Adjectives of temperature in Latvian

John Benjamins Publishing Company his is a contribution from he Linguistics of Temperature. Edited by Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company his electronic ile may not be altered in any way. he author(s) of this article is/are permitted to use this PDF ile to generate printed copies to be used by way of ofprints, for their personal use only. Permission is granted by the publishers to post this ile on a closed server which is accessible to members (students and staf) only of the author’s/s’ institute, it is not permitted to post this PDF on the open internet. For any other use of this material prior written permission should be obtained from the publishers or through the Copyright Clearance Center (for USA: www.copyright.com). Please contact [email protected] or consult our website: www.benjamins.com Tables of Contents, abstracts and guidelines are available at www.benjamins.com © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian Natalia Perkova Stockholm University his study examines the system of terms used to describe temperature in Latvian, with special focus on temperature adjectives as its core. he main aim of the research is to understand how the domain of temperature is conceptualised in Latvian. he semantics and distribution of eleven adjectives are analysed from diferent points of view in line with a lexical typological approach. he study shows that the system of Latvian basic temperature terms can be revised and re-evaluated as consisting of four terms rather than three (cf. Sutrop 1999). Some aspects of semantic shits and regular metaphorical patterns in the relevant domain are discussed as well. . Introduction his paper reports the results of a study aimed at understanding how linguistic means are used to express temperature in Latvian and how the relevant domain is conceptualised in this language.1 As the study is typologically oriented, in line with other papers in this volume, the data are analysed from the perspective of lexical typology with an emphasis on the lexicalisation of diferent temperature concepts. he structure of the paper is as follows: Section 2 ofers information about Latvian, the climate of Latvia, and the methods used in this study. Section 3 describes the system of temperature terms according to those temperature values and types of temperature evaluation which can be singled out in Latvian. Section 4 contains a detailed analysis of the temperature domain in Latvian which shows how the range of temperature values is covered by diferent lexemes, how the meaning of particular terms may be described and what important relations may be observed within this . I am grateful to all of the native speakers of Latvian who were kind enough to help me with my research and introduce me to the rich world of their language. I would like to mention Jana Taperte, Elīna Bertule and Agnese Drevinska to whom I am very much obliged for their detailed comments and support. I am also grateful to all the people who have taken part in the discussion of my talks on this topic, to both of the reviewers of this paper and, of course, to Maria Koptjevskaja-Tamm whose talk inspired me in 2009 so much that I got interested in lexical typology and decided to conduct this research.  ./tsl..per © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company ©  John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  domain. Section 5 is devoted to the discussion of basic temperature terms in Latvian. Section 6 discusses semantic shits in the domain under discussion. Conclusions are given in Section 7. . Background and methodology . General information about Latvian Latvian is one of the Baltic languages (together with Lithuanian), which belong to the Indo-European language family. Latvian is spoken by approximately 1.38 million people in the Republic of Latvia, where it is the oicial state language. here are Latvian-speaking minorities in the United States of America, Australia, Russia, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, Sweden and other countries with the number of speakers outside Latvia being estimated at about 200,000 people, though it is diicult to give precise data because of extensive and ongoing migration. Latvian is an inlexional language with a small range of analytical forms. Latvian nouns are inlected for case (there are ive cases) and number (singular or plural) and have two genders, masculine and feminine, distinguished both in singular and plural. Verbs are inlected for person and number (with no numerical distinction for the third person), tense (there are both simple and compound, “perfect” forms), mood (including evidentiality and debitive), voice (active and passive). here is a rich system of participles and converbs. If a participle occurs as a part of an analytical form of the predicate, it either agrees with the subject in gender and number or is put in the “default”, “neutral” form, that is, in masculine gender. Adjectives inlect in the same way as nouns (the -am-declension type for masculine gender and the -ai-declension type for feminine gender) in short forms, cf. lab-s cilvēk-s ‘a good man’, lab-s sun-s ‘a good dog’, jaun-a ēk-a ‘a new building’, skaist-a meiten-e ‘a beautiful girl’, all in nominative singular, vs. lab-am cilvēk-am, lab-am sun-im, jaun-ai ēk-ai, skaist-ai meiten-ei (dative singular).2 hey also have a special set of inlexions in long (deinite), originally pronominal forms, opposed to short, indeinite forms, e.g. labs draugs ‘a good friend’ vs. mans labais draugs ‘my good friend’. Comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives are formed synthetically (labs ‘good’ – labāks ‘better’ – (vis)labākais ‘the best’); there are also analytical superlative forms (pats labākais ‘the best’). Most adverbs are regularly derived from the corresponding adjectives with the help of the aix -i. . Six nominal declensions are singled out in Latvian grammars; dative singular forms are signiicant, as they are unique for each of the declensions; -am and -ai are dative singular morphemes for so-called irst and fourth declensions, respectively. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova . he climate of Latvia Latvia is located in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. he climate in general is temperate and continental while the regions close to the Baltic Sea tend toward the maritime and humid. he average annual temperature is about 6°C. Summers are warm, but long winters can be rather cold, especially in the eastern part of the country. Nevertheless, the diference in temperature among the regions of Latvia is not overwhelmingly notable. he coldest months are January and February (about −5°C), though sometimes the average temperature is even lower. Snowfalls and snowstorms, as well as strong, cold winds are normal during the Latvian winter. During the summer, daily temperatures may reach around 17–20°C, and sometimes even higher; dry and hot sunny days from time to time give way to thunderstorms and heavy showers.3 . Methodology Temperature terms are sometimes mentioned in literature on Latvian lexical semantics and lexicology, but there are no comprehensive descriptions of them as a regular system, with the possible exception of the fundamental ideographic dictionary by Skudra (2012: 446f.) which, in its latest version, provides a special section on temperature terms; however, this work is more a well-systematised compilation of diferent dictionary deinitions and examples than a ine-grained analysis of lexical subsystems. Some relevant information can also be found in the study by Veidemane (1970), a monograph concerned with various lexicological problems. For this research various types of data were used. First, both explanatory and bilingual dictionaries became the source of the temperature terms list, among them LLVV, LVV, LKV, KLV, JLAV, LLV. In addition, most of the examples in this paper were extracted from the balanced corpus of modern Latvian (Līdzsvarots mūsdienu latviešu valodas tekstu korpuss, henceforth marked in the examples as K), as they illustrate the natural use of these terms in modern Latvian (1991–2009).4 To test some indings, different collocations were extracted with the help of Google Search, in addition to the corpus data (especially when the latter ones were not voluminous enough). Another important part of the research was to understand how native speakers use temperature terms in discourse, how they evaluate them (as commonly used or rare lexemes), which are the strongest tendencies in the use of particular lexemes and which phenomena can therefore be explained by lexical typology, so the survey method was . See the information provided by the Latvian Environment, Geology and Meteorology Centre, 〈http://www.meteo.lv/en/lapas/environment/climate-change/climate-of-latvia/ climat-latvia?id=1471&nid=660〉. . he corpus is available at 〈http://www.korpuss.lv/〉. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  actively used. he questionnaire by Koptjevskaja-Tamm (2007) was used as the basis for this research, but other stimuli were used as well. As background information plays an important role in motivating the use of different temperature terms, the contexts were thoroughly analysed. For this purpose explanations provided by native speakers were of great importance. For the analysis of the more frequently used terms the morphologically annotated balanced subcorpus “miljons-2.0m” was used (about 3,5 million tokens, which is not a very representative data collection), and for less frequent terms and more examples concerning the distribution of basic terms – the subcorpus based on the Latvian web (Latviešu valodas tīmekļa korpuss, “timeklis-1.0”, about 97 million tokens and about 60 million tokens which are automatically annotated). hese corpora are unrelated to some extent, though kept at the same web-resource, and do not have entirely identical systems of morphological marking. To sum up, all the abovementioned types of data were taken into account to result in a trustworthy analysis of temperature terms based on their use in modern Latvian. . Latvian temperature adjectives: Relevant distinctions he primary foci of this paper are Latvian adjectives of temperature, because the lexemes of this word class have the richest variance for expressing diferent semantic nuances, especially when compared to nouns and verbs. he following adjectives were chosen for the analysis: karsts, tveicīgs, versmains, svelmains, silts, vēss, remdens, dzestrs, dzedrs, auksts, ledains, see Table 1. his choice was based on the analysis of many diferent dictionaries and corpus data, as well as several consultations with native speakers aimed to evaluate the characteristics of diferent terms, e.g. whether they are widespread enough, stylistically unmarked, etc. In some cases, where variation in adjective formation is attested, the most frequent term was chosen (cf. svelmains vs. svelmīgs, versmains vs. versmīgs). he irst subdivision in the domain under discussion is based on the notion of temperature value, as introduced by Koptjevskaja-Tamm (2011: 394). here is a range of temperature which we experience as more neutral, or unmarked, because it is very close to our body temperature. If an object’s temperature difers from this reference point either toward the hot or cold extreme of the scale, we perceive it as a warming or cooling temperature, respectively. Roughly speaking, Latvian distinguishes three basic temperature values: besides a rather usual diferentiation between warming and cooling terms, it is sensitive to neutral temperature. Approximate translations for each term under the corresponding temperature values are provided in Table 1. