HINDU TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION

TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN Consulting Astrologer and Vastu Shastra Expert The construction of temple is a complex and creative process with a blend of mathematics, logic, geography, geology, science, ecology, art, sculpting, music, light & sound, social sciences and astrology. One of the most important surviving records about the construction of the temple is in the palm leaf manuscript which explains the details of the building operation of 13th century Surya Temple at Konark, Orissa. This record shows the list of workmen, their salaries, and rules of conduct, and provides an account over several years of various building operations. The temple construction can be broadly divided into three phases; Logistics, Pre construction and Construction. Aspects in Temple Construction There are many aspects involved in constructing a temple. Acarya, director for the temple construction and shilpi (sculptor) play major role in the construction of a temple. The temple's acarya is expected to know silpa sastra although not in as much detail as a shilpi. Temple construction begins with search of a proper site. Soil and location are examined by acarya and shilpi. This is called Bhupariksha. This is followed by nagara/grama nirmana. Here, the layout of town, its size, breadth of different levels of streets, locations and sizes of facilities like water tanks are determined based on the size of town. There are different names for different sizes of towns, like grama, kheta, kharvata, durga, nagara. Then the location of temple (brahma sthana) in the town is decided. Temple is usually in the center of village so that every villager has access to it. The entire arrangement is called grama vinyasa. Then the size of temple is determined. For this, size of the image of main deity is to be known, since the size of a temple is always a fixed multiple of the size of image of main deity. Then wood/metal/stone is selected for the image. The icon has three parts, main icon (vigraha), pedestal (peetha) and platform (adhisthana or upa peetha). The tests to determine quality of stone are prescribed by the Agamas. There are three kinds of stone, male female and neuter. When hit with an iron rod if the stone produces good sound and spark, it is male and should be used for the main icon. If it produces sound but not spark it is female and should be used for pedestal. If it produces neither, it is neuter and should be used for platform. There are various standards for the relative proportions of image, gopura, prakara etc. and also the relative proportions of various parts of the vigraha. The units for measuring vigraha are tala, angula and yava. Tala is a multiple of angula and angula is a multiple of yava. More than the specific size of each unit, the multiplicity and relative sizes are important. The proportions of Head-Trunk-Arms-Legs of images are specified. The finer specifications like nose, nail, ears and their shapes are also mentioned. Generally the standard is to use dasatala (ten talas) for the height of image of male deity, navatala (nine talas) for His consort and astatala (eight talas) for bhakta. Duties of temple administration are also specified in the Agamas - organizing festivals, encourage art forms and conduct shows to encourage artists, create accommodation for pilgrims from other towns, run hospitals, regularly conducting religious discourses etc. Town planning, engineering, architecture, fine arts, civics, and many other subjects are dealt in the agamas, which relate to the various interests of people and involve them at different capacities and also direct their work towards a higher goal. Steps in Temple Construction The procedure for building a temple is extensively discussed, and it could be expressed in short as "Karshanadi Pratisthantam", meaning beginning with "Karshana" and ending with "Pratistha". The details of steps involved vary from one Agama to another, but broadly these are the steps in temple construction: Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land should be fertile and soil suitable. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the location is fit for town/temple construction. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the temple is constructed. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again involves creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are placed. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place of main deity. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness. Before the temple is opened for daily worship, there are some preparatory rituals to be done, like: Anujna: the priest takes permission from devotees and lord Ganesha to begin rituals Mrit samgrahana: Collecting mud Ankurarpana: Sowing seeds in pots of mud collected and waiting till they germinate Rakshabandhana: The priest binds a holy thread on his hand to take up the assignment. Punyahavacana: Purifying ritual for the place and invoking good omens Grama santi: Worship for the good of village and to remove subtle undesired elements Pravesa bali: Propitiation of various gods at different places in the temple, rakshoghna puja (to destroy asuric elements) and of specific gods like Kshetra palaka (devata ruling the town) Vastu Santi: Pacifying puja for vastu (this happens twice and this is the second time) Yagasala: Building the stage for homas, along with vedika. Kalasasthapana: Installing kalasam Samskara: Purifying the yaga sala Kalasa puja, yagarambha: Woshipping the kalasa as god and propitiating deities through fire Nayanonmeelana, Pratimadhivasa: Opening eyes of the god-image, installing it and giving it life. Then specific worship is done to deity, as prescribed. For instance in the case of Siva, this is followed by astabandhana and kumbhabhisheka. Temple Design From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs carved into the pillars, the traditional temple takes its first form on the master sthapati's drawing board. The architect initially determines the fundamental unit of measurement using a formula called ayadhi. This formula, which comes from Jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the nakshatra of the village in which the temple is being erected matching the first syllable of the name of the village with the seed sounds mystically associated with each nakshatra and the nakshatra of the main Deity of the temple. This measurement, called danda, is the dimension of the inside of the sanctum and the distance between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is defined in multiples and fractions of this basic unit. The Shastras are strict about the use of metals, such as iron in the temple structure because iron is mystically the crudest, most impure of metals. The presence of iron, sthapatis explain, could attract lower, impure forces. Only gold, silver, and copper are used in the structure, so that only the most sublime forces are invoked during the pujas. At especially significant stages in the temple construction (such as ground-breaking and placement of the sanctum door frame), pieces of gold, silver and copper, as well as precious gems, are ceremoniously embedded in small interstices between the stones, adding to the temple's inner-world magnetism. These elements are said to glow in the inner worlds and, like holy ash, are prominently visible to the Gods and Devas. The ground plan is described as a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. It is based on a strict grid made up of squares and equilateral triangles which are imbued with deep religious significance. To the priest-architect the square was an absolute and mystical form. The grid, usually of 64 or 81 squares, is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, with each square belonging to a deity. The position of the squares is in accordance with the importance attached to each of the deities, with the square in the center representing the temple deity; the outer squares cover the gods of lower rank. Agamas say that the temple architecture is similar to a man sitting - and the idol in garbagriha is exactly the heart-plexus, gopuram as the crown etc. The construction of the temple follows in three dimensional form exactly the pattern laid out by the mandala. The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance of the temple can best be understood by seeing it from above which was of course impossible for humans until quite recently. Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so should have its entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west axis and through a series of increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the architecture. A typical temple consists of the following major elements an entrance, often with a porch one or more attached or detached mandapas or halls the inner sanctum called the garbagriha, literally 'womb chamber' the tower build directly above the garbagriha. Significance of the number eight in temple design Vastu Shastra describes the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally conceived in human proportions based on the mystical number eight. According to Dr. V. Ganapati Sthapati, Senior Architect at the Vastu Government College of Architecture, the vibration of the space-consciousness, which is called time, is the creative element, since it is this vibratory force that causes the energetic space to turn into spatial forms. Therefore, time is said to be the primordial element for the creation of the entire universe and all its material forms. When these vibrations occur rhythmically, the resultant product will be an orderly spatial form. This rhythm of the time unit is traditionally called talam or layam. Since every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of space measure, vastu science derives that time is equal to space. This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified as eight and multiples of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of measure in the vastu silpa tradition. This theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam (eight beats) of classical Indian music and dance. Applying this in the creation of a human form, it is found that a human form is also composed of rhythmic spatial units. According to the Vastu Shastras, at the subtle level the human form is a structure of eight spatial units devoid of the minor parts like the hair, neck, kneecap and feet, each of which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body and, when added on to the body's eight units, increases the height of the total form to nine units. Traditionally these nine units are applied in making sculptures of Gods. Since the subtle space within our body is part of universal space, it is logical to say that the talam of our inner space should be the same as that of the universe. But in reality, it is very rare to find this consonance between an individual's and the universal rhythm. When this consonance occurs, the person is in harmony with the Universal Being and enjoys spiritual strength, peace and bliss. Therefore, when designing a building according to vastu, the architect aims at creating a space that will elevate the vibration of the individual to resonate with the vibration of the built space, which in turn is in tune with universal space. Vastu architecture transmutes the individual rhythm of the indweller to the rhythm of the Universal Being. The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala The goal of a temple's design is to bring about the descent or manifestation of the unmanifest and unseen. The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a square. The square is considered to be a fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and results from it. Expanding energy shapes the circle from the center; it is established in the shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to life in its growth and movement. The square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding life, life's form and the perfection beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can be derived: the triangle, hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastu-purusha-mandala-vastu, the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala. The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building. In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is first drafted on planning sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite. The rites and execution of the vastu-purusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar to how the physical foundation