Sociology

Proposes a new four phase model of social change drawing upon work in cultural psychology and Bourdieu's theory of practice. The model is applied to the context of social change within the field of science engagement in the UK.

Jensen, E. & Wagoner, B. (2009). ‘A cyclical model of social change’. Culture & Psychology, 15(2), 217-228.

The present study offers an in-depth discourse analysis of two important yet distinctive types of mass media on a single issue: Human cloning. Since the cloning of Dolly the sheep in 1997 and recent developments in therapeutic cloning, mass media framing of this issue has taken on increasing political, sociological, and ethical significance. The present study shows that US-based popular films on the topic have predominately focused upon reproductive cloning and concomitant themes of fear and mad science. In contrast, the broadsheet press based in the United Kingdom has centred their coverage of the issue on a theme of hope, fuelled by the frequently uncritical expressions of hype from scientists, patient groups, bioscience business interests, and their advocates in the public sphere. Politicians at the highest level in Britain have espoused an open regulatory framework that allows bioscience enterprise to thrive, however the study concludes that in practice this perspective has employed uncritical and technocratic discourses in order to achieve national dominance in the field of techno-economic development. The consequences of such a trade-off include the strong potential for fostering false hope in patients and for systematically excluding essential forms of democratic accountability from the decision-making process.

Beauchamp and Childress (1994) elaborated an approach to bioethical deliberations based on four universalistic principles. This framework of ‘principlism’ has been criticised from within biomedical ethics as insufficient and problematic. However, this article considers a more radical sociological critique by John Evans (2002) that rejects the entire approach of defining ‘principles’ a priori. This sociological critique is based on classical sociologist Max Weber’s (1925) distinction between instrumental (‘thin’) and substantive (‘thick’) rationality. As an exploratory assessment of Evans’ critique, his conceptualisation of ‘thin’ versus ‘thick’ rationalisation is applied to a large sample of Anglo-American press coverage (n = 5,126) of the bioethical controversy surrounding therapeutic cloning. Given the role of mainstream news media as a key arena for the discursive framing of biomedical research and its ethical implications, the findings raise important questions about principlism and the mediation of bioethical debates on issues such as therapeutic cloning.

Jensen, E. (2008). ‘Through thick and thin: Rationalizing the public bioethical debate over therapeutic cloning’. Clinical Ethics, 3: 194-198.

The issue of human cloning has received intense media and political attention since the cloning of Dolly the sheep was announced in 1997. This research explores the discursive basis for support and opposition to human cloning by examining the role of abortion-related rhetoric in constructing the concept of human cloning within the American press. An in-depth content analysis of human cloning news coverage was conducted on a sample of articles collected from the mainstream press as well as advocacy publications with either a pro-science or Christian fundamentalist orientation. Statistically significant differences were found indicating an important role for abortion rhetoric in the human cloning debate. This expansion of abortion rhetoric into the domain of science policy portends a unique and growing problem for resolving bioethical debates within American politics over the future development of biomedical technologies such as human cloning.

Jensen, E. and Weasel, Lisa H. (2006). ‘Abortion rhetoric in American news coverage of human cloning’. New Genetics & Society, 25(3): 305-324.

Over the last seven years, a major debate has arisen over whether human cloning should remain legal in the United States. Given that this may be the ‘first real global and
simultaneous news story on biotechnology’ (Einsiedel et al., 2002, p. 313), nations around the world have struggled with the implications of this newly viable scientific technology, which is often also referred to as somatic cell nuclear transfer. Since the successful cloning of Dolly the sheep in 1997, and with increasing media attention paid to the likelihood of a successful human reproductive clone coupled with research suggesting the medical potential of therapeutic
cloning in humans, members of the scientific community and Christian fundamentalist leaders have become increasingly vocal in the debate over U.S. policy decisions regarding human
cloning (Wilmut, 2000). Yet despite a surfeit of public opinion polls and widespread opining in the news media on the topic of human cloning, there have been no empirical studies comparing the views of scientists and Christian fundamentalists in this debate (see Evans, 2002a for a recent study of opinion polls assessing religion and attitudes toward cloning).

