PhD Dissertation by Nafsika Vassilopoulou
The thesis presents an overall examination of royal arranged marriages throughout the rule of the... more The thesis presents an overall examination of royal arranged marriages throughout the rule of the Palaeologan dynasty, without chronological or geographical restrictions, as well as their function as a diplomatic medium.
Byzantine diplomacy and its means have always captured the interest of historians. The gentle manoeuvres of byzantine diplomats were in many occasions the reason of Byzantium’s survival for over a millennium. One of the most significant methods to avoid conflict or to create a firm coalition was the conclusion of a nuptial agreement with the powerful enemy or the desirable ally.
This study presents the strategy under which the weddings of the Palaeologan emperors, princes and aristocrats were designed. In a period of almost two centuries, nearly a hundred marital unions were negotiated. Some of them led to marriage, others to short or long engagements and others failed utterly. The grounds of this success or failure are also interesting for this thesis. Other parameters like dowry and religion are also being taken into consideration.
Of particular importance are other individual topics such as the foreign affairs of each emperor, the planning of these marriages on behalf of the Byzantines, the prosopographical elements concerning some of those «grooms» and «brides» and the benefits that the participants enjoyed from such diplomatic connections. Moreover, this study helps in presenting the liaisons of the Byzantine Empire with the dominant states of the Palaeologan era. Such states were the wealthy Italian maritime cities, the kingdoms of western and central Europe, the remaining crusader states in the Mediterranean, as well as the neighbouring Balkan and Turkish principalities.
The sources for the matter are ample and of various origins. Firstly, there are the works of byzantine historians and chronographers, many of those had immediate implication with the state bureaucracy. In addition to these texts, extremely helpful are the corpora of letters and documents survived to us. Treaties, letters of byzantine emperors, foreign kings, diplomats, ambassadors, state officials and clerics, patriarchal and monastic documents as well as local versed chronicles, support this research providing plenty of information. Last, but not least, archaeological facts complete the picture of the period.
All of the above portray thoroughly one of the key factors of the byzantine state and society; the diplomatic tactics, which in numerous cases achieved the endurance of the empire, even when there were described as scheming and intriguing.
Papers by Nafsika Vassilopoulou
In the complex environment of the Palaiologan world, a vernacular literary genre, the romance, re... more In the complex environment of the Palaiologan world, a vernacular literary genre, the romance, reemerges and finds its place in a scholarly literary society, providing a differ- ent glimpse into the Byzantine society and culture between the two falls of Constantino- ple.
Through the comparison between learned historiography and vernacular romance we can detect an abundance of historical information and reflections on the Palaiologan so- ciety, that reveal a number of similar views, but also striking contradictions, especially about perceptions concerning the turbulent relation between Byzantium and the West, a topic revisited time and again by several scholars.
This study aims to highlight some of the most prominent institutions and practices of the West that were incorporated into the Palaiologan society, and how they are represented in the literary genres of the Late Byzantine era, while exploring aspects like identity and gender. The cases analyzed include, but are not limited to, customs, legal regulations, means of entertainment and sports, as well as other feudal practices introduced into the Palaiologan state.
Byzantine authors use different methods to refer to these practices into their narrative, to comment, make a statement or criticize. This variety outlines perfectly the interaction of historiography and romance and their depiction of the Palaiologan milieu and the world around it.
The Chronicle of Morea, an early 14th c. poem in Greek vernacular, narrates the conquest of the P... more The Chronicle of Morea, an early 14th c. poem in Greek vernacular, narrates the conquest of the Peloponnesian castles by the Franks after the Fourth Crusade, revealing the history of the Morea in the 13th and early 14th c., and the social and ethnic identities presented through warfare.
The byzantine period was, without a doubt, an era when the practice of violence played a key role... more The byzantine period was, without a doubt, an era when the practice of violence played a key role in the public affairs, as in any other medieval realm. Violence was initiated either from the lowest or the highest levels of society, the latter orchestrated by the bearers of power themselves.
Common ground of these palace coups and court conspiracies was violence, in same cases extreme violence, utilized as an instrument of politics.
A typical example is the case of the assassination of the Mouzalones brothers, in 1258, organized by the founder of the Palaeologan dynasty, Michael VIII. Upon Michael’s guidance, foreign mercenaries serving under his orders, murdered the protovestiarios George Mouzalon, regent of the young emperor John IV Laskaris, inside the monastery where the late emperor’s memorial service was held. That led Michael to become regent and co-emperor. A few months later, in a new display of violence, Michael blinded young John and remained sole ruler.
The incident of the Mouzalones is a textbook case of a political assassination following a long tradition throughout byzantine history. A young and ambitious aristocrat, supported in secret by some members of the land aristocracy and the clergy, plans the murder of his adversary towards power.
Through the study of these events our aim is to examine if, and in what extent, violence was deliberately used as a means of power, at first when Michael was trying to ascend to the throne and throughout the establishment of his dynasty. Other issues examined is the reaction of the Church, since the murder took place at a monastery, the social background of the main characters in this episode, as well as the use of violence as a policy until Michael VIII’s death.