supports the weight of the building.Based on astrological calculations the border of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into thirty-two smaller squares called nakshatras. The number thirty-two geometrically results from a repeated division of the border of the single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in space: north, east, south, west, and their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares symbolizes the recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon. Each of the nakshatras is ruled over by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala. Outside the mandala lie the four directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and also represent the ecliptic of the sun-east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern hemispheres. The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe. Surrounding Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who assist in the affairs of universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha or pure space. The vastu-purusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that constitute the order of the universe and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the building site, along with astrological calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple construction be determined. The ground breaking ceremony From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The plotting graphs of the temple are divided into two main sections-the ground plan and the vertical alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are most prominent. The subdivisions of the ground plan include the brahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and the mandapam (balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan consists of drawings for the gopuram, entrance ways, the vimana, the structure above the main shrine, and the prakara, walls. The brahmasthana is the principal location in a temple and is where the seat of the presiding Diety will be placed. At the base of the foundation of the brahmasthana, located at the station of Brahma on the vastu-purusha-mandala, a ritual called the garbhadhana is performed called. The ritual invites the soul of the temple to enter within the buildings confines. During this ritual, a golden box is placed in the earth as part of the ground-breaking ceremony. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units exactly resembling the vastu-purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled with dirt. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras, the units of Brahma, and the twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the presence of the corresponding Devata. The sanskrit mantras chanted by the priest are as important as the actual mandala. The mantra infuses the mandala with spiritual powers. The mantras are the subtle form of the mandala and therefore the two are inseparable. In the unit of Brahma, Ananta, a golden serpent with many raised hoods is placed. It is then surrounded with nine precious jewels or navaratna. Ananta represents the energy of God in which the universe rests in space. The nine jewels invoke the astrological influence of the nine planets and are composed of a diamond, emerald, ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade. A gold lid with the seven continents of the earth engraved on it is placed on top of the box following which the agni-hotra, or sanctification ceremony. During the agni-hotra the priest offers clarified butter, the symbol of religious principles, into the fire, which represents the mouth of the Cosmic Being. Along with the offering of clarified butter five types of grains-rice, wheat, barley, rye and dhal, are also offered with the chanting of mantras. http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Temple_Construction by samiksha — The process of Temple Construction 2.1.1 Logistics Logistics mainly deals with team selection, budgeting, material sourcing and finding effective ways of transportation. 2.1.1.1 Team selection The first and foremost step of a temple construction is to select the team which comprises of people from various guilds. The Sthapati who is the chief architect was selected by Karta himself. The Sthapati should have complete knowledge of the Silpa Shastras, the traditional sciences, mathematics and Puranas, paintings, music and yoga. He should be fit to direct the construction to all the other members engaged in the construction work. As a person he should be kind, joyous, and free from hatred and jealousy, truthful, with control over the senses, focused in mind, and also free from greed, carelessness and disease. Rest of the team comprising of the stone craftsmen, black smiths and other workmen for leveling and cleaning are selected by the Sthapati. Sutragrahani, the Engineer who is usually the son or disciple of the Sthapati. His role is to perform all the work assigned by the Sthapati and also he should have knowledge of layout and proportionate measurements (vertical and horizontal) by chord and rod. There are two types of stone craftsmen who work for the temple, one who is a carver and the other is the modeler. The carvers are called Takshaka. One set of Takshaka work at a quarry site. They cut the stones and send it for carving to the other set of Takshaka. The modelers are called Bardhakin, the mason or carpenter who fits and places together what the Takshaka has carved and by adding to the finished work. Apart from stone craftsmen there are people like black smiths who does iron casting, other workmen who does leveling and cleaning of ground, erecting the scaffolding, transporting the stones, managing camp and accounts. All these members are selected by Sthapati and minister together.Fig-11 is illustrative of the phases of temple construction and the role of the craftsmen. 2.1.1.2 Budgeting The budget is estimated by the Sthapati according to the scale of the temple. Generally it is the Karta or the king who bore all the expenses to acquire religious merit. Sometimes if the construction work require huge amount of money then a message is spread everywhere for donations. Traders usually donate for such work. 2.1.1.3 Material sourcing and quarrying Material sourcing is done by Sthapati. Usually the Sthapati has knowledge about all the nearby quarries from which stones can be easily transported to the construction site. Stone was considered as the most sacred building material. As per the Shastras, the temple made in brick is hundred times more worthy than wood and the temple constructed in stone is ten thousand times more worthy than in brick. Stone selected for the construction should be of even color, hard and perfect, pleasing to touch. The quality and type of stone is very important according the place where they are applied in the construction. Hard and even stones are used for the plinth, columns, beams and slabs. Supple stones are used for the construction of sculptures, idols, carvings etc. The preferred stones for the construction were then quarried. These quarries were mostly located in the nearby areas only in some cases the specific stones were transported from far of distances. Stones were quarried using wooden wedges that are driven into the rocks and then wetted to cause expansion. This in turn causes the rocks to crack and are thus cut by subsequent application of pressure and dressed. Silpa Shastras classify stones according to six varieties. (Vastusutra Upanishad:The essence of form in sacred art, 2000) Hiranyarekhika: Stone with golden curve line. It is of bad quality not to be used for image making or temple construction. Samavarna: When the entire stone is of one colour.It is considered to be of best quality Tamra: Very hard stone of copper red color should not be considered. When the stone is not severed from the rock it can only be used on walls for carving mythological scenes but not for main sculptures Dhatuputita: When the stone has metal like sores of smoky color it is worst for image making. Vajralabadha: When between the layers of the stone soft mineral lines of yellow color shine; they are always considered to be inferior. The principal stones that have been utilized temple building in Odisha are Sandstone, Laterite, Khandolite, and Chlorite. The different technical terms, in the local tongue, of the different varieties of the above stones are given below with the names of temples where they are used.. Sandstone: Bagda Kanda: A coarse grained white or yellow sandstone. There are mainly two varieties available; Naraj Bagda and Mota Bagda. The former is harder and more fine grained than the later and has been used in Lingaraj, Bramheswar and Yameswar temples of Bhubaneswar. The latter has been used in the temples of Siddheswar and Nayakeswara. Raja rania Kanda: Fine grained yellowish sandstone with following sub classes. Lal Raja-rania,HaladiaRaja-rania,Dhala misa Raja-rania,Kaya Raja-rania. First two varieties have been used in the temples of Mukteswar, Gauri and Rajarani. Last two varieties being harder and strong have been used in lintels and architraves of several temples like Bramheswar, Mukteswar, and Rajarani etc. Khadia Kanda:is a white sandstone resembling chalk. This variety has been found in the temples of Ananta vasudeva,Parvati and Parsurameswar etc.It is divided into following classes; Sapha Khadia Kanda,Phul Khadia Kanda,Balia Khadia Rang Dalima: It is reddish white sandstone which is very hard for dressing. This variety is noticed at Lingaraj and Vaitala temple. It is divided into following classes;Sapha Rang Dalima,Matia Rang Dalima,Rangdalima misrita Khadia kanda Apart from Sandstone other stones that are used are Laterite or Mankada Pathara, soap stone or Khadipathara, slightly harder greenish chlorite or Kochila Pathara and harder pinkish Khandolite or Sahana Pathara or Baula Pathara and the hardest of all black granite or Muguni Pathara. While Laterite has been chiefly used for boundary walls other stones are used for image making. Khandolite is used for temple construction as well. 2.1.1.4 Transportation In the past stones were transported to the temple sites mostly by water ways. Mukhya Sthapati used to work out waterways through which stones should be transported. Boats covered with planks were used for the transport of stones on rivers and canals. See Figure-12 for the probable water ways to transport stones from various hills to the temple sites of Puri, Konark and Bhubaneswar. Kalasagadi and Sangi were employed to transport heavy stones on land. Poles with hanging ropes carried on shoulders are called Sangi and thick plank on rollers drawn by the elephants is called Kalasagadi (Refer Figure-13). It is suggested by K.C.Panigrahi in his book “Archaeological remains of Bhubaneswar “that in case of temples like Lingaraj where the quarry site is very near to the temple site inclined planes were made from the quarry to drag the heavy stones. 