths of the main elements surrounding the pavement
3.1.3 The lane for street furniture and trees (SFT)
The journeys of pedestrians are affected by the
presence of urban features and trees. Thus when
Elements
Lane affected
Walls
0,30m
Residential and small commercial property
0,45m
well as the width required for the unhampered
Walls and shops
0,60m
movement of pedestrians, account must be taken of
Shop-windows
0,90m
3.1.2 The walk-way (WW)
The minimum width of a pavement should
allow the pedestrians ease and, in particular,
calculating the minimum size of a pavement, as
the distance from the urban objects (which should be
between 0.15-0.45m depending on the extent of their
influence) - the less the distance, the less the degree
of comfort for the pedestrian.
every pavement should have enough space to
The area of urban features can be defined
allow at least two people to pass by in opposite
as the sum of the area of urban objects and its
directions. Given that the width of a lane for a
area of influence if it includes trees. The lowest
pedestrian is 0.75m, the minimum recommended
measurement recommended for this area, in the
is 1.5m. None of the following should be
vicinity of local roads with trees, posts or small
present: difference in levels, street objects,
litter bins is 0.75m (Figure 3.8 and 3.9) resulting in a
ramps giving access to pedestrians or vehicles.
pavement with a minimum width of 2.55 (without
Although 1.5m may be a rather narrow space
counting the kerb).
for two wheel-chairs to pass by at the same
An area of urban features of 1.2 m allows a
time, a place for overtaking can be included
greater degree of ease since the urban objects can
in an adjacent space between street objects.
be 0.3m away from the walkway, thus putting less
In planning pavement areas, the sizes should
pressure on the pedestrians (Figures 3.10 and 3.11).
40 | 41
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
SFT
CP
WW
SFT
It also allows space for bus-stops which lack shelters
the size of the pavement must take account of how it
and to accommodate passers-by away from the main
will be used and the occupations of people along the
thoroughfare (Figure 3.12). The use of this lane would
way. Commercial streets require a paved space of 0.9
result in a pavement with a minimum width of 3m.
m. and a walkway of 3.0 m to allow 4 people to pass
When shelters are put up at the bus-stops, an
by and an area of urban features of 3.0 m including
extra space of between 0.3-0.45 m. must be added as
bus-stops, kiosks and cash-points. This will result in
an additional area about the main thoroughfare There
a pavement of approx. 6.9 m (Figure 3.14).
must be a minimum distance of 1.2 m (0.9 being the
If small magazine-stalls are included, divided
pedestrian lane and 0.3 a safety lane) (Figure 3.12).
into a sectional area of 1.2 sqm, a track for urban
If the shelter has a width of 1.2 m, the area of urban
features is required of at least 1.8 m resulting in
features will be 2.7 m. If the minimum width of the
a pavement with a width of 3.6 m (Figure 3.15).
pedestrian walkway is 1.5 m, there will be a pavement
A pavement which has the same objects but allows
with a width of 4.5 m (Figure 3.13). At the same time,
greater convenience will have a minimum width
Chapter 3 - Pedestrians
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
SFT
of 4.05 m. (Figure 3.16).
One of the most important measurements
in estimating the size of pavements is that of the
SFT
the trees must be kept at a minimum distance of 0.6m
from the inner kerb so that the branches of the trees
do not obstruct the buses or trucks (Figure 3.18).
beds at the base of the trees. Urban trees need
The choice of urban features for each kind
pits of 0.6m –1.05m making up a bedding space of
of pavement will depend on which category of
approx. 0.75-1.2m (Figure 3.17). They can be built at
way it is and must form a part of the system that
ground-level or at a slightly higher level. When
determines the size of the pavements (Table 3.2).
the trees are placed close to the gravel filling the
Posts and trees make up the minimum of objects
kerb-stones, they can damage the kerbs. In addition,
that must be included in local ways. The posts
they act like a wall and can cause drivers to swerve to
are needed for lighting and the trees to give
the centre of the road. In both side-roads and arterial
protective shade against sunstroke, which is a
roads with traffic involving large vehicles, the axis of
potential hazard in most cities and towns in Brazil.
42 | 43
Figure 3.12
CP
WW
SFT
Figure 3.13
CP
WW
SFT
Chapter 3 - Pedestrians
Figure 3.14
CP
WW
SFT
Figure 3.15
CP
WW
SFT
44 | 45
Figure 3.16
CP
Figure 3.17
WW
SFT
Figure 3.18
TO
TO
Chapter 3 - Pedestrians
The side roads, being the part of the public road
features must have from the centre of the kerb. In
system that has the largest number of pedestrians,
the manual issued by the Council of Rio de Janeiro,
should have litter bins, public telephone booths,
a minimum distance of 0.5m is recommended for
magazine stalls and spaces at bus-stops along its
all street objects including the beds of the trees.
pavements, as well as posts and trees. On the
In Victoria, the fixed distance is 0.3m.
arterial roads, the pavements must have all the
A safety lane with a distance of 0.45 m allows
objects of the side roads with an increase of
space for the front of vehicles parked at an angle
shelters for passengers waiting for the bus, as there
of 45 degrees and 0.6 m allows space for vehicles
is a greater number and frequency of services. The
parked at a right angle (90 degrees) (Figure 3.19),
track for urban objects must, whenever possible,
although in neither case, is it possible for
be covered with a tactile warning surface to
pedestrians to pass between the vehicles and
enable the partially-sighted to realise that this is an
objects with these measurements. A safety lane
area of obstacles.
with a distance of 0.45 m or more allows car doors
Table 3.2 Urban features and the hierarchical classification of ways
Urban features
Minimum size of lane for urban objects
Posts and trees
0,75
Simple bus-stops
1,20
Bus-stops with a shelter of 1.2 m
2,70
to be opened without disturbing the urban traffic
(Figure 3.20).
3.1.5 Ramps to allow vehicles access
Ramps allowing vehicles access to garages
3.1.4 The safety lane (SL)
are included in the safety lanes and can be
The safety lane (SL) runs alongside the
extended to a section of the lane for urban
roadway. This track is usually absorbed in the lane
features. The ramps will vary considerably
of urban features. In pavements without urban
depending on the declivity of the slope and the
objects, it shows the minimum distance that the
difference in level between the pavement and the
pedestrian tends to keep from the kerb. It also
roadway (Table 3.3). The height of the kerb must
defines the minimum distance that the urban
be a maximum of 0.15m and an acceptable slope
46 | 47
to allow a vehicle entrance to a dwelling can be up
to 25%. If one takes into account slopes of 20-25%
and the height of pavements varying between 0.1
and 0.15 m, the declivity of the ramp and thus the
Table 3.3: Depth of ramp providing access to vehicles in the pavement area
Depth of ramp providing access to vehicles
Height of pavement (cm) Declivity
20%
25%
0,10
0,50m
0,40m
0,125
0,625m
0,50m
0,15
0,75m
0,60m
safety lane will be between 0.4 and 0.75 m.