The Byzantine Empire, throughout its over-millennial history, has a lot of “War stories” to tell.... more The Byzantine Empire, throughout its over-millennial history, has a lot of “War stories” to tell. The main protagonist was clearly its army. However, depending on the military needs and political conditions, foreign armies were used coming from various ethnic teams. Mercenaries were either auxiliary or the main body of the byzantine army. Their contribution in several major byzantine victories during the Middle byzantine period made them even more important for the crumbling empire of the later years who couldn’t afford them anymore. This presentation aims to discuss the matter of mercenary troops used by the Byzantines and examine their role. The time frame of the transition from the Middle to the Late byzantine period will allow us to explore different issues related to the meaning of the term “mercenary”, the evolution of the role of mercenary parties, but also the range of forms in which they appear in contemporary byzantine accounts, from the Varangians of the imperial guard to the notorious “Companies” of foreign warriors. Obviously, these professional soldiers influenced the Empire not only in the military field, but in the economic and social as well. Although this presentation does not aspire to analyze the consequences of hiring mercenaries, we believe we can reveal the needs and circumstances that made the recruitment-hiring of mercenary parties and war professionals necessary.
From the 13th to the 15th century, during the reign of the Palaeologan dynasty, the Byzantine emp... more From the 13th to the 15th century, during the reign of the Palaeologan dynasty, the Byzantine emperors tried to accomplish the union between the Eastern Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Church. However, many members of the Byzantine upper class vigorously resisted these efforts.
The opposition of those economically and politically powerful persons, some of them being even members of the imperial family, played a decisive role to the progress of the communication between Byzantium and the West. Furthermore, it led the standing of Byzantine foreign affairs to decay and rendered futile the persistence of numerous emperors to achieve peace with the Holy See. This attitude had a serious impact on the credibility of the Empire and destroyed every hope the Byzantine rulers had of receiving aid against the Ottoman danger.
The purpose of this article is to present the causes of the aristocrats’ accession to the anti-unionist party and the consequences of their actions. This will be done through the parallel study of other religious movements, all bearing social and political characteristics, as it is given in the work of several Byzantine historians.
Fourteenth-century Peloponnese was made up of several Latin states and dominant Venetian colonies... more Fourteenth-century Peloponnese was made up of several Latin states and dominant Venetian colonies, remnants of the Fourth Crusade; the only Byzantine territory was the Despotate of Morea. Its rulers, the despots, always trusted kinsmen of the emperor, followed the policies of Constantinople while trying to carve a separate political and diplomatic path.
The protagonist of this paper is Theodore I Palaeologus (1382-1407), brother of the emperor Manuel II (1391-1425). Through the observation of his reign in Morea, the reader can take a glimpse at the empire’s situation at the time, which was defined by the irreversible expansion of its enemies and the on-going dynastic struggles that led to the political, social and economic collapse of the Byzantine state.
Upon his arrival, Theodore had to cope with the rebellious Byzantine ruling class, who preferred their independence instead of abiding to the beadings of the central administration. That problem, still present until his death, forced him to make sporadic compromises and superficial coalitions, usually without benefit. Among his Latin allies were Nerio Acciaiuoli, the despot’s father-in-law, Venice and the Hospitallers of Rhodes.
Besides the Latins, whose help proved inadequate, Theodore turned to the swiftly rising Ottoman sultans. Although at first, the Ottomans suppressed the internal opposition of the despot, soon they became the most significant threat, not only for the Peloponnese, but for the rest of the failing Byzantine Empire. In the long run, Theodore, from an “ally” of Murād I (1361-1389), turned out to be a liegeman of Bāyezīd I (1389-1402).
This study, based on contemporary Byzantine sources and modern bibliography, aims to roughly present Theodore’s foreign affairs and his co-existence in the Peloponnese with the Latins and the Ottoman Turks, either as friends or as foes.
Conference Presentations by Nafsika Vassilopoulou
Female power was not a rarity in Byzantium since feudal impediments like the Salic law did not ap... more Female power was not a rarity in Byzantium since feudal impediments like the Salic law did not apply. Palaeologan empresses held a notable role in the state’s affairs, as numerous sources reveal, but did the wives of the despots of the Palaeologan Morea had a similar position?
The Despotate of Morea became a crucial outpost for the Palaeologan state, a domain that produced elaborate diplomacy and precious works of art within a failing state. Its rulers’ wives -Isabelle de Lusignan, Bartolomea Acciaiuoli, Cleopa Malatesta, Caterina Gattilusio to name a few- were foreign brides brought to serve purposes of a political agenda. However, while the written sources of the 13th and early 14th centuries are overflowing with information about the empresses, the despots’ wives of the 14th and 15th centuries are women concealed safely in the shadows.
This paper aims to explore the issue of female power in the Despotate of Morea through two different approaches. The first is to compare the βασίλισσαι of the Morea with women sovereigns of Latin Greece, a context that can illuminate several aspects of female authority in the Late Byzantine State and its vicinity. The second is to enquire into the concept of the power couple, already seen on occasion in imperial couples of Constantinople, but a doubtful occurrence for the Palaeologan Morea. The examination of historiography, along with vernacular chronicles, orations and documents, can unveil a more clear image of the ladies of the Morea.