2.1.2 Pre construction Pre construction majorly deals with site selection and orientation of the temple. The Sthapati along with the Brahman place the temple with respect to the universe of which it is a part. 2.1.2.1 Site Selection The initial step of construction of the temple is the selection of land/site. According to treaties “The Gods always play where groves, rivers, mountains and springs are near and in towns with pleasure gardens.”Thus most of the ancient surviving temples were built on the mountain peaks, lush valleys, grooves, near the water body etc where the environment was considered to be suitable for the adobe of Gods. The essential necessity is the existence of water, which can be present naturally or at least as a symbolic representation. The reason of constructing a temple near the river not only has religious significance but also has functional aspect to it. In one hand it becomes easy to transport the stones via water route and in the other hand it helps in sufficing the water requirement of the members who stay encamped in the construction site. Even after completion of the temple water bodies can be used for supplying water for daily rites of deity and to the pilgrims. While examining this principle against the nine sample temples it is found that out of the nine temples Singhanath temple is situated on an island in the river Mahanadi and Durga temple of Baideswar is situated on the banks of Mahandi.Varahi temple is situated near to the banks of Prachi river and it also has several other water bodies around it. Other six temples are situated around Bindusagar. This proves the functional understanding of the Sthapatis because of which they managed to create magnificent temples in the days when there was no advanced transportation system. (Refer Figure-14) 2.1.2.2 Soil test Shastras classify soils in four categories; Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra and this classification is based on the color, scent and taste of the soil. Brahmin soil is white in color; it smells as clarified butter and is astringent to taste. Kshatriya soil is blood red in color, smells like blood and is bitter to the taste Vaishya soil is yellow in color, smells like alkaline earth and is sour to the taste. Sudra soil is black in color, smells like faeces and has taste like wine. Brahmin and Kshatriya soils are preferred over Vaishya soil and construction on Sudra soil was prohibited. If the Sthapati could not determine the caste from color, smell or taste then a simple test used to be done. Sesame seeds should be sown on the ground; if sprouts appear after 3, 4, 5 or 6 nights then the soil is Brahmin, Kshatriya, and Vaishya & Sudra respectively. If the seeds appear after 7 nights it belongs to caste of ‘Pisachas’ and one should not build on such soil.It is understood from the above description that the soil assigned to Brahmins is sandy in character, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas are ferruginous and rocky where the former being more rocky are good for construction, soil assigned to the Sudra is the worst of all being black cotton soil. Soil filled with bones and ashes has been forbidden to be selected as a suitable site for a temple. The reason is soil made up of these things never attain solidity and homogeneity necessary for the base of a structure. Apart from this several other tests used to be conducted to determine whether the site is suitable for temple construction or not. All these tests were done to determine Soil bearing capacity Water retaining capacity Consolidation Oxygen content in the atmosphere and soil Indication of previous habitation 2.1.2.3 Sanku Sthapana and Naga Bandhana The process of establishing the orientation of a temple binds it to the earth, the sun and their relationship at the moment of origination. The method by which orientation was undertaken was based on the ‘Indian circle method’ and was based on the use of an instrument known as ‘Sanku yantra’ or the ‘gnomon’, which is an ancient device for determining the east-west direction as well as for knowing time (Hardy, 1995) After determining the building site, it should be cleansed and purified. For marking it out with the thread, a peg (Sanku) should be fixed in the centre of the ground. In the middle of the ground a point is hollowed out to the depth of twelve Angulas and the peg made of wood or a piece of Bamboo is put into that hole. Below are the steps followed by the Sthapatis to determine the East –West axis. Step 1: A gnomon is made by putting a specified object in the ground and by drawing a circle around it. Steps 2 and 3: The place where the shadow cuts the circle, in the morning and in the evening, is marked and a line is drawn between those two points. From these points two circles are made. Step 4: On the place where these two new circles cut each other a new line is drawn. This line represents the North – South axes. Step 5: From the places where the North – South axes cuts the first circle two new circles are drawn. Step 6: A line, connecting the cutting points of the two new circles, is drawn. This line represents the East – West axes. Because of the irregularity of the sun’s motion in the ecliptic, various rules have been laid down for the purpose of rectifying its variations. Time plays an important role here. In one explanation for instance: “The place where the shadow of the gnomon projects, on two successive days at the same hour, being marked, the difference between those two days, is taken as the variation of the shadow for sixty ghaticas or twenty-four hours. The interval between the times at which the western and eastern points were marked on the preceding day is multiplied by the difference of the shadow measured for one day, and the product being divided by sixty Ghaticas, the result will give the difference of the shadow for the given time; it will then be only necessary to remove the eastern or western point so far towards the south or north, according as the difference of the shadow on the second day may be in either of those directions, or as the sun is in the southern or northern solstice. In ancient times education was given great importance in ancient and medieval India. Many centres of learning functioned in the premises of temples or close to these shrines. One such important educational institution of the ancient Tamil country was called the ghatika. These ghatikas functioned during the reign of the Pallava kings and even later. Though there were many ghatikas across the far-flung Pallava kingdom, the best-known was in the hoary city of Kanchipuram, the capital of the Pallavas. Kanchipuram (75 km from Chennai) is even today one of the most sacred and historical places in India. Various explanations have been given for the Samskrit word ‘ghatika’. According to Dr. C. Minakshi, a great scholar of Pallava history, the word originates from the root `ghat’ which in Sanskrit means `to strive after’, and ghatika was an institution where students stove after higher knowledge. Once the cardinal directions were established the process called Naga Bandhana started. It is an intricate and ancient method in Silpa Shastra, by which the temple’s direction and the auspicious moment for beginning the sacred construction is determined. This ancient science guides the architect to understand natural forces and build stable massive structures in Odisha. According to the Silpa Shastras, it is imagined that a great serpent (Naga) lies encircling every building site. Its body is divided into 8 equal positions. The serpent moves round and round in a clockwise direction .Its head lies at the eastern point of the compass in the middle of the month of the Ashwina. It takes a year to come round to the same point. The orientation of temple was decided according to the Naga’s position and position of doors was fixed accordingly. Door on the eastern side is generally considered as auspicious as the sun rises from the east and a door on the eastern side would help the first rays of sun to touch the feet of the deity. Vastu puja and other ceremonies should not be done in Sravana and Bhadra as these are rainy seasons. Building operation should be done in the light half of the month and especially in the months in which days are longer than nights. When the orientations of the sample temples were examined it was found that Konark, Rajarani, Lingaraj and Singhanath face east ,Vaitala faces south and rest four temples face west. But surprisingly except Konark none of the other temples oriented towards true E-W axis. And the possible reason of deviation from true cardinal directions could be the connection between the Nakshatra of the Karta and the Naga’s position on the auspicious day of construction determined the orientation of the temple to acknowledge the supremacy of the Karta. Another possible reason could be the sun azimuth. In Bhubaneswar, the sun apparent azimuth at sunrise is roughly estimated at lying between 62º (at the summer solstice) and 118º (at the winter solstice). This means that in June, the sun rises 28º north of true east, while in December, it rises 28º south of it. It is only around the equinoxes, in September and March, that the sun rises due east. This might have resulted in deviation in determining the true cardinal directions. Other reasons that came out during this examination were the location of water bodies, hills, settlement and religious affiliation could have influenced the orientation of the temples. 2.1.2.4 Scale Model Once the orientation is established a scaled model is made by the Sthapati for Karta’s approval. 2.1.2.5 Ground Layout The Silpa text describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts:  the Square (Chaturasra); Rectangle (Ayata);Trapezium(with uneven sides – like a cart – shakata); Circle (Vritta); Elliptical (kritta vritta); triangular(Dwaja);diamond or rhombus (Vajra) ; Arrow Shara);umbrella (Chatra) ; fish (Meena);back of a tortoise(Kurma);conch(Shankha);crescent(Ardha-chandra); pot (Kumbha);sword (Khadga); and lotus (Kamala) These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the back of a tortoise (Kurma), pot (Kumbha), conch (Shankha) and lotus (Kamala) are recommended only for Vishnu and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura), Rectangle (Agatra), fish (Meena), diamond or rhombus (Vajra) and sword (Khadga) are recommended for Devi temples. The rest of the layouts are for other (lesser) deities. But all texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shapes of layout are the best and most auspicious. In case the layout is rectangular, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west dimension. It is also said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher. The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan, Vastu Purusha Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (Pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. As the temple is a link between the physical world of man and divine world of God, to connect them the plan of cosmos were graphically copied in the foundation of the temples called as the Vastu Purusha Mandala.The Vastu Purusha Mandala is derived from three separate words each having a specific meaning where Vastu refers to physical environment, Purusha refers to energy, power or cosmic being, and Mandala is the diagram or chart (Md Rian I, 2007). The basic form of the Vastu Purusha Mandala is the square and square is the important and ideal geometric form in Hindu philosophy, which represents the earth. All the necessary forms like the triangle, hexagon octagon and circle, etc can be derived from the square. The four sides of the square represent the four cardinal directions. The square also symbolizes the order, the completeness of endless life and the perfectness of life and death (Michell, 1988). The Mandala is actually a square subdivided into smaller squares in the form of a grid with each square unit clearly marking the areas of respective gods. The most commonly used Mandala is the square divided into 64 and 81 squares. Mostly the square of the Mandala on its outer periphery are divided into 32 smaller squares, in accordance to the astrological calculation called Nakshatra, representing the constellations or the position of planets through which moon passes in its monthly path. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares is symbolical to the recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon (See Figure-18) The four directions lie outside the Mandala which represents the meeting of the earth and the universe as well as the movement of the sun from east to west and its rotation to the northern and southern hemispheres. The central portion of the Mandala is the place for the Brahma, the creator, and the rest squares are the position of other Gods as per their relevance. The ground plan is symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. When placed on the building site the Vastu Purusha Mandala determines the positions and orientations of the temples and the time for commencing the construction.Figure-18 illustrates Vastupurusha Mandala in temple Parsurameswar From the diagram of the Vastu Purusha Mandala the Sthapati next proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. A block of stone 8 digits in length, breadth& height should be taken. A lotus should be carved on it with 8 petals. A hole should be dug at the heart or stomach of the Vastu Naga and the stone should be placed there pointing towards the 8 cardinal points of the compass. Of the projected height of the temple 1/3rd should be dug (in depth) in a slant towards the middle of the ground. Inside the excavation of the ground at the level of the plinth(Garbhapitha),the beautiful ground plan should be made. After this stone cutting, carving, assembling starts to construct the temple as per the approved model. 