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova Table 1. Latvian temperature adjectives Temperature value Lexemes warming silts ‘warm’, karsts ‘hot’, svelmains ‘very hot, sultry’, tveicīgs ‘sweltering, sultry, torrid’, versmains ‘sultry, sweltering’ neutral remdens ‘warmish, tepid, lukewarm’ cooling auksts ‘cold’, vēss ‘cool’, dzedrs ‘cool, chilly, fresh’, dzestrs ‘chilly, fresh’, salts ‘very cold, frosty’, ledains ‘ice-cold, icy’ he Latvian temperature adjectives also distinguish among the three kinds of temperature evaluation (2011: 395) by their diferent distribution in corresponding syntactic constructions. Attributive uses are common for tactile (1) and ambient (2) temperature terms: (1) silt-a tēj-a5 warm-nom.sg.f tea-nom.sg ‘warm tea’6 (2) Bij-a aukst-a nakt-s. be.pst-3 cold-nom.sg.f night-nom.sg ‘It was a cold night’. Predicative constructions with temperature terms referring to tactile evaluation occur as well; special attention needs to be paid to the word order, as the adjective forms a constituent with the noun in (2), in contrast to (3): (3) Zup-a bij-a ugunīg-i karst-a un sāļ-a. soup-nom.sg be.pst-3 iery-adv hot-nom.sg.f and salty-nom.sg.f ‘he soup was burning hot and salty.’ (K) Predicative constructions, and most commonly impersonal sentences, are the regular means for expressing ambient temperature: . Abbreviations: Adj, a – adjective; acc – accusative; Adv, adv – adverb; aux – auxiliary; comp – comparative; compl – complementiser; conj – conjunction; cop, Cop – copula; dat – dative; def – deinite; dimin – diminutive; emph – emphatic; f – feminine; in3 – inite verb, 3rd person; fut – future; gen – genitive; imp – imperative; inf – ininitive; loc – locative; m – masculine; n – noun; neg – negation; nmlz – nominalisation; nom – nominative; p.refl – relexive pronoun; pa – active participle; pc.sim – participle of simultaneity; pl – plural; poss. refl – possessive relexive pronoun; pp – passive participle; prs – present; pst – past; subj – subjunctive; sg – singular; v caus – causative verb; v inch – inchoative verb; voc – vocative. . he examples without special references have been constructed by the author and approved by native speakers. he examples extracted from the corpus and from the Internet have corresponding marks (with links for the examples accessed via Google search). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  (4) Ne-domāj-u, ka ārā bū-s tik karst-s. neg-think.pst-1sg compl outside be-fut(3) so hot-nom.sg.m ‘I didn’t think that it would be so hot outside.’ (K) It is also possible to describe entities belonging to the subdomain of ambient temperature with the use of more usual predicative constructions with an overt subject: (5) Mār-as dien-ai (25. mart-s) Mara-gen.sg day-dat.sg 25th March-nom.sg sekoj-oš-a nakt-s bij-a follow-pa.prs-nom.sg.f night-nom.sg be.pst-3 aukst-a, tāpēc arī ruden-s var cold-nom.sg.f so also autumn-nom.sg can.prs(3) bū-t aukst-s, drēgn-s, lietain-s.7 be-inf cold-nom.sg.m damp-nom.sg.m rainy-nom.sg.m ‘he night ater Mara’s day (March, 25) was cold, so perhaps autumn will be cold, damp and rainy.’ he expression of personal-feeling temperature is related to predicative constructions with dative marking of the experiencer (cf. Mathiassen 1997: 179; Lokmane 2002). he predicate is formed by the būt-copula (‘to be’) and a regular adverbial -i derivative: (6) Man ir karst-i. I.dat be.prs.3 hot-adv ‘I am hot’. Among other relevant dative constructions one should mention those with a personal-feeling temperature verb salt ‘to freeze, to feel cold’, belonging to the special set of primary verbs with -st- in the present tense (these verbs typically refer to various inner changes). Whereas a rarer nominative pattern (Es salstu) is observed as well, the experiencer in the clauses with this verb may be marked by the dative case:8 (7) Man salst. I.dat feel.cold.prs(3) ‘I am cold.’ ambient temperature is expressed with diferent syntactic patterns than those used for personal-feeling temperature. In the predicate position one may use either an -i adverb or a simple “default” masculine gender adjective. Grammatically both patterns . 〈http://meiravietis.typepad.com/mans/2008/09/laiks-septembr%C4%AB.html〉 (May 2012). . Dative marking of the experiencer is widespread in Latvian, for a detailed analysis see Berg-Olsen (2005). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova are oten described as possible, and almost no distinction is made between them. For example, in Ceplītis et al. (1989: 77–78) two minimal syntactic patterns are described one ater the other: Copin3Adj (Aiz mājās būs karsts. = (lit.) ‘It must be hot behind the house’) and Copin3Adv (Pagrabā bija auksti. — ‘It was cold in the cellar’; Aiz mājās būs karsti). No further explanation of this variation is given, however.9 Table 2 summarises information about the correlation between temperature evaluation and corresponding syntactic constructions. It shows explicitly that Latvian singles out all the three kinds of temperature evaluation, each of them being related to a special set of typical syntactic patterns. Table 2. Morphosyntactic properties of temperature constructions in Latvian Temperature Constructions Remarks evaluation Examples tactile silta tēja (1) Zupa bija ugunīgi karsta. (3) ambient personalfeeling attributive predicative-1 attributive predicative-1 predicative-2 predicative-3 predicative-3 verbal an overt subject } Bija auksta nakts. (2) Nakts bija auksta. (5) “default” masculine form Aiz mājas būs karsts. Aiz mājas būs karsti. adverbial form impersonal adverbial form; dative subject verbal construction; dative subject Man ir karsti. (6) Man salst. (7) Strictly speaking, Latvian temperature adjectives and corresponding adverbs have overlapping distribution: no purely adjectival forms are used for the personalfeeling subdomain which is in direct contrast to Lithuanian, another Baltic language, where special neutral forms of adjectives may refer to both ambient and personalfeeling temperature (cf. Lith. Buvo karšta ‘It was hot’ vs. Man buvo karšta ‘I was hot’), and both Latvian adjectives and adverbs can be used in the subdomain of ambient temperature. Syntactically, if one considers Latvian predicative constructions, ambient temperature constructions share types of morphosyntactic marking with both tactile and personal-feeling subdomains. In this respect, Latvian difers from the languages analysed by Koptjevskaja-Tamm (2011: 399), but nevertheless its the statement about the intermediate position of ambient temperature within the temperature domain (2011: 400). . his variation has been touched upon in Berg-Olsen (2005: 45). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  . he distribution of Latvian adjectives across temperature values his section considers the Latvian temperature adjectives organised in accordance with their reference to warming, neutral and cooling temperature (see Table 1 above). Within each of these temperature values the corresponding terms present multiple subtle diferences in their semantic properties, which is relected in their distribution. Some of the terms have less speciic meaning and form the central part of the temperature domain, whereas other terms, usually less frequent and more restricted in distribution, have more specialised semantics and can be considered as peripheral. . Warming temperature Silts ‘warm’ may be considered as the unmarked temperature term primarily because it describes our thermal comfort in the best way (covering both purely tactile sensation and evaluation of environment). In addition, its derivative siltums ‘warmth’ is used as a neutral measure of temperature (cf. Plank 2010 on the use of such criteria for markedness relations among temperature terms). Silts has an almost unrestricted compatibility with nouns. First, for tactile temperature, warm entities include water and other liquids to drink (e.g. beverages) or use in various other ways (e.g. for cosmetic procedures): ūdens ‘water’ (including potable water, tap water, water outdoors, e.g. seawater), tēja ‘tea’, piens ‘milk’, augu eļļa ‘vegetable oil’, strāva ‘current’. Warm food is usually at the appropriate temperature for human beings; in some cases it just needs to be warm for other uses. he following nouns were found in collocations with silts: ēdiens ‘dish’, krēms ‘cream’, maltīte ‘meal’. Some other substances are used warm as well, e.g. vasks ‘wax’. Silts is used to refer to body parts which have body temperature and feel comfortably warm. In such tactile temperature collocations it combines with such nouns as ķermenis, rumpis ‘body’, pirksts ‘inger’, plauksta ‘palm’. In the subdomain of ambient temperature, time periods and some more speciic atmospheric terms may be characterised by silts as being warm: laiks ‘time’, ‘weather’, pavasara pēcpusdiena ‘spring aternoon’, aprīlis ‘April’, ziema ‘winter’, vasaras migla ‘summer haze’, gaisa masa ‘air mass’, atmosfēras fronte ‘atmospheric front’. Diferent rooms are easily evaluated as silts ‘warm’ for working, sitting, staying there, etc. Such rooms are comfortable with respect to temperature: one does not feel cold there. he following nouns modiied by this term were found in the corpus: istabiņa ‘room’ (diminutive), vieta, vietiņa ‘place’, traktierītis ‘tavern’ (diminutive), gulta ‘bed’, atzveltnis ‘armchair’, veranda ‘veranda’, ala ‘cave’. he ability to retain warmth is important for clothes and some other objects, such as blankets. he data show that the following entities are compatible with silts: tekstila segums ‘fabric covering’, paklājs ‘carpet’, ziemas jaka ‘winter jacket’. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova As for the syntax, both simple impersonal and dative-experiencer predicative patterns may be found for this term (if we assume for simplicity that regular shits to adverbial forms are determined constructionally): (8) Tur ir silt-s. there be.prs.3 warm-nom.sg.m ‘It is warm there.’ (9) Man ir silt-i. I.dat be.prs.3 warm-adv ‘I am warm.’ Latvian has several terms for denoting hot temperature. Karsts is the most generic and the most frequent term for this domain, while the other adjectives of high temperature may be substituted by this lexeme (usually with an intensiier ļoti ‘very’ and/or words with semantic features such as ‘humid’ or ‘dry’). It denotes temperature that exceeds the norm, and may denote any type of temperature evaluation, i.e. tactile (10), ambient (11) and personal-feeling (12) temperature evaluation: (10) Drīz pa vis-u māj-u izplatījās soon along all-acc.sg.f house-acc.sg spread.pst.3 svaig-i karst-u cepum-u smarž-a. fresh-adv hot-gen.pl.m biscuit-gen.pl smell-nom.sg ‘Soon the smell of hot, fresh biscuits illed the entire house.’ (K) (11) Telp-ā bij-a sutīg-s, taču room-loc.sg be.pst-3 stiling-nom.sg.m though ne pārāk karst-s. not too hot-nom.sg.m ‘It was stiling in the room, though not too hot’. (K) (12) Man ir karst-i, eju I.dat be.prs.3 hot-adv go.prs:1sg vien-ā balt-ā krekl-iņ-ā one-loc.sg.m white-loc.sg.m shirt-dimin-loc.sg bez piedurkn-ēm. without sleeve-dat.pl ‘I am hot, I’m going in just a sleeveless white shirt.’ (K) In (10) above the smell of piping hot biscuits is described: the temperature of some objects relects the way they are prepared. Sometimes this temperature is evaluated extremely positively because it implies the good quality of fresh food. For some food and beverages, however, being karsts may imply that these objects are not appropriate to eat or drink at the moment, because their temperature exceeds the norm: © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  (13) Kaij-a karst-a, to jau cofee-nom.sg hot-nom.sg.f that.acc.sg yet ne-var normāl-i iedzer-t. neg-can.prs(3) normal-adv drink-inf ‘he cofee is hot, one can’t drink it properly.’ (K) When hot temperature is beyond the norm and is not normally expected, karsts may be negatively evaluated or mean something dangerous:10 (14) Tev ir karst-a pier-e. thou.dat be.prs.3 hot-nom.sg.f forehead-nom.sg (lit.)‘Your forehead is hot’; ‘You have a fever’. he diference in evaluation depending on the pragmatic norm may be illustrated by two possible meanings of karsts in (15): (15) Bij-a karst-a nakt-s. be.pst-3 hot-nom.sg.f night-nom.sg ‘he night was hot.’ (i) It was very hot, [so I couldn’t fall asleep]. (ii) he night was hot (that is, very warm – N. P.), [so I could sleep in my sleeping-bag in the yard]. If we take into account the salience and high acceptability of karsts in diferent morphosyntactic constructions, we should not be surprised by its compatibility with a wide range of entities, as shown by the data. he list of possible collocations with karsts includes the following types of objects and phenomena: – – – various liquids – ūdens ‘water’, tēja ‘tea’, šokolāde ‘chocolate’, piens ‘milk’, medus kokteilis ‘honey cocktail’, dzērieni ‘beverages’, balzams ‘balm’, zupa ‘soup’, buljons, virums ‘broth’, kakao ‘cocoa’, duša ‘shower’, etc.;11 some food which can be hot (usually cooked): mērce ‘sauce’, zivs ‘ish’, kartupeļi, tupeņi ‘potatoes’, ēdiens ‘dish’, gulašs ‘goulash’, maisījums ‘mixture’, desiņas ‘sausages’, vafeles ‘wafers’, pusdienas ‘dinner’, ābolu pīrāgs ‘apple pie’, zivju/gaļas uzkodas ‘ish/ meat snacks’, šašliks ‘shish kebab’, maltīte ‘meal’ and even the loan translation karsts suns ‘(lit.) hot dog’; diferent objects, substances or surfaces which are heated: objekts, priekšmets ‘object’, virsma ‘surface’, trauks ‘vessel’, katls ‘cauldron’, panna ‘frying-pan’, metāls . he derivative karstums has a meaning ‘temperature, fever’, among others. . Including the frequent composite karstvīns (lit.) ‘hot wine’; ‘mulled wine’, the main properties of this beverage are its hot temperature and warming efect. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova – – – – – ‘metal’, alva ‘tin’, tērauds ‘steel’, dzelzs ‘iron’, stikls ‘glass’, smiltis ‘sand’, akmens ‘stone’, asfalts ‘asphalt’, vasks ‘wax’, masa ‘paste’, komprese ‘compress’, gludeklis ‘iron’, vanna ‘bath’; diferent periods of time (ambient temperature): diena ‘day’, priekšpusdiena ‘forenoon’, pavasaris ‘spring’, maijs ‘May’, sausuma periods ‘period of drought’, sezons ‘season’, naktis ‘nights’ (speaking about such countries as Turkey or Egypt); other manifestations of ambient temperature: gaiss ‘air’, vējš ‘wind’, klimāts ‘climate’, bezvējš ‘lull, calm’, debesis ‘sky’ and nouns referring to atmospheric heat – versme, tveice ‘swelter’, ‘sultriness’; sources of heat: saule ‘sun’, saules stari ‘sun rays’, uguns ‘ire’, liesma ‘lame’, lava ‘lava’, geizers ‘geyser’, svece ‘candle’, ogles ‘coal’, krāsns ‘stove’, ‘furnace’, pazemes avoti ‘subterranean springs’, plīts ‘stove’, kamīns ‘ireplace’; something which is made in a “hot” way: manikīrs ‘manicure’, vulkanizācija ‘vulcanisation’, sālīšana ‘pickling’, kūpināšana ‘smoking’ griešana ‘haircut’; pirts ‘bathhouse’ is hot as the room and the source of heat. In comparison to silts, the term karsts is deinitely restricted to hot temperature zone, not being used as a moderately warm temperature term. Karsts is applied to sources of heat and implies a very high degree of temperature, whereas silts refers to those positive temperature values which are moderately, usually pleasantly, warm. hree terms, svelmains, tveicīgs and versmains, refer to extremely hot temperatures. hey denote mainly ambient temperature. In comparison with karsts these three hot adjectives are more oten used to describe extremely hot or insuferable weather, for example, a very hot summer day: (16) Taču bij-a visai tveicīg-a but be.pst-3 at.all sultry-nom.sg.f vasar-as dien-a, un viņam summer-gen.sg day-nom.sg and he.dat.sg ne-bij-a visai ērt-i karst-ajā palankīn-ā. neg-be.pst-3 at.all cosy-adv hot-def.loc.sg.m palanquin-loc.sg ‘But it was a very hot summer day, and he didn’t feel cosy in the hot palanquin.’ (K) In most cases in which these adjectives are used the source of heat tends to be the sun (svelmains is less restricted in this respect, compared to the other two terms, see below); such hot temperature is typically characterised as unpleasant, exceeding the norm: (17) Šodien ir svelmain-s/tveicīg-s/versmain-s. today be.prs.3 sultry-nom.sg.m ‘It’s hot today.’ a. b. *the day is pleasantly warm; the day is unpleasantly hot. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  he adjective tveicīgs typically refers to ambient temperature in sentences which describe seasons or time periods characterised by this heat; according to LLVV, the semantic component ‘humid’ is inherent for this term. he examples from the corpus show that tveicīgs may refer to hot temperature even when the sun is not shining (at night for example); in such cases, the pragmatic component of unexpectedness and uncommonness is present: (18) Arī nakt-s bū-s tveicīg-a: too night-nom.sg be-fut(3) sultry-nom.sg.f gais-a temperatūr-a ne-bū-s air-gen.sg temperature-nom.sg neg-be-fut(3) zem-āk-a par +14 līdz +19 grād-iem.12 low-comp-nom.sg.f than +14 till +19 degree-dat.pl ‘he night will be sultry too: the temperature of air won’t be lower than 14–19 above zero.’ Svelmains is rather similar to tveicīgs in its compatibility with nouns. Such temperature can be considered as the efect of the sun shining: (19) Protams, pie mums nav certainly at we.dat neg. be.prs.3 svelmain-ās dienvid-u saul-es. sweltering-def.gen.sg.f south-gen.pl sun-gen.sg ‘Of course, we don’t have the scorching Southern sun.’ (K) Other entities can also be referred to by svelmains, and the most typical one is wind, very hot and harassing (e.g. certain southern winds, such as harmattan): (20) No novembr-a līdz mart-am no from November-gen.sg till March-dat.sg from Sahār-as pus-es pūš Sahara-gen.sg side-gen.sg blow.prs(3) svelmain-s vēj-š harmatan-s.13 sweltering-nom.sg.m wind-nom.sg harmattan-nom.sg ‘From November till March the hot wind, harmattan, blows.’ Originally the meaning of svelmains is related to the idea of burning (cf. svilt ‘to burn’), and therefore it was previously used both in extremely hot and extremely cold subdomains of temperature values (see LLVV; LVV; Ozols 1958), expressing the insuferable intensity of temperature and its inluence on people. Nevertheless, as the corpus data show, svelmains tends now to refer to hot temperatures (as opposed to . 〈http://unity.lv/lv/news/47775/〉 (May 2012). . 〈http://www.dolcev.lv/lv/about-countries/102/〉 (May 2012). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova the participle svelošs ‘burning’, which is compatible both with very hot and very cold sources of temperature). he following example supports the idea of extreme atmospheric heat implied by the use of svelmains: (21) Pēc patīkam-ām lietav-ām ater pleasant-dat.pl.f downpour-dat.pl pagājuš-ās svētdien-as novakar-ē last-def.gen.sg.f Sunday-gen.sg eventide-loc.sg un arī pirmdien-as rīt-a and also Monday-gen.sg morning-gen.sg pus-ē atkal ir iestājies half-loc.sg again be.prs.3 set.in.pa.pst.nom.sg.m karst-s un svelmain-s laik-s, hot-nom.sg.m and scorching-nom.sg.m weather-nom.sg kad gais-s iesilst līdz pat 30 when air-nom.sg warm.up.prs (3) till even 30 grād-iem un vēl vairāk.14 degree-dat.pl and still more ‘Ater the pleasant downpour of last Sunday eventide and Monday morning, hot and scorching weather has come again, the air being warmed up to 30 over zero and even more.’ Svelmains may also refer to tactile temperature evaluation, which is crucial when it is compared to other adjectives denoting high temperatures. In these cases its meaning may be described as ‘burning’, as has already been mentioned, cf. collocations with ‘cofee’ and ‘sand’ in Example (22)–(23): (22) Sagriež-am sier-u liel-os kub-os cut.prs-1pl cheese-acc.sg big-loc.pl.m cube-loc.pl un iegremdēj-am svelmain-ajā kaij-ā. and dip.prs-1pl burning-def.loc.sg.f cofee-loc.sg ‘We cut cheese into big cubes and dip them into hot cofee.’ (K) (23) Svelmain-ajās smilt-īs satupušies, burning-def.loc.pl.f sand-loc.pl squat.pa.pst.nom.pl.m aktier-i un karavīr-i gaidīj-a actor-nom.pl and soldier-nom.pl wait.pst-3 sav-u pusstund-u. poss.refl-acc.sg.f half.an.hour-acc.sg ‘he actors and soldiers, sitting in burning sands, had been waiting for half an hour.’ (K) . 〈http://www.estars.lv/raksti/2/10998〉 (May 2012). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  he idea of thermal comfort and some violations of its boundaries are crucial for the meaning of adjectives referring to very hot temperatures. Kryvenko argues that negative attitudes are common for those temperature terms which are close to both extremes (cold and hot): “Normativity in the temperature domain is closely linked to evaluation. he more intense a degree of temperature is in either direction, the more likely it is to be negatively marked” (2010: 7). Negative evaluation and attitude is common for very hot weather. he following sentence provides an example with the term versmains: (24) Nežēlīg-i versmain-ā vasar-a cruel-adv sultry-def.nom.sg.f summer-nom.sg tuvojas beig-ām.15 approach.prs.3 end-dat.pl ‘Pitilessly scorching summer is drawing to a close.’ he subtle diference in the meaning of karsts, svelmains, tveicīgs and versmains may be supported by the investigation of the corresponding nouns. Veidemane (1970: 99–100) gives the analysis of the synonymic noun series based on a common feature ‘heat’: karstums – svelme, versme, kvēle, tveice (all of them meaning ‘scorching heat’). Karstums is postulated to be a semantic dominant, the most central term in this series. Discussing the synonyms of ‘heat’, the author speaks about additional components which help to diferentiate the meanings of these lexemes and deines them more precisely: svelme – ‘strong, dry (heat)’; tveice – ‘sultry/stiling, stufy’; versme is the heat, sent out by red-hot objects. he judgments of some native speakers show that versmains refers to the temperature when it is hot and dry (in the desert), and tveicīgs when it is stiling and humid (before a thunderstorm). To sum up, in a relatively rich subsystem of Latvian hot temperature terms, karsts is a completely neutral, unmarked term combining with diferent types of hot entities, whereas other adjectives in this subdomain referring to extreme temperatures, are much more restricted in compatibility with nouns and keep some additional semantic components. . Cooling temperature Auksts is a basic cold temperature term, the meaning of which relates to low temperature and its perception. he most frequently used diferent entities referred to by this term include ūdens ‘water’ and vējš ‘wind’: . 〈http://www.ogresvestisvisiem.lv/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=7 25:laikraksta-logres-vstis-visiemr-20augusta-numur&catid=48:nkamaj-numur&Itemid=64〉 (May 2012). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova (25) Ne-peldies aukst-ā ūden-ī… neg-swim.imp.2sg cold-loc.sg.m water-loc.sg16 ‘Don’t swim in cold water’ (26) …ārā plosās aukst-s vēj-š… outdoors rage.pst.3 cold-nom.sg.m wind-nom.sg ‘he cold wind raged outdoors.’ (K) Like silts and karsts, auksts can easily be found in expressions denoting tactile temperature. Prepared food that got cold with time or because of being kept in a cold place is auksts: ābols ‘apple’, pusdienas ‘dinner’, gaļa ‘meat’, vakariņas ‘supper’. Food that is prepared cold (without heating) is auksts as well: aukstie ēdieni ‘cold dishes’, uzkodas ‘snacks’. Diferent liquids are oten characterised as auksts ‘cold’: strāva ‘current’, rasa ‘dew’, zupa ‘soup’, alus, aliņš ‘beer’, duša ‘shower’, dzēriens ‘beverage’, peļķe ‘pool’, jūra ‘sea’, lietus ‘rain’, piens ‘milk’, lāse ‘drop’, kaija ‘cofee’, straume ‘stream’, degvīns ‘vodka’. A lot of entities, including diferent surfaces, substances, body parts may be auksts: metāls ‘metal’, akmens ‘stone’, dzelzs ‘iron’, zeme ‘earth’, stikls ‘glass’, asmens ‘blade’, dvielis ‘towel’, asfalts ‘asphalt’, riepa ‘tyre’, āda ‘leather’, audi ‘texture’, grīda ‘loor’, materiāls ‘material’, smiltis ‘sand’, siena ‘wall’, ventilācijas caurule ‘pipe’, pelni ‘ashes’, komprese ‘compress’, motors ‘engine’, trauks ‘vessel’, durvis ‘door’. Body parts that are referred to as cold in the corpus include: roka, roķele ‘hand’, lūpas ‘lips’, kājas ‘legs/feet’, deguns ‘nose’, seja ‘face’, loceklis ‘limb’. Tactile cold temperatures of this type are oten considered to be potentially dangerous, belonging to one of the “non-comfortable” extremes: (27) Sieviet-es ne-drīkst sēdē-t uz woman-nom.pl neg-be.allowed.prs(3) sit-inf on aukst-iem akmeņ-iem. cold-dat.pl.m stone-dat.pl ‘Women should not sit on cold stones.’ (K) ambient temperature is evaluated as auksts, if it is below the point of thermal comfort and makes us feel cold. Different kinds of rooms may be auksts ‘cold’, among them cietums ‘prison’, pagrabs ‘cellar’, baznīca ‘church’, pirts ‘bathhouse’, vieta ‘place’, telpa ‘room’, zāle ‘hall’, istaba ‘room’. This adjective may denote the temperature of seasons or time periods: laiks ‘time’, ‘weather’, gadalaiks ‘season’, periods ‘period’, gads ‘year’, mēness ‘month’, februāris ‘February’, rudens ‘autumn’, Ziemassvētki ‘Christmas’, Miķeļi ‘Michaelmas’, Lieldienas ‘Easter’, pavasaris ‘spring’, diena ‘day’, nakts ‘night’, ziemas rīts ‘winter morning’. Some large, remote objects in our Universe may be described as auksts: planeta ‘planet’, visums ‘universe’, zvaigzne ‘star’. . 〈http://www.apollo.lv/portal/sieviete/articles/172505〉 (May 2012). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  he adjectives dzedrs and dzestrs refer to slightly cooling temperatures. hey may be considered as synonyms and are interchangeable in most cases, especially in the collocation dzestrs/dzedrs vējš (‘wind’). hey denote cool, chilly temperature, usually ambient. If some other substances are being characterised by the use of these terms, it will still be an outdoor temperature (dzestrs ūdens is some water outdoors, not tap water or water in a glass or a bottle). he most frequent collocates for these adjectives are rīts ‘morning’, nakts ‘night’, laiks ‘weather’, gaiss ‘air’, rudens ‘autumn’, and ūdens ‘water’. Other nouns are compatible with these adjectives, mainly lexemes referring to the diferent parts of the day and other periods of time (vakars ‘evening’, nakts ‘night’, dziesna ‘sunset’, pavasaris ‘spring’), kinds of wind (ziemelis ‘northern wind’, vējelis, vēsma ‘whif ’, ‘breeze’), natural states of water (lietus lāses ‘raindrops’, lietus ‘rain’, jūras viļņi ‘sea waves’). Dzestrs oten refers to the temperature connected with falling temperature (e.g. when the sun sets): (28) Pamazām patīkam-i silt-o 13. little.by.little pleasant-adv warm-def.acc.sg.m 13. oktobr-a dien-u nomainīj-a October-gen.sg day-acc.sg replace.pst-3 dzestr-s vakar-s. chilly-nom.sg.m evening-nom.sg ‘Little by little the warm day of October 13 was replaced by chilly evening.’ (K) he analysis of morphosyntactic constructions with dzedrs and dzestrs shows that they seem to be slightly more restricted than the basic adjectives. Predicative constructions referring to ambient temperature are attested in the corpus: (29) Ārā savukārt kā vienmēr dzestr-s. outdoors in.turn as always chilly-nom.sg.m ‘Outdoors, in its turn, it is chilly as usual.’ (K) For some native speakers personal-feeling temperature constructions like Man ir dzestri ‘(lit.) It is chilly to me’ are acceptable. However, in the corpus, examples of this structure are not attested. Another cooling temperature term is vēss.17 It can be found among the most frequently used terms in the row auksts – silts – karsts – vēss (normally included as basic terms in textbooks for foreigners). It is a little more rare, when compared to the other basic terms, but its frequency may be explained by its place on the temperature scale – neither in the middle, nor on either of the two extremes (that is, it refers to a narrower range of temperatures than, say, auksts). . According to Karulis (1992), vēss and vējš ‘wind’ are cognate words. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova his term is acceptable for diferent types of temperature evaluation – tactile (30), ambient (31), personal-feeling (32) and seems to be not restricted morphosyntactically: (30) Tagad tik sēdē-t ēn-ā un iedzer-t now just sit-inf shadow-loc.sg and drink-inf vēs-u al-iņ-u. cool-acc.sg.m beer-dimin-acc.sg ‘It would be nice right now just to sit in the shade and drink a cool beer.’ (K) (31) Istab-iņ-ā bij-a vēs-s. room-dimin-loc.sg be.pst-3 chilly-nom.sg.m ‘It was chilly in the room.’ (K) (32) Ann-ai kļuv-a vēs-i. Anna-dat.sg become.pst-3 cool-adv ‘Anna felt chilly.’ (K) his term is compatible with names of liquids and beverages: ūdens ‘water’, aliņš ‘beer (diminutive)’, šampanietis ‘champagne’, baltvīns ‘white wine’. Places and rooms may be referred to as vēss, when the temperature there is somewhat colder in comparison to outdoors or to some other places: vieta ‘place’, teritorija ‘territory’, telpa ‘room’, priekšnams ‘hallway’, pagrabs ‘cellar’. Surfaces and body parts which are not very cold, but have the temperature lower than the point of thermal comfort, may be characterised by vēss, e.g. zeme ‘earth’, stikls ‘glass’, marmora galdiņu virsma ‘the surface of a marble table’, plaksts ‘lid’, ķermenis ‘body’, galds ‘table’, grīda ‘loor’, pieskāriens ‘touch’, roka ‘hand’, āda ‘skin’. Krylova (2009: 244) argues that the Russian adjectives proxladnyj ‘cool’ and teplyj ‘warm’, that denote moderate temperature (cold and warm respectively), typically imply that the objects are positively evaluated, i.e. that the tactile perception or conditions in a particular place are pleasant. However, although for both Russian proxladnyj and Latvian vēss negative evaluation is uncommon, it is not impossible, cf. the following sentence: (33) Vasar-ā telp-ās ir patīkam-i summer-loc.sg room-loc.pl be.prs.3 pleasant-adv vēs-s, bet ziem-ā ir ne-patīkam-i. cool-nom.sg.m but winter-loc.sg be.prs.3 neg-pleasant-adv ‘It is pleasantly cool in the rooms in summer, but in winter it feels unpleasant.’ (K) Salts is a cold temperature term. In modern Latvian it is the term for very low temperature (cf. English frosty, Russian moroznyj, studjonyj). he most usual collocations for this term are salta diena ‘frosty day’, salts ūdens ‘ice-cold water’, salts vējš ‘ice-cold wind’. Winter may also be referred to by this term: © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  (34) Latvij-as ziem-a ir Latvia-gen.sg winter-nom.sg be.prs.3 neaizmirstam-i skaist-a, vienlaikus unforgettable-adv beautiful-nom.sg.f simultaneously salt-a un maig-a. frosty-nom.sg.f and mild-nom.sg.f ‘Latvian winters are unforgettably beautiful, being frosty and mild at the same time.’ (K) (35) Pūš ziemel-is salt-ais. blow.prs (3) northerly.wind-nom.sg icy-def.nom.sg.m ‘he cold northerly wind blows.’ (K) (36) …sen-ie latvieš-i kāv-a ancient-def.nom.pl.m Latvian-nom.pl slaughter.pst-3 gail-i, cep-a rauš-us, godāj-a cock-acc.sg bake.pst-3 pie-acc.pl honour.pst-3 kumeļ-u un ticēj-a, ka silt-i foal-acc.sg and believe.pst-3 compl warm-nom.pl.m un slapj-i Mārtiņ-i atnesī-s and wet-nom.pl.m Martinmas-nom.pl bring-fut(3) salt-us Ziemassvētk-us. frosty-acc.pl.m Christmas-acc.pl ‘Ancient Latvians slaughtered a cock, baked pies, honoured the foal and believed that a warm and wet Martin day would bring a frosty Christmas’. (K) It is worth mentioning that salts, originally a participle form of the verb salt ‘to be cold, to freeze’ has shited in the cold temperature domain from a basic cold temperature to the cold extreme (cf. Karulis 1992: 152). he cognate Lithuanian adjective šaltas may denote both neutral cold and very cold temperatures, being a basic term for this subdomain. Ledains is a non-basic cold term, as becomes evident from its compatibility. It has a transparent derivational structure: it is derived from ledus ‘ice’. It is used in its primary sense ‘icy’, ‘covered with ice’, and as a metonymy for describing temperature. It is almost synonymous with salts. he temperature denoted by this term is very cold (ice-cold), it is much lower than the point of thermal comfort and it is negatively evaluated. Sometimes this temperature is not extremely low, but from the point of view of the norm it is far from expected, referring to originally warmed substances which got cold with time, e.g. ledaina tēja ‘iced tea’, which, certainly, is neither covered with ice nor completely undrinkable (though it is not tasty at all). Similarly, ledaina duša ‘icy shower’ is just subjectively very cold. he most frequent collocates with this adjective © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova include water in diferent states and other liquids – ūdens ‘water’, duša ‘shower’, tēja ‘tea’, piliens ‘drop’, lietus ‘rain’, sniegs ‘snow’; diferent periods characterised by very low temperature – marts ‘March’, laiks ‘weather’, ‘time’, nakts ‘night’; some atmospheric terms – vējš ‘wind’, gaiss ‘air’; rooms or other spaces where the temperature is very low for human beings – automašīnas salons ‘car saloon’, virtuve ‘kitchen’; some objects in the domain of tactile temperature evaluation, which became ice-cold – pirksti ‘ingers’, ledu ledaina pica ‘ice-cold pizza’. he following sentences illustrate the use of this adjective in texts: (37) No rīt-a iedzer-t ledain-o from morning-gen.sg drink-inf icy-def.acc.sg.f tēj-u un skrie-t uz skol-u. tea-acc.sg and run-inf to school-acc.sg ‘To drink ice-cold tea in the morning and run to school. (K) (38) Tie cerēj-a uz mēren-iem that.nom.pl.m hope.pst-3 to moderate-dat.pl.m nokrišņ-iem, silt-u, bet ne precipitation-dat.pl warm-acc.sg but not tveicēj-oš-u saul-i, atspirdzin-oš-u, burn-pa.prs-acc.sg.f sun-acc.sg refresh-pa.prs-acc.sg.m bet ne ledain-u vēj-u. but not icy-acc.sg.m wind-acc.sg ‘hey hoped for moderate precipitation, warm, but not scorching, sun, freshening, but not ice-cold wind.’ (K) Interestingly, a regular adverbial i-derivative (ledaini) may specify the basic cold temperature term auksts, emphasising its extreme intensity: (39) No rīt-a ūden-s gan ir from morning-gen.sg water-nom.sg emph be.prs.3 ledain-i aukst-s. icy-adv cold-nom.sg.m ‘In the morning the water is ice-cold indeed.’ (K) (40) ledain-i aukst-a dien-a icy-adv cold-nom.sg.f day-nom.sg ‘ice-cold day’ To conclude, Latvian has a relatively high number of cooling temperature adjectives. An interesting shit is notable here: the etymologically more basic term, salts have undergone semantic narrowing (cold > very cold), with auksts becoming more neutral and unmarked in more frequent use in modern Latvian. Also, interestingly © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  Latvian has several terms for moderately cooling temperature, where vēss is less restricted in compatibility and morphosyntactic properties, compared to dzestrs and dzedrs. Veidemane, speaking about the verbs of cooling temperature value, discusses their semantics and concludes that izdzesināt18 ‘to chill out’ (cf. dzestrs) means the most abstract causation of making something colder than it was, while the other verbs emphasize the degree of this freezing: from relatively moderate in izvēsināt ‘to cool out’ (cf. vēss) to complete cooling in izsaldēt ‘to freeze out’ (cf. salts). his gradation is motivated by the semantics of derivative bases: dzesināt is cognate with dzestrs, which means just a temperature which is perceived as slightly deviating from the “warmish” norm, so this causative verb expresses a light, insigniicant cooling, whereas izsaldēt (cf. salts) preserves the component “extremely cold”, referring to the action with the result of being completely frozen (Veidemane 1970: 105). . Remdens: A neutral temperature term? he Latvian temperature adjectives include a lexeme which is very interesting from the point of view of lexical semantics and lexical typology. he adjective remdens seems to be a proper candidate for a neutral temperature term, cf. Swedish ljum (see Koptjevskaja-Tamm & Rakhilina 2006). In the dictionaries remdens is deined as ‘a little bit warm, tepid; neither really warm, nor really cold’ (LLV, LLVV). Among other relevant properties of this lexeme one should mention its morphologically complex nature (cf. remdēt ‘to soothe’), incompatibility with intensiiers and lack of comparative form in its non-metaphorical use. In order to get more information about this lexeme, the data from the tīmeklissubcorpus were examined systematically. here were 117 tokens with the stem remden(accessed in May 2012), which is a much more representative sample than what is provided by the other subcorpora. his term is mainly compatible with names of different liquids (usually describing water – remdens ūdens, about 44 % of examples). he following example from the corpus illustrates the relative position of remdens and other temperature adjectives on the temperature scale: (41) Pēc ūden-s temperatūr-as vann-as iedal-a ater water-gen.sg temperature- gen.sg bath-acc.pl classify.prs-3 aukst-ajās zem 20 C, vēs-ajās 20–33 C, cold-def.loc.pl.f under 20 C chilly-def.loc.pl.f 20–33 C . Iz- is one of the Latvian verbal preixes: in fact, it modiies the original meaning of temperature verbs emphasising the fact that action is successfully completed with a perceivable result. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova remden-ajās vai indiferent-ajās 34 35 C lukewarm-def.loc.pl.f or indiferent-def.loc.pl.f 34–35 C silt-ajās 36 38 C un karst-ajās 39 C un vairāk. warm-def.loc.pl.f 36 38 C and hot-def.loc.pl.f 39 C and more ‘According to the temperature, baths may be classiied as cold (<20°C), chilly (20–30°C), lukewarm or indiferent (34–35°C), warm (36–38°C) and hot (39°C and more).’ (K) Discussing the temperature of water, the speakers use the collocation remdens ūdens describing tap water which is not warm enough, e.g. when instead of expected warm or hot water, lukewarm (remdens) water comes out: (42) Mūsu māj-ā Bausk-as 203 no trešdien-as our house-loc.sg Bauska-gen.sg 203 from Wednesday-gen.sg 27.01 silt-ais ūden-s knapi remden-s, 27.01 warm-def.nom.sg.m water-nom.sg hardly lukewarm-nom.sg.m lai dabū-tu karst-u, pusstund-u jā-notecina, bet compl get-subj hot-acc.sg.m half.an.hour-acc.sg deb-pour.of but skaitītāj-s griežas. counter-nom.sg turn.prs.3 ‘At our home, Bauskas 203, since Wednesday, January 27 warm water is hardly lukewarm, in order to get hot water one has to wait for half an hour, but the counter works.’ (K) In the descriptions of the use of water for some cosmetic procedures, remdens water (or other liquids) is usually neutrally evaluated, this is just the temperature near our thermal comfort, and in no way hot (karsts): (43) …sej-u mazgā ar remden-u, face-acc.sg wash.prs(3) with lukewarm-acc.sg.m nevis karst-u ūden-i… not hot-acc.sg.m water-acc.sg ‘…face-cleansing media should be dissolved in water, the face should be washed in lukewarm, not hot water…’ (K) Remdens may describe an entity that has become cold, though it should be warmer (see Krylova 2009 regarding temperature terms and evaluation of deviations from the norm). his warmer temperature is oten what is appropriate for the entities’ use. Remdens denotes the temperature which is not warm enough in respect to some expectations, a sort of norm: (44) a. Kaija ir karsta. ‘Cofee is hot’; ‘Cofee is too hot for drinking’. b. Kaija ir silta. ‘Cofee is warm.’ © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  c. Kaija ir remdena. ‘Cofee is lukewarm’ = ‘it seems to be neither warm, nor hot’, ‘cofee is not warm enough for drinking’.19 he collocation remdens alus ‘warmish beer’ in the context ‘It’s hot today, I’d like to slake my thirst with cold beer’ will sound strange: warmish beer is not good, it is too warm to drink (cf. auksts alus, vēss alus ‘cold beer’), since the accepted norm for good beer is to be cold. On the contrary, remdena tēja ‘lukewarm tea’ is too cold to drink, it is not at the correct temperature. Remdens is similar to ljum, as described in Koptjevskaja-Tamm & Rakhilina (2006), in that its temperature may be appropriate for some dishes (some recipes tell us about that). If a dish is supposed to be hot (karsts ēdiens), then being lukewarm would also be negatively evaluated. To sum up, lukewarm entities may be negatively evaluated in the following deviations in temperature compared to a certain norm: not tasty, not good (to eat or to drink): (45) Remden-a zup-a nav lukewarm-nom.sg.f soup-nom.sg neg.be.prs.3 garšīg-a, tā jā-uzsilda.20 tasty-nom.sg.f that.nom.sg.f deb-warm.up ‘Lukewarm soup isn’t tasty, it must be warmed up.’ he majority of the combinations of remdens with diferent kinds of entities and objects that are found in the corpus refer to tactile temperature and involve liquids – ūdens ‘water’, piens ‘milk’, kaija ‘cofee’, tēja ‘tea’, zupa ‘soup’, šokolāde ‘chocolate’, burbuļvanna ‘soap bubble bath’; other edible things or some cooked foods: mīklas masa ‘dough’, bumbieri ‘pears’, maisījums ‘mixture’, ēdiens ‘dish’; some objects which may either be the source of heat or should be used heated – radiators ‘radiator’, akumulators ‘battery’, dvieļu žāvētājs ‘towel dryer’, gludeklis ‘iron’. In other words, it seems that such objects can have diferent temperature values, depending on the circumstances, and the use of remdens oten implies some deviation in perceived temperature from what is expected. As for ambient temperature, remdens vējš ‘lukewarm wind’ and remdens gaiss ‘lukewarm air’ can be found with the help of a Google search, but there are no such entries in the corpus (except remdens janvāris ‘lukewarm January’). personalfeeling constructions with this adjective are also not acceptable. On the whole, Latvian temperature adjective terms are diverse: subtle diferences may be expressed with the use of more peripheral terms, and Latvian has extensions to all the extremes of the temperature scale, possessing both very hot and very cold . One of the native speakers constructed the following sentence with remdens: Man nepatīk dzert remdenu kaiju. ‘I don’t like to drink lukewarm cofee’, which corroborates the importance of evaluations connected to this concept. . 〈http://news.lv/Latvijas_Avize/2009-12-17/Uzsildita-zupa〉 (May 2012). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova terms (and more than one lexeme for each extreme). In addition, lukewarm temperature may be denoted by a speciic adjective. he subdomain of ambient temperature evaluation may be referred to by the largest range of lexemes, while in the subdomain of personal-feeling temperature evaluation only some terms covering basic distinctions are used. Table 3 sums up the information about how the semantic domain of temperature is covered by Latvian adjectives. If an adjective is not found in a certain context in the corpus and such incompatibility was supported by native speakers, it was marked with a minus sign; if only some native speakers gave airmative answers, a question mark was put in a box. Table 3. Temperature values and types of temperature evaluation in Latvian Subdomain Term VERY HOT Tactile Ambient Personal-feeling svelmains + + – tveicīgs – + – versmains – + – HOT karsts + + + WARM silts + + + LUKEWARM remdens + – – COOL dzestrs, dzedrs – + ? vēss + + + COLD auksts + + + VERY COLD ledains + + – salts ? + ? . Basic temperature terms Sutrop (1999: 192–193) describes the system of Latvian temperature adjectives as a three-term system consisting of the following adjectives: auksts ‘cold’, silts ‘warm’, karsts ‘hot’. he criteria for choosing the basic elements are as follows: a. b. c. psychological salience; morphological simplicity and nativeness in most cases; applicability in all relevant domains (Sutrop 1998; cf. Plank 2003). While investigating basicness, diferent hesitations and variations in evaluations should be taken into account. For example, some sentences are rejected by native speakers as not applicable (or such constructions are not found on the web), so they might prove the non-basicness of corresponding terms, cf. Table 2 with a range of constructions available: © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  (46a) *Šodien ir remden-s. today be.prs.3 lukewarm-nom.sg.m (ambient temperature evaluation) (46b) *Man ir svelmain-i/versmain-i. I.dat be.prs.3 sultry-adv (personal-feeling temperature evaluation) In spite of the claim made by Sutrop, a more detailed analysis of the data shows that the term vēss could be added to this system (in fact, this judgement is oten made for cool temperature terms, cf. German kühl or Estonian jahe (Sutrop 1999: 192). Vēss is deinitely psychologically salient and morphologically simple; it is used in various contexts and morphosyntactic constructions, describing the temperature of diferent possible types of temperature evaluation, cf. (30–32) above. his lexeme is included in the basic 1000-word lexicon (Bušs & Baldunčiks 1991). Neither salts, nor other peripheral temperature terms are mentioned there. In the 3000-word lexicon of the most frequent words (Kuzina 1998) three lexemes (auksts, silts, karsts) are included in the irst thousand, vēss occurs in the second thousand and two more terms – ledains and salts – are found in the third thousand. he data from the Latvian frequency dictionary (LVBV) compared to the corpus data (accessed in May 2012)21 corroborates the proposed extension of the set of basic terms up to four elements, see Table 4. Table 4. Frequency of Latvian temperature adjectives Lexeme LVBV K (2.0-m) karsts 209 385 auksts 154 380 silts 184 506 vēss 44 162 salts 56 18 ledains 13 39 tveicīgs 4 10 versmains 4 2 svelmains 10 6 dzestrs 6 21 dzedrs 7 2 remdens 3 16 . he frequency of lexemes in the morphologically annotated corpus was counted on the basis of data obtained ater the query template [lemma=”.*:STEM(s|a)_.*” & tag=”.*:a.{6}_.*”], allowing the search to look for both masculine and feminine forms, which are, unfortunately, tagged as separate lexemes in the corpus. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova One can see from the data that the border between basic and non-basic adjectives is relected in their frequency, in spite of the possible inequality of the texts on which the dictionary and corpora data are based. he adjective vēss is used more frequently than the non-basic terms, though slightly deviating in this aspect from the three main terms. As for the lexeme salts, the diference in the frequency in the two sources is most probably explained by the texts used (the frequency dictionary is based on older texts, written before 1970s, which are more likely to relect the former, wider use of this adjective). In addition, salts is used in several frequent idioms, among them salti meli ‘blatant lie’. As for the frequency of temperature terms in the domain of personal-feeling temperature evaluation (cf. Table 3), a simple search in Google (May, 2012) for diferent adjectives (“Man ir adj-i”) showed that some sentences are not acceptable (*man ir remdeni, *man ir dzestri). here are hundreds of hits for the sentences man ir karsti/auksti/silti, whereas it is just a dozen for man ir vēsi. Of course, on the whole vēss is less frequent than the three core terms, but it is still used much more oten and with a wider distribution than such non-basic adjectives as remdens or dzestrs. Temperature terms may be presented as a network of words belonging to diferent word classes and showing derivational closeness. Besides adjectives, nouns and verbs are actively used in the domain of temperature. he semantics of other word classes in this domain will not be the object of particular attention, but both regularity and variation may be observed throughout this network. For example, nominal derivatives in the temperature domain show that the same derivational pattern is observed for the most frequent terms: silt-s – silt-ums (warmth), karst-s – karst-ums, aukst-s – aukst-ums, vēs-s – vēs-ums vs. versm-e, tveic-e, svelm-e. Table 5 summarises the derivational relations among diferent word classes in the temperature domain. he labels in the table are based on Plank et al. (2010). According to these data, it may be claimed that salts actually has several features characterising it as basic (especially if compared to auksts, which lacks a corresponding inchoative verb). First, together with karsts and silts, it has become reinterpreted as a morphologically simple adjective, though being a passive participle originally. Next, the cognate noun sals ‘frost’ seems to be the only morphologically simple noun in the temperature domain. Intriguingly, the nouns derived from salts do not refer to just a neutral cold, and in fact, it is aukstums that happens to be a neutral, “basic” temperature noun denoting cold temperature. As has been mentioned above, in Lithuanian the adjective šaltas, a cognate of salts, is a basic term for cold temperature.22 Being used with the modiier labai (‘very’), it may denote a very cold temperature. . Interestingly, Latgalian (High Latvian), which is oicially considered as one of the dialects of Latvian and as a separate language by some researchers, shows similarity to Lithuanian in this respect, having solts as a basic cold temperature term, see Andronovs (2009: 8). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  Table 5. Word classes within the system of Latvian temperature terms A N V INCH V CAUS karsts karstums karst karsēt auksts aukstums aukstēt silts siltums silt sildīt vēss vēsums atvēst vēsināt salts saltums, sals salt saldēt tveicīgs tveice tvīkt tveicēt, tvīcināt versmains versme svelmains svelme svilt svelmēt, svilināt, svelt dzestrs dzestrums dzist dzesēt, dzesināt ledains dzedrs dzedrums remdens remdenums versmot Plank (2010) makes the generalisation that if the temperature term system is expanded, this more oten occurs by adding more ambient temperature expressions. his is true for almost all non-basic Latvian terms, excluding, maybe, salts, ledains and remdens. But it seems that this extension is more natural if it is directed to the hot extreme point which may be explained by the fact that the sun is the natural source of heat and it generates more heat which is at once ambient temperature. Another natural source of temperature change is wind, but winds do not usually make one feel the diference very well. Still, wind is an entity that has an overwhelming compatibility with diferent temperature adjectives, as shown by the Latvian data. To sum up, the system of Latvian temperature adjectives can be analysed as having a core of four basic terms and many peripheral, non-basic terms, among which salts still holds some traces of its possible former basic status. Besides the already discussed distributional properties, frequency and derivational relations to some respect conform with the suggested subdivision. Most peripheral temperature terms are primarily used to refer to ambient temperature evaluation. . Semantic shits in the temperature domain It is well-known that expressions denoting temperature usually acquire some secondary, derived meanings (a good example of a detailed corpus-based analysis of semantic extensions within temperature domains in English is given in Deignan (1997: 175–202)); © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova for a systematic analysis of semantic extensions of temperature terms in Serbian see Rasulić, this volume. he Latvian adjectives under discussion likewise demonstrate various semantic shits. he question is whether the Latvian temperature terms correspond to the common assumptions about the metaphorical use of temperature terms. affection is warmth (Kövecses 1986; Lakof & Johnson 1999) and anger is heat (Lakof 1987; Lakof & Kövecses 1987; Kövecses 1995) have been suggested as universal metaphors, but there are other patterns concerning temperature terms and the concept of temperature. Among them, the metaphor intensity is heat is one of the most central (Kövecses 2005). Kövecses (2000: 41–42), discussing the metaphors for emotion concepts, argues that intensity is one of the most important aspects of emotions. Among the metaphors connected to intensity he mentions intensity of emotion is heat, increase in the intensity of emotion is heat, etc. Emotions are marked by the high degree of intensity, while lack of emotions, to the contrary, is interpreted as lack of intensity and, therefore, as lack of (high) temperature. According to Kövecses, these metaphors may be expanded to other domains, not being the exclusive privilege of emotion concepts. So, if the mapping intensity (of emotion) is heat is expanded, then high temperature (heat) may refer to any intensity, cf. karsta vēlēšanās ‘(lit.) hot wish’, karsta gatavība ‘(lit.) hot readiness’, viskarstākais darba periods ‘(lit.) the hottest work period’, etc. Hot temperature is usually re-examined as the signal of high activity (closeness to the hot extreme is interpreted as the intensity of quality) or very strong emotions, which may be either positively or negatively marked. Intensity is relected in the deinitions of very hot temperature terms in the dictionaries (some secondary meanings are given as denoting “very strong” for emotions, etc.). Cognitive linguistics argues that “[t]he correlation between the increase of the activity or the state, on the one hand, and the production of body heat, on the other, is inevitable for the kind of body we have. … his correlation forms the basis of a linguistic and conceptual metaphor: intensity is heat” (Kövecses 2005: 18). On the other hand, temperature terms concern themselves with evaluation. he interpretation of diferent phenomena in terms of cold or warm properties is just another semantic shit, connected to the scale of temperature and the point of our thermal comfort as a typically normal state; one which is pleasant. Any deviations from this point are interpreted as signalling that the corresponding states or actions make us feel a lack of comfort, which is negatively evaluated. Kövecses refers to this type of metaphor when discussing the domain of emotion: Emotions like anger, fear, romantic love, lust, and surprise are not conceptualized as inherently good or bad, although they may make use of the hot–cold (but not the warm–cold) schema. … Good things in general (like life) are metaphorically UP, LIGHT, WARM, and VALUABLE, while bad things (like death) are DOWN, DARK, COLD, and maybe also NONVALUABLE (2000: 44). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  Latvian data demonstrate diferent types of semantic extensions within the temperature domain. Metaphorical use is observed for the terms referring to all temperature values. Hot temperature adjectives in Latvian are indeed oten reinterpreted as characteristic of intensive emotions, activities, etc. hese terms are usually involved in semantic shits which describe strong, highly emotional, passionate attitudes in other people, especially love and desire. his shit is related to the use of the conceptual metaphor intensity is heat and the metonymy based on the relation between emotionality and physiology (e.g. increase of body heat etc.). he well-known physiologybased conceptual metaphors with a temperature-related target are those of anger and love (anger is heat and love is fire/increase in body heat stands for love), e.g. anger in (47): (47) Ne-esi nu tik karst-s. Ne-kliedz! neg-be.prs.2sg emph so hot-nom.sg. neg-shout.imp.2sg ‘Come on, don’t be so hot. Don’t shout!’ (K) More frequently semantic extensions involving anger correspond to such conceptual metaphors as anger is a hot fluid (in the container) and heat is fire, e.g. dusmas vārās (lit. ‘anger is boiling’), uzkurināt niknumu (lit. ‘to kindle anger’) and others, see Vingre (2009: 99–104) for more detailed information. Typically, describing people in temperature terms implies referring to some of their qualities. First, people are characterised as hot or having some “hot” features, for example, temperament. Hot emotions are not always just anger or love – such qualities can relect the passionate character of people, their readiness to act, sympathy and emotionality. But of course, love (and strong desire) is most oten described in terms of high temperature, and such conceptualisation easily correlates with the existence of the conceptual metaphor love is fire, ex. karsti mīlēt ‘to love passionately’, karsts skūpstiens ‘(lit.) hot kiss’, etc., see Kuplā (2009) for a thorough analysis and more Latvian data. he intensity of emotions is a common conceptual basis for semantic shits of adjectives denoting extremely hot temperature. For example, the adjectives versmains and svelmains can be metaphorically used referring to character, temperament or emotions, besides other kinds of intensity. his shit is based on the semantic feature ‘very strong, intense’ which is inherent for extremely hot adjectives: (48) Regīn-as māt-ei Lūcij-ai bijis Regina-gen.sg mother-dat.sg Lucija-dat.sg be.pa.pst.sg.m ļoti versmain-s rakstur-s, tāpēc very sweltering-nom.sg.m character-nom.sg so kaimiņ-i viņ-us sauk-uš-i neighbour-nom.pl (s)he-acc.pl call-pa.pst-nom.pl.m © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova par poļu skandālist-iem no piekt-ā stāv-a. about Polish brawler-dat.pl from ith-gen.sg.m loor-gen.sg ‘Regina’s mother, Lucija, was very hot-tempered, so the neighbours called them “the Quarrelling Polish people from the 4th loor”.’23 (49) Svelmain-a gan emocij-u, gan scorching-nom.sg.f conj emotion-gen.pl conj temperatūr-as ziņ-ā izvērtās temperature-gen.sg aspect-loc.sg turn.pst.3 rallij-a Talsi 2005 otr-ā un rally-gen.sg Talsi 2005 second-nom.sg.f and noslēdz-oš-ā dien-a. conclude-pa.prs-def.nom.sg.f day-nom.sg ‘he second and inal day of the rally Talsi 2005 turned out to be a very hot one, both physically and emotionally.’ (K) Inanimate entities are also oten described using temperature terms metaphorically. In the following example, a cross-linguistically common semantic shit is found: discussions, arguments, debates are oten characterised as hot (metonymically), as they are intense and the people taking part in them tend to be very emotionally involved: (50) Šis mīt-s mūsu redakcij-ā this.nom.sg.m myth-nom.sg our editorial.staf-loc.sg izraisīj-a karst-us strīd-us. arouse.pst-3 hot-acc.pl.m debate-acc.pl ‘his myth aroused hot debates among our editorial staf ’. (K) Intensity and related meanings are also covered by hot temperature terms in collocations denoting quite concrete situations or objects, e.g. when a large number of calls are coming in to, or being made from a single telephone, cf. English hot line: (51) Man-ā kabinet-ā telefon-s ir karst-s. my-loc.sg.m oice-loc.sg telephone-nom.sg be.prs.3 hot-nom.sg.m ‘he phone in my oice is hot.’ (K) Finally, there are some marginal semantic extensions based on such features of hot objects as being just prepared, that is, being fresh and/or new, e.g. karstākās ziņas ‘the hottest news’, karstais piedāvājums ‘(lit.) the hot ofer’, uz karstām pēdām ‘(lit.) ater hot traces’ (cf. English to be hot on the trail, among others). Such ixed expressions as . 