3.1.6 Ramps to allow pedestrians access
If one follows the principle that everyone
should have the right of access, pavements should
Figure 3.19
be provided with ramps at every crossroads.
These
ramps
will
have
different
slopes
depending on the height of
the kerb and the declivity
decided on. Brazilian
SL
Figure 3.20
legislation
allows
slopeof
to
up
a
12.5%,
however, several manuals do not advise that
declivities should be above 8%. Prinz (1980)
states that to avoid the risk of wheel-chairs
slipping on a steep slope, the ramps should
have skid pads on slopes above 6%.
Table 3.5 provides calculations of the
depth of the ramp for pedestrian access
for declivities of 6.25 12.5%. The flat
surface at the top of the slope must
have a minimum section of 0.9m.
Chapter 3 - Pedestrians
Neither of the ramps giving access to pedestrians
or vehicles must take up space in the pedestrian
way or the cycleway that form a part of the
pavement. They must have the same width as the
Table 3.4: Ramps – slope permitted on pedestrian ways
Slope
Degree of restriction
<= 6%
No restriction
> 6%
Skid pads required
<=8%
Maximum in normal situations
8 a 12 %
Confined to exceptions
safety lane (SL) or the track for urban objects or
Source: Prinz (1980)
trees (SFT) as illustrated in Figures 3.21 and 3.22.
Table 3.5: Ramps and pavements corresponding to the height of the kerb
Difference in levels or height
of the kerb
1:16 or 6,25%
1:12 or 8,33%
1:8 or 12,5%
0,10m
1,60m
1,20m
0,80
0,11m
1,76m
1,32m
0,88
0,12m
1,92m
1,44m
0,96
0,13m
2,08m
1,56m
1,04
at the convergence of roads at the crossroads
0,14m
2,24m
1,68m
1,12
(Figure 3.23) or where they form a square at the
0,15m
2,40m
1,80m
1,20
The pedestrian crossings must be located
at the crossroads - this could be at the point
where the pavements lead on to curving arcs
crossroads itself (Figure 3.24) In the case of the
former the advantages are as follows:
• the pedestrians are secured greater safety
In the case of narrow pavements, the
pedestrian ramps can be placed parallel to the
kerb. Another way to overcome the problem of
and have a better view of the vehicles
gaining access to the pavement is to raise the
while also being themselves noticed by
level of the track of the road and thus reduce the
the drivers more easily;
difference in level in the crossing areas.
• the vehicles can also reduce their
speed or stop after the curve before
they reach the crossing without causing
inconvenience at the crossroads;
3.2 ISLANDS AND BEDDED AREAS
The islands and bedded areas are spaces
placed amid the roadway and are defined by
• the cyclists on the main road who want
horizontal signalling or by constructing an area
to go ahead can transfer to a new road
at a higher level. They are designed to protect
easily without being caught up with
pedestrians at the crossings or to direct the flow
vehicles wanting to turn right.
of traffic to the left.
48 | 49
Figure 3.21
CP
Figure 3.23
Figure 3.22
WW
SFT
CP
WW
Figure 3.24
SFT
SL
Chapter 3 - Pedestrians
The size of the bedded area should take
The crossings at the islands must be lowered
into account that the pedestrian might be using
further to the level of the track to help
a wheelchair, a bicycle or pushing a baby
pedestrians and cyclists to travel more smoothly.
push-chair. For this reason, it must be wide
Pavements which have a width that is less than
enough to allow any of these kinds of pedestrians
3.5 m can only have trees when they are not
to have free passage or to stop. On the routes
flanked by high rise buildings in the adjacent land.
alongside the beach, account must be taken of
The same measurements must be adopted for
space for surf-boards. Thus, when one makes
the central bedded areas. In the case of smaller
increases to allow for the pedestrian and any
areas, trees must be planted that have a long
accompanying equipment, the zone of protection
trunk before extending into a fork.
is 0.35m to the outside of the kerb, 2.5m for the
Table 3.6: Size of the central bedded area with regard to the pedestrian
minimum section of the central bedded areas
Pedestrian
Measurement
of side
Central area minimum section/
and 2.7m on the coastal routes. In both cases, the
With a bicycle
1,80m
2,50m
With a wheel-chair
1,70m
2,40m
With a baby push-chair
1,60m
2,30m
With a surf-board
2,00m
2,70m
Partially-sighted with a walking-stick
1,50m
2,20m
widths are not enough for vehicles to turn to the
left as the radius for turning is too small and there
is restricted space to protect vehicles which are
outside the main flow of the traffic.
CHAPTER 4
BICYCLES
52 | 53
Different kinds of cyclists should be
distance to gauge the potential risk of the traffic.
given different priorities. Time and direction
are likely to be less important for recreational
4.1 CYCLING ACCIDENTS
cycling than for cyclists going to work or school.
Cycling accidents occur both on the cycleways
Those who cycle as a sport or a leisure activity will
and main roads, particularly at crossroads. The
prefer cycle-paths in attractive scenery alongside
main reasons for accidents caused by drivers of
the sea-shore or a river bank, or on streets and
motorised vehicles are as follows:
tracks in green areas. When making journeys in
• openingthedoorofavehicle;
urban areas, they will choose roads with less traffic
• carelessnesswhenturningleft;
and times when the streets are less congested.
• enteringaroadwithoutwarning;
• dangerousspeeding;
People who depend on bicycles to go to work
or to carry out services like delivering medicine
• failingtostopatthetraffic-lights.
or water, will take the shortest routes or those
With regard to the cyclists, the main causes
which allow them to cover the journey most quickly
are:
and where they can maintain a regular speed. In
• recklessspeeding;
contrast, casual cyclists are more willing to go on
• overtakingontheright;
a longer journey if it is safer and more amenable.
• failingtostopatthetraffic-lights.