2.1.3 Construction 2.1.3.1 Stone cutting and Carving Quarried stones are cut into pieces of suitable size. Sometimes carving is done after assembling the stone and sometimes it is done before hand considering the size and nature of the sculpture. The first step of carving is to determine the height of the main shrine. The primary measure for images is known as the Padimanam or erect postural measure. This measurement refers to the height of the image taken from the foot to the top of the head. It does not include the head dress, crown or pedestal. The erect postural measure has to be first determined and from this height, the seated height has to be determined. The principle measure is determined as the rhythmic related measure to any one of the following: The size of the lingam consecrated in the sanctum The inner width of the sanctum The width of the principle doorway of the sanctum The height of the pillar The height of the patron The outer length of the sanctum There are three broad classifications of images: Sculpture in the round, in bold relief and representation on a plain surface. Based on the personality of the image, it may be further classified into three types; Satvikam-calm,tranquil,ethereal,luminous, Rajasam-energetic,heroic,mobile, Tamasam-aggressive, violent and disruptive. For every sculpture there is a clear rhythmic grammar set out by the Shastras. This is the use of Talam or rhythmic proportions. It is this factor which makes it possible for the sculptor to create both minute and gigantic masterpieces with equal ease. There are 10 Talas in all. Each has several sub-divisions to accommodate the proportional hierarchy between man, woman, God, animal etc. (Refer Figure-22) There are six kinds of measurements including the main height of the image, its breadth, thickness and circumference or outer dimension. There is further the measurement of spaces in between the sections of the body, for example the spaces between two feet. All calculations are made using the plumb line. Traditionally the instrument used to draw these plumb lines is called “Pralamba-phalaka” The central plumb line is called the Bramhasutram.In relation to this, the shift of the various parts of the body are noted. To facilitate composition of an image, it is essential to have a grid of both horizontal and vertical axes. Thus apart from the central line in front, there is a central line running at the rear and the either side of the image. There is another line which passes through the centre of the body starting from the midpoint of the head. These five lines of measurement are called Panchasutram. 2.1.3.2 Assembling Stones are then assembled together by intricate interlocking system. At times stones are carved and then assembled or first assembled and then carved according to the instruction of Sthapati. Assembling is done by Chara or scaffolding. Figure-25 shows different types of scaffolding used in the construction of Sun temple, Konark. (New lights on the Sun temple of Konark) 2.1.3.3 Tools and equipments The basic tools, hammer and different types of chisels are used for cutting and carving of the stones. The tools are made locally and sharpened regularly in the work yard by the blacksmiths. Many other instruments were also used for construction.  The names of the stone in the local tongue are taken from  Vastu Shastra:- It is one of the great arts of India. The science of constructing temples, houses are totally based on Vastu Shastra. “Vaasthu” (the earth) is called “Vastu”. Thus the art of designing & constructing the temple is completely based on “VASTU SHASTRA”. Thus “Sompura” families are involved in the traditional art of “Temple Architecture” since centuries. Temple Architecture is one of the world’s traditional & ancient art of India. We are one of the leading architecture & manufacturing firms practicing successfully since last 50 years. Thus the art of designing & constructing the temple is completely based on “VASTU SHASTRA”. Thus “Sompura” families are involved in the traditional art of “Temple Architecture” since centuries. Temples of Delwädä – The contribution made by Vimalshä, Vastupäl, and Tejpäl to the architecture of Jain temples is part of our great heritage. Mount Abu is a beautiful town on a mountain in the state of Rajasthan. Within the town, there are two magnificent Jain temples, known as the Delwädä Temples. The carvings in both of these temples are breathtaking. The carvings in the marble ceilings of these temples are so minute and intricate that it is difficult to copy the design even on a piece of paper. These temples are regarded as “poetry in marble”. Vimalshä built the first temple in the 11th century A.D. at a cost of 180 million rupees. The second temple, called Lunig Vasahi, was built by two brothers, Vastupäl and Tejpäl, in the memory of their elder brother. This temple was built in the 13th century A.D. at a cost of 120 million rupees. The stories associated with the architects of these two temples are presented here. Vimalshä The Solanki dynasty was the golden period for the state of Gujarat in which the authority and prosperity of the state reached its peak. The credit for putting Gujarat in this position mainly goes to the King’s chancellors and commanders, who were at the helm of affairs. It is interesting to know that many of the chancellors and some of the commanders of that period were Jains. Vimalshä was a very capable and outstanding commander in several respects. King Mulräj, the founder of the Solanki dynasty, had an advisor named Vir Mahattam. His wife’s name was Virmati. They had three sons named Nedh, Vimal, and Chähil. While they were still very young, their father renounced worldly life and became a monk. Their mother then went to her parents’ place and raised her sons with love and care. Nedh was very intelligent and grew up to be a wise, considerate youth. Vimal was bold and smart. He liked horseback riding and archery. He steadily gained expertise in those arts, and in due course turned out to be a wellknown equestrian and an accomplished archer. As the sons grew older, their mother brought them back to the capital city of Pätan so that they could pursue a career of their choice. In line with their interests, Nedh joined the royal court and Vimal joined the army. Both of them quickly began to rise in the ranks and became known for their outstanding capabilities. Since Vimal in particular was handsome and brave, he impressed a multimillionaire of Pätan, who had a beautiful daughter named Shridevi. He thought Vimal would be a perfect husband for his daughter. Vimal agreed, and Shridevi and Vimal got married. Luck continued to favor both the brothers. During the reign of King Bhimdev, who came to the throne in 1021 A.D., Nedh became the chancellor and Vimal secured the position of commander. Vimal was fortunate to get a beautiful, loving wife and a high ranking military position at a relatively young age. Moreover, because of his amicable nature, he soon won the hearts of everyone and came to be known as Vimalshä. Some people at the court could not bear the good fortune of Vimalshä. They were jealous and began to look for his drawbacks. They noticed that Vimalshä would not bow to anyone, not even the King, before offering obeisance to the omniscient Jain Tirthankars. Thereupon, they started telling King Bhimdev that Vimalshä was arrogant due to his position and was not even willing to bow to the King. They said his ambition knew no bounds and he might even try to acquire the throne. Unfortunately, Bhimdev started to believe those courtiers and began to look at Vimalshä with suspicion. When Vimalshä learned of the disaffection of King Bhimdev, he decided to leave Pätan. Accordingly, he went to mount Abu (which was known as Chandrävati at that time) with his followers. There he learned that Dhandhuk, the chief of Chandrävati, was aspiring to become independent from the sovereign King Bhimdev. Vimalshä attacked him with the force at his command. Dhandhuk could not fight him and fled. Vimalshä thus occupied Chandrävati. He had no ambition to become the King and took possession of Chandrävati in the name of King Bhimdev and considered himself the governor of the place. Vimalshä was now happily passing his days at Chandrävati with his wife. Shridevi was a very affectionate lady and made him happy in every respect. They had no children. Being religious minded, however, the couple considered it to be the consequence of their unwholesome karma. Once, they happened to meet Dharmaghosh-suri, who was the well-known Jain Ächärya of that time. Vimalshä regularly listened to his sermons, which made him even more religiously oriented. As he remembered his involvement in past wars, he felt very sorry for the violence and sins he had committed. He sincerely repented for it. In view of his genuine repentance, the Ächärya asked him to construct a temple at Chandrävati and make it a center of pilgrimage to help atone for the violence caused during the wars. Vimalshä was pleased to hear this suggestion and made up his mind to construct a grand temple. He was also a devotee of Ambikä Devi, the goddess in service of Tirthankar Neminäth. He decided to invoke her in order to get her blessings. The goddess was pleased with the earnestness of his worship and asked him what he wanted. He asked for a son and the capability to construct a monumental temple at Chandrävati. However, the goddess asked him to select one of the two. Vimalshä opted for the temple. Goddess Ambikä granted his wish. Then Vimalshä selected a site for the temple on top of a mountain and bought the land for 45,360,000 gold coins. The foundation stone was laid with deep faith. However, it was not easy to construct the temple. It was a Herculean task. Artisans were not locally available, there was no road leading from the foot of the mountain to the top, and marble had to be brought from a great distance. Vimalshä was determined to complete the project at any cost. He made all the necessary arrangements for transporting the materials to the top and hired the best sculptors in the country for carrying out the work. All possible care was taken to see that the artisans did not face any difficulty, and the project did not encounter any problems. It took 14 years to finish the project, and the temple was constructed at a cost of 185,300,000 gold coins. The opening ceremony was performed with great fanfare and enthusiasm under the guidance of Dharmaghoshsuri, Vardhamän-suri, and other Ächäryas. It is a spacious, marble temple. There are highly artistic figures in its domes, arcs, and panels. The sculptures are exquisite. It would be nearly impossible to bring out that sort of accuracy even in wax. The fact that the artists have done it in marble is marvelous, and draws the instantaneous admiration of every visitor. These types of sculptures are not found anywhere else in the world. It is said that Vimalshä paid the artists in gold. The artisans collected the marble dust that they had carved for the day and brought it in and had it weighed. The person in charge would give them gold equal to the weight of stone powder! His generosity and the beauty of the temple have immortalized his name. It is virtually a wonder of the world. Later on, Vimalshä led a Jain sangh to the Shatrunjay Mountainlocated in the town of Pälitänä that cost 40 million gold coins. He constructed the Vimal-vasahi temple there. It is located on the way to the main complex on the hill. It is a small but equally exquisite temple. It is popularly known as Bhulbhulämani temple, meaning a maze temple. He also constructed the well-known temples of Kumbhäriä on the Äräsur hill on the northern border of Gujarat. Moreover, he is credited with the construction of a beautiful temple in the capital city of Pätan. One successful but highly instructive anecdote is associated with his later life. It is said that Shridevi had a dream in which she saw a goddess. The goddess asked her to go to the temple along with her husband at midnight on a specific date and ask for whatever they wanted. Both of them were eager to have a son and went to the temple to express their wish. While they were waiting for midnight to arrive, they felt thirsty. Vimalshä therefore went to an adjoining well to fetch water. Inside the well there were steps which went all the way down to the water level. While he was going down the steps to get the water, someone asked him to pay toll for taking water. Vimalshä was amazed to hear that and asked the person why he was demanding toll to drink the water. The person replied that he was a descendent of the person who had built the well. Since he was poor, he was collecting a toll for using the well. Vimalshä was taken aback to hear that. He asked himself, “What would happen if one day some of my own descendants tried to collect a toll for the temple that I have built?” He shuddered at the idea and again asked himself whether it would be better in that case to remain without a child. He went up and told his wife about the incident. She concurred with his thinking. At midnight when