Among the multiple utopias found in Byzantine sources it is the ideal of chivalry, a western noti... more Among the multiple utopias found in Byzantine sources it is the ideal of chivalry, a western notion inserted into Byzantine society after the Crusades, presented in various shapes and forms throughout the texts of the Late Byzantine era, but with solid foundations in the earlier centuries of the Empire and the Byzantine war ideology. Images of a ‘chivalrous’ society are present in Greek medieval accounts, especially when a vast majority of Greek-speaking population was under foreign rule from the early thirteenth century onwards. The new multicultural societies emerging from conquest were forged with the institutions of the feudal West, a concept widely recognised through the mercenaries and merchants traveling in Byzantium since the tenth century. This phenomenon is not limited in the contacts with the West. The long wars with the Arabs in the East created a hero-type, a defender of the frontier as depicted in the epic poem of Digenis Akritis. A number of texts provide us with examples of the inspirations for their literary heroes. Learned historiography and orations, but also vernacular chronicles and romances build their narratives around this model. Quite often literary characters reflect or introduce actual figures that embody the Byzantine war theory and the idea of valour, as well as imperial greatness and ideology. This paper aims to showcase the facets drawn from the Eastern and Western societies that led to the creation of a Byzantine ‘perfect knight’ on paper and its real-life inspirations, highlighting the social and historical framework.
The image of the emperor as a warrior is one of the long standing ideals of the byzantine world. ... more The image of the emperor as a warrior is one of the long standing ideals of the byzantine world. During the period from the 1250’s to the 1350’s, several different kinds of leaders ruled the empire, some born warriors and military minds, and others, awkward generals and unaccomplished fighters.
The byzantine imperial ideology imposes the archetype of a victor, a ruler blessed by God to win. That notion is also widespread through the early Palaeologan historiography, a basic genre of scholarly literature usually written by high-ranking officials. Even in case of defeat, the emperor always comes out as brave and glorious, the author praises his abilities and tries to diminish those of his enemies.
While the learned writers persevere in describing the Palaeologan emperors in the classical way, the vernacular texts accumulate and adopt new characteristics and attitudes of the changing late byzantine world. The values of the West, mainly chivalry and feudalism, play a significant role in popular literature, especially in texts that originate from latin-occupied Greek territories.
This paper aims to outline the image of the ruler using two aligned focal points. The byzantine rulers as the protagonists of literary genres, depicted in both historiographical works and vernacular texts, and the fictional figures who appear as their parallel. The information provided are useful in order to recreate the historical and social background of the period, and especially the importance of war, while acknowledging the interaction between cultures and peoples of the late medieval Mediterranean.
The Palaiologan romances are products of the new multicultural and extended world that was the M... more The Palaiologan romances are products of the new multicultural and extended world that was the Mediterranean from the 13th century onwards. Such a world not only benefits from co-existence but also suffers from conflict.
The vast majority of the Palaiologan romances, original or adapted, are tales of war and warriors, reflections of the empire’s constant foreign struggles and civil strifes. These narratives also combine facets of the Eastern and Western cultures, showing the interaction of peoples and societies. With war as key element in the romances, the descriptions of sieges, battles or single combats, praise the skills and valor of the protagonists. while fictional figures mirror actual rulers and soldiers featured in the historiographical texts of the same period, mixing feudalism, knights and byzantine warriors in the same story.
In many cases the line between reality and fiction is very thin. Vernacular literature often depicts the day-to-day evolution of society, since, as its language suggests, is written to address larger audiences, but historiography comes as a bearer of the official ideology, that began to fade away after the empire’s existence ended.
This paper aims to outline the presentation of war and warriors in the Palaiologan romances as standalone texts and their connection to historiography, while highlighting the influences that the Eastern and Western cultures had on these texts, as well as the perception of allies and rivals as part of the historical and social background of the romances. Also, a very preliminary comparison will be attempted with the 12th century epic poem of Digenis Akritis in order to discover common ground, if any.
In the complex environment of the Palaiologan world, a vernacular literary genre reemerges and fi... more In the complex environment of the Palaiologan world, a vernacular literary genre reemerges and finds its place in a scholarly literary society, providing a different glimpse into the Byzantine society and culture between the two falls of Constantinople.
Through the comparison between learned historiography and vernacular romance, a topic revisited time and again by several scholars, we can detect an abundance of historical information and comments on the Palaiologan society, that reveal a number of similar views, but also striking contradictions, especially about perceptions concerning ethnicity, political terminology and gender.
This presentation aims to report some of the final results of a three-year long analysis completed as part of the research programme “The World of the Palaiologan Romance”. The main focus is given to the interaction of historiography and romance, and the depiction of the Palaiologan state and society and the world around it.
The depiction of power and stately rule is a key element in the Palaiologan romances, in fact one... more The depiction of power and stately rule is a key element in the Palaiologan romances, in fact one of the most obvious and enticing to the reader. The noble men and women that appear in these texts, are usually a hybrid of the byzantine ruling class and the feudal lords of the West.
Although written in vernacular language, the authors and the audiences of the romances might have very well come from every part of the byzantine society. But do these texts reflect the actual circumstances of the Palaiologan world? And what is the interaction with the learned works and historiography?
Historiographers often portray a very different situation, not necessarily better or worse, but different nonetheless, in terms of politics, statesmanship and imperial ideology. Especially when it comes to male and female authority the vernacular and scholarly texts appear to share common ground, however many incompatibilities are also present, always depending on the timeframe, political situations, and social background.