Safety has now become one of the most important
Accidents such as collisions and falls also
requirements in planning cycleways. The reason
occur on the cycleways. Causes resulting from the
for this is that there is an increasing number of
infra-structure include the following:
new cyclists who run a greater risk of having an
accident because of their lack of experience with
• the cycleway being too narrow to allow
bicycles to pass each other;
traffic. This particularly applies to children who,
• theexcessiveheightofthekerbandother
as Ramsay (1995) points out, up to the age of 12,
surrounding features, which create the effect of
lack a sufficiently mature sense of movement and
a wall. This causes cyclists to veer towards the
Chapter 4 - Bicycles
centre of the cycleway which means there is a
main, secondary and local routes. In planning the
greater chance of a collision with a bicycle in the
network, attention must be paid to the geometrical
adjacent track or when overtaking;
shape and signalling that can together ensure a
• Obstaclesinthe path like postsand trees
which restrict the space required for travelling;
degree of safety and ease of travel to the cyclists,
as these factors can attract or discourage new
• Theconditionofthepavement.
users of bicycles and the everyday use of this kind
• Problemsofdrainage;
of transport.
• Inadequateorincomprehensiblesignalling,
particularly at different points of the crossroads;
• Theinadequatewidthofthetrackalongside,
which leads to pedestrians using the cycleway.
The essential infra-structure usually needed
for the circulation of bicycles consists of cycle-ways,
cycle-lanes and shared tracks. Cycle stands are
used for parking the bikes. Cycleways can mark
Horizontal signalling is an important means
out the whole infra-structure planned for the
of reducing the risk of accidents. One of the
circulation of bicycles. As a part of this system,
most essential signs is to warn cyclists they are
spaces can be designated for the sole use of
approaching a crossroads with
vehicles or
bicycles and segregated from cars and pedestrians
pedestrians. Whenever possible, the coloring
by making use of physical objects such as
and surface material of the ground should be
pavements, low walls and kerbs.
altered on the cycleway or cycletrack and in the
Cycle-lanes are lanes on the street way or
area where it meets a pedestrian crossing. The
pavements marked out by horizontal signalling or a
cyclist must be warned that in this stretch of the
differentiation of ground surface which does not rely
lane the pedestrian has priority.
on physical objects. Shared lanes are those used for
the circulation of two or more kinds of transport, like
4.2 THE INFRA-STRUCTURE FOR THE CIRCULATION OF BICYCLES
Roads which are solely designed for bicycles
must conform to a hierarchical pattern made up of
bicycles and pedestrians or bicycles and motorised
vehicles.
Cycle routes are ways, tracks or lanes of traffic
54 | 55
reserved for journeys by bicycle. Cycle routes might
difficult for him to be seen by motorists, especially
be laid out for short periods such as weekends or
when they are travelling in an opposite direction
holidays. They might have shared traffic but usually
to the traffic. Furthermore, on the basis of the
have a low speed–limit and restrictions of access for
experience of Oregon, it is safer for the cyclist to
motorised vehicles.
move like a vehicle than like a pedestrian even at
Cycle stands are the places used for parking
the crossings.
bicycles. If one wishes to build a continuous system
Cyclelanes are relatively cheap and easy to
of routes for cyclists in areas which already have a
construct. Like cycleways, they provide a space
network, one must select ways that can be adapted
solely for the circulation of bicycles and are
to form a circuit for the circulation of bicycles. The
separated from other kinds of transport by
choice of what kind of infra-structure to employ:
horizontal signalling. They are safer when they
cycle-ways, cycle-lanes or shared lanes largely
make use of a separate track which can give a
depend on the type of route chosen, the use of the
clearer
ground surface and the nature of the traffic.
pedestrians of the presence of bicycles.
warning
to
motorised
vehicles
and
Although a segregated cycle-way can be
regarded as the best means of assisting the flow
4.3 MEASUREMENTS
of the cycle traffic, Forester (1994) believes that
The cyclist takes up little space in the street
cycle-lanes on the track or shared lanes, as well as
way system. The width of his track is approx. 0.6
being narrower and taking up less space, are more
m. But when riding, a further 0.3 m is required on
flexible and interact with the traffic better.
each side for handling the bike, which means that
The manual issued by Oregon suggests that
a width of 1.2 m is required, as shown in Figure 4.1.
a cycle-way on a track is preferable to a cycleway
The way the cyclist sees the cycleway or
on the pavement. On the track, the cyclist is more
cyclelane is influenced by surrounding features.
visible, while on the pavement he makes a sudden
The higher they are, the more they reduce the
appearance at the cross-roads which makes it
optical width of the track and this makes the
Chapter 4 - Bicycles
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1a
Figure 4.2
bicycle veer to the centre of the track. As a result,
beds and also from isolated high features
the cyclist tends to keep to the following distances:
like posts, magazine kiosks and parked
• 0.3mfromtheedgeofanunsegregated
lane or pavement up to 0.1 m in height
(Figures 4.1, 4.1a and 4.2);
• 0.45mfrompavementsofover0.1min
cars (Figures 4.4 and 4.5);
• 0.75mfromhighstationaryfeatureswhen
placed on both sides (Figures 4.6 and 4.6a);
• 0.9mfrommovingvehiclesandother
height and from low isolated features like
cyclists when a greater ease of movement
flower beds and litter bins;
is required. (Figures 4.7 and 4.8).
• 0.6mfromlowwallsorcontinuousflower
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
56 | 57
With regard to trees, the distances are varied
The space required for bicycles in cycle
for the cyclists depending on whether the beds are
stands is 0.6 m by 1.8 m for each bicycle and they
at the same level as the cyclelane or higher. There
must have a free space of 1.5 m to allow them to
will also be a variation depending on the size of
enter and leave the stand.
the bed and the diameter of the tree trunk. The
As regards ramps, the manual issued by
smaller the bedded area, the greater the distance
GEIPOT (1983) recommends variations in the
of the cyclist, as illustrated by Figures 4.9 and 4.10.
declivities which will depend on how steep the
slope is – the maximum recommended is 10%, as
Figure 4.5
shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Declivities of the ramp for bicycles
Height to rise (m)
Ramp
Normal (%)
Maximum (%)
2
5,0
10,0
4
2,5
5,0
6
1,7
3,3
Source: GEIPOT (1983)
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.6a
Figure 4.7
Chapter 4 - Bicycles
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
CHAPTER 5
ROADS FOR CYCLISTS
60 | 61
Restricted space makes it difficult
McClintock (1995) believes that there are a
to form a roadway infra-structure solely
number of factors which determine whether or
for the use of cyclists in built-up areas. Despite
not cyclists will use the facilities of a cycleway.
this McClintock (1995) claims that although
Cyclists with fixed hbits tend to give priority to
less than ideal, some facilities can bring about
shorter routes to reduce the time it takes to
significant benefits, especially in areas where
complete their journey and allow them to
there is a great flow of traffic. As Tolley (1995)
maintain a regular speed. In contrast, cyclists with
pointed out, when carrying out a comparative
recently-acquired habits are more willing to take
study of towns in Holland, it is apparent that
a longer route if they think it is safer. However,
there was a greater use of bicycles and less
there is some evidence to suggest that most
reliance on cars in areas where cycleways had
cyclists are reluctant to take a route that adds
been laid out for journeys to school and work.