the goddess asked them what they wanted, Shridevi replied that she did not want a child anymore. Now, it was the turn of the goddess to be taken aback at the reply. Vimalshä narrated what he had experienced and said that they wanted to remain childless. Vastupäl and Tejpäl Two brothers, Vastupäl and Tejpäl, were ministers in the court of King Vir Dhavala in Gujarat. Tejpäl was also a very outstanding commander of the army. Both brothers made their name by their valor and faithfulness. They helped the King to conquer enemies and maintain law and order in the kingdom. Tejpäl’s wife, Anupamä devi, was a wise and smart woman who always helped her husband in family matters. She was sweet spoken and a very religious and compassionate woman. Tejpäl had always respected her opinion. Once, the families of both the brothers and many others went on a pilgrimage. They came to a small village. This particular area was not regarded as very safe for the pilgrims because the road was frequented with burglars. Thinking that they might meet some burglars on the way, the brothers decided to bury and hide their wealth in a nearby area. They started digging a hole, but to their amazement, they unearthed a big pot of jewels and coins from the ground. They simply did not know what to do with this wealth. Tejpäl asked Anupamä devi what they should do with this immense wealth. Anupamä devi had no hesitation in replying that this wealth had come from a deep trench, but the right place for it was on a high mountain. This would spread the glory of Jainism. Thus, they decided to take it to the top of the mountain and spend it there. The brothers decided to build a temple on Mt. Abu. It is known as the Lunig Vasahi Temple. Tirthankar Neminäth Bhagawän’s samavasaran has also been carved in this temple. Tejpäl had also dedicated two Gokhläs (niches) for two women, one to commemorate his wife and the other to commemorate his brother’s wife (sister-in-law). These niches are called “Deräni-Jethäni nä Gokhläs” (The wives of two brothers are known as Deräni-Jethäni. Deräni is the younger brother’s wife and jethäni is the older brother’s wife). They constructed many more temples of which only the Delwädä temple and the Neminäth Temple of Mount Girnär exist today. However, the Lunig Vasahi Temple of Mount Abu is similar to that of the Vimalshä Temple. Fifty-two deva kulikäs (subsidiary shrines) have also been constructed on an elevated platform around the central temple, each with the statue of a Tirthankar. Elephants were used to carry the marble to Mount Abu for the construction of the temples. A place called Hasti Shälä is also built within the temple complex to commemorate the contribution of elephants. CHAPTER 3 Agama Shastra and The Role in Temple Construction Unlike most religions that base their faith on one definitive set of guidelines and rules, Hinduism does on confine itself to a single text, or a single interpretation or a single approach—which is also why it is so vibrant and rich. Given this heterogeneous character, rules, regulation, norms and guidelines of the Hindu way of worship, spirituality and all other aspects of the religion, have to be seen, always, in a larger context. Agama Shastra Agama Shastra, a collection of ideas that lays down the rules for worship, temple building, spirituality and rituals, has for long been a guideline for many people of the Hindu faith. It is a collection of Sanskrit, Tamil and Grantha scriptures that contains, mainly, methods of temple construction, idol creation, philosophical doctrines and meditative practices. As a compendium of sorts that came into being after years of assimilation and from a variety of sources, the Agama shastra as a whole cannot be dated; some parts of it being pre vedic while the others are post vedic. What is the Role of Agama Shastra in Temples Construction and Worship? Temple Construction As the complete guide, Agama Shastra plays a very important role in consecration and construction of holy places; most Hindu places of worship follow the tenets of the Agama Shastra. The Four Padas While the Agama are many in number, each of them consists of four parts: Kriya Pada, Charya Pada, Yoga Pada and Jnana Pada. While Kriya Pada expounds more tangible rules– rules of construction, sculpting, carving consecration of Idols etc. the Jnana Pada deals with something more lofty, the philosophy and spirituality of temple worship. Temples and places of worship cannot be built arbitrarily or on the strength of some local notion, for everything is laid down categorically in the Agama shastra. For example, for a pilgrimage the three essentials are Sthala, Tirtha and Murthy, where the Sthala refers to the place of the temple, the Tirtha signifies the temple tank and Murthy stands for the idol. There are rules in the Agama Shastra for just about every aspect, including the smallest detail, from the positioning of the holy figurine to the materials from which the temple is to be constructed. Unlike the Vedic guidelines, that focus more on Havan Building, Agama Shastra dwells at length on idols and figurines of the deities. It dwells in such detail that it is in places almost like a scientific blue print for temple making. Given how temples in India are spread, over a vast territorial space, it is amazing how Agama Shastra is employed and followed throughout the majority of these temples, notwithstanding the cultural and regional differences; perhaps, there is something divine about the Agama Shastra. Sompura is a community of sculptors who are known as the men behind many beautiful Temples in India. As Indian Architecture is a preserver of its tradition and culture, Sompuras as architect are the founders. They have created zenith of architectures and have spread the art into the world. They took the possibilities of hard rough rock cut architecture to quite unexpected extremes of fragile and eye-catching beautiful sculptors. Who are the Architects of Temples As great men think alike, whether contemporary or not, Treatise on sculpture and Architecture has been written or at least inscribed on Earth in the form of creations, mostly by those actually practising therein, across the world, whether in Greece or Rome, Babylonia or Egypt and so in India or Iran. It basically inducts theory and practice in Architecture based on building of palaces, edifices, Collosium, Pyramids, Halls, Minarets and Columns or so on and so forth. So in this field, the school of thought emerges from practice, at the instance of great practitioners. However, the Treatise in Temple Architecture is unique in so far as it deals on palatial dwellings for gods and goddesses or even celestial creatures. They are known as Prasadas or Mandirs . Temple Architecture is now widely known to the world and accepted as a profession in its technical term while it very much existed in Ancient India since the era of vedas. The two basic architectural styles pertaining to creation of temples, arising under the geographical and cultural influences, in India are Nagara Shaily (North Indian) and Dravidian Shaily (South Indian). The Artisans and Architects involved in actual building of temples of above two styles hail from communities associated with respective style (Shaily ). In Northern India, the Sompuras are involved in designing and building mostly Nagar style of Temples. Amongst the Sompura families involved in temple architecture, the family of Padmashree Prabhashankarbhai Oghadbhai has been one of the leading practitioners of Nagar shaily of Temple building and designing. The post independent era of India has witnessed the most reputed and esteemed project of redesigning of Somnath Temple known as Somnath Maha Meru Prasad, carried out and executed by him. He was indeed known as a learned protagonist of Nagar shaily and for the benefit of posterity he inscribed what he knew, learned and practised in the form of books, now regarded as classics. As such as many as twelve books on temple architecture published during his lifetime are to his credit, still leaving some of the manuscripts. The Artisans and Architects involved in actual building of temples of above two styles hail from communities associated with respective style (Shaily ). In Northern India, the Sompuras are involved in designing and building mostly Nagar style of Temples. Amongst the Sompura families involved in temple architecture, the family of Padmashree Prabhashankarbhai Oghadbhai has been one of the leading practitioners of Nagar shaily of Temple building and designing. The post independent era of India has witnessed the most reputed and esteemed project of redesigning of Somnath Temple known as Somnath Maha Meru Prasad, carried out and executed by him. He was indeed known as a learned protagonist of Nagar shaily and for the benefit of posterity he inscribed what he knew, learned and practised in the form of books, now regarded as classics. As such as many as twelve books on temple architecture published during his lifetime are to his credit, still leaving some of the manuscripts. The heritage of Padmashree P.O. Sompura has proved to be the heritage of Nagar Shaily, now being whole heartedly carried out further by me, not only as his grand son but a disciple to him and the Nagar Style the perpetuated and developed. Blessed by grand father and endowed by mercy of omniscient gods, I have been able to associate with different sects of religion viz. : Shaivette, Swaminarayan, Jain etc. During the Span of last two decades, I have planned, designed and executed projects of various temples in India and abroad, the glimpses of which are depicted in this small book and they are self explanatory. While the esteemed readers and viewers as also patrons and well wishers of temple Architecture would hopefully appreciate my modest contribution in this noble field of activity, it would not be our of place to add that assignment of planning and designing Ram Janma Bhoomi is being considered as a great opportunity to exhibit worth of our family wedded to Temple Architecture not just for livelihood but charisma of life time achievement. It would be, to my mind, continuity on a greater scale, of immense values in life as cherished on getting Best Architect of the year 1997 award or incorporation of my creation of Shri Akshar Purshottam Swaminarayan Temple at London in Guineas Book of world record or appreciation of Akshardham at Gandhinagar by viewers of the world, as also quite a few renowned projects like 108 Bhaktivihar or other creations at Singapore or Pittsburgh, USA.The Sompura Brahminare a Hindu caste found in the state of Gujarat and Rajasthan in India. They are a sub-group of the Brahmin community.According to their traditions, the Sompura Brahmin are so named because they were created by the god Chandra to perform sacred ceremonies called Som Yajna for the god Shiva. They are concentrated in the town of Prabas Patan and form one of the oldest Brahmin communities in Gujarat; they speak Gujarati. Sompura Salat Sompura Salat are a Hindu Brahmin community of Gujarat, which have branched off from Sompura Brahmin community. They are found in southern Rajasthan, specially in the Mewar region, their origin is said to be from Prabhas Patan famous for the Somnath temple. The term "salat" is derived from the old term for a temple architect, they are group of people, who took artistic and masonry works as an occupation and branched off from Sompura Brahmin community. They have surnames like. However, Sompura Brahmin do not accept them as Brahmins, they maintain clan exogamy as a strict rule for marriage. The community is vegetarian in diet and avoid eating onions, white cucumber and lentils, they worship Ashapura Mata as their clan deity. They are a Shivaite community and worship Shiva as chief deity, however observe all other Hindu festivals like Uthasini, Janamashtmi, Diwali but Shivaratri and Navaratri are the main festival for the community, they are specialized in masonry works, artistic carvings and sculpting as well as artistic stone shaping works in works of idol-making. Among the notable architecture built by them are Hawa Mahal, the royal palace near Wadhwan built for the Sultanate of Gujarat and more the Somnath Temple built after independence of India. The community is found thorough out Gujarat but concentrated in Saurashtra region. Outside India, population is found in United States of America. Prabhashankar Oghadbhai of Palitana, had been one of the leading designers of Nagar style of temples, he was awarded Padmashri. The design and building of the modern Somnath Temple, known as Somnath Maha Meru Prasad, was executed by him. While