Cluster Essays on World Youth Cultures

Cluster Essays on W or ld Youth Cultures AN J ALI GE R A V ROY V H E N W I D E S P R E A D P U B L I CzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWV o u t r a g e c o u l d n o t s te m th e sat- e l l i te i n v a s i o n o f th e I n d i a n skie s, I n d i a n p are n ts to o k th e n e x t b e st ste p . A s s e l f - a p p o i n te d g u a r d i a n s o f I n d i a n c u l t u r e a n d m o ral i ty , th e y b a n n e d " o b s c e n e " p r o g r a m m e s f r o m th e i r l i v i n g r o o m s . O n to p o f m o s t p a r e n ts ' h i t list w e re th e m u s i c c h a n n e l s M T V a n d C h a n n e l V , w h i c h th e y saw as p o l l u t i n g th e i r w a r d s ' i m a g i n a t i o n w i t h a l i e n A m e r i c a n i m ag e s . Pr e d i c tab l y , th e s am e c hannels h av e p r o v e d to b e th e m o st p o p u l a r w i th In d i an y o u t h . M o r e o v e r , th e M T V e x p e r i e n c e i n I n d i a has b e l i e d zyxwvutsrqponmlkj globo- phobes''fears b y h e r a l d i n g a f o l k a n d r e g i o n a l m u s i c re v i v al , e v e n t h o u g h th e se m i g h t h av e c o m e p a c k a g e d i n th e g l o b a l b e at o f W o r l d M u s i c . T h i s p a p e r w i l l f o l l o w th e m u t a t i o n o f th e P u n j a b i h arv e st d a n c e Bh a n g r a i n t o W o r l d M u s i c b y t r a c i n g its " r e t u r n b a c k h o m e " to g ras p th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f g l o b a l m u s i c a l f lo w s i n th e f o r m a t i o n o f " d i f f e r e n t, y o u t h f u l , su b je c ti v i ti e s" at o n e p arti c u l a r site i n T r a n s l - A s i a . 2 A l t h o u g h d i f f e r e n c e is a s s u m e d to p l ay a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n th e c o n s ti tu ti o n o f y o u t h s u b c u l t u r a l i d e n ti ti e s , s u b c u l t u r a l theo r y has tr a d i ti o n a l l y th e m a ti z e d d i f f e r e n c e i n r e l a t i o n to ag e, g e n e r a ti o n , a n d class. B o t h Br i t i s h s u b c u l tu r e a n d A m e r i c a n c o u n te rc u l tu re are eng end ered by class a n ta g o n i s m s ev en t h o u g h Br i t i s h s u b c u l tu r e ' s w o rk i n g - c l as s th ru s t m i g h t c o n f l i c t w i th A m e r i c a n c o u n te r c u l tu r e ' s m i d d l e - c l as s l o c a t i o n . A s c lass c e ase d to b e a n i m p o r t a n t s i g n i f i e r i n " i n f o r m a t i o n " so c ieties, d i f f e r e n c e c a m e to b e th e m a ti z e d a l o n g g e n d e r a n d rac e l i n e s. Eth n i c i ty , h o w e v e r, c o n t i n u e s to b e a m a jo r o m i s s i o n o f n e w su b - ARIEL: A Review of International English Literature, 32:4, O c t o b e r 2 0 0 1 212 A N JA LI G ERA RO Y c u l tu r a l th e o ry o f B i r m i n g h a m U n i v e rs i ty ' s C e n t r e f o r C o n t e m p o r a r y C u l t u r a l Stu d i e s . Esse n ti al i st ac c o u n ts o f i d e n ti ty i n m o d e rn i ty , r a n g e d a l o n g u n i ti e s o f l an g u ag e , n a t i o n , r e g i o n , f ai l to e x p l i c ate the i d e n ti ty p o l i ti c s i n v o l v e d i n th e c o n s t r u c t i o n of So u t h A s i a n y o u t h f u l su b je c ti v i ti e s. M u l t i c u l t u r a l setting s n e c e ssitate the i n v e s ti g ati o n o f y o u t h s u b c u l tu r e s a l o n g l i n e s o f rac e , g e n d e r , a n d e th n i c i ty a l o n g w i t h o t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l m a r k e r s . T h e i m b r i c a t i o n o f rac e , class, g e n d e r , a n d e th n i c i ty i n Br - Bl a c k ( Br i ti s h Bl a c k ) o r Br - A s i a n ( Br i ti s h A s i a n ) y o u t h c u l tu r e s , f o r i n s tan c e , e x p e l s t h e m f r o m th e w o r k i n g - c l a s s / h i g h c u l t u r e o p p o s i t i o n . Si m i l ar l y , m i d d l e - c l as s y o u t h o n th e I n d i a n s u b c o n ti n e n t m e e ts w i t h its w o r k i n g c lass c o u n t e r p a r t i n a p u b l i c sp ac e that c u ts ac ro ss t r a d i t i o n a l class d i v i s i o n s to c o n s tr u c t I n d i a n y o u t h s u b c u l tu r e s . T h i s c alls f o r a d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t u a l stru c - tu re , w h i c h c a n a c c o u n t f o r the g l i d i n g , e l e c ti v e i d e n ti ti e s o f the p o s t m o d e r n e ra. T h e s e i d e n ti ti e s are p r o d u c e d i n a sp ac e i n w h i c h th e l o c a l , th e n a t i o n a l , a n d th e tr a n s n a ti o n a l are i n te rtw i n e d w i th o n e a n o th e r . T h i s p o s t m o d e r n sp ac e c r e a te d ad v anc ed te le c o m m u n ic atio n te c h n o l o g i e s , new m ed ia, g l o b a l c ap i tal p r o d u c e s c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s th at are by and c i rc u l ate d t h r o u g h tr a n s n a ti o n a l n e tw o r k s to a w o r l d w i d e a u d i e n c e . A r j u n A p p a d u r a i ' szyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHG Modernity at Large p r o v i d e s o n e s u c h m o d e l f o r th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f tr a n s n a ti o n a l c o m m u n i t y f o r m a t i o n s a n d s h i f t i n g su b je c tiv itie s i n th e n e w g l o b a l p ro c e s szyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfe (35). A p p ad u r a i v iew s the p r e s e n t g l o b a l i z i n g w av e as d o m i n a t e d b y m ass m e d i a t i o n a n d m i g r a t i o n . H e a c c o r d s p r i m a c y to th e i m a g i n a ti o n i n th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e se lf i n a w o r l d d o m i n a t e d b y m ass m e d i a a n d i m ag e s . A p p a d u r a i ' s n o t i o n o f m e d iasc ap e i n c o r p o r a te s b o t h th e m e t h o d o f th e d i s s e m i n a t i o n o f i m ag e s t h r o u g h n e w t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s as w e l l as th e w o r l d c r e ate d b y th e se i m ag e s . El e c t r o n i c m e d i a e stab l i sh th e i m a g e as th e p r i m e re al i ty i n th e m e d i a s c a p e , t h o u g h th e se i m ag es are d i f f e r e n tl y i n f l e c t e d d e p e n d i n g o n th e i r m o d e , th e i r h a r d w a r e , th e i r a u d i e n c e s a n d th e in te re sts o f th o se w h o o w n a n d c o n t r o l t h e m . M e d i a s c a p e s tr a n s m i t a l arg e a n d c o m p l e x r e p e r to i r e o f i m ag e s , n arrati v e s, a n d e th n o s c a p e s to g lo b al v ie w e rs, i n w h i c h th e w o r l d o f c o m m o d i t i e s a n d w o r l d o f n e w s a n d p o l i ti c s are p r o f o u n d l y m i x e d . A s a re su l t, m ass a u d i e n c e s 213 RESIST IN G B H A N G R A t h r o u g h o u t th e w o r l d e x p e r i e n c e th e m se l v e s as a c o m p l i c a t e d an d in te rc o n n e c te d re p e rto i re o f p ri n t, c e l l u l o i d , e l e c tro n i c sc re e n s, a n d b i l l b o a r d s . A s th e p r o d u c t i o n o f l o c al i ty i n a w o r l d d o m i n a t e d b y i m ag e s c a n n o t b e a c c o u n t e d f o r t h r o u g h th e o l d sense o f p l ac e , A p p a d u r a i a n d Br e c k e n b r i d g e su b stitu te f o r it the t e r mzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA site. T h e y d e f i n e th e site as " a sp ati al v o rte x , i n w h i c h c o m p l e x h i s to r i c a l p ro c e sse s c o m e i n to c o n j u n c t i o n w i th g l o b a l p ro c e sse s that l i n k s u c h sites to g e th e r"zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUT ( 15 ) . T h e y see s u c h sites as g e n e r a ti n g p r i s m ati c stru c tu re s, w h i c h are l o c a l b u t also f u n d a m e n ta l l y i n te rac ti v e w i th o th e r s u c h stru c tu re s. T h e l o c al i ti e s c o n s tr u c te d t h r o u g h s u c h sites re p l ac e e arl i e r c e n tre - p l ac e m o d els w i th a " g l o b a l s tru c tu re f o r the c o n t i n u o u s ( a n d p o te n ti al l y i n f i n i te ) f l o w o f i m ag e s a n d i d e o l o g i e s t h r o u g h p a r ti c u l a r sites." T h e y also i n t r o d u c e the n o t i o n o f d e te r r i to r i a l i z a ti o n to d e l i n k sp atiality a n d te rri to ry i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f sites ( 15 ) . R