more than 10% to their journey, unless it offers
Although the distances of these trips had
irresistible advantages of safety. At any rate, the
been lengthened, it did not affect the time it
organized structure and high standard of the
took because there was an increase in speed.
cycleway system are responsible for drawing
Apart from this, the cycleway was beneficial in
cyclists away from congested, dangerous roads to
attracting new users and providing more comfort
safer and pleasanter routes.
and safety for the old cyclists. Rio de Janeiro
Planning often only envisages the cycleway
has also experienced a considerable increase
as a place for recreation alongside beaches or
in the number of cyclists compared with cars.
across parks. However, on some occasions,
Until 1994, there were about 1.5 million bicycles
cycleways are planned to meet the needs of
and 1.2 million cars. By 2002, the numbers had
those travelling from home to work. In this case,
increased to 3.5 million bicycles and 1.8 million
they are laid out on high-speed motorways with
cars, which can be attributed to financial
unacceptable
investment in the cycleway system (IPP, 2005).
discourages their use, in particular among
levels
of
pollution
and
this
Chapter 5 - Roads for Cyclists
for bicycle journeys is often interrupted by
children and women.
As it is not always possible to lay out a
crossings, bus-stops and parking areas and this
cycleway network in the whole urban roadway
can lead to conflicts which make the cycleway
system, one must select the roads that meet
network less attractive and unsafe.
the principal needs of the people. These can be
distinguished in accordance with the reasons for
travelling by bike as follows:
5.1 A LINEAR SYSTEM AND AN INTERCONNECTING SYSTEM
There are various ways to lay out a cycleway
• home-work-home;
infra-structure, whether it be paved tracks in parks
• carryingoutservices;
alongside a river bank or the sea-shore, or beside
• school;
roads in built-up areas. The journey can expect to
• sport;
encounter different types of infra-structure, with
• leisure;
stretches of cycleway and cyclelanes. Basically,
• casualtrips–likeshoppingorvisitinga
it consists of either a linear or interconnecting
system.
sports centre;
Tolley (1995) states that a cycleway
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
network must be well organized follow
a consistent pattern and be easily
recognizable
as
belonging
to
a
hierarchy of routes in which the bicycle
has competitive importance. Whenever
possible, and in whatever shape or
form they take, routes must maintain
continuity within the roadway system.
The reason for this is that the
fragmented nature of the infra-structure
62 | 63
In the linear system, the bicycle journey only
occurs along one route which can be one-way
5.2 CONDITIONAL FACTORS
The
main
difficulties
in
maintaining
or dual carriageway (Figures 5.1 and 5.4) In the
continuity in the bicycle journey, whether on a
interconnecting
journey
cycleway or cyclelane, occur at intersections,
involves entering adjacent streets and skirting
pedestrian crossings, bus-stops and parking
round crossroads (Figures 5.5 and 5.12).
areas. The procedures which have to be adopted
Figure 5.5
system,
the
bicycle
Figure 5.6
vary, depending on the type of road
and its operational use.
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
Figure 5.11
Figure 5.12
Chapter 5 - Roads for Cyclists
5.2.1 The bicycle and the type of road
When laying out a roadway system which
one-way streets to prevent bikes being too
close to the buses or on both sides when it is a
gives priority to bicycles in the existing
two-way road.
network, one must start by understanding the
The
arterial
roads
which
experience
purposes of each road and the peculiar features
the greatest number of journeys and highest
of each kind of locomotion so that priorities can
speeds must have both cyclelanes or cycleways.
be worked out for making the most suitable
These should be at the side if the street has few
kind of intervention. It is only in this way that
crossings and limited access to the surrounding
conflicts can be avoided and a smooth flow of
area and at the centre if there are a lot of
traffic in urban areas ensured.
connections on the sides which can break the
In local residential areas inhabited by
even flow of the bicycle journey.
single families, the smaller amount of traffic
and low speeds means that it is possible for
5.2.2 The bicycle and the running of the roadway
bicycles to share the roads. In local roads,
When laying out a cycleway system, it is
where residential land is reserved for high-rise
advisable for bicycles to travel in the same
buildings, there is a greater number of vehicles
direction as the vehicles. By adopting this
in circulation and neighboring areas are more
procedure, one can minimize the risks of
accessible. In this case, a cyclelane increases
accidents at the crossings involving pedestrians
the visibility of the cyclists and makes it safer for
who usually only pay attention to the movements
them.
of the vehicles.
It also avoids the problem of
The side roads can also be shared by the
motorists who are seeking to find a gap in the
vehicles and bicycles. However, when there is
traffic, being surprised by the sudden appearance
a greater volume of traffic and speeds exceed
of a bicycle going in the opposite direction.
30 km per hour, there is a need for cyclelanes.
When there is a dual system, it is
These should be on the left in the case of
recommended that cycleways and cyclelanes
64 | 65
travel in the same direction as the traffic, even
crossings it is preferable to separate the traffic in
though following this pattern can mean an
terms of its destination and not its type.
increase in the length of the journey which is not
always acceptable to the cyclists.
A two-way cycleway or cyclelane system is
5.2.3 The bicycle, the intersection and the
pedestrian crossing
satisfactory in situations where there are central
The pedestrian-crossing at the crossroads
kerbs, paved areas by the sea-shore and across
should always be regarded as an extension of the
parks and where there are no cross-roads with
pavement, whether it has signalling or not. It is
tracks for vehicles. When there is a two-way
advisable to place the track for the cyclist crossing
system along the pavements there is a greater risk
together with the pedestrian crossing so that the
of accidents, particularly at the crossings. This is
motorised vehicles do not have to be interrupted
because with traffic going in both directions, all the
twice in their journey. The bicyclelanes usually go
traffic, the cars as well as the bicycles, thrown into
round the corners of the square at the centre; this
disorder.
gives continuity to their journeys as it means they
In the opinion of Forester (1994), the bicycles
are not placed among the vehicles and pedestrians
should travel on the left of the road because at the
(Figure 5.13).