In order to further investigate thevalues that underlie scientists’andChristian fundamentalist leader’s understanding ofhumancloning, aswell as theirdifferentialuse of language in communicatingabout this issue, we conducted an open-ended, exploratory survey of practicing scientists in the field of molecular biology and Christian fundamentalist pastors.We then analyzed the responses from this survey using qualitative discourse analysis. While this was not necessarily a representative sample (in quantitative terms, see Gaskell & Bauer, 2000) of each of the groups and the response rate was limited, this approach was informative in identifying both commonalities between the two groups, such as a focus
on ethical concerns about reproductive cloning and the use of scientific terminology, as well as significant differences including concerns over ‘playing God’ for the Christian pastors, focus on therapeutic cloning by scientists, and subtle but informative differences between the two groups in their use of scientific terminology and their interpretations of human cloning as scientific progress.

Weasel, Lisa H. and Jensen, E. (2005). ‘Language and values in the human cloning debate: A web-based survey of scientist and Christian fundamentalist pastors’. New Genetics & Society, 24 (1): p. 1-14.

For years Anglo-American news media participated in hyping claims of imminent cures from therapeutic cloning. This hype was scrutinised following the scientific fraud of South Korean therapeutic cloning researcher Hwang Woo-Suk. The scandal left questions about contemporary science journalists’ commitment to ideals of the press as Fourth Estate or watchdog. The present study adduces data from Anglo-American press coverage of therapeutic cloning (n = 5,185) and qualitative interviews with journalists (n = 18). The journalists expressed commitment to the Fourth Estate ideal, although their coverage fell short. Four explanations are postulated for this disjuncture between ideals and practice. Finally, two deviant cases of critical, Fourth Estate coverage point to institutional norms as the most important factor in (dis)allowing journalistic scepticism.

Jensen, E. (2010). ‘Between Credulity and Scepticism: Sightings of the Fourth Estate in 21st Century Science Journalism’. Media, Culture & Society, 32: 615-630.

The development of therapeutic cloning research sparked a scientific controversy pitting patients’ hopes for cures against religious and anti-abortion opposition. The present study investigates this controversy by examining the production and content of Anglo-American print media coverage of the branch of embryonic stem cell research known as ‘therapeutic cloning’. Data collection included press articles about therapeutic cloning (n = 5,185) and qualitative interviews with journalists (n = 18). Patient activists and anti-abortion groups emerged as key news sources in this coverage. Significant qualitative differences in the mediation of these subpolitical groups and their arguments for and against therapeutic cloning are identified. Results suggest that the perceived human interest news value of narratives of patient suffering may give patient advocacy groups a privileged position in journalistic coverage. Finally, Ulrich Beck’s theoretical arguments about subpolitics are critically applied to the results to elicit further insights.

Jensen, E. (2010). ‘Mediating subpolitics in US and UK science news’. Public Understanding of Science, 32(4): 615–630.

"This study investigated the development of new ideas about animals, habitats and the zoo amongst a sample of pupils attending ZSL London Zoo. Results indicate the potential of educational presentations based around zoo visits, for enabling conceptual transformations relating to environmental science. At the same time, the research highlights the vital role of existing cultural representations of different animals and habitats which are confronted by the new ideas introduced during educational visits to the zoo.

Wagoner, B. & Jensen, E. (2010). ‘Science learning at the zoo: Evaluating children’s developing understanding of animals and their habitats’. Psychology & Society, 3(1): p. 65-76."

This study investigates the role of celebrity life politics in American and British press coverage of therapeutic cloning. A large sample of articles in the US press and both elite and tabloid UK newspapers and periodicals was collected and analysed for this study. The present analysis focuses on activist patients as key news sources in this coverage. These patients drew upon narratives of personal suffering with political implications that interfaced with journalists’ desire for human interest stories. Celebrity patients in particular were found to contribute to the construction of therapeutic cloning as the source of future cures for debilitating illnesses that are currently incurable. The intertwining of personal suffering and political advocacy identified in this case is linked to Giddens’ theorization of life politics.


Jensen, E. (2010). ‘Celebrity life politics in US and UK journalistic coverage of therapeutic cloning research’. New Genetics & Society, 29(2): 119-132.