This paper aims to outline the manner in which sovereignty is presented in the Palaiologan romances, especially when it combines byzantine and western elements, as well as the perception of female authority and power in the same context. A comparison with the texts of the period’s historiographers can also illuminate which parts of the romances echo the reality of the Palaiologan society and imperial ideology, and which can be attributed to external influences.
The 13th century is a quite significant period not only to its political aspects, but for the imp... more The 13th century is a quite significant period not only to its political aspects, but for the impact its events had on several literary texts. The romances emerge new and renovated after a long absence, while historiography has to deal with the shattering blow of the events of the Fourth Crusade.
The aim of this presentation is to examine whether the writers of romances composed during the 13th century (Livistros and Rodamni, War of Troy, Velthandros and Chrysantza) share the views of the principal historiographers of the period, namely George Acropolites and George Pachymeres, concerning the depiction of ethnic identity and how political terminology appears in both genres.
Ο κόσμος της Παλαιολόγειας μυθιστορίας. Αναπαραστάσεις του ατόμου και της κοινωνίας στα ελληνόφων... more Ο κόσμος της Παλαιολόγειας μυθιστορίας. Αναπαραστάσεις του ατόμου και της κοινωνίας στα ελληνόφωνα αφηγηματικά έργα της Ύστερης Μεσαιωνικής περιόδου (13ος - 15ος αι.). Μια διεπιστημονική προσέγγιση σε ζητήματα ταυτότητας, ετερότητας, έμφυλων ρόλων και ιδεολογίας
Η ερευνητική ομάδα φιλοδοξεί να μελετήσει τον τρόπο με τον οποίο οι άνθρωποι της παλαιολόγειας περιόδου έλεγαν ιστορίες, να ερμηνεύσει τι σήμαιναν οι ιστορίες αυτές για τους ίδιους και να εξετάσει το πώς αναπαρίσταναν την κοινωνική και ιστορική πραγματικότητα. Φιλοδοξεί επίσης να απαντήσει σε καίρια ερωτήματα που αφορούν στην κατασκευή της ατομικής και κοινωνικής ταυτότητας των ιστορικών υποκειμένων: τι πιστεύουν για τους ίδιους τους εαυτούς τους, ποιος είναι ο «άλλος» και τι τον καθιστά «ξένο»; Πώς κατασκευάζονται οι έμφυλοι ρόλοι, τι είναι ο «άνδρας», τι είναι η «γυναίκα» και ποια είναι τα κύρια ατομικά και κοινωνικά χαρακτηριστικά τους; Πώς επηρεάζει η αυτοκρατορική ιδεολογία τους λογοτεχνικούς ήρωες και ποιες είναι οι προεκτάσεις της στην καθημερινή ζωή; Υπάρχει κάποια σχέση μεταξύ της λογοτεχνίας και των εικαστικών τεχνών εκείνης της περιόδου; Τι μπορούν να μας αποκαλύψουν τα μυθιστορηματικά θέματα και μοτίβα, ή οι μυθιστορηματικοί χρονότοποι, για την καθημερινή ζωή και συμπεριφορά; Σε τι βαθμό ενεπλάκησαν οι λόγιοι της παλαιολόγειας περιόδου στην άνθηση της μυθιστορίας; Ποια ακριβώς σχέση μπορεί να υπάρχει μεταξύ των παλαιολόγειων μυθιστοριών και των μυθιστοριών της Λατινικής «Δύσης» ή της Αραβικής «Ανατολής»; Αυτά είναι ορισμένα από τα κύρια ερωτήματα στα οποία η παρούσα ερευνητική πρόταση αποσκοπεί να απαντήσει. Για τον σκοπό αυτόν θα υιοθετηθεί μια διεπιστημονική προσέγγιση. Από μεθοδολογική σκοπιά, διάφορα είδη πηγών θα επιχειρηθεί να συνεξεταστούν ώστε να παράσχουν μια ολική επισκόπηση της περιόδου. Ως εκ τούτου, ιστορικές αφηγήσεις, ρητορικά κείμενα (π.χ. κάτοπτρα ηγεμόνων) καθώς και αρχαιολογικές πηγές θα συνεξεταστούν και θα συγκριθούν με τις παλαιολόγειες μυθιστορίες. Μέσα από τη σύγκριση των μυθιστοριών μεταξύ τους αλλά και με διαφορετικού τύπου πηγές (αφηγηματικές ή μη), επιδιώκεται να αναδυθεί η αναπαράσταση του κόσμου της εποχής και να εισαχθεί ο αναγνώστης στα άδυτα μιας ρευστής και μεταβαλλόμενης ιστορικής πραγματικότητας: τη σταδιακή εδραίωση μιας πολυπολιτισμικής και πολύγλωσσης κοινωνίας.
Στον βυζαντινό και λατινοκρατούμενο ελληνικό χώρο, μετά την Άλωση του 1204, ο συγχρωτισμός με του... more Στον βυζαντινό και λατινοκρατούμενο ελληνικό χώρο, μετά την Άλωση του 1204, ο συγχρωτισμός με τους επήλυδες ‘επιχειρηματίες’ της Ευρώπης, καθώς και οι τεράστιες απώλειες εδαφών που υφίστανται οι ανώτερες τάξεις, οδηγεί στην ανεύρεση νέων πηγών πλουτισμού, και την ανάδειξη οικογενειών όπως οι Zaccaria, οι Gattilusi, οι Acciaiuoli κ.ά.