Figure 5.13
Figure 5.14
Chapter 5 - Roads for Cyclists
The cycleways and cyclelanes should have
Cyclelanes should not be situated on the
horizontal and vertical warning signs to reduce
right-hand track together with the bus lanes. As
the speed of the cyclists when they are
there is a need to provide parking areas within
approaching crossings where the pedestrians
the pavement kerb at the side of the bus lane, one
have the right of way. At these meeting-points, the
must choose one of the following alternatives:
surface of the ground should be marked in a
• Placingthecyclelaneontheleft-handside
different way (Figure 5.13). In the case of arterial
of the traffic with the parking-area and
and side roads, the surface of the crossings and
buses on the right, in alternate blocks;
their ramps should have a minimum size of 4
• Placingthecyclelaneontheleftofthe
meters for the pedestrians and 2 meters for the
traffic beside the parking areas, leaving the
cyclists (Figure 5.13). The horizontal signalling
lane on the right for the buses;
for bicycles usually consists of red squares or
• Placingthecyclelaneontherightofthe
white paint. A different ground surface can also be
traffic on roads where bus services are
adopted to help the cycleways and cyclelanes to
less frequent.
run more smoothly (Figure 5.14).
5.2.4 The bicycle and bus-stops
The cycleways on the road or cyclelanes on
the pavements must skirt round the areas set
Buses restrict the movement of cyclists
aside for bus-stops which must be kept close to
because the width of these vehicles makes it
the road. The space between the pedestrian lane
difficult for space to be shared on the same
and the area for boarding or alighting from the bus,
roadway. As well as this, they draw close to or move
should not be at different levels so that general
away from the kerb at an operational speed which
accessibility is not hampered. All the cycleway
is similar to that of the bicycle. This makes it hard
infra-structure in the stretch must have warning
for the cyclist to avoid a bus on the road. Cyclists
signals showing the need for cyclists to slow down
can only share the same space as the buses when
and give priority to the pedestrians. Figures 5.15
the numbers are low.
and 5.16 show the space at the bus-stop on a road
66 | 67
with a cyclelane on the pavement. The cyclelane
5.2.5 The bicycle and the parking area
on the street requires the inclusion of a ramp so
The presence of parking areas can cause
that the cyclist can get on to the pavement and skirt
problems to the circulation of bicycles. In some
round the bus-stop and ensure that the parking
cities or towns, it is usual to place the cyclelane
space for the bus is kept clear (Figure 5.17). The
between the parking bays and the traffic
same procedure applies to the cycleway and is
(Figure 5.19). When parking is casual, it should not
shown in Figure 5.18.
represent an obstacle which can affect the cyclist.
Figure 5.15
Thus, to prevent an accident occurring through
a car-door being opened unexpectedly, parking
bays for cars parked parallel to the kerb of the
pavement should be 2.4 m in width when the
adjoining cyclelane is not more than 1.5m. When
Figure 5.16
the cyclepath is 1.8 m, the parking bays must have
a width of 2.1 m. 3,90m must be the sum of the
cyclelane more parking bay. In Toronto, Canada,
this sum minimum is 3,80m. It is not advisable to
Figure 5.17
lay out a cyclelane along parking bays which have
angles of 30, 45, 60 or 90 degrees, as this makes it
difficult for the cyclist to be seen by the motorist.
The cycle-way infra-structure can also be laid
Figure 5.18
out on the track between the parking area and the
pavement (Figure 5.20). It can be separated by an
intervening lane of urban features, although this is
not very common (Figure 5.21).
Chapter 5 - Roads for Cyclists
Figure 5.19
Figure 5.20
Figure 5.21
CHAPTER 6
CYCLELANES ON THE ROAD
70 | 71
Cyclelanes on the road can be one-way or
Figure 6.1
two-way. The bicycle can be situated in various
places depending on how the bicycle is used and the
volume and type of traffic. It can travel between:
• thepavementandthetrafficlane;
• thepavementandtheparkinglane;
• theparkinglaneandthetrafficlane;
• thedifferentlanesofstreettransport.
The lowest width for a one-way cyclelane
is 1.2m although this may be too narrow if
there are detours because of problems with the
pavement or the need for drainage. For this reason,
this size is only recommended for short stretches,
on roads where there is little traffic, no heavy
vehicles and few cyclists. When measuring the
size of the cyclelane, the gutter is not included and
nor is the ditch formed by the uneven level of the
asphalt beside the kerb, which is found on many
streets in Brazil. The minimum width, including the
cyclelane and gutter, must be 1.5m (Figure 6.1).
In streets with more traffic, a minimum
width of 1.5 m from the gutter is recommended
(Figure 6.2). Cyclelanes with a width of 1.8m
allow the cyclists to be more visible and reduce the
risk of overtaking occurring outside the cyclelane.
Figure 6.1a
Chapter 6 - Cyclelanes on the Road
A cyclelane on the main road with a width that
going in opposite directions, which increases the
exceeds 2.1m might be improperly made use of
risk of accidents, particularly at the crossing-points.
by cars.
For this reason, this system is only recommended
As Forester (1994) points out, the need to take
Figure 6.2
account of bicycles overtaking means that the width
of the cyclelane should be greater than necessary
for a large part of the journey.
One-way cyclelanes placed between the
parking areas and the traffic-lanes should have a
width of 1.5 m when the parking takes up 2.55m, and
1.8 m when the parking space has a width of 2.25m
(Figure 6.3). Cyclelanes should have a minimum
TO
width of 1.8m when situated between the traffic
lanes. In this case, it is recommended that the
lanes on local roads have a minimum width of
3m. On roads with bus routes, the minimum width
should be 3.3m (Figure 6.4). The cycleway situated
between the pavement and the
parking area can have widths
of 1.5 and 1.8m (Figure 6.5).
The two-way cyclelanes
should have a minimum
width of 2.4m (Figure 6.6).
When these tracks are laid out along the road, the
cyclist on the left-hand lane has traffic on both sides
Figure 6.3
72 | 73
Figure 6.4
along paved ways where there
are no crossroads involving
vehicles, like parks landscaped
by
the
sea-shore
or
alongside river banks.
Whenever possible,
(CAR)
(BUS)
(CAR)
the cyclelane on the
(BUS)
street should have a
Figure 6.5
surface with an appearance
that is distinct from the
vehicle lanes or marked by
means of horizontal signs formed
from a white line 0.1-0.2m wide
and covered with humps.
6.1 CYCLELANES
ON ROADS FOR A LINEAR
OR NON-CIRCULAR JOURNEY
The cyclelanes on the road can be placed on
Figure 6.6
its sides – one for each direction – in the case of
linear journeys which include crossroads, as shown
in Figure 6.7. The design of the cyclelane on the road
should follow the arc of intersection to protect cyclists
from vehicles wishing to turn right. In this case,
the pedestrian crossing can be moved back from
the crossroads to allow the cyclist better visibility.
Chapter 6 - Cyclelanes on the Road
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.9
Figure 6.7a
Figure 6.9a
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.10
74 | 75
In Figure 6.8, the cycleway at the corner has humps
of the road so that it is able to branch out on one of
which protect it from being overrun by vehicles. In
the sides of the converging roads (Figure 6.15).