their center of activity is in Gujarat and Rajasthan, they now undertake temple architecture in different part of India, as well as overseas, they follow texts written in 15th century such as Prasad Manjari, written during the rule of Rana Raimal by brothers Mandan and Nathji. They hailed from Patan and were invited to settle in Chittorgarh. During the past five centuries they have been involved in building and restoration of numerous Jain temples in Gujarat and southern Rajasthan, as well as temples built by Jains from there regions in other parts of India. In 1992, Chandrakant Sompura, grandson of Prabhashankar had designed the Sompura Akshardham temple in Gandhinagar. He was asked by Ashok Singhal, chief of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad, to design and build the Ram Janmabhoomi temple; the world's largest Ram Temple, a proposed replica of Angkor Wat to be built in Champaran, Bihar, is being designed by Piyush SompuraC. P. Trivedi and Sons, founded by Chandulal P. Trivedi from the Sompura clan, were responsible for the restoration of the Delwara Jain temples and the Jain temples at Jaisalmer Fort and the Amar Sagar lake, they designed the Kirti Stumbh at Hutheesing Wadi in Ahmedabad, Oswal Jain Temple at Nairobi, Jain Center, Leicester, UK,Atma Vallabh Smarak and the Global Vipassana Pagoda at Gorai in northwest Mumbai. Hitesh Sompura in Mumbai is a qualified Architect from Mumbai who computerised and revolutionised Temple Architecture by writing English book "You & Architecture" and making many short documentary films explaining about Indian Temple Architecture. Awarded the “Best Architecture Award 2007” at London in 2007, built the first traditional Shikharbandhi Jain Temple in Europe, Rajesh Sompura is now having more than 35 glorious projects standing tall in India, UK, USA, Bangkok and Tanzania Skand puran gives reference for the creation of Sompura Brahmins wide its chapter 21/22/23/24 The agnihotri brahmins from chandra lok came to prabhas with hemgarbha -the chief secretory of moon god to conduct-perform a pratishtha yagya of the first temple of lord somnath and after the yagya the moon god requested these Brahmins to stay there. These Brahmins stayed near somnath so they are called Sompura brahmins. Generally the civilisations develops and moves with the source of water worldwide, but the sompura brahmin is the only class who are stable near somnath for at least 2000 years. Like other Brahmin communities, they consist of gotras which are exogamous. The Sompuras have 18 gotras. Eleven of them are spread all over Gujarat and Rajasthan and practice temple architecture with shilp-shastra. Most of the other seven gotras stay near Prabhas/Somnath; their main profession was and still is yajman vrutti (priestly services) in the temples, particularly in and around Somnath. Only a Sompura Brahman may be a priest in Somnath Temple. The community is moving very highly in society in both business and education. They are strict vegetarians. They are group of people, who took artistic and masonry works as an occupation and branched off from Sompura Brahmin community, they are considered as Brahmin community and have surnames like; Trivedi, Dave, Raval, Vyas, Acharya, They are specialized in masonry works, artistic carvings and sculpting as well as artistic stone shaping works, especially in works of idol-making. Among the notable architecture built by them are Hawa Mahal, the royal palace near Wadhwan built for the Sultanate of Gujarat and more recently the Somnath Temple built.after independence of India Prabhashankar Oghadbhai of Palitana, had been one of the leading designers of Nagar style of temples, he was awarded Padmashri. The design and building of the modern Somnath Temple, known as Somnath Maha Meru Prasad, was executed by him. While their center of activity is in Gujarat and Rajasthan, they now undertake temple architecture in different part of India, as well as overseas, they follow texts written in 15th century such as Prasad Manjari, written during the rule of Rana Raimal by brothers Mandan and Nathji. They originally hailed from Patan, Gujarat.Hitesh Sompura in Mumbai is a qualified Architect from Mumbai who computerised and revolutionised Temple Architecture by writing English book "You & Architecture" and making many short documentary films explaining about Indian Temple Architecture. Awarded the “Best Architecture Award 2007” at London in 2007, built the first ever traditional Shikharbandhi Jain Temple in Europe, Rajesh Sompura is now having more than 35 glorious projects standing tall in India, UK, USA, Singapore, Bangkok, Nairobi and Tanzania. Revivifying Tradition of Temple Architecture Ar. Hitesh H Sompuraa, Proprietor, Hitesh Sompuraa Architects Hutheesing Jain Temple Temple architecture has a chronicle of over two thousand years. Over the years, the architectural advancement took place within the boundaries of strict models derived solely from religious considerations. In ancient India, temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions. The distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Therefore a temple architect is expected to oblige to keep the ancient basic proportions and rigid forms which remained unaltered over many centuries. Sompuraa family is a 12 generations of hereditary Temple Architects that has a saga of temple architecture for the last 500 years. Ar. Hitesh H Sompuraa, Proprietor, Some architects like Hitesh Sompuraa Architects, who belongs to the 12th ancestry shares with Built Constructions, the nuances, elements and his dedication towards this mystic architecture, called temple architecture. The Sompuraas are following the tradition of designing temples according to "Vastu-Shastra" for the last 12 generations. Their ancestors have designed and built great historic monuments such as Somnath Temple, Ranakpur Temple, and Dilwara temples of Mount Abu hundreds of years ago. Within their family, expertise of Temple Architecture is handed down and articulated orally from generation to generation. Currently, there is no university in the world that offers any formal training on the subject of Traditional Indian Architecture in which the Sompura families specialise. Hence, it can be termed that this art of Temple Architecture is limited to the Sompuraa families only. "It is to an extent that wherever a traditional stone temple is to be built anywhere in the world, a Sompuraa is consulted and preferred over any conventional architect. Hence, Sompuraa family boasts of the skills that have passed on from generations. We have designed and built many famous historic temples like Ranakpur Temple, Somnath Temple and we are still unrivalled in the profession," says Ar. Hitesh Sompura.   His Architectural Journey Hitesh still maintains and refers a 300 year old manuscript called "Vastu Kaustubh" written by his forefather of the eighth generation late Shri Ganesh Sompuraa in the 17th century. Hitesh's grandfather and father (late Mr. Hariprasad H Sompuraa) were the leading temple architects of India who had designed and built many temples in India like Jain Temple in Thane, Shri Mahalaxmi Temple at Dahanu and Shri Vallabhnidhi Trust Haveli in Mumbai. "I started marking temple sketches when I was just six years old under his grandfather's guidance," he recalls. Even though he was well grooved in temple architecture, his passion to transform ideas to architecture urged him to pursue his bachelor of architecture from Kamala Raheja College, Mumbai. Apart from his mainline profession of temple architecture, his expertise in modern architecture has allowed him to design shopping complexes, factory, hospital, school, museum and other buildings with modern style and techniques.  Just after his graduation, he has built temples in Pune and Andhra Pradesh. When he travelled US, where only European and Egyptian architecture are prevailing he decided make traditional Indian architecture globally popular. His unparalleled dedication towards the cause made him to get requests for guidance about temple architecture from different universities across the globe. "I have been doing research and host exhibitions on this occult science.  He has designed several temples, to name a few,  Shri Nija Sevashram Temple in Mumbai, an abstract form of a traditional temple. ‘Shri Madan Mohan Trust Haveli in Balasinor, an example of how the traditional Indian architecture can be combined with the modern style and materials. In addition, Shri Mukteshwar Temple in Mumbai was refurbished Ar. Hitesh in the year 2006. Science of temple architecture. Vastu-Shastra defines rules and guidelines for architecture and construction of buildings like houses, palaces, Forts and temples. The branch of Vastu-Shastra dealing with temples is known as the ‘science' (scriptures) of Temple Architecture. It is based on various other sciences/scriptures like astrology, astronomy, mythology, theology and sacred mathematics. The temples which are made according to these rules are considered auspicious, authentic and "scientific" temples. The rules written in the scriptures of temple architecture are based on the profound study, experience and logic. Besides these rules of planning, the temple architect must also consider various rules of proportion and the rules for choice of materials too. However, the usage of steel is generally avoided in temple construction as it is prone to get rusted in contact with water that tends to make the structure less durable. A preferred method of construction is locking system in which stones are interlocked into one another. This way of construction holds a lifespan of 800 years for the temple structure. Also, they are natural calamities resistant including earthquakes and cyclones. The scriptures of Temple Architecture have also set rules for the shapes and proportions of different parts of the temple. Like the top of the spire of a temple should be half of its base and equal to the diameter of its Ambalsala. This controls the form and weight of different parts of the temple, which adds to the beauty, stability and lifespan of the temple. The numbers too have significance in the scriptures based based on the constellations of astronomy. Here, each number is divided into three groups—Groups of God, Human and Demon. Like a sanctum of 8 Feet 3 inches by 8 Feet 3 Inches belongs to the Group of God and this sanctum should face the east. While the sanctum of 8 feet 4 inches by 8 Feet 4 Inches belongs to the group of demons and therefore it must never be made. Some rules of Temple Architecture are based on mythology especially the direction that a temple has to face. According to this principle, temples all Gods must only face either East or West except for Lord Hanuman's temples, which should always face South direction and that's because the aim of his life was to find Sita who was captivated in Lanka (which is in the South direction). Besides that, the temples of Gods like Yama and or Goddess Kali should be South facing. It is believed that temples that lack these norms are neither auspicious nor fruitful for worshippers. Vastu Shastra According to mythology, Vastu-Shastra was created by the Lord Vishwa-Karma while creating the universe. But, from a scientific viewpoint, a single author of the scriptures cannot be named. The scriptures were created by the scholars and saints of the ancient times. This knowledge was handed down orally from a Teacher to student and from one generation to the next. Then, in the 11th century, scholars wrote them down in the manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts are available even today. Like my forefather of the eighth generation late Shri Ganesh Sompuraa wrote this manuscript called ‘Vastu-Kaustubh' in the 17th century, which I still preserve. Indian Traditional Temple Features The layout plan of the Traditional Indian Temple is most important. The main areas of the layout plan include: ‘Paravesh-Chowky'(Entrance Porch) is like a canopy that covers the entrance to the temple. ‘Sabha-Mandap' (Assembly Hall) is the area for devotees to stand and worship. Assembly Hall has a dome as its roof. Dome resembles the sky. It creates a large volume in the assembly hall and the purpose of creating a large volume is to make the devotee feel humble in front of God. The dome also creates echo in voice creating a divine atmosphere. The Assembly Hall of temple may either be open (without walls) or closed (with walls).The advantage of the closed Assembly Hall is to ensure the safety of valuables in the temple. The most important part of the temple is the ‘Garbha-Gruh' (the sanctum) where the main idol is placed.   