Η οικογένεια Zaccaria ήταν ακόμη μια οικογένεια προερχόμενη από την οικονομική άρχουσα τάξη της Γένουας, η οποία προσπαθεί, χωρίς ιδιαίτερη επιτυχία, να ανταγωνιστεί την μεγάλη αντίπαλό της, Βενετία, για την κυριαρχία στο εμπόριο της ανατολικής Μεσογείου.
Η σύνδεση της οικογένειας με το Βυζάντιο ξεκινά λίγο μετά τα μέσα του 13ου αιώνα, κατά την υπογραφή της συνθήκης του Νυμφαίου (1261), ενώ το 1275, ο Μιχαήλ Η΄ παραχώρησε στον Manuele Zaccaria την άδεια για εκμετάλλευση των ορυχείων στυπτηρίας στην περιοχή της Φώκαιας. Από το 1304 εως το 1329, η κυριαρχία της οικογένειας επεκτείνεται στη Χίο και τη Λέσβο, εντάσσοντας το εμπόριο της μαστίχας στην οικονομική αυτοκρατορίας τους.
Ταυτόχρονα, οι Zaccaria αναπτύσσουν στενότατους δεσμούς με την παποσύνη, εξασφαλίζοντας πολλαπλά οικονομικά προνόμια, ενώ αναλαμβάνουν στρατιωτική δράση εναντίον των Οθωμανών, εμφανιζόμενοι ως υπέρμαχοι της Χριστιανοσύνης. Στο απόγειο της, η εμπορική αυτοκρατορία των Zaccaria, έχει να επιδείξει μεγάλα οχυρωματικά έργα, πολλαπλές νομισματικές κοπές, σύνδεση με άλλες λατινικές οικογένειες του ελλαδικού χώρου και έντονη διπλωματική δραστηριότητα.
Η ιστορία της οικογένειας Zaccaria και η δράση της στον βυζαντινό χώρο είναι ενδεικτική μιας ολόκληρης ομάδας ανθρώπων που έδρασαν στην ανατολική Μεσόγειο κατά τον Ύστερο Μεσαίωνα, και παρουσιάζουν ένα καινούριο και πολύπλευρο κοινωνικό προφίλ.
The Crusaders coming to the East, led to significant changes, not only to the political status quo, but throughout public and private life. The economy, in particular, is transformed, since, besides traditional economic activities, new concepts were introduced in the Byzantine Empire, like credit. Branches of the commercial and banking families are settled in the East, where they can easily spread their influence and eliminate their competition.
In the Byzantine and Latin occupied Greece, after 1204, mingling with the newcomer ‘entrepreneurs’ from the West, as well as huge territorial losses that the local upper classes suffered, led to the adoption of new money-making endeavors and the rise of families like the Zaccaria, the Gattilusi, the Acciaiuoli etc.
The Zaccaria family came from the financial upper class of Genoa, a city trying to compete with Venice, for the eastern Mediterranean commerce. The family’s ties with Byzantium began shortly after the mid-13th century, during negotiations for the signing of the treaty of Nymphaion (1261). In 1275, the emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus (1259-1282) granted Manuele Zaccaria the right to exploit the alum mines in Phocaea. From 1304 to 1329, the family’s dominion was extended to the islands of Chios and Lesbos, adding the invaluable mastiha trade to their economic empire.
At the same time, the Zaccaria formed strong ties with the Papacy, securing multiple financial benefits, and undertook military action against the Ottomans, appearing as the defenders of Christianity in the region. To its apogee, the Zaccaria rule established great fortifications, issued currency, was connected with prominent families of the Latin Greece, and excelled as diplomats.
The history of the Zaccaria family and their activity is indicative of a larger group of people residing in the eastern Mediterranean in the Late Middle Ages, presenting a new and complex social profile.
The Palaeologan funeral orations belong to a unique literary species and can be used as a source ... more The Palaeologan funeral orations belong to a unique literary species and can be used as a source of historical information. To serve their purpose, funeral orations include vast amount of information about the life and career of the departed, including the emperors or other members of the imperial family.
The authors of the orations are some of the most renowned scholars of the late Byzantine period, like George Acropolites, Nicephorus Gregoras, Manuel II, Bessarion and George Gemistos-Plethon. Among the commemorated are Manuel’s brother, Theodore I and Cleopa Malatesta.
For the in-laws of the emperor, that are usually women of foreign lineage, their incorporation to the Byzantine society is a crucial issue sketched through religious belief, ethnic origin, and the influence of family and the political environment.
The comparison between orations that honour men with the ones addressed to women comes also as a significant factor.
Οι ψηφιακές ανθρωπιστικές επιστήμες, Digital Humanities, αποτελούν για την ελληνική πραγματικότητ... more Οι ψηφιακές ανθρωπιστικές επιστήμες, Digital Humanities, αποτελούν για την ελληνική πραγματικότητα ένα φαινόμενο των τελευταίων ετών. Ωστόσο, η ανάπτυξη του εν λόγω πεδίου διεθνώς, ήδη από τη δεκαετία του 1940, έχει προσφέρει νέες δυνατότητες και σημαντικά εργαλεία στους ερευνητές των ανθρωπιστικών επιστημών.