Figure 6.9 this protection is given by a small raised
safety lane which runs parallel with the arc at the
Figure 6.11
corner. In Figure 6.10, the cyclelane for the linear
journey is placed after the parking lane and the
pavement has a ramp in the corner.
6.2 CYCLEWAY ON THE STREET WITH AN INTERCONNECTING JOURNEY
The cyclelanes on the road can be placed
along
both
pavements
so
that
they
have
continuity with the converging streets which make
up the interconnecting journey. In Figure 6.11
Figure 6.12
the cycleway follows the arc of intersection
between the pavements and is only protected
by humps. The ramps giving accessibility to the
pavement are placed after the point between
the arc and the turning radius. In Figure 6.12 the
ramp was situated inside the parallel arc at the
meeting-point of the points of convergence.
In Figures 6.13 and 6.14 an outside turning
radius of 7 m was adopted and an internal radius
of 5 m, which formed a raised safety lane that
protected the bicycles from turning vehicles. The
cyclelane should still be situated on only one side
Chapter 6 - Cyclelanes on the Road
Figure 6.13
Figure 6.14
Figure 6.14a
Figure 6.15
Figure 6.15a
CHAPTER 7
THE CYCLELANE ON THE
PAVEMENT
78 | 79
Cyclelanes on the pavement are
Figure 7.1
suited to paved areas alongside the
sea-shore or in parks where there are no
crossroads with vehicle lanes. This kind of
cyclelane is usually regarded as being safer
when used by children. However, they are
not noticed very easily by motorists at the
entrance and exits to garages at the
crossings, particularly if they are going
in the opposite direction to the traffic on the
road. There is an even greater risk when they
are placed alongside dual carriageways where
turning left is permitted. For these reasons, they
Figure 7.1a
are only recommended in extended built-up
areas which only have a few entrances or
exits for vehicles.
The cyclelane on the pavement
must have a ground surface that is
distinct from that of the pedestrian lane. Its
direction will be more clearly defined and safer
Ramps can be placed on this lane to give access
if there is a lane for urban features and trees
to the residential garages. Warning should be
that separates it from the pedestrians. As it is
given of the presence of the cycleway on the
close to the main road, the cyclelane should
pavement by means of a tactile surface on the
be accompanied by a lateral safety lane to
ground which can either cover the lane or be
mitigatethe effects of being close to the vehicles.
at the meeting-point with the pedestrian lane.
Chapter 7 - The Cyclelane on the Pavement
Cycle anes can be either one-way or
placed alongside flower-beds, there should
two-way. The lowest width for a one-way lane is
be an increase in the width to ensure ease of
1.2 m, although this may be a width that is too
travel (Figure 7.7). When there are central kerbs
narrow for detours resulting from damage to the
with trees at the sides, account should be taken
pavement or problems with the drainage system.
Figure 7.2
For this reason, this width is only recommended
for short stretches where there are few cyclists
and no objects on the side.
One-way cyclelanes are usually designed
with a width of 1.5m. If they have 1.8m,
this provides them with greater safety and
the chance to overtake without veering too
far into the adjacent space.
A cyclelane of 1.2 m which is laid out on the
pavement should be accompanied by a safety
lane with a minimum width of 0.45m
(Figure 7.1) separating it from the main
street or 0.3m when it is directly alongside
the pedestrian lane (Figure 7.1a). The cyclelane
on the pavement with a width of 1.5m needs a
safety lane of the of 0.3m (Figure 7.2).
With the same width it can be placed
directly beside the pedestrian lane (Figure 7.3).
Two-way cyclelanes should have a minimum
width of 2.4m (Figures 7.4 and 7.6). When
Figure 7.3
80 | 81
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
Chapter 7 - The Cyclelane on the Pavement
Figure 7.7
Figure 7.8
82 | 83
Figure 7.9
Figure 7.10
TO
TO
TO
TO
Figure 7.11
of the type of kerb and kinds of trees,
as shown in Figures 7.8 and 7.10.
This is because the cyclelane can
sometimes be placed within the
central area of the kerb, with trees marking out
the direction and providing shade for the journey
(Figure 7.11).
7.1 THE CYCLELANE WITH A LINEAR JOURNEY
The cycle ane can be placed on the
pavement where it is separated from the road
by a lane of urban features. The cyclelane at
the corner maintains continuity of direction
Chapter 7 - The Cyclelane on the Pavement
Figure 7.12
Figure 7.13
Figure 7.12a
Figure 7.13a
to other pavements and passes over ramps placed
as is illustrated in Figures 7.14 and 7.15.
lengthways or crossways to the cyclelane (Figures
The cyclelane should be situated between the
7.12 and 7.12a) or over a single ramp (Figures 7.13
safety lane and the lane of urban features while
and 7.13a).
remaining at the same distance from the road at
The cyclelane can be laid out on a pavement
the crossroads. In this case, when it is close to the
which is separated from the road by a safety lane
corner, it descends to the level of the road by
and separated from the pedestrian lane by a lane of
means of a ramp, in a way which allows the
urban features. In this scheme, the cyclelane at the
pedestrian to have access to the ramp on the
crossroad is kept at a distance from the main road
pavement which is aligned with the lane of urban
by having a ramp to give access to the pedestrians,
features (Figure 7.16 and 7.17). The safety lane at
84 | 85
Figure 7.14
Figure 7.14a
Figure 7.15
Figure 7.16
Figure 7.17
Figure 7.17a
Chapter 7 - The Cyclelane on the Pavement
Figure 7.18
Figure 7.19
Figure 7.18a
Figure 7.19a
the arc of intersection between the converging
features
pavements should be raised or else marked out by
lengthways or sideways to the cycletrack at
horizontal signalling where the humps are situated.
the corners (Figure 7.20).
The pavement can skirt round the parking
The
lane
which
has
interconnecting
ramps
journey
placed
on
the
lane and the cyclelane can be found soon after the
pavement should be separated from the road
safety and urban features lanes (Figure 7.18 and 7.19).
by a safety lane and the pedestrian lane from
the urban features lane. In this scheme, the
7.2 THE CYCLELANE WITH AN INTERCONNECTING JOURNEY
cyclelane at the corner should be at some
When making an interconnecting journey,
distance from the road so that there can be
the cyclelane can be situated on the pavement
a ramp to give the pedestrians access, (as
and separated from the road by an urban
illustrated in Figures 7.21, 7.22 and 7.23).