On top of the ‘Garbha-Gruh' of the temple is Shikhar (the Spire) or dome and a flag.  Devotees enter temple through the Entrance Porch (Pravesh Chowky) which would have only pillars and a roof. Due to lack of walls, this area has maximum light. Devotees then enter Sabha-Mandap in which doors and windows are allowed for average amount of light. ‘Garbha-Gruh' must not have any window or opening except its entrance door. This entrance must be right in front of the main idol. The logic behind this is to illuminate idol from the light that comes through entrance in order to keep devotee's attention on the idol while praying. This is for devotees to concentrate only on the idol. Hence light is given a special focus in designing of a temple. For example, according to the guidelines, the sanctum of the temple where the idol of main deity is placed must not have any window or opening except its entrance door. This entrance must be right in front of the main idol. The logic behind this is to illuminate idol from the light that comes through entrance in order to keep devotee's attention on the idol while praying. Temple Designing As a move towards to take temple architecture to a greater heights, Hitesh revolutionized the way traditional temples were designed by using the modern computer technology. He made few of the first computerised drawings, 3D models and walkthroughs of temples. He has developed software that accomplishes necessary calculations in seconds that previously consumed hours. Note on architecture Ar. Hitesh, who venerates architecture, shares the relevance of architecture in building a structure. He says, "Architecture is not just about what is built. But it is also about what is not built, which is the hollow space that is enclosed by what is built. In other words, elements such as floor, roof and walls are built to enclose or give form to the empty space. This empty space is considered to be the protagonist or the soul of architecture. Architecture may be defined as creating good quality spaces with the character that is suitable to its purpose, place and time." To sum it up, the sound (whether natural or artificial) which has the musical qualities is called music. The sound which lacks the musical qualities is not music but noise. Similarly, the space (whether natural or artificial) which has the Architectural Qualities is Architecture and the space that lacks the architectural qualities is not architecture but merely a building, he adds. Need to make traditional Indian style of architecture popular. In our country, during the British rule, the British government designed buildings in European style. Mumbai's most of the important structures are built in European Architecture such as Gothic, Neo-Gothic and Baroque styles. The trend continued several years even after British left as it was easier and convenient to copy the European style. The drawings of European architecture are easily available compared to the drawings of the Traditional Indian Architecture. So it is easier to study, design and build the architectural style of Europe compared to the Indian style. In the beginning of the 20th century, an Architectural style named Indo-Saracenic style originated in Mumbai. This style is a combination of the Indian and European architectural styles.GPO building; Prince of Wales Museum and Gateway of India were built in this style in Mumbai. British architect George Wittet combined many elements of Indian Architecture with those of European architecture in the Gateway of India, like the Indian styled brackets, Samaran, Lamcha, Mandovar(decoration on the external wall of the temple)are used with the European styled arches and other European elements . . Shri Madan Mohan Trust Haveli Shri Madan Mohan Trust Haveli is a Vaishnav Temple (Haveli) dedicated to Lord Shrinathji. It is located in Balasinor in Gujarat. It is built using RCC, but stone decoration of the traditional Indian style makes it appear like a palace (Haveli). Therefore it is a combination of the Traditional and Modern style and materials. Shri Nija - Sevashram Trust Temple Shri Nija-Sevashram Trust Temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is located in Borivali (East) in Mumbai. It is unique as it is an abstract form of the traditional Indian temple. It was a challenge to generate the atmosphere of a traditional temple in the structure that is made of the modern material which is RCC. But it was achieved by keeping its form, proportion and the quality of spaces based on the traditional principles of Temple Architecture. Shri Shantinathji Jain Temple Shri Shantinathji Jain Temple is in the pure Traditional Style. The temple was fully designed on computer in the year 2000. Its computerized 3D model is one of the first computerized 3D models of an Indian temple in the world. Shri Mukteshwar Temple Shri Mukteshwar Temple in Mumbai is a seven storeyed temple. Every floor has different forms of each God. Like the topmost floor has 12 Jyotirlings. The floor below that has different forms of Shri Ganesha. The floor below that has different forms of Shri Ambaymata. Its basic structure is designed by the well known Architect Nitin Killawala. Ar. Hitesh has designed stone decoration that is to be clad on the exterior surface of this RCC structure to make it look like a temple.  Dharma Kshetra The purpose of the project, Dharma-Kshetra in US was to make single point of worship for NRIs from different sects. Hence, this complex has 3 temples of three different zones of India. North direction of Kshetra has Lord Shiva Temple which is in pink sandstone. South direction has Lord Balaji temple in yellow sandstone. In the West direction, Shri Mahavirji's Jain temple is built in white marble. Pradakshina Marg surrounds the three temples. On each of the four corners of the "Pradakshina Marg", is a "Chhatri" as per Indian traditions. Jyotirling Temple Complex Jyotirling Temple Complex is made in the form of a tortoise. It has 12 Jyotirlings below 12 hikhars(spires) and Shri Sant Gyaneshwarji's "Sant- Darbars" below the 24 Samarans(domes.) Shilp-Gram Shilp-Gram links the architects living in the urban area with the craftsmen (Shilpis), who carve stone and make sculptures and temples, living in the rural area. Since the project is in a village, its architecture is in the rural style and it has monumental flair Tile and Marble Setter Career What knowledge is needed to be a Tile and Marble Setter? Importance Knowledge   Building and Construction - Knowledge of materials, methods, and the tools involved in the construction or repair of houses, buildings, or other structures such as highways and roads.   English Language - Knowledge of the structure and content of the English language including the meaning and spelling of words, rules of composition, and grammar.   Mathematics - Knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, statistics, and their applications.   Design - Knowledge of design techniques, tools, and principles involved in production of precision technical plans, blueprints, drawings, and models.   Customer and Personal Service - Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services. This includes customer needs assessment, meeting quality standards for services, and evaluation of customer satisfaction.   Mechanical - Knowledge of machines and tools, including their designs, uses, repair, and maintenance.   Public Safety and Security - Knowledge of relevant equipment, policies, procedures, and strategies to promote effective local, state, or national security operations for the protection of people, data, property, and institutions.   Transportation - Knowledge of principles and methods for moving people or goods by air, rail, sea, or road, including the relative costs and benefits.   Administration and Management - Knowledge of business and management principles involved in strategic planning, resource allocation, human resources modeling, leadership technique, production methods, and coordination of people and resources. Work Styles Importance Styles   Attention to Detail - Job requires being careful about detail and thorough in completing work tasks.   Dependability - Job requires being reliable, responsible, and dependable, and fulfilling obligations.   Integrity - Job requires being honest and ethical.   Independence - Job requires developing one's own ways of doing things, guiding oneself with little or no supervision, and depending on oneself to get things done.   Cooperation - Job requires being pleasant with others on the job and displaying a good-natured, cooperative attitude.   Stress Tolerance - Job requires accepting criticism and dealing calmly and effectively with high stress situations.   Self Control - Job requires maintaining composure, keeping emotions in check, controlling anger, and avoiding aggressive behavior, even in very difficult situations.   Initiative - Job requires a willingness to take on responsibilities and challenges.   Concern for Others - Job requires being sensitive to others' needs and feelings and being understanding and helpful on the job.   Adaptability/Flexibility - Job requires being open to change (positive or negative) and to considerable variety in the workplace.   Achievement/Effort - Job requires establishing and maintaining personally challenging achievement goals and exerting effort toward mastering tasks.   Innovation - Job requires creativity and alternative thinking to develop new ideas for and answers to work-related problems.   Leadership - Job requires a willingness to lead, take charge, and offer opinions and direction.   Persistence - Job requires persistence in the face of obstacles.   Analytical Thinking - Job requires analyzing information and using logic to address work-related issues and problems.   Social Orientation - Job requires preferring to work with others rather than alone, and being personally connected with others on the job. Marble Cladding is the application of one material over another to provide a skin or layer. In construction, cladding is used to provide a degree of thermal insulation and weather resistance, and to improve the appearance of buildings. Cladding can be made of any of a wide range of materials including wood, metal, brick, vinyl, and composite materials that can include aluminium, wood, blends of cement and recycled polystyrene, wheat/rice straw fibres. Rainscreen cladding is a form of weather cladding designed to protect against the elements, but also offers thermal insulation. The cladding does not itself need to be waterproof, merely a control element: it may serve only to direct water or wind safely away in order to control run-off and prevent its infiltration into the building structure. Cladding may also be a control element for noise, either entering or escaping. Cladding can become a fire risk by design or material. Cladding in construction is material applied over another to provide a skin or layer and used to provide a degree of thermal insulation and weather resistance, and to improve the appearance of buildings. Between the cladding and the wall there is a cavity where rain can run down. Materials Cladding can be made of any of a wide range of materials including wood, metal, brick, vinyl, and composite materials that can include aluminium, wood, blends of cement and recycled polystyrene, wheat/rice straw fibres.