a m i n d e r K a u r a n d V i r i n d e r S. K a l r a " p r o p o s e th e i m a g i n e d sp ati al a r e n a o f T r an s l - A s i a n o t as a fixed are a o f the w o r l d b u t as a c o n t i n u o u s m o v e m e n t o f i m a g i n e d a n d ac tu al are n as. T o a g re ate r o r lesser e x te n t, So u t h A s i a is o n e o f th e m a n y r e f e r e n c e p o i n ts o f T r a n s l - A s i a , b u t n o t n e c e ssari l y its o r i g i n a r y l o c a t i o n " ( 2 2 3 ) . T r a n s l - A s i a a n d Bh a n g r a m u s i c i l l u strate A p p a d u r a i ' s n o ti o n o f th e m e d i a s c a p e . T r a n s l - A s i a is a n i n s tan c e o f d e te r r i to r i a l i z e d sp ac e w i t h m u l t i p l e sites i n t e r l i n k e d t h r o u g h a d v a n c e d t e c h n o l o g i e s . H o w e v e r , d e s p i te th e u n c e a s i n g f l o w o f i m a g e s and id eo lo g ies th ro u g h th e se sites, th e y are i n f l e c te d by th e s o c i o c u l t u r a l re al i ti e s o f th e i r p a r t i c u l a r n e i g h b o u r h o o d s . Bh a n g r a m u s i c n o w p lay s a s i g n i f i c an t r o l e i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f this tr a n s n a ti o n a l g l o b a l c o m m u n i t y . T h e p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s o f Bh a n g r a are d i s tr i b u te d ac ro ss a sp ac e th at c a n n o t b e d e m a r c a t e d a l o n g n atio n - state , l i n g u i s ti c , a n d se c tari an b o u n d arie s. Si m i l arl y , w h i l e e ac h site o f Bh a n g r a m u s i c a l p r o d u c t i o n i n Transl- A sia — M u m b a i , T o r o n to , N e w Y o rk , o r Bi r m i n g h a m — is e m b e d d e d i n its p a r t i c u l a r h i sto ry , it is i n te rac ti v e w i th o t h ers. If Br - A s i a n Bh a n g r a artists c o l l a b o r a te w i th f o l k artists, f o l k a n d n a t i o n a l are s i m i l a r l y h y b r i d i z e d b y th e i r c o n ta c t w i th W este r n tu n e s. T h i s le ad s to the f o r m a t i o n o f v i r tu a l c o m m u n i t i e s th at c u t ac ro ss n atio n - state b o r d e r s e v e n t h o u g h e a c h site m i g h t 214 A N JA LI G ERA RO Y a n n e x the g l o b a l to its o w n p a r ti c u l a r n e e d s . T h e d i a s p o r i c p u b l i c s p h e r e a n d e l e c tr o n i c m e d i a p l ay the s am e r o l e i n th e p r o d u c tio n o f tr a n s n a ti o n a l p o stm o d e rn su b je c tiv itie s th at th e H a b e r m a s i a n p u b l i c s p h e r e a n d the p r i n t m e d i a d i d i n th e c o n s ti tu ti o n o f m o d e r n su b je c tiv itie s a n d the n ati o n - state . Bh a n g r a f lo w s t h r o u g h the e l e c tr o n i c m e d i a ac ro ss a d i a s p o r i c sp ac e c o n s tr u c te d m u sic c hanne ls. m usic b y tr a n s n a ti o n a l Bh a n g r a p r o d u c e d an y w h e r e i n T r a n s l - A s i a is s i m u l ta n e o u s l y av ai l ab l e i n Jal l an d h ar, M u m b a i , So u t h a l l , a n d N e w Y o r k to c o n s u m e r s d i v i d e d a l o n g l i n g u i s ti c , class, g e n d e r, a n d r ac i al o r n a t i o n a l l i n e s . D e s p i te th e d i v e r g e n c e i n th e c o n d i t i o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n , d i s tri b u ti o n , v ie w in g , a n d re c e p ti o n , it c re ate s a s h a r e d Bh a n g r a m e d i a s c a p e a r o u n d w h i c h d i v e rse y o u t h f u l c o m m u n i t i e s are c o n s tr u c te d . T h e i d e n ti ty p o l i ti c s o f y o u t h s u b c u l tu r a l m o v e m e n t s c e n tre d o n th e s y m b o l i c c ap i tal o f Bh a n g r a m u s i c is e n a b l e d b y th e c o n v e r g e n c e o f i m p r o v e d te c h n o l o g i e s , new m ed ia, and c ap i tal o n a n e w l y v a l o r i z e d m a r g i n . T h e r u r a l P u n j a b i d a n c e is d e te r r i to r i a l i z e d a n d d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d g lo b al h arv e st i n th e p ro c e ss o f its v a l o r i z a ti o n . Bu t its d i s e n g a g e m e n t f r o m a n o rig inary n e i g h b o u r h o o d n o t o n l y f ac ilitate s its r e i n v e n t i o n as W o r l d M u sic b u t also r a d i c a l l y alte rs i d e n ti ty f o r m a t i o n p atte rn s i n p o stm o d e r n v i rtu al i ti e s . T h e c u l t u r a l e sse n ti al i sm o f Bh a n g r a as the d a n c e o f a sp e c i f i c l i n g u i s ti c c o m m u n i t y is r e p l a c e d b y a n e w i d e n ti ty p o l i ti c s i n w h i c h m u l t i p l e i d e n ti ti e s are c o n s tr u c te d r e l a ti o n to Bh a n g r a in as a c u l t u r a l si g n i f i e r. I w i l l a tte m p t to iso late the d i s ju n c tu re s i n th e m e d i a t i o n o f th e m u s i c a l f l o w o f Bh a n g r a f r o m th re e s u c h sites i n T r an s l - A s i a — the Br - A s i a n , m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n a n d P u n ja b i — b e f o r e f o c u s i n g o n its r o l e i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f " d i f f e r e n t, y o u t h f u l , su b je c tiv itie s" i n In d i a . I hav e n a m e d a n n e x a ti o n s o f Bh a n g r a at these sites,zyxwvutsrqponmlk Vilay - etibhangra ( Br i ti s h Bh a n g r a ) , Desibhangra ( In d i a n Bh a n g r a ) a n d Punjabibhangra ( Bh a n g r a o f P u n ja b ) t h o u g h e a c h is f o r m e d i n r e l a ti o n to a n d i n f l u e n c e s o th e rs i n c o m p l e x w ay s. 3 V i l a y e t i b h a n g r a d e m o n s tr a te s h o w e th n i c d i f f e r e n c e as e m - b o d i e d i n f o l k f o r m s c a n b e c o - o p te d i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n anti- rac ist d i s c o u rs e t h r o u g h a m u l ti - e th n i c so l i d ari ty . Bh a n g r a ' s a tta c h m e n t to a n A s i a n i d e n ti ty i n Br i t a i n is a n i n s tan c e of RES IS T IN G B H A N G R A 215 the i d e n ti ty p o l i ti c s o f n e w s o c i al m o v e m e n t s ( H e t h e r i n g t o nzyxwvutsrqponm 29- 3 0 ) . T h e i d e n ti ty p o l i ti c s o f Br - A s i a n y o u t h s u b c u l tu r e s r e q u i r e s the d i s p l a c e m e n t o f g i v e n i d e n ti ti e s r o o t e d i n l a n g u a g e , r e l i g i o n , n a t i o n , a n d so o n , w i th e l e c ti v e i d e n ti ti e s . K a u r a n d K a l r a c ite i d e n ti ti e s c l u s te r e d a r o u n d B h a n g r a as g l i d i n g i d e n ti ti e s i n w h i c h y o u t h f r o m G u ja r a t i a n d Be n g a l i l a n g u a g e g r o u p s i d e n tify th e m se l v e s w i t h B h a n g r a b a n d s u s i n g P u n j a b i l a n g u a g e . Bh a n g r a , as A s i a n m u s i c , th u s p arti c i p ate s i n th e p o l i ti c s o f the s u b m e r g e n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e i n th e c ate g o ry " A s i a n " f o r c o n s tr u c ti n g a s t r o n g an ti - rac i st A s i a n re si stan c e . Bu t w h i l e u n d e r l i n i n g the i m p o r t a n c e o f Bh a n g r a as a n e t h n o - c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i e r a r o u n d w h i c h Br - A s i a n i d e n ti ti e s h av e b e e n c o n s tr u c te d , o n e m u s t k e e p i n m i n d Sanjay Sh a r m a ' s w a r n i n g , " m u s i c a l sites o f Bh a n g r a / p o s t Bh a n g r a . . .are sp ac e s to b e s tr u g g l e d o v e r a n d w o n i n o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g th at th e s i g n i f i e r ' A s i a n ' c a n b e o n e o f m a n y t e m p o r a r y p o s i ti o n a l i ti e s th at o f f e r us strate g ic p lac e s f r o m w h i c h to s p e ak i n th is rac ist Br i t a i n " ( 3 4 ) . Sh a r m a ' s e m p h a s i s o n th e " t e m p o r a r y " status o f th e " p o s i ti o n ality " su g g ests th at i d e n ti ti e s c l u s te r e d a r o u n d a g e n e r a l i z e d d if f e r e n c e c a n b e a l te r n a te d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r i z e d d i f f e r e n c e i f so r e q u i r e d . T h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f Bh a n g r a w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n i ty f o r m a t i o n s i l l u strate s th is a l t e r n a t i n g m o v e m e n t p e rf e c tl y . A p a r t f r o m its c e n tr al i ty to A s i a n an ti - rac i st p o l i ti c s , it p a r ti c i p ate s i