〈http://www.apollo.lv/portal/sieviete/articles/104362〉 (May 2012). © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  karstais punkts ‘hot spot’ are attested in Latvian as well and seem to provide evidence for the extension based on the idea ‘hot is dangerous’. he semantic shits within the subdomain of warm temperature terms usually concern something positively regarded, e.g. good attitude, afection. Kövecses provides the following universal cognitive explanation of this re-interpretation: …we metaphorically view afection as warmth… because of the correlation in our childhood experiences between the loving embrace of our parents and the comforting bodily warmth that accompanies it. his gives us the “conceptual metaphor” afection is warmth. … Because this is a universal bodily experience, the metaphor corresponding to it may well be universal. (2005: 2–3) In other words, warm temperature (as the metaphor of afection) in its secondary sense is positively evaluated, as warmth is required for thermal comfort. Moreover, being warm implies being active, though not very intensively, which is another feature apt to appreciation. he dictionary of modern standard Latvian (LLVV) gives the following diferent meanings for silts: “iejūtigs, atsaucīgs, arī laipns, sirsnīgs”, that is ‘sensitive, responsive, friendly’, cf. silta uzņemšana ‘warm welcome’, silta laipnība ‘(lit.) warm amiability’, etc. hese sorts of metaphors within the domain of warming temperature may be observed in the sphere of friendship and love relationships. According to Kövecses, in English it used to be perfectly normal to speak about friendship in terms of hot afection, which are now commonly used for more intimate feelings. Nowadays, the conceptualisation of positive attitude and afection has changed in the following way: “the ire metaphor characterises passions, like romantic love, while afection today is more commonly thought of in terms of warmth than (the heat of) ire” (Kövecses 2010: 222–223). he diferentiation between “hot” passions and “warm” afection is observed in the Latvian data as well. Good attitude, interpreted as warmth, is expressed through mimics, gestures; the use of metonymy allows us to characterise them with the help of temperature adjectives (e.g. siltais smaids ‘warm smile’). Greetings and wishes happen to be the most natural way of expressing a positive attitude, so they may be characterised as warm entities: (52) Sūt-u Jums sav-us silt-āk-os send.prs-1sg you.dat poss.refl-acc.pl.m warm-comp-def.acc.pl.m apsveikum-us un lab-a vēlējum-us. greeting-acc.pl and good-gen.sg wish-acc.pl ‘I send you my warmest greetings and best wishes.’ (K) cold temperature is, in its turn, the source for the semantic shit low degree of temperature stands for non-emotionality/rationality/passivity/composure. his follows from © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova the expectation that where non-emotional, rational behaviour is required, it is considered a positive quality, but if some emotional interest or sympathy is expected, then it is regarded as a rather negative quality. Semantic shits emphasise particular semantic components of temperature terms. For instance, the adjective vēss, referring to temperature, may be either positively or negatively evaluated, depending on the context (how it relates to the previous state). Semantic extensions demonstrate that in the irst instance it is a cold temperature term which is “unmarked”, exactly as we mark some existence of warmth in contrast to its absence: irst, being cool stands for lack of emotionality (opposed to hot), second, it stands for lack of afection (opposed to warm): (53) Šād-a stratēģij-a tev such-nom.sg.f strategy-nom.sg thou.dat palīdzē-s saglabā-t vēs-u prāt-u… help-fut (3) keep-inf cool-acc.sg.f mind-acc.sg ‘Such a strategy will help you to keep your cool.’ (K) (54) ASV ar mums vismaz aktīv-i uzturēj-a kontakt-us, USA with we.dat at.least active-adv keep.up.pst-3 contact-acc.pl bet Francij-as diplomātij-a bij-a vēs-a… but France-gen.sg diplomacy-nom.sg be.pst-3 cool-nom.sg.f ‘At least the US maintained contact with us, the diplomacy of France was indiferent.’ (K) he use of adjectives which primarily refer to extremely cold temperature is attested in some metaphorical patterns typical for cold temperature terms. hese adjectives, used metaphorically, preserve two semantic components of their primary meaning: (1) ‘very strong’, (2) ‘negatively evaluated’ (originally compared to thermal comfort). Some ixed collocations, such as salti meli ‘blatant lie’ and ledains naids ‘savage, furious hatred’, illustrate this kind of semantic shit, cf. a conceptual metaphor unfriendly is icy (Kövecses 2010: 151, 153). As cold temperature is re-interpreted as the sign of lack of afection, adjectives denoting extremely cold temperature oten refer to feelings and emotions in the domain of social contacts and interpersonal relations e.g. salta nežēlība ‘(lit.) frosty cruelty’, ledains riebums ‘(lit.) icy aversion’, ledaina vienaldzība ‘(lit.) icy indiference’, ledaina ironija ‘(lit.) icy irony’, etc.: (55) Salt-as ir attiecīb-as ar Moldov-u. frosty-nom.pl.f be.prs.3 relation-nom.pl with Moldova-acc.sg ‘Relations with Moldova are very cold.’ (K) As cold is connected to both lack of emotionality and lack of afection, it is not surprising that the data demonstrate a semantic shit with cold > frigid, presenting itself as the opposite of being hot as the sign of a passionate nature: © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  (56) Dzīvo-t ar sieviet-i, kas ir aukst-a kā live-inf with woman-acc.sg who.nom be.prs.3 cold-nom.sg.f as ziv-s un bez tam ienīst un ish-nom.sg and without that.dat.sg.m hate.prs (3) and kontrolē katr-u sol-i. control.prs (3) every-acc.sg.m step-acc.sg ‘To live with a woman who is as cold as a ish and is also full of hate and controls every step’. (K) As intensity is associated with emotionality, which implies impulsiveness and a high degree of irrationality, the lack of intensity, in its turn, correlates with rationality. In Latvian, there are two adjectives derived from karsts and auksts respectively, namely karstasinīgs and aukstasinīgs (cf. asin(i)s ‘blood’), which are based on the metaphor of hot and cold blood as a manifestation of being a hot-tempered or cool, restrained person. he opposition of these qualities is overtly expressed in the roots of these words, cf. English hot-tempered in the absence of cool-tempered, though there are such lexemes as hot-headed and cool-headed (but not cold-headed). To compare, Russian has xladnokrovnyj ‘cold-blooded’, but in its metaphorical usage it is not opposed to other adjectives derived from this pattern. In Latvian there is also the lexeme karstgalvīgs (lit. ‘hot-headed’) with the meaning similar to its English counterpart. he metaphorical usage of remdens shows that this adjective, though referring to neutral temperatures, is conceptualised as cold rather than warm: it is found in contexts where this feature is strongly negatively evaluated. In other words, the lack of energy (or temperature, strictly speaking) seems to be a crucial component in the meaning of this lexeme. Used metaphorically and referring to people, remdens stands for passivity, lack of sympathy, that is lack of “marked”, strong, intensive, “hot” emotions. his unmarkedness is considered as an undesirable quality, contrasting being remdens to being hot, live, active, not indiferent: (57) Lai tu kas bū-tu, bet compl you.nom.sg who.nom be-subj but ne-esi remden-s. neg-be.imp.2sg lukewarm-nom.sg.m ‘Whoever you are, don’t be lukewarm.’ (K) his adjective is oten mentioned in its metaphorical sense (attributed to humans) in the citation from the Revelation of St. John the Divine, where the neutral position of this quality is sometimes conirmed in utterances, here standing in the middle position between cold and hot extremes: © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova (58) Kaut jel tu bū-tu aukst-s though emph thou.nom be-subj cold-nom.sg.m vai karst-s Tā kā tu esi or hot-nom.sg.m so how thou be.prs.2sg remden-s, ne aukst-s, ne lukewarm-nom.sg.m not cold- nom.sg.m not karst-s, Es tevi izspļau-š-u hot-nom.sg.m I.nom thou.acc spew.out-fut-1sg no Sav-as mut-es from poss.refl-gen.sg.f mouth-gen.sg ‘…that thou art neither cold nor hot: I would thou wert cold or hot. So then because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spew thee out of my mouth.’ (K) he attested collocations with remdens in metaphorical use include remdenas jūtas ‘(lit.) lukewarm feelings’, remdena dzīve ‘(lit.) lukewarm life’, remdens lēmums ‘(lit.) lukewarm decision’, remdena vienaldzība ‘(lit.) lukewarm indiference’. he use of this lexeme implies passivity and a low degree of emotionality, that is, the nature of such semantic extensions resembles those typical of cold temperature adjectives rather than warm ones. Finally, the use of temperature terms with reference to other perceptual modalities is worth mentioning. Synaesthesic concepts are oten attested in the examples of Latvian temperature adjectives. Cross-linguistic data shows that tactile perception (including temperature perception) may spread to other sensory domains (cf. the generalisation about the ways of transfer among sensory modalities made in Williams (1976: 463f.) for English). In Latvian, for example, colours (visual perception) are quite regularly described as warm (silti toņi) or cool (vēsi toņi): (59) Piemēram, bērn-iem pieņemam-āk-i for.example child-dat.pl appropriate-comp-nom.pl.m bū-s silt-ie toņ-i — be-fut (3) warm-def.nom.pl.m shade-nom.pl zil-s, dzelten-s, sarkan-s, blue-nom.sg.m yellow-nom.sg.m red-nom.sg.m pieauguš-ajiem — vēs-ie, bet adult-dat.pl cool-def.nom.pl.m but vec-āk-iem cilvēk-iem — pasteļtoņ-i. old-comp-dat.pl.m man-dat.pl pastel.shade-nom.pl ‘For example, warm colours — blue, yellow, red — will be more acceptable for children, cool colours for adults, but pastel shades for aged people.’ (K) © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  Other kinds of visual perception, such as light, can also be referred to by temperature terms: (60) …sīk-as, meln-as skudr-as uz tiny-nom.pl.f black-nom.pl.f ant-nom.pl on dzelten-ām mēnessrip-ām, kas yellow-dat.pl.f lunar.disc-dat.pl what.nom atstaro silt-u, sveķain-u gaism-u. relect.prs (3) warm-acc.sg.f resinous-acc.sg.f light-acc.sg ‘…tiny, black ants upon yellow lunar discs that relect a warm, resinous light.’ (K) Sounds can be described as hot, warm or cold, either interpreted in a corresponding way due to the characteristics of timbre, for example, the distinctive sound of vinyl disks (61), or simultaneously evaluated via metonymy as expressing some attitude towards the addressee (62): (61) Vai tie ir lab-āk-i q that.nom.pl.m be.prs.3 good-comp-nom.pl.m par vinil-a plaš-u silt-o skanējum-u? about vinyl-gen.sg disc-gen.pl warm-def.acc.sg.m sound-acc.sg ‘Are they better than the warm sound of vinyl discs?’ (K) (62) …šūpuļdziesm-ām raksturīg-as lullaby-dat.pl characteristic-nom.pl.f silt-ās intonācij-as warm-def.nom.pl.f intonation-nom.pl ‘warm intonations, characteristic of lullabies’ (K) he combinations of characteristics, referring to touch and smell perception, are attested in the corpus as well. Metonymies make it possible to describe synaesthesia with the help of temperature adjectives attributed to diferent perceptual subdomains: (63) Pirms paš-ām ārdurv-īm, kur aukst-i before p.refl-dat.pl.f outer.door-dat.pl where cold-adv smaržo pēc mikl-as zem-es vai smell.prs(3) ater moist-gen.sg.f ground-gen.sg or jēl-as gaļ-as… raw-gen.sg.f meat-gen.sg ‘In front of the very outer door, where it smells cold like moist ground or raw meat’. (K) © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova (64) Ja priecājies par pavasar-i, if be.happy.prs.2sg about spring-acc.sg mīl-i… nakt-s dzestr-o aromāt-u… love.prs-2sg night-gen.sg chilly-def.acc.sg.m fragrance-acc.sg ‘If you are happy about spring, love the chilly fragrance of the night’ (K) (65) Tirdzeniek-u būd-as, silt-i smaržo-dam-as, trademan-gen.pl booth-nom.pl warm-adv smell-pc.sim-nom.pl.f stāvēj-a kā milzīg-s pelikān-u bar-s. stand.pst-3 as huge-nom.sg.m pelican-gen.pl lock-nom.sg ‘he tradesmen’s booths, giving of warm smells, stood like a huge lock of pelicans’. (K) Some synaesthetic concepts combine touch and taste perception, though such combinations are not common: (66) Salt-ais saldum-s tecēj-a frosty-def.nom.sg.m sweetness-nom.sg low.pst-3 pār rugāj-iem noaug-uš-o zod-u. over stubble-dat.pl overgrow-pa.pst-def.acc.sg.m chin-acc.sg ‘Icy sweetness was running over a bristly chin’ (K) In brief, various types of semantic extensions of temperature adjectives are commonly attested in the Latvian data. Latvian seems to use most of the relevant semantic shits previously discussed in the literature, with diferent sets of semantic extensions characterising warm, cold and hot temperatures. Usage of temperature terms in their non-primary sense can be explained by possible extensions of their crucial semantic components: for example, the component ‘intensity’ is important for extreme temperatures and is therefore easily exploited in metaphors. It seems that the basic temperature terms are more actively used in their non-direct sense, while the non-basic terms usually relect their loose synonymy relations with central terms in such usage, which corroborates the indings made in Deignan (1997: 185f.).24 . “Each of the less central items is related by loose synonymy to one of the four central items in the source domain, and this relationship is echoed in the target domain. However, the mappings of these non-central temperature items are partial; only a few of the large number of metaphorical senses which could potentially be created are used conventionally in the corpus.” (Deignan 1997: 187) © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  . Conclusions his paper aims to present a usage-based analysis of Latvian temperature adjectives. As Latvian data are oten neglected in typological research, this study may be considered as covering some gaps in typologically-oriented descriptions of the lexicon of this language. Latvian adjectives can express diferent nuances in expression of temperature and cover this domain rather symmetrically: Latvian is sensitive to the diference between warm and hot within warming temperatures and to the diference between cool and cold within cooling temperatures, respectively, which is relected in the lexicon and manifests itself in the existence of four basic terms (silts, karsts, auksts, vēss). Several non-basic lexemes of cooling and warming temperature are more restricted in their use, when compared to the central temperature terms. In addition, a separate term, remdens, is singled out for neutral temperature value. It is argued that Latvian has developed a four-termed system of basic temperature adjectives, illustrating a pattern with hot, warm, cool and cold as its core. Various facts (salience, frequency, semantic and syntactic distribution, etc.) give evidence in favour of treating vēss ‘cool’ as a basic term within the conceptual domain of temperature. Diachronically, semantic changes are observed within the system of temperature adjectives: the lexeme salts ‘frosty’ has narrowed its distribution, now referring mostly to very cold entities, and has been replaced by auksts as a basic cold term: the systems of Lithuanian and High Latvian temperature terms conirm the formerly basic status of salts within the cooling temperature subdomain. Another interesting pattern of a diachronic change towards semantic specialisation and narrowing of meaning is illustrated by the lexeme svelmains that originally referred to both extreme temperature sensation poles (hot and cold), relecting the idea of burning and similar perception. Nowadays this adjective is used in a more restricted way, i.e. in contexts referring to very high temperature. Finally, secondary, non-literal usage of Latvian temperature adjectives shows that paradigmatic relations observed for their literal meanings are relected in their semantic extensions, as peripheral terms are involved in the metaphorical models according to their basic semantic value. In other words, adjectives of extremely cold temperature are used non-literally in contexts which emphasise their core semantic components, that is, the corresponding temperature value and such features as intensity (very cold), the distance from the point of thermal comfort, etc. References JLAV = Jaunā latviešu-angļu vārdnīca. he New Latvian-English Dictionary. Sast. Andrejs Veisbergs. Rīga: Zvaigzne ABC. 2005. © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved  Natalia Perkova KLV = Krievu-latviešu vārdnīca: Ap 40 000 vārdu (Russian-Latvian Dictionary)/sast. A. Darbiņa, A. Gūtmanis, O. Loginova, L. Žigure, L. Žukovs. Rīga: Avots. 1997. LKV = Latviešu-krievu vārdnīca (Latvian-Russian dictionary). 2 sējumos. Ap 53000 vārdu./Sast. autoru kolekt. Rīga. 1979–1981. LVBV = Latviešu valodas biežuma vārdnīca (Latvian frequency dictionary). T. Jakubaite, D.Guļevska, V. Ozola, A. Rubīna, N. Sika. Apvienotais (1–3) sēj. 1973. LLV = Latvių-lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Latviešu-lietuviešu vārdnīca (Latvian-Lithuanian dictionary) Sast. Alvydas Butkus. Kaunas: Aesti. 2003. LLVV = Latviešu literārās valodas vārdnīca (he dictionary of Standard Latvian). 8 sējumos./ Atb. red. R. Grabis. Rīga, Zinātne. 1972–1996. LVV = Latviešu valodas vārdnīca (he dictionary of Latvian). 1987. Rīga: Avots. K = Mūsdienu latviešu valodas tekstu korpuss (he Corpus of Modern Latvian), 〈http://www. korpuss.lv/〉 (May 2012). Andronovs, Aleksejs. 2009. Latgaliešu literārā valoda leksikostatistikas gaismā (he Latgalian literary language in the light of lexicostatistics). Via Latgalica: Latgalistikys kongresu materiali, I: 6–16. Rēzekne: Rēzeknis Augstškola, 2009. Berg-Olsen, Sturla. 2005. he Latvian Dative and Genitive: A Cognitive Grammar Account [Acta Humaniora 242]. Oslo: University of Oslo. Bušs, Ojārs & Baldunčiks, Juris. 1991. 1000. vārdu: Latviešu valodas leksikas minimums ar tulkojumu krievu un angļu valodā (1000 words: Latvian lexical minimum with translation into Russian and English). Rīga: Zinātne. Ceplītis, Laimdots, Rozenbergs, Jānis & Valdmanis, Jānis. 1989. Latviešu valodas sintakse (he syntax of Latvian). Rīga: Zvaigzne. Deignan, Alice. 1997. A Corpus-Based Study of Some Linguistic Features of Metaphor. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Birmingham. Karulis, Konstantīns. 1992. Latviešu etimoloģijas vārdnīca: divos sējumos (he etymological dictionary of Latvian in 2 Volumes). Rīga: Avots. Koptjevskaja-Tamm, Maria. 2007. Guidelines for collecting linguistic expressions for temperature concepts. Version 1. 〈http://temperature.ling.su.se/images/7/7c/Guidelines.pdf〉 Koptjevskaja-Tamm, Maria. 2011. “It’s boiling hot!” On the structure of the linguistic temperature domain across languages. In Rahmen des Sprechens. Beiträge zur Valenztheorie, Varietätenlinguistik, Kognitiven und Historischen Semantik, Sarah Dessì Schmid, Ulrich Detges, Paul Gévaudan, Wiltrud Mihatsch & Richard Waltereit (eds), 393–410. Tübingen: Narr. Koptjevskaja-Tamm, Maria & Rakhilina, Ekaterina. 2006. “Some like it hot”: On semantics of temperature adjectives in Russian and Swedish. STUF (Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung) 59(2): 253–269. Special issue he Lexicon: Typological and Contrastive Perspectives, Giannoula Giannoulopoulou & Torsten Leuschner (eds). Kövecses, Zoltán. 1986. Metaphors of Anger, Pride, and Love: A Lexical Approach to the Structure of Concepts [Pragmatics & Beyond VII: 8]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. DOI: 10.1075/pb.vii.8 Kövecses, Zoltán. 1995. Anger: Its language, conceptualization, and physiology in the light of cross-cultural evidence. In Language and the Cognitive Construal of the World, John R. Taylor & Robert E. MacLaury (eds), 181–196. Berlin: Mouton de Guyter. Kövecses, Zoltán. 2000. Metaphor and Emotion: Language, Culture, and Body in Human Feeling. Cambridge: CUP. Kövecses, Zoltán. 2005. Metaphor in Culture: Universality and Variation. Cambridge: CUP. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511614408 © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved Adjectives of temperature in Latvian  Kövecses, Zoltán. 2010. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, 2nd edn. Oxford: OUP. Krylova, Tatiana. 2009. Prilagatel’nye so značenijem vysokoj i nizkoj temperatury i naivnojazykovaja ocenka temperatury (he adjectives with meanings of high and low temperature and linguistic estimation of temperature). In Computational Linguistics and Intellectual Technologies. Papers from the Annual International Conference “Dialogue 2009”, Issue 8(15): 243–248. Moscow: RSUH. Kryvenko, Anna. 2010. Similarity and opposition in the Ukrainian temperature domain: anthropocentric and environment-centred approaches. Paper presented at the workshop Temperature in Language and Cognition, Stockholm, 19–20 March. Kuplā, Ieva. 2009. Mīlestības metaforas latviešu valodā (Love metaphors in Latvian). Res Humanitariae VI: 133–146. Klaipėda. Kuzina, Viktorija. 1998. 3000 latviešu sarunvalodas biežāk lietotie vārdi ar tulkojumu krievu, vācu un angļu valodā (3000 most frequent words used in Latvian colloquial speech. With translation into Russian, German and English). Rīga: Valsts valodas centrs. Lakof, George. 1987. Women, Fire, and Dangerous hings: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226471013.001.0001 Lakof, George & Johnson, Mark. 1999. Philosophy in the Flesh. New York NY: Basic Books. Lakof, George & Kövecses, Zoltán. 1987. he cognitive model of anger inherent in American English. In Cultural Models in Language and hought, Dorothy Holland & Naomi Quinn (eds), 195–221. Cambridge: CUP. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511607660.009 Lokmane, Ilze. 2002. Datīvs latviešu valodas sintaksiskajā sistēmā (Dative in the syntactic system of Latvian). Linguistica Lettica 10: 151–161. Rīga. Mathiassen, Terje. 1997. A Short Grammar of Latvian. Bloomington IN: Slavica. Ozols, Jānis (ed.). 1958. Daži latviešu leksikas materiāli (Diferent materials on Latvian lexicon). Rīga. Plank, Frans. 2003. Temperature talk: he basics. Paper Presented at the Workshop on Lexical Typology at the ALT Conference in Cagliari, September. Plank, Frans. 2010. Temperature talk: he basics revisited. Paper presented at the workshop Temperature in language and cognition, Stockholm, 19–20 March. Plank, Frans, Nemati, Fatemeh & Spagnol, Michael. Temperature terms relative-to-previous state. Paper presented at the workshop Temperature in Language and Cognition, Stockholm, 19–20 March. Skudra, Egīls. 2012. Latviska tematiskā vārdnīca (A thematic dictionary of Latvian). 〈www.eraksti.lv/fetchbook.php?urlkey=5990650〉 (January 2013). Sutrop, Urmas. 1998. Basic temperature terms and subjective temperature scale. Lexicology 4: 60–104. Sutrop, Urmas. 1999. Temperature terms in the Baltic area. In Estonian: Typological Studies III [Publications of the Department of Estonian of the University of Tartu 11], Mati Erelt (ed.) 185–203. Tartu: University of Tartu. Veidemane, Ruta. 1970. Latviešu valodas leksiskā sinonimija (Lexical synonymy in Latvian). Rīga: Zinātne. Vingre, Inta. 2009. Dusmu emociju metaforikas kontrastīvais aspekts latviešu un vācu valodā. Promocijas darbs iloloģijas doktora grāda iegušanai (Anger metaphors in Latvian and German: A contrastive analysis). Ph.D. dissertation, Daugavpils Universitāte. Williams, Joseph M. 1976. Synaesthetic adjectives: A possible law of semantic change. Language 52(2): 461–478. DOI: 10.2307/412571 © 2015. John Benjamins Publishing Company All rights reserved