Με την παρούσα ανακοίνωση επιδίωξη των ομιλητών είναι να εκπληρωθούν δύο επιμέρους στόχοι. Ο πρώτος αφορά στη χαρτογράφηση του χώρου των Digital Humanities στην Ελλάδα, στα υπάρχοντα ψηφιακά εργαλεία για την ιστορική έρευνα και στη μελλοντική τους προοπτική.
Ο δεύτερος στόχος είναι να αποτυπωθεί η εμπειρία του προγράμματος “DARIAH–GR - Ανάπτυξη της Ελληνικής Ερευνητικής Υποδομής για τις Ανθρωπιστικές Επιστήμες ΔΥΑΣ”, μιας από τις πρώτες προσπάθειες για τη δημιουργία ψηφιακών πόρων για την έρευνα στις ανθρωπιστικές επιστήμες στην Ελλάδα με τη συνεργασία 6 ανώτατων εκπαιδευτικών, ερευνητικών και επιστημονικών ιδρυμάτων.
Μέσα από τις εμπειρίες των συμμετεχόντων σκιαγραφούνται ενδιαφέρουσες πτυχές του εγχειρήματος, οι δυσκολίες της υλοποίησής του, οι παράλληλες δραστηριότητες καθώς και τα μελλοντικά οφέλη.
Digital Humanities emerged in Greece as a phenomenon of the last decade. However, the international development of the field, as early as the 1940s, has offered new possibilities and important tools to the researchers of the Humanities.
With this presentation our aspiration is to fulfill two goals. The first is to map the Digital Humanities field in Greece, the existing digital tools for historical research and their future prospective.
The second is to capture the experience of working in the Greek Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities/DARIAH-GR, one of the first efforts to create digital resources about the Humanities through the cooperation of 6 prominent educational, research and scientific institutions.
Participants describe interesting aspects of the venture, the difficulties in its realization, parallel activities and expected benefits.
The aim of this paper is to roughly present the politics involved in the negotiation and realizat... more The aim of this paper is to roughly present the politics involved in the negotiation and realization of diplomatic nuptials. The matter is dealt mainly in two axes. The first is the imperial ideology and its place in the diplomatic strategy of political unions. To what extent was the imperial family willing to disregard nobles of “inferior birth” compared to the emperor? The second axe concerns the implications brought by the role of religion in the domestic and international relations of the Byzantine emperor. In which cases were the Palaeologi able to set aside obstacles raised by the civil and canon law? And how the empire was coping with the hesitation of Roman Catholic rulers, led by the Pope, to form lasting alliances with an Orthodox state?
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PhD Dissertation by Nafsika Vassilopoulou
Byzantine diplomacy and its means have always captured the interest of historians. The gentle manoeuvres of byzantine diplomats were in many occasions the reason of Byzantium’s survival for over a millennium. One of the most significant methods to avoid conflict or to create a firm coalition was the conclusion of a nuptial agreement with the powerful enemy or the desirable ally.
This study presents the strategy under which the weddings of the Palaeologan emperors, princes and aristocrats were designed. In a period of almost two centuries, nearly a hundred marital unions were negotiated. Some of them led to marriage, others to short or long engagements and others failed utterly. The grounds of this success or failure are also interesting for this thesis. Other parameters like dowry and religion are also being taken into consideration.
Of particular importance are other individual topics such as the foreign affairs of each emperor, the planning of these marriages on behalf of the Byzantines, the prosopographical elements concerning some of those «grooms» and «brides» and the benefits that the participants enjoyed from such diplomatic connections. Moreover, this study helps in presenting the liaisons of the Byzantine Empire with the dominant states of the Palaeologan era. Such states were the wealthy Italian maritime cities, the kingdoms of western and central Europe, the remaining crusader states in the Mediterranean, as well as the neighbouring Balkan and Turkish principalities.
The sources for the matter are ample and of various origins. Firstly, there are the works of byzantine historians and chronographers, many of those had immediate implication with the state bureaucracy. In addition to these texts, extremely helpful are the corpora of letters and documents survived to us. Treaties, letters of byzantine emperors, foreign kings, diplomats, ambassadors, state officials and clerics, patriarchal and monastic documents as well as local versed chronicles, support this research providing plenty of information. Last, but not least, archaeological facts complete the picture of the period.
All of the above portray thoroughly one of the key factors of the byzantine state and society; the diplomatic tactics, which in numerous cases achieved the endurance of the empire, even when there were described as scheming and intriguing.
Papers by Nafsika Vassilopoulou
Through the comparison between learned historiography and vernacular romance we can detect an abundance of historical information and reflections on the Palaiologan so- ciety, that reveal a number of similar views, but also striking contradictions, especially about perceptions concerning the turbulent relation between Byzantium and the West, a topic revisited time and again by several scholars.