This report, published by the Museum, Libraries and Archives Council, establishes a basis for future research on the impact of arts outreach for socially excluded groups. The case examined is an outreach programme focused on bringing young mothers with low educational attainment into the Fitzwilliam Museum with their young children for a child-friendly gallery visit and craft workshop activity.

Jensen, E. (2010). Something different: A pilot study evaluating family outreach activities at the Fitzwilliam Museum. London: Museum, Libraries and Archives Council. Available at http://research.mla.gov.uk/evidence/documents/something-different-fitzwilliam-2010.pdf.

Key findings include:

· The individuals participating in this outreach activity had no adult experience with cultural institutions and would have remained culturally excluded if not for the outreach programme.

· The outreach activity provided a bridge between vaguely remembered childhood museum experiences and adulthood for the mothers engaged.

· The gallery-based component of the family outreach visit provided a manageable introduction to the Fitzwilliam Museum collection.

· The workshop-based component of the visit fully engaged mother and child, promoting increased self-confidence, social capital and gregariousness.

· The outreach visits provided an all-around positive experience for the young mothers (all under 22) and their young children (all under 3).

· The inherently exclusionary view of museums’ role requires updating in light of present study.

These results are particularly significant within the context of growing pressure on cultural institutions to demonstrate their impact. This pilot study suggests the potential of outreach programmes to deliver authentic engagement with socially excluded groups. Moreover, the research methods employed in this study were qualitative and longitudinal in nature, offering an alternative to the dominant end-of-visit survey-based approach to museum evaluation.

In calling for a sustained dialogue between the sciences and the public, the House of Lords (2000), Royal Society and others (e.g. Stilgoe, Irwin and Jones 2006) have clearly identified the need for the sciences to go beyond traditional, formal contexts for science communication to engage with publics through activities such as the Cambridge Science Festival. However, there has been a paucity of research on the impacts of such informal contexts for science communication (Holliman, Jensen and Taylor 2007; cf. Rowe et al. in press). What are the impacts of informal science communication? Can science festivals improve scientific literacy, scientific citizenship, the perceived accessibility of scientific knowledge and other dimensions of sciences-society relations? The present research represents the first systematic and rigorous attempt to address this question empirically. Drawing primarily upon mixed methods data from on-site questionnaires (n =957) and focus groups (n = 13) , this study explores the ways in which the 2009 Cambridge Science Festival was perceived by its attendees.

This large science festival included multiple locations spread around the general vicinity of the university. The audience research for this evaluation included data collected using mixed methods questionnaires distributed during and after the festival, as well as post-festival focus groups.

The results show some clear patterns in the perceived impacts of the Cambridge Science Festival, as well as some divergent findings worthy of further exploration. Key research questions addressed through this summative evaluation include:

Key research questions addressed through this summative evaluation include:

What have audiences gained from the science festival experience?

Why do audiences attend the Cambridge Science Festival?

What are their expectations of the events (and why)?

Jensen, E. (2010). Cambridge Science Festival: External evaluation report. Cambridge: University of Cambridge.

This is the final report for the Nesta-funded phase of the Isotope project, which ran from January 2007 to July 2009. In this report the authors document: the wider context within which the project was conducted, alongside an overview of some of the core research findings (Section 1); the aims of the project (Section 2); the management of the project, noting how the key project milestones were achieved, including some of the problems encountered and lessons learned (Section 3); the various outputs from the project, including a description of the website and research papers (Section 4); the evaluation of the project deliverables, noting how the findings informed further website development (Section 5); the impacts of the project (Section 6); and, finally, a brief overview of the future plans for Isotope (Section 7).

Holliman, R., Collins, T., Jensen, E. and Taylor, P. (2009). Isotope: Informing Science Outreach and Public Engagement. Final Report of the Nesta-funded Isotope Project. Milton Keynes, The Open University. ISBN: N978-1-84873-414-2.