n b l a c k an ti - rac i st d i s c o u r s e as w e l l as a m i c r o n a t i o n a l i s t c e l e b r a t i o n o f P u n j a b i i d e n ti ty . I n th e f irst tw o , it s u b s u m e s d if f e r e n c e ; i n th e t h i r d , it ac c e n tu ate s d i f f e r e n c e . T h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f B h a n g r a i n th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a d i s ti n c ti v e A s i a n i d e n ti ty a n d its c ro s s - c u l tu ral l i n k w i t h b l a c k d i s c o u r s e o f te n m ak e s o n e f o rg e t th at Bh a n g r a s i m u l ta n e o u s l y i n s c ri b e s a s p e c i f i c P u n j a b i i d e n ti ty , as r e f l e c te d i n th e m u l t i p l e i d e n ti ty stran d s i n its Br - A s i a n p r a c ti ti o n e r s . Fo r this r e as o n th e r e t e n t i o n o f P u n j a b i l a n g u a g e ly ric s th at has b e e n c i t e d as a n ac t o f l i n g u i s ti c resistan c e m u s t b e v i e w e d as a d o u b l e c o d i n g strateg y . V i r i n d e r S. K al r a' s analy sis o f th e su b v e rsiv e ly ric s o f Bh a n g r a so ng s o v erl o o k s th at th e i r c o m p l e x d o u b l e c o d i n g p e r m i ts o n l y P u n j a b i sp e ak e rs to ac c ess c e r ta i n m e t a lev els ( 8 2 ) . O n e m u s t also rem e m b e r th at t h o u g h A p a c h e I n d i a n w e n t o n to b e c o m e So u t h A s i a n c o m m u n i t y ' s m o s t c e l e b r a te d e t h n o - c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i e r a n d 216 A N JA LI G ER A RO Y w as ac tiv e ly i n v o l v e d i n Br i t i s h b l a c k an ti - rac i st d i s c o u rs e , h i s " r e t u r n to ro o ts " y e a r n i n g s p r o d u c e a l i n g u i s ti c r a th e r t h a n p o l i ti c al l o c al i ty . Si m i l a r l y , d e s p i te Ba l l y Sag o o ' s e c l e c ti c r e m i x i n g 1 o f al l I n d i a n m u s i c , h e l o c ate s h o m e i n th e P u n j a b i l a n g u a g e . ' M a n y i n the Br i t i s h b r i g a d e p r o u d l y a c k n o w l e d g e th e i r d e b t to P u n j a b i f o l k si n g e rs like K u l d i p M anak and M a l k i t Si n g h . ' 1 A t th e s am e ti m e , th e i r d e si re to m a k e a g l o b a l i m p a c t re f le c ts A s i a n y e a r n i n g s to p l ay i n a m u l t i c u l t u r a l g l o b a l sp ac e . Fo r i n - stan c e , Ba l l y Sa g o o has l a u n c h e d h is o w n l a b e l ,zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcba Ishq, to p r o m o t e n o t o n l y A s i a n b u t also m u s i c f r o m a n y w h e r e o n th e g l o b e . A s Bh a n g r a artists m a i n t a i n , Bh a n g r a ' s e m b l e m a t i c statu s as th e e t h n o c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i e r o f A s i a n i d e n ti ty p re v e n ts t h e m e n t e r i n g th e m a i n s t r e a m . Bu t the e x p a n s i o n o f fro m Bh a n g r a s c a p e , t h r o u g h its e n th u s i as ti c r e c e p t i o n b y y o u t h o f a l l n ati o n al i ti e s , l i n g u i s ti c g r o u p s , r e l i g i o n s a n d rac es, m i g h t s o o n c l e ar a sp ac e f o r Bh a n g r a i n the m a i n s t r e a m . If the p re s e n t Bh a n g r a rag e c o n ti n u e s a n d sp re ad s ac ro ss m o r e c o n ti n e n ts , Bh a n g r a m i g h t s o o n attai n th e statu s o f g l o b a l m u s i c l i k e r ap o r re g g ae th at is h e a r d f r o m N e w Y o r k to N e w D e l h i . T h e i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f g l o b a l a n d 7 r e g i o n a l stran d s o u t l i n e d ab o v e s h o u l d n o t b e p r o b l e m a t i c i n p o s t m o d e r n i s m . Fo r p o s t m o d e r n i s m p e r m i ts th e c o e x i s te n c e o f m u l t i p l e e le c tiv e i d e n ti ti e s that e n g ag e w i t h th e sp e c i f i c p o l i ti c s o f p a r ti c u l a r n e i g h b o u r h o o d s . Sh a r m a m ak e s this p o i n t u s i n g Stu art H a l l ' s c o n c e p t o f " n e w e th n i c i ti e s , " w h i c h " sp e ak f r o m a p a r ti c u l a r p l ac e , o u t o f a p a r ti c u l a r h isto ry , o u t o f a p a r ti c u l a r e x p e r i e n c e , a p a r ti c u l a r c u l tu r e w i t h o u t b e i n g c o n t a i n e d b y that p o s i t i o n " ( Sanjay Sh a r m azyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLK 4 1 ) . O n e c a n b e Br - A s i a n , I n d i a n , a n d P u n ja b i w i t h o u t h a v i n g to b e o n e o r the o th e r. T h e e m b le m atic statu s o f B h a n g r a i n c o n s t r u c t i n g A sian y o u t h s u b c u l t u r a l su b je c tiv itie s has r e s u l te d i n th e s u p p r e s s i o n o f o t h e r n arrati v e s a n d h o m o g e n i z a t i o n o f e t h n i c d if f erenc e. T h i s is a m atte r o f c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n c e r n a m o n g Br - A s i a n artists. T h e r e f o r e , c o n t r i b u t o r s to Disorienting Rhy thm s s tro n g l y u n d e r - l i n e th e n e e d f o r Br - A s i a n y o u t h s u b c u l tu r e s to ste e r c l e ar o f c u l t u r a l e sse n ti al i sm s o f th e so rt attac h e d w i t h Bh a n g r a f o r resi sti n g n e o - o ri e n tal i s t strai n s i n Br i t i s h c u l t u r a l stu d i e s. W h i l e m o s t essay s i n this c o l l e c t i o n a c k n o w l e d g e Bh a n g r a ' s r o l e i n p r o v i d i n g the So u t h A s i a n y o u t h i n Br i t a i n a d i s ti n c ti v e v o i c e , RESIST IN G B H A N G R A 217 th e y o p p o s e " a n e t h n i c i d e n ti ty p o l i ti c s th at is ab so l u ti st o r esse n tialist, th at o f f e rs o n l y m a n a g e m e n t o f i d e n ti ty b y s i n g u l a r l y 3 ) . Sanjay Sh a r m a finds e m p o w e r e d i n d i v i d u a l s " ( Sh a r m a et a l .zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVU m a i n s t r e a m a c a d e m i c ac c o u n ts " u n d e r w r i t t e n b y a p r o b l e m a t i c o f c u l t u r a l a u th e n ti c i ty that su p p re sse s o t h e r p o ssi b l e n ar r ativ es o f Bh a n g r a " ( 3 5 ) . R u p a H u q , s i m i l arl y , o b je c ts to G i l l e s p i e c l a i m i n g th at " i t [ b h a n g r a ] has b e c o m e a f o c a l p o i n t f o r the p u b l i c e m e r g e n c e o f a Br i t i s h y o u t h c u l t u r e w h i c h tran s c e n d s t r a d i t i o n a l d i v i s i o n s a n d asp ire s to a sense o f e t h n i c u n i t y . . . . It is f o r m a n d sty le th at Br i t i s h A s i a n y o u t h c a n c l a i m as th e i r o w n a n d b e p r o u d o f : n e i t h e r g o r i ( w h i te ) n o r k a l a ( b l ac k ) it has m a d e A s i a n y o u t h b o t h a u d i b l e a n d v i si b l e f o r the first t i m e " ( G i l l e s p i e q t d . i n H u q 6 3 ) . H u q is p a r ti c u l a r l y i r k e d by " th e c o m i n g to g e th e r o f the tri b e s " r h e to r i c th at h o m o g e n i z e s e th n i c d i f f e r e n c e ( 6 3 ) . T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g Bh a n g r a as a nzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA "affirm ative m om ent i n th e f o r m a t i o n o f a n A s i a n i d e n tity d i s c o u r s e i n th e e arl y 8 0 s , " Sanjay Sh a r m a re ite rate s that Bh a n g r a is "one of the p ro c e sse s f o r s o m e A s i a n y o u t h p o s i t i o n i n g th e m se l v e s i n Br i t i s h so c i e ty " ( 3 5 - 3 9 ; e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) . W h i l e th e c o n t r i b u t o r s to Disorienting Rhy thm s h av e m a d e a n i m p r e s s i v e e f f o rt to r e c l a i m Bh a n g r a f r o m its e sse ntialist o r u n i tary d e f i n i t i o n s , th e y o c c l u d e o t h e r m u s i c a l c o u n te r n a r r a ti v e s e m e r g i n g f r o m o t h e r l i n g u i s ti c r e g i o n s . Fo r e x a m p l e , the G u ja rati d a n c e m u s i c dandiy a c a n b e f u r n i s h e d w i t h a s i m i l a r su b v e rsiv e n e ss. Se c o n d , th e i r e x c l u s i v e c o n c e r n w i th Br i ti s h A s i a n Bh a n g r a erases the c u l t u r a l re sistanc e o f Bh a n g r a m u ta ti o n s at o t h e r sites. It w o u l d b e i n te r e s ti n g to f o c u s o n th e p l u r a l , c o n t i n g e n t n a tu r e o f i d e n ti ty f o r m a t i o n s r e a l i z e d t h r o u g h Bh a n g r a o n o th e r sites o f Tran