This study aims to highlight some of the most prominent institutions and practices of the West that were incorporated into the Palaiologan society, and how they are represented in the literary genres of the Late Byzantine era, while exploring aspects like identity and gender. The cases analyzed include, but are not limited to, customs, legal regulations, means of entertainment and sports, as well as other feudal practices introduced into the Palaiologan state.
Byzantine authors use different methods to refer to these practices into their narrative, to comment, make a statement or criticize. This variety outlines perfectly the interaction of historiography and romance and their depiction of the Palaiologan milieu and the world around it.
Common ground of these palace coups and court conspiracies was violence, in same cases extreme violence, utilized as an instrument of politics.
A typical example is the case of the assassination of the Mouzalones brothers, in 1258, organized by the founder of the Palaeologan dynasty, Michael VIII. Upon Michael’s guidance, foreign mercenaries serving under his orders, murdered the protovestiarios George Mouzalon, regent of the young emperor John IV Laskaris, inside the monastery where the late emperor’s memorial service was held. That led Michael to become regent and co-emperor. A few months later, in a new display of violence, Michael blinded young John and remained sole ruler.
The incident of the Mouzalones is a textbook case of a political assassination following a long tradition throughout byzantine history. A young and ambitious aristocrat, supported in secret by some members of the land aristocracy and the clergy, plans the murder of his adversary towards power.
Through the study of these events our aim is to examine if, and in what extent, violence was deliberately used as a means of power, at first when Michael was trying to ascend to the throne and throughout the establishment of his dynasty. Other issues examined is the reaction of the Church, since the murder took place at a monastery, the social background of the main characters in this episode, as well as the use of violence as a policy until Michael VIII’s death.
The opposition of those economically and politically powerful persons, some of them being even members of the imperial family, played a decisive role to the progress of the communication between Byzantium and the West. Furthermore, it led the standing of Byzantine foreign affairs to decay and rendered futile the persistence of numerous emperors to achieve peace with the Holy See. This attitude had a serious impact on the credibility of the Empire and destroyed every hope the Byzantine rulers had of receiving aid against the Ottoman danger.
The purpose of this article is to present the causes of the aristocrats’ accession to the anti-unionist party and the consequences of their actions. This will be done through the parallel study of other religious movements, all bearing social and political characteristics, as it is given in the work of several Byzantine historians.
The protagonist of this paper is Theodore I Palaeologus (1382-1407), brother of the emperor Manuel II (1391-1425). Through the observation of his reign in Morea, the reader can take a glimpse at the empire’s situation at the time, which was defined by the irreversible expansion of its enemies and the on-going dynastic struggles that led to the political, social and economic collapse of the Byzantine state.
Upon his arrival, Theodore had to cope with the rebellious Byzantine ruling class, who preferred their independence instead of abiding to the beadings of the central administration. That problem, still present until his death, forced him to make sporadic compromises and superficial coalitions, usually without benefit. Among his Latin allies were Nerio Acciaiuoli, the despot’s father-in-law, Venice and the Hospitallers of Rhodes.
Besides the Latins, whose help proved inadequate, Theodore turned to the swiftly rising Ottoman sultans. Although at first, the Ottomans suppressed the internal opposition of the despot, soon they became the most significant threat, not only for the Peloponnese, but for the rest of the failing Byzantine Empire. In the long run, Theodore, from an “ally” of Murād I (1361-1389), turned out to be a liegeman of Bāyezīd I (1389-1402).
This study, based on contemporary Byzantine sources and modern bibliography, aims to roughly present Theodore’s foreign affairs and his co-existence in the Peloponnese with the Latins and the Ottoman Turks, either as friends or as foes.
Conference Presentations by Nafsika Vassilopoulou
The Despotate of Morea became a crucial outpost for the Palaeologan state, a domain that produced elaborate diplomacy and precious works of art within a failing state. Its rulers’ wives -Isabelle de Lusignan, Bartolomea Acciaiuoli, Cleopa Malatesta, Caterina Gattilusio to name a few- were foreign brides brought to serve purposes of a political agenda. However, while the written sources of the 13th and early 14th centuries are overflowing with information about the empresses, the despots’ wives of the 14th and 15th centuries are women concealed safely in the shadows.
This paper aims to explore the issue of female power in the Despotate of Morea through two different approaches. The first is to compare the βασίλισσαι of the Morea with women sovereigns of Latin Greece, a context that can illuminate several aspects of female authority in the Late Byzantine State and its vicinity. The second is to enquire into the concept of the power couple, already seen on occasion in imperial couples of Constantinople, but a doubtful occurrence for the Palaeologan Morea. The examination of historiography, along with vernacular chronicles, orations and documents, can unveil a more clear image of the ladies of the Morea.
The byzantine imperial ideology imposes the archetype of a victor, a ruler blessed by God to win. That notion is also widespread through the early Palaeologan historiography, a basic genre of scholarly literature usually written by high-ranking officials. Even in case of defeat, the emperor always comes out as brave and glorious, the author praises his abilities and tries to diminish those of his enemies.
While the learned writers persevere in describing the Palaeologan emperors in the classical way, the vernacular texts accumulate and adopt new characteristics and attitudes of the changing late byzantine world. The values of the West, mainly chivalry and feudalism, play a significant role in popular literature, especially in texts that originate from latin-occupied Greek territories.