This paper assesses the use of audience segmentation in visitor studies by analyzing its application in the identity model of visitors proposed by John Falk (2007, 2009). As a leading example of visitor segmentation, we examine this model’s application in a specific case at US zoos to elaborate some of its limitations. Conventional short-term, episodic approaches to visitor research should be challenged and supplemented by a more contextually sensitive framework. We contend that segmentation approaches, and in particular Falk’s theorization and operationalization of an identity model of visitors, are problematic. We argue for a ‘contextual turn’ that places visitors’ experiences within a holistic and long-term framework of individual life circumstances, relationships and trajectories. Research and theory from education, sociology and cultural studies extends existing visitor research approaches by acknowledging complexity, change over time and the interwoven and developmental nature of socio-cultural variables influencing visitors’ appropriation of new ideas and experiences.

Dawson, E. & Jensen, E. (in press, October 2011). Towards a ‘contextual turn’ in visitor studies: Evaluating visitor segmentation and identity-related motivations. Visitor Studies.

Effective communication between scientists and non-scientists calls for special evaluation and training procedures, not simply “more and better science” (Nature 468, 1032–1033; 2010). The impact of science communications on target audiences needs evaluation. And effective evaluation requires upstream planning and clear objectives if it is to inform practice (E. Jensen & B. Wagoner Cult. Psychol. 15, 217–228; 2009). Unfortunately, institutions that sponsor science-communication activities are not always consistent in their evaluation requirements and rarely assess long-term impact. And when such projects are subject to independent evaluation, tenders are typically assessed either by the practitioners whose work is under scrutiny, or by staff without the relevant methodological expertise. To enhance the quality of their engagement with the public and with policy-makers, scientists and other science communicators should make use of theories and results from the social sciences. Without training in media literacy, audience reception or the communication and sociology of science, communicators could find themselves rehearsing long discredited practices. I propose that such training should be incorporated into scientists’ graduate studies. This would spare governments and scientific institutions from reframing the funding and practice of science communication to protect the sciences and the public from the largely unacknowledged risks of miscommunication.

Millions of children visit zoos every year with their parents or schools in order to learn about wildlife firsthand. Moreover, public conservation education is a basic requirement for membership in professional zoo associations. However, in recent years there has been increasing criticism of zoos from animal rights groups for failing to demonstrate their averred value for public understanding of conservation and related biological concepts such as animal adaptation to habitats. Indeed, no study to date has fully assessed scientific learning for the key zoo audience of children. The present study represents the largest (n=3018) and most methodologically robust investigation of the educational value of zoos for children aged 7-15 ever conducted worldwide. This research evaluates the relative educational impact of educator-guided and unguided zoo visits at ZSL London Zoo, both in terms of the development of new knowledge about conservation biology and changing attitudes towards wildlife conservation. Results show a strong statistically significant increase in learning about animals and habitats from pre- to post-zoo visit. Moreover, zoo visits supplemented by an educational presentation almost doubled the aggregate increase in scientific learning found for unguided zoo visits. Conversely, negative changes in children’s understanding of animals and their habitats were much more prevalent in unguided zoo visits. Overall, this study offers the strongest evidence to date of the potential educational value of visiting zoos for children and young people. However, it also identifies problematic patterns that can emerge if zoos’ educational provision is insufficient. Given that hundreds of millions of people visit zoos every year, rigorous assessment of their value as sites for public conservation education holds important implications for public knowledge and attitudes towards key concepts relating to conservation biology.

The UK government and universities have stepped up calls for engagement with employers in response to the economic downturn and partial withdrawal of public funding. In this context, universities‘ commitment to employer engagement at a corporate policy level is clear. But how well is the concept of employer engagement understood by university staff expected to carry it out? This case study (n=96) of one post-1992 university indicates that there is a substantial level of uncertainty, self-reported ignorance, incomplete understandings and even outright resistance to the concept of employer engagement. Only a minority of respondents to a mixed methods web-based survey felt they understood the context around calls for employer engagement. On the positive side, a slim majority of respondents were able to offer a definition that accurately accounted for at least one aspect of employer engagement at some level. Also, a clear majority of respondents had some prior experience with employer engagement. This paper argues that the lack of shared understanding around this concept comprises a significant barrier to its adoption by university staff. However, it is argued that this barrier can be overcome.

"This report describes key findings from a series of concurrent focus groups comprising the Durrell Wildlife Park - Public Participation Meeting (PPM). This PPM is part of the larger European Commission-funded project EU-Zoos-XXI, which will see other PPMs taking place at zoos across Europe in Portugal, Sweden and Italy. The aim of these PPMs is to engage with members of the zoo visiting public and understand the kinds of educational and engagement needs they would like to see addressed by zoos. This unique approach involves engaging publics upstream in the decision-making process, and empowering them to guide the development of the zoo’s educational provision.