[  Materials used for cladding affect vulnerability to fire. Purposes Cladding may also be a control element for noise, either entering or escaping. Between the cladding and the wall there is a cavity where rain can run down. In addition to the chimney effect, the cladding material itself can contribute to a fire. Brick has excellent fire resistance; planks or weatherboards made from fibre cement or steel have high fire resistance; aluminium and reconstituted timber products have good fire resistance, and timber weatherboards and plywood sheets have poor fire resistance. Composite cladding typically consists of panels 3–5 millimetres (0.12–0.20 in) thick made of a core material sandwiched between two aluminium faces. The core material may be polyethylene (which is combustible), a mineral-based material, or a combination of both. Panels of the same appearance may have different core materials; those with a higher proportion of mineral core withstand fire better, but can still be considered combustible. Fire will be spread by the cladding if the core is combustible. Marble and Granite Mechanical Cladding Systems Products Steel Construction Products Façade Work Solutions  Marble and Granite Mechanical Cladding Systems Marble and Granite Mechanical Cladding Systems Stangle Cladding Fixation includes design, calculation and production of several types of mechanical fixings and accessories used for cladding purposes. Stainless and galvanized steel are among the various materials used in the fabrication. Technical Information Products Standards ASTM C1354 / C1354M - 09 DIN 18 516 DIN 18 800 DIN 18 801 Types Of Fixings Principles for the Fixing of Building Cladding The fixing systems for building cladding are composed of several elements (angles, expansion bolts, screws, nuts, washers, etc), each of which shall present the appropriate mechanical features in respect to the requirements posed by the specific project. Any type of cladding, once fixed, is subject to two primary types of load: - Permanent load (the dead load), due to the weight of the cladding itself. - Variable load (applied loads), due to the wind, thermal expansions, seismic motions, etc. Two fundamental types of fixing systems result: - Load-bearing fixing: to support the permanent load and the vertical components of the variable loads. - Restraining fixing: to support the horizontal components of the loads. Restraining fixings instead, serve to maintain the slabs in the positions specified by the project design. Thanks to the systems of adjustment with which they are equipped, the absence of perfect verticality in the external surfaces may be easily overcome. Types of Façade Building Substructure 1- Stone fixed to concrete wall 2- Stone fixed to hollow block wall 3- Stone fixed to solid block 4- Stone fixed to composite substructure Loads Self load = (Dead Load) Wind load Seismic load Temperature variation load Façade Work Solutions Marble and Granite Mechanical Cladding Systems Concrete Anchoring Systems Accessories Metal Framing Accessories Related Products C-Channel Strut Systems Concrete Anchoring Systems Accessories Two-Component, Cementitious Mortar for Waterproofing Bitumen Modified Moisture Curing Polyurethane Membranes Natural Stone Tiles Page 1: Natural Stone Tile Introduction Page 2: Fixing of Travertine Page 3: Fixing of Marble Page 4: Further Information Back to Buying Guide What is Travertine and Marble? What is Travertine? Travertine is a form of Limestone which is a naturally occurring Sedimentary Rock. Travertine is slowly formed by deposits of Calcium Carbonate in bodies of water i.e. lakes or particularly in hot springs. Travertine often contains organic matter such as leaves and tree debris which rots away and leaves small voids behind. What is Marble? Marble is a naturally occurring Metamorphic rock. Marble is actually sedimentary rock, like Limestone, which is forced down into the ground and put under intense heat and pressure. This changes the structure of the rock over the thousands of years. This also changes the density so marble has much fewer voids and often none at all. What are the characteristics of Travertine? Travertine is one of Tile Giants most popular natural stones. Key characteristics include: Available in a range of warm earthy colours, including; Cream, Ivory and Noce. Has small voids in the stone which are formed by decaying organic matter, usually filled on the front and not the back of the tile with a high grade epoxy resin. Available in 2 grades; Commercial and Premium. Like all stone, Travertine is naturally porous so requires sealing. Is a very affordable natural stone Is available in a range of finishes including; Tumbled, Honed, Chiselled and Polished What are the characteristics of Marble? Marble is seen as a very elegant stone, which has been used for statues and buildings across the world since classical times. Characteristics of Marble include: Natural marble is white, any veins in it are caused by various mineral impurities which gives the different colours. The crystals in marble allow light to penetrate several millimeters into the surface, giving a depth to the stone. Although Marble is a much denser stone that Travertine, the surface is still naturally porous and needs sealing to avoid staining Marble comes in several finishes, including; Honed and Filled, Tumbled, Polished and Chiseled Types of Stone Finishes Both Travertine and Marble are available in a range of different finishes. Popular examples include: Honed and Filled - The surface has been filled then sanded flat Tumbled - Has been tumbled in a machine which rounds off the edges for a rustic look Chiseled - Similar to tumbled, but gives the effect that the edges have been chiseled off Polished - The surface is mechanically polished to give it a flat and shiny surface   Click here to shop our range of Natural Stone Tiles Fixing of Marble As with Travertine, any Marble tiles should be dry laid first by mixing up the tiles from different boxes or crates until you are happy with the shading across the area to be tiled. If the substrate shows any signs of dust or decay, it will need to be prepared with Primer G in order to allow adhesive to stick to it. How to Prepare Marble Tiles Marble tiles should be cleaned before installation, using LTP Grimex to remove any dirt or grime. This stops dirt and grime getting sealed on to the surface when the subsequent sealer is applied. First Seal As with Travertine, a coat of impregnating sealer should be applied before fixing. This will help stop adhesive and grout sticking to the pores in the surface while the tiles are being fitted. Tumbled or unpolished Marble can be sealed with LTP Mattstone. Polished Marble should be sealed with LTP MPG Sealer which will require buffing off after 20 - 30 minutes. Adhesive As before the adhesive to be used should be suitable for the conditions and also it is recommended that White adhesive is used on light coloured marble. This is to avoid dark shadowing from the back of the tile after installation. The adhesive you require will be dependant on the conditions and substrate that the tile is being fixed on. In most cases you will require Keraquick White. Fixing of Marble Tiles As with Travertine, Marble should be fixed on a solid bed of adhesive, so that no voids remain behind the tiles after fixing. The adhesive should be spread on to the substrate and trowelled out as a ribbed bed. Marble has fewer voids on the back of tile (if any), however care should be taken to check for these and the tile should be ‘back buttered’. Grouting Grouting can be carried out in accordance with Mapeis’ instructions. Care should be taken with Polished Marble that the grout is not allowed to dry on the surface. For polished marble we recommend Keracolour FF Grout as it is fantastic for delicate surfaces. Final Touches Now that your tiles are fully grouted, we need to do a final clean and seal. The tiles should be cleaned with LTP Grimex and sealed again with the sealer used during the first seal (e.g. LTP MPG). This will provide the final seal for the stone. Aftercare Maintenance Regular cleaning of Marble will help keep the tiles looking as good as the day they were fitted. LTP Stonewash is an ideal everyday cleaner for marble. CHAPTER 4 Building under construction: the Jain temple at Armakantak The temple has been under construction since 2002,. Several more buildings are planned as part of the complex, It could be another 20 years before the entire project is completed. Huge piles of stone lying around. They are partly carved with representations of apsaras, dancers and other figures. It looks like the principal form of each is roughed in at a workshop, so that the final touches can be done once the figure has been placed on the building. On the tallest tower, which stands separate from the main temple, the graceful finished carvings are surrounded by scaffolding, But the scaffolding itself is beautiful to look at, constructed of wavy logs that remind you they came from actual living trees, and bound by coarse rope. The main temple is enormous, and so is the crane that’s lifting pieces into place. Plenty of hand tools are being used to construct the Jain temple, just like the past.Machine tools are also very much in play. It’s hard to see, but they’re using a circular saw.The workmen cut and chisel stone, using both hand tools and machine-driven circular saws, brings to mind the building of Europe’s old cathedrals, or other great monuments – the pyramids, even. Except for the modern equipment and so the need for fewer laborers, the process is much the same: slowly, painstakingly building an enormous structure that takes decades to complete, and that is built for no practical purpose, but for ritual and the expression of a community’s values. A corner of the tower, with scaffolding. The Jain temples are meticulously architected and ornately decorated the temple is.  It’s an interesting choice, considering how important austerity is in the Jain religion. The value of austerity manifests in a number of ways – for example, extreme fasting, abandonment of clothing (not for female ascetics, though), and generally renouncing all attachments by the workers who have to follow all Jain principles of diet and living while working on the site.( Amarkantak,Madhya Pradesh, India)https://rambulatory.com/2019/02/20/building-under-construction-jain-temple-at-armakantak/ The Architecture and Construction of a MODERN concrete Jain temple Shri 1008 Shantinath Digambar Jain Mandir is located in Indapur, District Pune in Maharashtra. This is the new south pattern temple. The main attraction of this temple is 27 feet tall granite idol of Shri 1008 Munisuvrata Bhagwan. The temple is golden in colour. So it is now called as Golden Temple. J 31 feet South Pattern Shikhar//21 Inch Shri 1008 Mahaveer Bhagwan created in metal/ 27 feet tall.Shri 1008 Munisuvratnath Bhagwan Shikhar It is built in South Indian pattern with 31 feet height. It is quadrangular shaped and painted in golden yellow colour. It is made up of RCC by artists from Mahabalipuram. In the shikhar idol of Shree 1008 Mahaveer bhagwan made from Brass is placed. Shikhar is the model from shikhar of MelSitamur in Tamil Nadu. Vedi It is the main part where Jain Idols are kept in a temple. Vedi is having upper arch like Parikar with carvings of Jain gods on it and lower rectangular base called as Cutney. It is totally made up of superwhitewhite marble. It is made by Tilak Marbles from Kishangarh in Rajasthan. It is carved with the lions and elephants. There are also the Yaksha and Yakshini of Shri 1008 Shantinath Bhagwan on the both sides of the vedi. There are Ashtamangal and Astapratiharya carved on cutney. The 16 Dreams of Teerthankar's mother are also created on it. It indicates the birth events of the teerthankara. The carvings are painted in various colors so that it has got a different look. Also there are 3 more vedi's present in the temple : Manibhadra Kshetrapal Maharaj : He is known as Yaksha : The Protector. Padmavati Devi : She is called as Yakshini. Saraswati Devi : She is the god of Knowledge. She has a Jinvani, a Jain book in her hand. She is situated on Lotus behind the Peacock. Jain idols Shri 1008 Shantinath Bhagwan. It is made in superwhite Marble Shri 1008 Vasupujya Bhagwan. It ismade in Red stone. Shri 1008 Parshwanath Bhagwan. It is made superwhite Marble stone. Shri 1008 Mahaveer Bhagwan. It is made in Brass and Copper metal Shri 1008 Munisuvratnath Bhagwan. It is made in Granite Stone. Manastambha It is present in front of the temple. It is 31 feet high made in Albetta marble from Makrana in Rajasthan. It is the symbol of Humbleness in Jain philosophy. It kills the Ahankaar of the devotees as soon as they see the Manastambha they become humble. TO RECAPITULATE- Parts of a Hindu or Jain TEMPLE   1. Garbhagriha: It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum. In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance. Later it grew into a larger complex. The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual attention.   2. Mandapa: It is the entrance to the temple. It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers. Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here. Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.   3. Shikhara or Vimana: They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple. Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples. Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure. 4. Amalaka: It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian temples. 5. Kalasha: It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples. 6. Antarala (vestibule): Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall (mandapa). 7. Jagati: It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.   8. Vahana:It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum. 37