86 | 87
When the cyclelane in Figures 7.24 and
by being on a high level. Figure 26 shows the
7.25 draws close to the crossroads, it descends
cyclelane on the pavement which shelters the
to the road and is free to pass near the top of
parking lane alongside the residential areas.
the ramp so that it can go round the pavement
beside the traffic lane, where it is protected
Figure 7.20
Figure 7.21
Figure 7.22
Figure 7.23
Chapter 7 - The Cyclelane on the Pavement
Figure 7.24
Figure 7.25
Figure 7.26
Figure 7.25a
Figure 7.26a
CHAPTER 8
THE CYCLEWAY
90 | 91
Cycleways offer greater safety since
The cycleway is usually protected from
they are separated from the road and the
the road for vehicles by a separated pavement.
space reserved for bicycles cannot be overrun
In exceptional cases, this separation can be
by vehicles. The separated pavement also
effected by concrete blocks. The minimum width
mitigates the effects of motorised vehicles close
recommended is 0.6 m (Figure 8.1). If it is 0.75m,
to the cyclists. There are some drawbacks
it can include small shrubs. If there are widths
however, such as the fact that there are few
of over 1.5m, it can provide more safety to the
points of access at the same level as the road.
pedestrians. With a width of 2.4m, it can cater for
This prevents the cyclist from taking advantage
both wheelchairs and bicycles.
of gaps in the traffic (in the manoeuvre of
It is not advisable to have a one-way
entering or leaving the cycleway) without having
cycleway because of the difficulty of overtaking,
to halt. For this reason, they are not desirable for
whether it is 1.5m or even 1.8 m in width. For
short journeys. Rather, they are recommended
a one-way journey, a width of at least 2.1m is
for long or recreational journeys and should be
needed to be viable. These are usually included
situated along paved areas by the seashore, in
on dual carriageways where cycleways on each
parks or even alongside main roads and railway
side of the road follow the same direction as
tracks. Moreover, they incur a considerable cost
the traffic. The most common ways of forming
to construct and maintain, partly because of the
one-way cycleways alongside pavements are
need for drainage. Special attention should be
shown in Figures 8.1 and 8.3.
paid to providing a suitable signalling system
The cycleway requires a minimum width of
when the cycleways approach a crossroads. This
2.4m to allow two bicycles to pass by in opposite
is because the cycleway – even more than the
directions if the adjoining segregated area is not
cyclelane – can lull the cyclists into a false sense
greater than 0.1m. If the pavements at the side
of security so that they fail to take care to avoid
are higher than this, the cyclists can only pass
other vehicles at the crossings.
each other at a distance of 0.45m from the edge
Chapter 8 - The Cycleway
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
92 | 93
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
Chapter 8 - The Cycleway
of the cycleway which would then need to be
separated pavement should have a minimum
2.7m wide (Figures 8.4 and 8.6).
width of 1.05m for a cycleway that is 2.4m wide.
The bicycles in the central kerb area are
When the cycleway is 3m, it is possible to have
generally found in roads which have fast-flowing
a separated pavement of 0.75m (Figure 8.7).
traffic. Thus, it is recommended that the
When the cycleway is separated by bordering
trees, the distance from the edge will vary in
Figure 8.7
accordance with the height and diameter of the
trunk. Figures 8.8 and 8.10 show the sizes that
should be adopted for stems with a width of
approx. 0.45m. Figure 8.11 provides
an example of a cycleway bordered by shrubs
and Figure 8.12 shows a cycleway in the central
kerb area with trees separating the cyclelanes.
Figure 8.8
Figure 8.9
TO
TO
TO
TO
94 | 95
Figure 8.10
TO
TO
Figure 8.11
TO
TO
Chapter 8 - The Cycleway
Figure 8.12
8.1 THE CYCLEWAY ON LINEAR AND INTERCONNECTING JOURNEYS
With regard to laying down cycleways,
there
are
the
same
alternatives
as
for
cyclelanes. However, if one wishes to draw
it approaches the pedestrian crossing, the
surface of the ground should be signed to
warn cyclists that pedestrians have priority
(Figures 8.13 and 8.13a)
attention to a difference in level when placing
The cycleway is most suitable when it is
them beside the pedestrian lane, their surface
situated alongside a paved area in a park
should be covered with a tactile warning
(Figures 8.14 and 8.15). It should be situated on
material as a signal of their presence for the
both sides of the road, beside the pavements,
poor-sighted.
one in each direction for a linear journey (Figures
The cycleway should be included in the
central kerb area when it is two-way. When
8.16 and 8.17).The cycleway can also be used for
interconnections, as shown in Figure 8.18.
96 | 97
Figure 8.13
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.14a
Figure 8.13a
Figure 8.15
Chapter 8 - The Cycleway
Figure 8.16
Figure 8.16a
Figure 8.17
Figure 8.17a
Figure 8.18
Figure 8.18a
CHAPTER 9
THE CYCLEWAY, CYCLELANE
AND SHARED LANE
100 | 101
When a cycleway infrastructure is
a width of 4.2m for a shared track, whenever
laid out, it must be appropriate for a
possible the outside lane of the road should be
hierarchy of routes which take into account the
kept wider to allow bicycles to pass by. A width
surrounding area and the space available. The
for a shared lane less than 4.2m does not allow
transition from one type of infrastructure to
cyclists enough space to be safe when overtaken.
another usually occurs at crossroads and places
In contrast, with higher widths, the lane can be
where there is the highest concentration of traffic.
used for two vehicles to pass each other.
Thus, the geometrical design and the signalling
must seek to ensure a continuity of travel and
enable cyclists to make the transitions in their
journey smoothly and safely.
When the traffic lanes are wide, the cyclists
can travel with greater ease and without the
9.1 LINEAR AND INTERCONNECTING JOURNEYS
Figure 9.1 shows a route with parking on
both sides and a cycleway in the central kerb area
which is connected to a cyclelane on the road
coming from another direction.
state of tension caused by being too close to the
Figure 9.2 shows a cyclelane on the
vehicles. The width must be enough to allow
pavement which, when close to the crossroads,
motorised vehicles to overtake the bicycles, even
descends to the road by means of a ramp, thus
if other vehicles are in the neighboring lane.
allowing continuity in the journey for traffic on
The TRB manual (1994) stipulates that the
the track adjacent to the cyclelane.
ideal width for a shared lane is 4.2m. Widths
Figure 9.3 shows a route with parking on
below this mean that there will be a high degree
one side and a cycleway on the other, which
of interference and impact between the vehicles
follows the converging route by means of a
and bicycles. Even if it is not possible to allow
cyclelane.
Chapter 9 - The Cycleway, Cyclelane and Shared Lane
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.1a
Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.2a
Figure 9.3a
CHAPTER 10
BIBLIOGRAPHY
104 | 105
Chapter 10 - Bibliography
ABNT, NBR-9050/1985, Adequação das Edificações e do Mobiliário Urbanos à Pessoa
Deficiente, 1985.