Although the PPM participants focused primarily on defining the development of the Durrell ‘Demonstration Project’, the PPM focus groups also offer important insights into visitor interests, priorities and engagement preferences. This report presents both specific educational interventions identified as desirable by participants and general principles of visitors’ engagement interests and needs revealed through in-depth, systematic analysis. The results show that in terms of message content, participants advocated a focus on the inter-connectivity of life on Earth, alongside the provision of details about the scope and details of Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust’s efforts to redress negative impacts on endangered wildlife. An unexpected rationale for the latter focus was to make Durrell Wildlife Park a ‘see-through zoo’ that is transparent in its goals, actions and impacts. This transparency was viewed as important for justifying admission costs, as well as demonstrating the legitimacy of the organization its requests for donation and further support from visitors in seeking to promote wildlife conservation. "

The growth and increasing popularity of science and arts festivals around Britain is only possible with the help of an army of willing, but unpaid university student volunteers. Research for the National Co-ordinating Centre for Public Engagement (NCCPE) reveals that despite the lack of remuneration, 92% of students surveyed say that they would volunteer again and 75% believe that the skills and experience they got from volunteering will benefit them in their future careers.

The research was conducted by Dr Eric Jensen at the University of Warwick working with Nicola Buckley of the University of Cambridge and explores the role of university students in festival-based public engagement. A total of 155 student volunteers and festival-organisers were questioned about their experience of student volunteering across science and arts festivals.

The findings show that UK universities are active supporters of science and arts festivals for the public.  Festival organisers reported that the enthusiasm and expertise of volunteering students and staff comprised the most valuable aspect of engaging with universities in delivering their festivals.

Two-thirds of festival organisers work with universities and more than half (56%) are given access to university premises free of charge. For 60% of festival-organisers the benefit of working with a university includes access to a wide range of expert speakers and artists, and for the majority (69%), the primary benefit is access to human resource in the form of unpaid student volunteers.

The majority (55%) of festivals surveyed operated with just five paid members of staff.  Seventy-five percent of the jobs performed by student volunteers provided some interaction with the public such as meeting and greeting, manning stands or discussing science, art and other topics with publics. 

Sophie Duncan, Deputy Director, NCCPE said: “Festivals are an excellent introduction to public engagement for university students and offer experiences and skills that will benefit them throughout their careers. The majority of volunteers in our sample are post-graduate students, some of whom will go on to be researchers. With impact now part of the Research Excellence Framework (REF) and the value of publicly-funded universities in the spotlight, it is increasingly important for academics as well as universities to embrace public engagement.  Hopefully what we are witnessing is a new generation of researchers, lecturers and future vice-chancellors that are introduced to public engagement early in their careers and remain open and enthusiastic about the mutual benefits it can bring.”

The most challenging aspect of using student volunteers in festivals is the high level of training required. A number of festival organisers have had to adjust their expectations of student volunteers’ prior practical knowledge, and now provide training at a fundamental level.

Lead researcher Dr Eric Jensen at the University of Warwick commented: “It is important for both universities and funding bodies to understand that the provision of volunteering opportunities within festivals is resource-intensive. Despite how it might seem, student volunteers are not free labour. If they are to be used most effectively staff time, training and resources are required and these activities require funding and careful planning and attention.”

This report identifies the perspectives of visitors on the crucial question of how  festivals can best engage  publics. This is an exploratory study which therefore relies upon open-ended qualitative data to supplement the quantitative results. The overall patterns in this study show a remarkably high level of satisfaction with the visiting experience at the Cambridge Festival of Ideas. It also highlights various aspects of the Festival that visitors found valuable.
A minority of respondents indicated they were so inspired by the Festival experience that they intended to undertake more formal learning through further or higher education. This report points to the potential value of arts and social sciences-oriented festivals for engaging publics with new ideas. Now that a range of outcomes from the festival visit experience have been identified, future research can begin to test the prevalence of such outcomes through the use of more direct measures of impact.