s l - A s i a. T h o u g h these i d e n ti ti e s are ne c e ssarily p r o d u c e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i th Br - A s i a n r e i n v e n t i o n o f Bh a n g r a , th e y m i g h t b e i n f l e c t e d b y s p e c i f i c s o c i o - p o l i ti c a l n u a n c e s o f th e i r p a r t i c u l a r n e i g b o u r h o o d s . A s K a u r a n d K a l r a p o i n t o u t, th e g l o b a l f l o w o f y o u t h m u s i c c u l tu r e s m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m to b e c o n t a i n e d b y n at i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s d e s p i te th e i r e m e r g i n g f r o m p a r t i c u l a r n at i o n a l n e i g h b o u r h o o d s . Ye t e a c h n e i g h b o u r h o o d b r i n g s its o w n p a r t i c u l a r i n f l e c t i o n th at c h a l l e n g e s h o m o g e n i z a t i o n . Vilay etibhangra's resistiv ity has its o r i g i n s i n a w o rk i n g - c l as s y o u t h su b c u l t u r e th at resists th e w h i te ru l i n g - c l as s c u l tu r e f r o m a sp ac e 218 A N JA LI G ERA RO Y o u ts i d e o f , a n d i n o p p o s i t i o n to , th e ru l i n g - c l ass c u l t u r e a n d is r o o t e d i n th e s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m s o f w o rk i n g - c l as s r a c i a l m i n o r i ties i n th e W e st. T h e s o u n d s m i x e d m o s t f r e q u e n tl y w i t h tr a d i ti o n a l Bh a n g r a b eats, the b l a c k r h y th m s o f rap , re g g ae , a n d so o n , h i n t at the s tr o n g b o n d i n g b e tw e e n the b l a c k a n d th e b r o w n w o r k i n g c lasses i n Br i t a i n . T h e h i s to r i c c o l l a b o r a t i o n 8 b e tw e e n A p a c h e I n d i a n a n d M a x i Pri e st, w i th Pri e st i n t o n i n g th e P u n ja b i ly ric s h i n ts at th e e m e r g e n c e o f a n o p p r e s s e d m i - n o r i ty c o u n te r - d i s c o u r s e w i t h a n o n - e l i ti s t f o c u s .zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedc Vilay etibhangras b l a c k al l e g i an c e s r e c a l l b l a c k c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s m w i t h a s i m i l a r e m p h a s i s o n A s i a n c u l t u r a l v alu e s, l a n g u a g e a n d c u l tu re . H o u s t o n A . Ba k e r j r . , i n " H y b r i d i t y , the R a p R a c e a n d P e d ag o g y f o r th ezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDC 19 9 0 s , " c e l e b r a te d th e tr an s f o r m ati v e b l a c k e n e rg i e s i n the h y b r i d s o u n d s o f r a p th at m a n i p u l a t e d h i g h te c h n o l o g y f o r h u m a n ears a n d th e h u m a n b o d y ' s i n n o v a ti v e ab i l i ti e s. D e s c r i b i n g r a p as " a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l , m e t r o p o l i t a n hy b r i d , " Ba k e r c alls it the " f o r m o f a u d i t i o n " th at re f u se s to s i n g a n th e m s o f " w h i te m a l e h e g e m o n y " ( Ba k e r 5 4 4 ) . Br - A s i a n Bh a n g r a m u s i c is also a n " i n t e r n a t i o n a l , m e t r o p o l i t a n h y b r i d " that a p p r o p r i a te s r e g i o n a l f o l k d i f f e r e n c e f o r th e g l o b a l to c o n test the h e g e m o n y o f E u r o p e a n h i g h c u l tu r e . T h e 19 9 0 s Bh a n g r a re v iv al i n In d i a , f o l l o w i n g its r e s u r g e n c e i n Br i t a i n , illu strate s h o w d i f f e r e n t sites i n tr a n s n a ti o n a l sp ac e hav e a n i m p a c t o n o n e an o th e r, t h o u g h the s o c i o p o l i ti c a l c o n d i tio n s o f p a r ti c u l a r n e i g h b o u r h o o d s m i g h t s p aw n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f resistiv ity . T h e f ac to rs that c o n t r i b u t e d to th e 19 9 0 s Bh a n g r a re s u rg e n c e i n Br i t a i n — the p o s t m o d e r n v a l o r i z a ti o n o f d i f f e re n c e , th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f e th n i c i ty as a m a r k e r i n c u l t u r a l stu d ies, g l o b a l i z a ti o n , i m p r o v e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n te c h n o l o g i e s , a n d th e e x o ti c i z a ti o n o f W o r l d M u s i c b y the m u s i c i n d u s tr y — are al l w e l l k n o w n . T h e tr a n s n a ti o n a l c h ar ac te r o f Bh a n g r a m u s i c e n su res th at s o m e issues i n the I n d i a n re v i v al i n te rse c t w i t h th o se i n Br i t a i n . Bu t the 19 9 0 s Bh a n g r a w av e i n I n d i a w as p r o d u c e d b y the c o m b i n e d o n s l a u g h t o f i m p r o v e d satellite te c h n o l o g i e s , p r i v ati z ati o n o f I n d i a n te l e v i si o n , a n d the b o o m i n th e m usic i n d u stry . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f ac to r, h o w e v e r, w as th e p a c k a g i n g o f Bh a n g r a as W o r l d M u s i c . Bh a n g r a c a m e b ac k r i d i n g o n the 9 w av e o f G r e e k , A r a b i c , a n d L a t i n o m u s i c a l o n g w i th Y a n n i a n d 219 RESIST IN G B H A N G R A R i c k y M a r t i n . W h i l e Bh a n g r a ' s v a l o r i z a ti o n is l i n k e d w i th its b ei n g p e r c e i v e d as K o o l , it si g n i f i e s a n i n stan c e o f Fo l k rath e r t h a n A s i a n K o o l to m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u t h . 1 0 0 Ba c k h o m e i n In d i a , K o o l n e s s is n o t c l assi f i e d a l o n g a b l a c k / A s i a n o p p o s i t i o n b u t a c l as s i c al / f o l k , n a t i o n a l / r e g i o n a l , u r b a n / r u r a l d i v i d e . Et h n i c f o l k is n o t u s e d to o p p o s e w h i te H i g h c u l tu r e ; i t c o n f r o n ts the ari s to c rati c , c lassic al, n a t i o n a l c u l tu r e w i t h r e g i o n a l , f o l k d if f erenc e. T h e e m e r g e n c e o f A s i a n K o o l ad d re sse s th e Br i t i s h ste re o ty p i n g o f A s i a n s a n d takes p l ac e i n th e r a c i a l p o l i ti c s o f Br i t a i n . T h e i n v o c a t i o n o f a p o si ti v e l y i n f l e c t e d d i f f e r e n c e i n the c o n s tru c - ti o n o f a n an ti- rac ist c o u n te r d i s c o u r s e is f ar r e m o v e d f r o m the c o n s u m p t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e at m e t r o p o l i t a n c e n tre s i n In d i a . In c o n tras t to its p r i v i l e g i n g i n an ti- rac ist d i s c o u r s e i n the W est, v ern a c u l a r d i f f e r e n c e w as e ras e d i n the p ro g re ssi v e m a r c h to w ard s n a t i o n h o o d a n d m o d e r n i t y i n In d i a . N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g its " U n i t y i n D i v e r s i ty " r h e to r i c , I n d i a n n a t i o n a l i s m m a r g i n a l i z e d d i f f e re n c e b y f o l l o w i n g a u n i l i n e a r r o u te to a c u l tu r e i n se n si ti v e to m o d e r n i z a t i o n . D e s p i te its ri tu al i s ti c p ae an s to e th n i c d iv ersity , the c e n t r a l i z e d i n s ti tu ti o n s o f th e I n d i a n n ati o n - state c r e a te d a h o m o g e n i z i n g n arrati v e o f th e n a t i o n th at w as re si ste d i n r e g i o n a l r u r a l p o c k e ts . T h e n arrati v e o f the n a t i o n o nly e ras e d l i n g u i s ti c , r e g i o n a l , r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e to c o n s ti tu te a m i d d l e class I n d i a n su b je c t w i t h th e a i d o f a c e n t r a l i z e d p o w e r stru c tu re , b u re au c rac y , l e g i s l atu re , a n d e d u c a t i o n . T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n th e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f su b je c tiv ity i n th e m o d e r n n a t i o n state a n d i n p o s t n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t i e s is i m p o r t a n t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u t h su b c u l tu r e s a p p r o a c h d i f f e r e n c e . T h e m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u t h w as n u r t u r e d o n i d e al s o f n a t i o n h o o d a n d c o s m o p o l i t a n i s m th at i n f e r i o r t i z e d v e r n a c u l a r d i f f e r e n c e . T h e m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u th ' s e n c o u n t e r w i t h th e v a l o r i z a t i o n o f d i f f e re n c e i n the g l o b a l le ad s to a r e v a l u a ti o n