ANSI - A117, American National Standards Institute, In: ITE - Institute of Transportation
Engineers, Design and Safety of Pedestrians Facilities, RP-026 A, Washington,
1998.
BUCHANAN, C, Estudio de Hampshire Sur in La Ciudad: Problemas de Diseno y
Estructura, David Lewis, Ed. Gustavo Gilli, Barcelona, 1968.
BARTON, H., Going Green by Design, Sustainable Settlements, In: Urban Design
Quarterly, University of the West of England, Urban Design Group Resources
Page, http://rudi.herts.ac.uk.
CET-COMPANHIA DE ENGENHARIA DE TRÁFEGO, Áreas de Pedestres - Conceito,
Boletim Técnico da CET Nº 17, São Paulo, 1978.
CET-RIO, Manual de Sinalização de Trânsito, Sinalização Horizontal - Formação de
Faixas de Trânsito, Rio de Janeiro, 1993.
MACBETH, A , Bycicle Lanes in Toronto, In: ITE Journal, pp 38 – 46, 04/1999.
CONTRAN, DENATRAN, Serviços de Engenharia, Manual de Segurança de Pedestres,
Brasília, 1979.
DENATRAN, Serviços de Engenharia. Manual de Segurança de Pedestres. 1979.
FORESTER,J.,Bicycle Transportation, A Handbook for Cycling Transportation
Engieneers, 2ª ed., Massachusets, MIT Press, Massachusets Institute of
Technology, 1994.
GARBRECHT, DIETRICH, Walking and Public Transport: Two sides of the same coin. In:
The Greening of Urban Transport. Planning for Walking & Cycling in Western
Cities. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. England.
GEIPOT, Instruções para o Planejamento, Brasília, 1984.
106 | 107
GEIPOT - Empresa Brasileira de Planejamento de Transportes, Estudos de Transporte
Cicloviário, Vol. I, Tratamento de Interseções, Brasília, 1983.
GONDIM, M.F., O Transporte não motorizado na Legislação urbana do Brasil, COPPE_
UFRJ, 2000.
IHT, Bicycle Association E Cyclists Touring Club, Cycle-Friendly Infrastruture, Guidelines
for Planning and Design, Godalmink - UK, Cyclists Touring Club, 1996.
ITE - Institute of Transportation Engineers, Design and Safety of Pedestrians Facilities,
RP-026 A, Washington, 1998.
ITE, Institute of Transportation Engineers, Traditional Neighborhood Development
Street Design Guidelines, In: RP-027, Washington, 1997.
IPP - Instituto Pereira Passos, Ciclovias, Rio de Janeiro, 2005.
McCLINTOCK, HUGH, “Planning for the Bicycle in Urban Britain: Assessment of
Experience and Issues, In: Rodney Tolley 2 ed., cap. 14, The Greening of
Urban Transport. Planning for Walking & Cycling in Western Cities, England,
John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1995.
McCLUSKEY,J., El Diseno de vias urbanas, Ed. Gustavo Gilli, Barcelona, 1985.
MILANO, M.S., Arborização Urbana: Plano Diretor, In II Congresso Brasileiro de
Arborização Urbana, São Luis, 1994.
ODT - Oregon Department Of Transportation, Oregon Bicycle And Pedestrian Plan,
Oregon , 1995
PRINZ, DIETER, Urbanismo 1, Projecto Urbano, Lisboa, Editorial Presença, 1980.
RAMSAY, ANTHONY, “A Systematic Approach to the Planning of Urban Networks for
Walking”, In: Rodney Tolley 2 ed., cap.10, The Greening of Urban Transport.
Planning for Walking & Cycling in Western Cities, England, John Wiley &
Sons Ltd., 1995.
SENADO FEDERAL, Conferência das Nações Unidas sobre Meio Ambiente e
Desenvolvimento, 2 ed. Brasília, Secretaria Especial de Editoração,1997.
SPIRN, A.W., O Jardim de Granito: A Natureza do Desenho da Cidade, São Paulo,
Editora da Universidade de São Paulo,1995.
TILLES, R.D., Big City Bicycle Planning, The San Francisco Experience. ITE. Agosto/1997.
TOLLEY,R., “Trading-in the red modes for the green” In: The Greening of Urban
Transport. Planning for Walking & Cycling in Western Cities, Introduction,
England, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1995.
TRB - Transportation Research Boar, Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), 1994.
ZACHARIAS, J., “The Amsterdam Experiment in Mixing Pedestrians, Trams and
Bycicles”, ITE Journal, p.23-28, 1999.
108
Related papers
Uma “epistemologia da ignorância”? Os estudos críticos da branquitude e a crise do cânone de “intérpretes do Brasil”
Revista de Teoria da História, 2024
CFD analysis of thermal comfort in hospital operation room with different air distribution design and operative temperature
Journal of Applied Engineering Design and Simulation, 2021
Integrating Augmented Reality, Gamification, and Serious Games in Computer Science Education
Education Sciences, 2023
Research Note. A Culture of Costs versus A Culture of Expenses
Valuation Studies, 2018
UPPER CRETACEOUS MACRURAN DECAPODS (LOBSTERS) FROM THE SOUTHEASTERN SAN JUAN BASIN, SANDOVAL COUNTY, NEW MEXICO
Geology of the Nacimiento Mountains and Rio Puerco Valley, Karlstrom, Karl E.;Koning, Daniel J.;Lucas, Spencer G.;Iverson, Nels A.;Crumpler, Larry S.;Aubele, Jayne C.;Blake, Johanna M.;Goff, Fraser;Kelley, Shari A., New Mexico Geological Society 74 th Annual Fall Field Conference Guidebook, 334 p., 2024
Effects of heparin on osteoclast activity
Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 2009
Lone Wolves: Operations and Confrontation Strategies
Egypt Institute Journal, 2019
Finite Domination Type for Monoid Presentations
Mathematics and Statistics
Water disinfection and hygiene behaviour in an urban slum in Kenya: impact on childhood diarrhoea and influence of beliefs
International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 2008
Sedimentary Infill and Geological Evolution of Çameli̇ Neogene Basin, Deni̇zli̇-SW Turkey
Istanbul University - DergiPark, 2004
Comparative Study of Neem Seed Oil and Watermelon Seed Oil as Quenching Media for Thermal Processing of Stee
IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences, 2013
Morphological and molecular characterization of Fusarium graminearum Schwabe as a causal agent of Hyssopus officinalis L. seed rot
Zbornik Matice srpske za prirodne nauke, 2021