o f r e g i o n a l v e r n a c u l a r tr ad i ti o n s th at resists n ati o n al i s t m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n o f the r e g i o n a l . Bu t v e r n a c u l a r r e g i o n a l d i f f e re n c e h a d to b e e x o t i c i z e d as W o r l d M u s i c to b e attrac tiv e to this g r o u p . T h i s c o n trasts s h a r p l y w i t h th e c r i ti q u e o f th e p a c k a g i n g a n d c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f e t h n i c m u s i c as W o r l d M u s i c a m o n g its 220 A N JA LI G ERA RO Y Br - A s i a n p r a c ti ti o n e r s . V i e w i n g W o r l d M u s i c ' s p o p u l a r i t y as a f a l l o u t o f the c u r r e n t c e l e b r a t i o n o f e th n i c i ty i n b o t h p o p u l a r a n d a c a d e m i c d i s c o u r s e , Sh a r m a , H u t n y k , a n d Sh a r m a state, " Et h n i c i t y is i n . C u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e is i n . M a r g i n a l i t y is i n "zyxwvutsrqponml ( 1) . T h e y d e te c t a n e o - o ri e n tal i s t s trai n i n the i n te re s t i n A s i a n m u sic : " C o n s u m p t i o n o f th e O t h e r is al l th e rag e f o r late c ap i tal i s m . Fi n al l y , it ap p e ars th at th e ' c o o l i e ' has b e c o m e c o o l . " T h e p re s e n t p r i v i l e g i n g o f d i f f e r e n c e i n th e W est is r e m i n i s c e n t o f p r e v i o u s n a tu r a l i z a ti o n s o f o th e rn e s s as i n th e t u r n to A f r i c a n p r i m i ti v e s o r I n d i a n sp i ri tu al i ty . A s state d e arl i e r, th e p resent t r e n d also r e s p o n d s to c e r ta i n c rises i n the W est, f o r e x a m p l e , the p e r c e i v e d d e m i s e o f W e s te r n p o p / r o c k m u s i c as i t lo ses its m a r k e t sh are . T h e m a r g i n is o n c e a g a i n at th e se rv ic e o f th e c e n tre . Fi rst, it exists as a site f o r th e re c o v e ry o f th o se " a u t h e n ti c " s o u n d s that the W e st is b e l i e v e d to h av e lo st. Se c o n d , it p r o v id e s u n l i m i t e d m a te r i a l to th e n o v e l ty h u n g r y m u s i c i n d u s t r y i n s e arc h o f n e w tu n e s af te r h a v i n g s tr e tc h e d th e l i m i ts o f W e s te r n r o c k / p o p . L i n k i n g W o r l d M u s i c ' s e n th u s i as ti c r e c e p t i o n to its o t h e r i n g a n d c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n , c ri ti c s s u c h as A s h w a n i Sh a r m a d i sag re e w i th C h a m b e r s ' s o p ti m i s ti c s u g g e s ti o n th at " th e shif ti n g , c o n t i n g e n t c o n tac ts o f m u s i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l e n c o u n t e r s " m ay d i s r u p t h e g e m o n i c o r d e r i n g g i v e n th e p o w e r stru c tu re s i n w h i c h th e y w o r k ( 18 ) . T h e c o i n i n g o f the t e r m W o r l d M u s i c , a c c o r d i n g to Sh a r m a , is p art o f a c o m p l e x m a r k e t i n g strateg y u s i n g d i f f e r e n c e as a u n i q u e s e l l i n g p r o p o s i t i o n ( 2 2 ) . T h e p a c k a g i n g o f e t h n i c m u s i c as W o r l d M u s i c i n th e g l o b a l sp ac e d e m o n s tr a te s tw o c o n t r a d i c t o r y strain s. O n o n e h a n d , W o r l d M u s i c is e n d o w e d w i t h a u th e n ti c , r e a l a n d h u m a n v al u e s that th e t e c h n o l o g i z e d W e st is b e l i e v e d to h av e lo st. T h i s p e r p e tu ates the c u l t o f a u th e n ti c i ty i n w h i c h th e s o - c al l e d " t r a d i t i o n a l " s o u n d s are p r i v i l e g e d o v e r e c l e c ti c e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . I n the p r o cess, t r a d i t i o n a l taste h i e r a r c h i e s o f te n g e t i n v e r t e d i n th e g l o b al sp ac e a n d the f o l k as a l o w c u l t u r a l f o r m is e x o t i c i z e d o v e r the c l assi c al . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , m i g r a n t p r o d u c t i o n s are ess e n ti al i z e d as th e y fit i n t o th e p o l i ti c s o f h y b ri d i ty . T h e s o l u t i o n is to filter a u th e n ti c i ty t h r o u g h th e f r a m e o f h y b r i d i ty . T h e r e w o r k i n g o f t r a d i t i o n a l m u s i c w i t h W e s t e r n t e c h n o l o g y is, th e re f o re , p r e s e n te d as e n h a n c i n g th e m u s i c . Sh a r m a c ites th e RES IS T IN G 221 BH A N G RA e x a m p l e o f Bal l y Sa g o o to i l l u strate th e c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f e th n i c d i f f e r e n c e . H e sh o w s h o w the p o s i t i o n i n g o f Bal l y Sa g o o as th e m i g r a n t su b je c t, d r a w i n g o n e th n i c d i f f e r e n c e to new h y b ri d m usic, o v erlo o ks Sag o o ' s p a r ti c u l a r p ro d u c e g ro und ing i n t r a d i t i o n a l Bh a n g r a a n d b l a c k m u s i c c u l tu re s . Sh a r m a c o n c l u d e s b y w a r n i n g th at th e c e l e b r a t i o n o f h y b r i d " e t h n i c " is a n e o - o r i e n ta l i s t m o v e i n th e c o - o p t i o n a n d c o n t a i n m e n t o f " O t h e rn e s s " f o r th e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f h e g e m o n i c c u l t u r e ( Sh a r m a et al .zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA 2 5 ) . Br - A s i a n y o u t h s u b c u l tu r e ' s p r o d u c t i o n o f a su b v e rsiv e A s i an c o u n te rd i sc o u rse , r e je c ti n g c u l t u r a l e s s e n ti al i s m o f th e m e t r o p o l i t a n as w e l l as l o c a l v ariety , is a te s ti m o n y to its resistan c e to c o n t a i n m e n t . A c o n s i d e r a b l e b o d y o f w o r k f o c u s i n g o n the sp e c i f i c f o r m s th at Br - A s i a n c u l t u r a l re si stan c e takes is av ailab l e i n Br i t i s h c u l t u r e stu d i e s. O n e n e e d s to t u r n to th e p o t e n tial f o r re si stan c e at o t h e r sites i n T r a n s l - A s i a . In l i g h t o f this, w e n o w e x a m i n e th e m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u th ' s e n c o u n te r w i t h Bh a n g r a as W o r l d M u s i c . D e s i b h a n g r a is r o b b e d o f its s u b a l te r n resistiv ity b y its l arg e l y m i d d l e - c l as s c o n s ti tu e n c y . U n l i k e Br - A s i a n y o u t h w h o u se Bh a n g r a to m a r k e th n i c d i f f e r e n c e , I n d i a n m i d d l e - c l as s y o u t h tu rn s to Bh a n g r a as W o r l d M u s i c to p a r ti c i p a te i n th e c e n tr e . If Br - A s i a n y o u t h a p p r o p r i a te s W o r l d M u s i c as a n e th n i c v e r n a c u l ar i d i o m , I n d i a n y o u t h tu n e s i n t o it to e n t e r a c o s m o p o l i t a n g l o b a l sp ac e . Bh a n g r a m u s i c is s a n i ti z e d o f its s t r o n g w o r k i n g class, an ti - rac i al a n te c e d e n ts as I n d i a n m i d d l e - c l as s y o u t h ap p r o p r i a te s it f o r th e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f a d i f f e r e n t su b jec tiv ity . O n e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e nzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLK Vilay etibhangra a n d Desibhangra is th e c lass a n d l a n g u a g e d i v i d e b e tw e e n th e p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e rs . U n l i k e Br - A s i a n Bh a n g r a artists, w h o s e m u s i c is d e e p l y i m p l i c a t e d i n th e p o l i ti c s o f th e i r l arg e l y w o rk i n g - c l as s n e i g h b o u r h o o d s , th e m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n a u d i e n c e c o nsum es th e m u s i c a l p r o d u c t i o n s o f r e g i o n a l f o l k artists. Co m p ared to Br - A s i a n y o u t h , I n d i a n m i d d l e - c l as s y o u th ' s r e t u r n to e th n i c i ty has b e e n m o r e p r o b l e m a t i c d u e to its b e i n g e m b e d d e d i n th e d i s c o u r s e o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n . In th e n e g ati v e r e a d i n g o f e th n i c i ty i n b o t h n a t i o n a l i s m a n d m o d e r n i ty , e th n i c ity w as a c u l t u r a l i s m o n e d i s c a r d e d to p ro g re s s to w ard s a m o d e rn i ty p r e s e n te d as a c u l t u r a l . P o s t m o d e r n i s m ' s v a l o r i z a t i o n o f 222 A N JA LI G ER A RO Y e th n i c i ty o f f e rs, i n s te ad , a n al te rn ati v e r o u te th at le ad s i n a g l o b a l d i r e c t i o n e v e n as l i n k s w i t h h o m e are r e a f f i r m e d . W h i l e th e re is n o c o n s c i o u s i d e n ti ty f o r m a t i o n a r o u n d m u s i c a l g e n re s o n the s u b c o n ti n e n t, the m e r e e x e rc i se o f c h o i c e f o r a c e r ta i n k i n d o f m u s i c c o n tai n s a g e r m o f re sistan c e . A n g e l a M c R o b b i e has a r g u e d th at y o u t h c u l tu re s n e e d n o t b e p r o d u c e d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f w o rk i n g - c l ass p u r i ty zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQ ( 15 ) . T o n y Be n n e t, s i m i l arl y , su g g ests that the re l ati o n s o f c u l tu r e a n d p o w e r s h o u l d n o t b e se e n as n e c e ssarily g e n e r a t i n g re sistan c e o r re sistanc e s ( 16 8 ) . T h e y m i g h t " g e n e rate o th e r f o r m s o f c r i ti c a l r e a c ti o n o r i n te rac ti o n that are n o t i n te l l i g i b l y d e s c r i b e d as re sistiv e " ( 16 8 ) . T h e c a r to g r a p h y b e tw e e n " c o m p l i a n c e a n d re si stan c e " th at Be n n e t i d e n ti f i e s c a n a c c o u n t f o r the c o m p l e x f l o w o f Bh a n g r a t h r o u g h h i g h l y d i f f e r e n ti a te d p o w e r re l ati o n s ( 16 9 ) .zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXW Desibhangra's resistiv ity, e m e r g i n g o u t o f the u n c e r t a i n z o n e o f c o m p l i a n c e a n d re sistanc e , c a n n o t p r o d u c e the c o n s c i o u s l y an ti- rac ist p o l i ti c s o f Vilay etibhangra. I n d i a n y o u t h s u b c u l tu re s m i m i c A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r c u l t u r a l ang st 5am its a f f l u e n c e . W h i l e I n d i a n m i d d l e class y o u t h m i g h t af f e c t A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r c u l t u r a l p o stu re s, the b a c k g r o u n d o f p o v e rty a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t n i p s p o te n ti a l re v o l t. P r o d u c e d at th e b o u n d a r i e s o f c o m p l i a n c e a n d resistan c e , m i d d l e - c l as s I n d i a n y o u t h s u b c u l t u r a l re sistan c e assu m e s less o v e rt f o r m s m a r k e d a l o n g g e n e r a ti o n a l r a th e r t h a n class, rac e , o r e th n i c m a r k e r s . D e p r i v e d o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r o v e rt p o l i ti c al a c d o n , m i d d l e class I n d i a n y o u t h s u b c u l tu re s resist b y acts o f p etty r e b e l l i o n s u c h as e x p r e s s i n g a p r e f e r e n c e f o r a lif esty le o f w h i c h the p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n d i s ap p ro v e s . Si n c e the p a r e n tal g e n e r a t i o n is c o m m i t t e d to a n ati o n al i s t a g e n d a , the g e n e rati o n a l w ar i n th e I n d i a n s u b c o n t i n e n t is f o u g h t o v e r th e selec tiv e a d o p t i o n o f " W e s te r n " lif esty les — l a n g u a g e , attire , m u s i c . A s U l f H a n n e r z has n o t e d i n th e case o f N i g e r i a n s , m i d d l e - c l as s u rb a n I n d i a n y o u t h th e re b y asp ires to p arti c i p ate i n th e C e n t r e ( q td . i n P i n n e y 11) . U n l i k e Br - A s i a n y o u t h , it d o e s n o t u se th e sp ac e c re ate d b y W o r l d M u s i c to assert e th n i c d i f f e r e n c e b u t to p arti c i p ate i n m e t r o p o l i t a n c u l tu r e . T h e p o i g n a n t i n c o n g r u i t y b r o u g h t o u t b y A r j u n A p p a d u r a i i n the r e p l i c a t i o n o f c o s m o p o l i tan c u l tu re s at T h i r d W o r l d sites m ay b e se e n i n m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u th ' s t u r n to W o r l d M u s i c i n a n i m i tati v e g estu re , I n d i a n y o u t h t u r n to its o w n m u s i c w i th the g az e o f the 223 RES IS T IN G B H A N G R A W e s te r n Se l f th at i m b u e s I n d i a n m u s i c w i th a n e x o ti c O th e r n e s s . It r e p r o d u c e s the Se l f s e x o ti c i z a ti o n o f the O t h e r u n aw ar e th at it o c c u p i e s th e O t h e r ' s sp ac e i n th e W e s te r n i m a g i n a t i o n . W h i l e zyxwvutsrqpon Vilay etibhangra d raw s o n e th n i c d i f f e r e n c e i n f o r m i n g Br - A s i a n s u b c u l tu r e s to se p arate itse lf f r o m w h i te c u l t u r a l heg emo ny , Desibhangra e x o ti c i z e s d i f f e r e n c e to i d e n ti f y w i t h the d o m i n a n t c u l tu r e . M i d d l e - c l a s s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u t h c u l tu re s o th e r r e g i o n al e th n i c c u l tu r e s ju s t as w h i te A m e r i c a n y o u t h c o u n t e r c u l t u r e v a l o r i z e d a n d o t h e r e d n o n - W e s te r n c u l tu re s . Fo r m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u t h , f o l k m u s i c is th e c arn i v al e s q u e z o n e o f p l e asu re a n d re le ase . In a n a m b i v a l e n t f a s c i n a ti o n f o r " a u th e n ti c " v alu e s o f th e " f o l k " s i m i l a r to A m e r i c a n c o u n te r c u l tu r e s , it su c c u m b s to th e au th e n ti c i ty n arrati v e w i t h w h i c h W o r l d M u s i c is u n d e r w r i t t e n . In the m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u th ' s i m a g i nary , f o l k c u l tu re s are i m b u e d w i th a v itality a n d au th e n ti c i ty th at p a r e n ta l c u l tu r e s are b e l i e v e d to l ac k. It o p p o s e s these p ar e n ta l c u l tu r e s t h r o u g h a m e t r o p o l i t a n a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f " f o l k " v alu e s. T h u s , m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u t h c u l tu r e c o n sti tu tes a " d i f f e r e n t, y o u t h f u l , su b je c tiv ity " a l o n g g e n e r a ti o n a l l i n e s r a th e r th a n c lass o r e th n i c i ty u n l i k e Br - A s i a n y o u t h s u b c u l tu re s. Bu t a m o v e aw ay f r o m c u l t u r a l e sse n ti al i sm i n f a v o u r o f e le c tiv e i d e n ti ti e s s i m i l a r to Vilay etibhangra m ay also b e o b s e r v e d i n the f o r m a t i o n o f m i d d l e class u r b a n y o u t h su b je c tiv itie s. A s i n Vilay etibhangra, m i d d l e - c l as s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u t h d e m o n s trate s th at y o u d o n ' t hav e to b e P u n ja b i to d a n c e to Bh a n g r a . Be sid e s, m i d d l e class u r b a n I n d i a n y o u t h , w i t h o u t i n t e n d i n g to , d e c o n stru c ts the c u l t u r a l n arrati v e o f the n a t i o n a n d rev erses its h i g h / lo w heg em o ny . Unlike Vilay etibhangra that o p p o s e s W e s te r n f r o m th e sp ac e o f p o p u l a r c u l tu r e , Desibhangra high c u l tu r e b e l o n g s to A p p a - d u r a i ' s c o n te s te d p u b l i c c u l t u r a l sp ac e i n w h i c h th e r e g i o n a l , th e n a t i o n a l , a n d th e g l o b a l i n te rse c t. A p p a d u r a i u ses the t e r m " p u b l i c c u l t u r e " to d e s c r i b e a zone o f c u l t u r a l d e b ate th at is i n te rl i n k e d w i th g l o b al i z ati o n : Fro m this p o in t o f view , the co ntestato ry character o f p u b lic c u ltu re has m u c h to d o w ith the tensio ns an d c o ntrad ic tio ns betw een natio nal sites an d transnatio nal c u ltu ral p ro cesses. These tensio ns g enerate arenas w here o ther registers o f c u ltu re enco unter, interro g ate, 224 A N JA LI G ERA RO Y a n d c o n t e s t o n e a n o t h e r i n n e w a n d u n e x p e c t e d w a ys . T h u s n a t i o n al cu lt u r e seeks to co-op t a n d r e d e fin e m o r e lo ca l, r e gio n a l, o r fo lk cu lt u r a l fo r m s . C o m m e r c i a l cu lt u r e (esp ecia lly i n t h e c i n e m a , t e le vis io n , a n d t h e a u d i o in d u s t r y) seeks to p o p u l a r i z e cla ssica l fo r m s . Ma s s c u lt u r a l fo r m s seek to co- op t fo lk i d i o m s . T h i s zo n e o f con t est a t ion a n d m u t u a l ca n n ib a liza t io n — in wh ich n a t io n a l, m ass, a n d f o l k c u l t u r e p r o v i d e b o t h m i l l a n d g r i s t f o r o n e a n o t h e r — is a t t h e ve r y h e a r t o f p u b l i c m o d e r n i t y i n I n d i a . (5) A p p a d u r a i ' s e m p h as i s o n c o n te s tati o n , r a th e r t h a n d ialo g u e, c a n h e l p o n e u n d e r s t a n d the d i f f e r e n t w ay s r e g i o n a l f o l k , n ati o n a l , a n d d i a s p o r i c c a n n i b a l i z e o n e an o th e r. W h i l e m u c h has b e e n m a d e o f th e e x p atri ate a n d n a ti o n a l c o - o p t i o n o f f o l k i n th e i r p a r ti c u l a r ag e n d as, f o l k ' s c o m p l i c i t y has b e e n o v e r l o o k e d . T h e f o l k p lay s a l o n g w i t h the p o s t m o d e r n p r i v i l e g i n g o f the m arg i n i n th e g l o b a l a n d the r e i n s ta te m e n t o f the r e g i o n a l i n the n a t i o n a l to stake its o w n c l a i m i n th e n a ti o n a l as w e l l as the g l o b al p o l i ti c s a n d e c o n o m y . T h e f e ti s h i z ati o n o f m u s i c is b r o u g h t a b o u t i n th e c ase o f Bh a n g r a b y a c o m p l e x m a r k e t c a p i ta l i s m i n w h i c h m u s i c lab e ls, artists, a n d the m e d i a c o l l ab o r ate w i t h i m p r o v e d te c h n o l o g i e s to al te r the c o n d i t i o n s o f the p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n d r e c e p t i o n o f m u s i c . T h e l o g i c o f th e m ar k e t- p l ac e w o r k s r e s p e c ti n g n o class, n o r e g i o n a l , n o n a t i o n a l af f i l i ati o n s. T h e s e l e c ti o n and r e c o r d i n g o f m u s i c , its p ac kag ing , the m e d i a o f d i s s e m i n a t i o n are al l i m b r i c a t e d i n a m a r k e t i n g strateg y th at c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d as a n a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f the m a r g i n . Bh a n g r a is a p e r f e c t e x a m p l e o f m u t u a l c a n n i b a l i z a t i o n i n w h i c h n a ti o n a l , m ass, g l o b a l , a n d f o l k p r o v i d e b o t h " m i l l a n d g rist f o r o n e an o th e r . " If Br - A s i a n Bh a n g r a artists c o - o p t e th n i c d i f f e r e n c e i n th e i r an ti- rac ist a g e n d a , f o l k Bh a n g r a artists n e e d th e i r p a tr o n a g e to g a i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n . If i n t e r n a - ti o n a l m u s i c lab e ls m a r k e t d i f f e r e n c e as a u n i q u e s e l l i n g p r o p o s i ti o n , h o m e g r o w n m u s i c e n te rp ri s e s are o n l y to o hap p y to c ap i tal i z e o n th e m a r k e t f o r W o r l d M u s i c . G i v e n th e c o n n i v a n c e o f P u n j a b i f o l k artists i n th e c o m m o d i fication o f e th n i c d i f f e r e n c e ,zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONM Punjabibhangra, like Desibhangra, c a n n o t b e e q u i p p e d w i th c o n s c i o u s re si stan c e . In s te ad o f f o l l o w i n g th e c u r r e n t f a s h i o n f o r l o o k i n g f o r re si stan c e i n th e m o s t u n l i k e l y p l ac e s, o n e m i g h t f r u i tf u l l y p u r s u e a n al te rn ati v e p a t h i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g Punjabibhangra's n e g o ti ati o n o f d iasp o ric a n d RESIST IN G 225 BH A N G RA n a t i o n a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n s . W h i l ezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONM Punjabibhangra p arti c i p ate s i n its o w n c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n b y o p e n i n g itse lf to g l o b a l f o rc e s, it is i n s c r i b e d w i th a m u l t i p l e c o d i n g th at in v ite s d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f i n v o l v e m e n t. T h i s s i g n i f i c a ti o n sy stem p e r m i ts P u n j a b i sp e ak e rs a l e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t th at m i g h t n o t b e p o s s i b l e f o r th o se n o t e m b e d d e d i n the P u n j a b i s o c i o - c u l tu r a l c o n te x t. T h e e sse n c e o f Bh a n g r a lie s i n th e p e rf o rm ati v e asp e c t o f i n te r ac ti o n s b e tw e e n th e p e r f o r m e r a n d th e c r o w d th at p r o d u c e a p e c u l i a r f o r m o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d r e c o g n i t i o n . W h e n p e r f o r m e d as a c e l e b r a to r y r i t u a l to m a r k a n a u s p i c i o u s m o m e n t i n the l i f e o f th e c o m m u n i t y , it is s h i e l d e d f r o m the p r o f a n e sp ac e o f th e g l o b al c o m m o d i t y m a r k e t. P u n ja b is o n e o f th e r e g i o n a l v e r n a c u l a r s s u p p r e s s e d b y the m as te r n arrati v e o f th e n a t i o n . P o l i t i c a l re si stan c e to th e c e n tr e i n the d e m a n d f o r a se p arate state i n th ezyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWV 19 8 0 s w as th e m o s t v io lent exp ressio n o f r e g i o n a l d i s c o n te n t. The Pu n jab i lan- g u ag e ' s m u s i c re v i v al , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , c o n te sts th e n a t i o n a l m as te r n arrati v e at a l i n g u i s ti c l e v e l b y c h a l l e n g i n g th e Hindi h e g e m o n y at th e c e n tr e . T h e r e s u r g e n c e o f f o l k also u p se ts the c lassic al f o l k h i e r a r c h y m a s q u e r a d i n g as a n i n te rd e p e n d e n c e i n n a ti o n a l i s t d i s c o u r s e . Fo l k re si stan c e , e v e n o f th e w e ak k i n d , n e e d s to b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m f o l k p a tr o n a g e in m useum s, t o u r i s m , a n d f estiv als t h r o u g h w h i c h th e c e n tr e f o ssiliz e s h e r i tag e. Bh a n g r a f o l k artists, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g th e e l e m e n t o f au to e x o t i c i z a t i o n i n th e i r p e r f o r m a n c e s , h av e a n n e x e d th e g l o b a l to u n s e at c lassic al I n d i a n m u s i c a l c u l tu r e s b o t h o n th e n a t i o n a l a n d th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l stag e. T h e n e w m e d i a , te c h n o l o g i e s , m ark e ts h av e c r e a te d a g l o b a l sp ac e th at has b e e n and em anc ip a- to ry f o r f o l k v o i c e s. T h e f o l k h av e a n n e x e d this sp ac e to u s h e r a n e w l i f e o f f o l k l o r e i n t o th e i n f o r m a t i o n ag e. A p a r t f r o m c h a n g i n g th e c e n t r e / r e g i o n d y n a m i c s , Punjabibhangra has p l a y e d a v i tal r o l e i n th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e s ac re d i n th e P u n j a b i d i a s p o r a i n I n d i a a n d a b r o a d . T h e r e is a c o n s i d e r a b l e m ig rant P u n j a b i p o p u l a t i o n n o t o n l y i n U K a n d C a n a d a b u t also w i t h i n d i f f e r e n t p arts o f I n d i a d i s p l a c e d b y th e Parti ti o n o f In d i a i n 19 4 7 . D e p r i v e d o f a h o m e l a n d i n p h y s i c al sp ac e , these P u n ja b i s r e c o n s tr u c t a sense o f p l ac e t h r o u g h r i tu a l to w h i c h Bh a n g r a is c e n tr a l . Punjabibhangra p erf o rm anc e m a r k s o u t a sp ac e 226 A N JA LI G ERA RO Y i n w h i c h P u n j a b i sp e ak e rs ac ro ss th e g l o b e c o n s tr u c t a p l ac e Punt h o u g h th e r e e n a c t m e n t o f c o l l e c ti v e m e m o r i e s . A s r i tu a l ,zyxwvutsrqponm jabibhangra al l o w s r o o m f o r th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f P u n j a b i i d e n tity i r r e s p e c ti v e o f th e p u r i t y o r h y b r i d i t y o f th e f o l k g e n r e emp lo y ed . Ev e n t h o u g h Desibhangra a n d Punjabibhangra are n o t c o n s c i o u s l y re sistan t, g e n e r a t i o n a l a n d r e g i o n a l o p p o s i t i o n i n I n d i a n y o u t h s u b c u l t u r a l p o l i ti c s h e l p s to d e c o n s tr u c t th e c u l tu ralist m as te rn arrati v e o f th e p r e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n . T h e c u l t u r a l e sse n ti al i sm o f I n d i a n c lassic al a n d f o l k trad i ti o n s c o n s tr u c te d a l o n g th e h i g h / l o w d i v i s i o n s has e ras e d o th e r ac c o u n ts . T h o u g h I n d i a n n a t i o n a l i s m has alw ay s e m p h a s i z e d g re at a n d little trad i ti o n i n te r d e p e n d e n c y , th e r e c o g n i t i o n o f f o l k has b e e n c o n ti n g e n t o n its a c c e p ta n c e o f a n i n f e r i o r p o s i t i o n . M i d d l e - c l a s s u r b a n I n d i a n y o u t h s u b c u l tu r e s , w h i l e e x o t i c i z i n g a n d o t h e r i n g the f o l k , u n w i tti n g l y d e stab l i z e th e c lassic al f o l k h i e r a r c h y . Si m ilarly , Vilay etibhangra c re ate s a g l o b a l s p ac e th at p ro v e s to b e e m a n c i p a t o r y f o r tr a d i ti o n a l l y d i s a v o w e d c u l tu r e s , w h i c h m i g h t n o w c o n s ti tu te tr a n s n a ti o n a l l o c al i ti e s th at c o n f l i c t w i t h th e p o l itic s o f th e natio n- state . It also p e r m i ts a v i r tu a l s p h e re f o r th e e x p r e s s i o n o f a y o u t h f u l re v o l t ag ain st m i d d l e - c l as s v alu e s o n a n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l . T h i s is, o f c o u rs e , p o s s i b l e o n l y if s u p p re s s e d n arrati v e s e x p l o i t th e n e w g l o b a l sp ac e ' s c e l e b rati o n o f d i f f e r e n c e w h i l e e f f e c tiv e ly re s i s ti n g its c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n . N O TES 1 Bhangra is a harvest ritual of the Punjab region in N orth India. Brightly dressed villagers dance vigorously in a large circle, accompanied by powerful drumming and also by clapping and singing. Dancers in pairs give spontaneous solo displays that include virile jumps and even acrobatics. Though at one time danced primarily by men, it is now performed by the entire community. It dates back to aroundzyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDC 4 0 0 BC originating in the worship of the Hindu god Shiva by Punjabi farmers. The present forms of Bhangra evolved a few hundred years ago. Twelve pure forms of Bhangra marked along gender, sectarian, national lines have been traced along the D oab region of Punjab cutting across India and Pakistan. These have made a smooth transition to non-agrarian settings and the farmer's joy at a bountiful harvest is transferred to any celebration. Bhangra performance contexts include the two harvest festivals Lohri (January 14 ) and Baisakhi (A pril 13 ) , some Sikh religious festivals and all birth related rituals like in wedding sangeets (musical evenings) and baaraats (wedding procession), naam karan (naming ceremony) and m undan (tonsure). Though a communal participatory ritual, professional Bhangra performers may also be invited to stage shows as well perform at family or community gatherings. The RES IS T IN G B H A N G R A 227 earliest Punjabi immigrants to U K carrier! the harvest ritual across to the new land. But the Bhangra fever began in the mid - 19 8 0 s with the arrival of A pache Indian who mixed it with black music. A pache Indian is not only responsible for constructing the most visible ethnocultural signifier of Asian identity in Britain but also for " returning it back" home. Its success abroad caused an implosive movement back home, kicked off by the irrepressible Sikh Daler M ehdi. See Raminder Kaur and V irinder S Kalra, who coined the term " Transl-A sia." " Different, Youthful, Subjectivities" is borrowed from the title of a Chapter in M cRobbie's Postm odernism and Popular Culture. zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTS zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA Given the strong collaboration between Bhangra artists and the facility with which both the artists and their music traverse the globe, these categories must be defined in terms of how each sites annexes the global rather than generic categories. Born Steve Kapur to Indian parents in Handsworth, Birmingham in 19 6 7 , A pache Indian truly arrived in 19 9 3 when he jumped to the top of the charts. Suffusing the ever popular Ragga style with the extremely influential U K Bhangra beat, A pache Indian's sound was typical o f the flavour of the thriving Handsworth musical scene. A pache Indian has been cited as the first true International Asian pop arust. Though not as visible today, he has also achieved an emblematic status as the best known signifier of Br-Asian identity, almost as well known as vindaloo. http://www.karmasound.com/artisLs/apache/pressreleases /bestof.htm, 15 . 0 0 hrs, 2 8 A pr. 2 0 0 1. Bally Sagoo is best known in India f or his remixes of Hindu film music an d internationally as a crossover artist. But while speaking of his new album Star Crazy 2, he mentions going " home" to the Punjab to record the album. He also presses home the point that, unlike the previous two, this one was clearly aimed at Punjab. See House and Dar's talk with Bally Sagoo and Radical Sista 111 " ReM ixing Identities: O n the Turn Table, '( 8 2 ) . zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJ M alkit Singh is a well-known singer from Punjab who has become an international celebrity, thanks to the Br-A sian's recognition of him as a strong influence and Bally Sagoo's remixes of his songs. Kuldip M anak belongs to an earlier generation of folk artists who operated within Punjab. I have made a distinction between global music and W orld M usic. W hile W orld M usic is a label to denote all non-W estern music as a marketing ploy, global music is a truly international music with its producers and audience spread all over the globe. In the collaboration between A pache Indian and M axi Priest, the fact that Priest sang in Punjabi was cited as an example of multicultural translation. W orld M usic was a label created by music companies in the eighties to market non-A nglo A merican music to Western consumers. Its packaging as W orld M usic helps music companies exoticize non-W estern ethnic music to capitalize on the fad for ethnicity. The phenomenal growth of W orld M usic is contingent upon its othering and the cult of authenticity. The valorization of certain artists as representatives of authentic ethnic national musical cultures answering a Western desire to return an organic wholeness located in indigenous languages and traditional instruments is reminiscent of previous primitive returns. This essentialist privileging of an imagined authenticity is matched with a paradoxical ethic of hybridity whereby ethnic music is electronically enhanced. " Kool" is the projection of a desire for vitality, joy and style on a black otherness. However, while the perceived " koolness" of black culture led to its adoption by youth subcultures, the myth of Asian cultures as erudite, spiritual, and hardworking imbues them with a rather uncool aura. The arrival of Bhangra on the Br-Asian musical scene has been one of the main factors in dissociating Asian culture from the perceived squareness of Sitar music, Yoga, and classical dance. 228 A N JA LI G ERA RO Y W O RKS CITED Modernity at Large: The Cultural Dim ensions of Modernity . New A ppadurai, A rjun.zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCB D elhi: O xford UP,zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIH 19 9 6 . , and Carol A Breckenhridge, eds.. Consum ing India. New D elhi: O xford UP, 19 9 8 . Modernity : Public Culture in Contem porary Baker Jr., Houston A . " Hybridity, Rap and Pedagogy for the 19 9 0 s " . Rap an d the Academ y . Chicago: U of Chicago P, 19 9 3 . 4 9 - 1 0 2 . Bennet, Tony. Culture: Hetherington, Kevin. Sage. 19 9 8 . A Reform er's Expressions Science. Black Studies, New D elhi: Sage, 19 9 8 . of Identity : Space, Perform ance, Politics. New D elhi: House, Shirin, and M ukhtar Dar. " Re-M ixing Identities: O n the Turn Table [Talk with Bally Sagoo and Radical Sista]." Sharma, Hutnyk, and Sharma 4 8 - 6 0 . Huq, Rupa, " Asian Kool? : Bhangra and Beyond" . Sharma, Hutnyk, and Sharma 6 1- 8 0 . kali a. V irinder S. " Vilayeti Rhythms: Beyond Bhangra's Emblematic Status to a Translation of Lyrical Texts" . Theory, Culture an d Society 17 . 3 ( 2 0 0 0 ) : 8 7 - 9 8 . Kaur, Raminder, and V irinder S Kalra. "New Paths for South Asian Identity and M usical Creativity." Sharma, Hutnyk, and Sharma 2 17 - 3 1. M cRobbie, A ngela. Pinney, Christopher. Postm odernism Pleasure an d Popular an d the Nation. Culture. London: Routledge, 19 9 4 . New D elhi: O UP, 2 0 0 1 . Sharma, Sanjay. " Noisy Asians or 'A sian Noise'?" Sharma, Hutnyk, and Sharma 3 2 5 7- Sharma, Sanjay, John Hutnyk, and Ashwani Sharma, eds. D i s - O r i e n t i n g R h y t h m s : 'The Politics of the N ew Asian Dance Music. London: Zed Books, 19 9 6 .