This paper aims to outline the image of the ruler using two aligned focal points. The byzantine rulers as the protagonists of literary genres, depicted in both historiographical works and vernacular texts, and the fictional figures who appear as their parallel. The information provided are useful in order to recreate the historical and social background of the period, and especially the importance of war, while acknowledging the interaction between cultures and peoples of the late medieval Mediterranean.
The vast majority of the Palaiologan romances, original or adapted, are tales of war and warriors, reflections of the empire’s constant foreign struggles and civil strifes. These narratives also combine facets of the Eastern and Western cultures, showing the interaction of peoples and societies. With war as key element in the romances, the descriptions of sieges, battles or single combats, praise the skills and valor of the protagonists. while fictional figures mirror actual rulers and soldiers featured in the historiographical texts of the same period, mixing feudalism, knights and byzantine warriors in the same story.
In many cases the line between reality and fiction is very thin. Vernacular literature often depicts the day-to-day evolution of society, since, as its language suggests, is written to address larger audiences, but historiography comes as a bearer of the official ideology, that began to fade away after the empire’s existence ended.
This paper aims to outline the presentation of war and warriors in the Palaiologan romances as standalone texts and their connection to historiography, while highlighting the influences that the Eastern and Western cultures had on these texts, as well as the perception of allies and rivals as part of the historical and social background of the romances. Also, a very preliminary comparison will be attempted with the 12th century epic poem of Digenis Akritis in order to discover common ground, if any.
Through the comparison between learned historiography and vernacular romance, a topic revisited time and again by several scholars, we can detect an abundance of historical information and comments on the Palaiologan society, that reveal a number of similar views, but also striking contradictions, especially about perceptions concerning ethnicity, political terminology and gender.
This presentation aims to report some of the final results of a three-year long analysis completed as part of the research programme “The World of the Palaiologan Romance”. The main focus is given to the interaction of historiography and romance, and the depiction of the Palaiologan state and society and the world around it.
Although written in vernacular language, the authors and the audiences of the romances might have very well come from every part of the byzantine society. But do these texts reflect the actual circumstances of the Palaiologan world? And what is the interaction with the learned works and historiography?
Historiographers often portray a very different situation, not necessarily better or worse, but different nonetheless, in terms of politics, statesmanship and imperial ideology. Especially when it comes to male and female authority the vernacular and scholarly texts appear to share common ground, however many incompatibilities are also present, always depending on the timeframe, political situations, and social background.
This paper aims to outline the manner in which sovereignty is presented in the Palaiologan romances, especially when it combines byzantine and western elements, as well as the perception of female authority and power in the same context. A comparison with the texts of the period’s historiographers can also illuminate which parts of the romances echo the reality of the Palaiologan society and imperial ideology, and which can be attributed to external influences.
The aim of this presentation is to examine whether the writers of romances composed during the 13th century (Livistros and Rodamni, War of Troy, Velthandros and Chrysantza) share the views of the principal historiographers of the period, namely George Acropolites and George Pachymeres, concerning the depiction of ethnic identity and how political terminology appears in both genres.
Η ερευνητική ομάδα φιλοδοξεί να μελετήσει τον τρόπο με τον οποίο οι άνθρωποι της παλαιολόγειας περιόδου έλεγαν ιστορίες, να ερμηνεύσει τι σήμαιναν οι ιστορίες αυτές για τους ίδιους και να εξετάσει το πώς αναπαρίσταναν την κοινωνική και ιστορική πραγματικότητα. Φιλοδοξεί επίσης να απαντήσει σε καίρια ερωτήματα που αφορούν στην κατασκευή της ατομικής και κοινωνικής ταυτότητας των ιστορικών υποκειμένων: τι πιστεύουν για τους ίδιους τους εαυτούς τους, ποιος είναι ο «άλλος» και τι τον καθιστά «ξένο»; Πώς κατασκευάζονται οι έμφυλοι ρόλοι, τι είναι ο «άνδρας», τι είναι η «γυναίκα» και ποια είναι τα κύρια ατομικά και κοινωνικά χαρακτηριστικά τους; Πώς επηρεάζει η αυτοκρατορική ιδεολογία τους λογοτεχνικούς ήρωες και ποιες είναι οι προεκτάσεις της στην καθημερινή ζωή; Υπάρχει κάποια σχέση μεταξύ της λογοτεχνίας και των εικαστικών τεχνών εκείνης της περιόδου; Τι μπορούν να μας αποκαλύψουν τα μυθιστορηματικά θέματα και μοτίβα, ή οι μυθιστορηματικοί χρονότοποι, για την καθημερινή ζωή και συμπεριφορά; Σε τι βαθμό ενεπλάκησαν οι λόγιοι της παλαιολόγειας περιόδου στην άνθηση της μυθιστορίας; Ποια ακριβώς σχέση μπορεί να υπάρχει μεταξύ των παλαιολόγειων μυθιστοριών και των μυθιστοριών της Λατινικής «Δύσης» ή της Αραβικής «Ανατολής»; Αυτά είναι ορισμένα από τα κύρια ερωτήματα στα οποία η παρούσα ερευνητική πρόταση αποσκοπεί να απαντήσει. Για τον σκοπό αυτόν θα υιοθετηθεί μια διεπιστημονική προσέγγιση. Από μεθοδολογική σκοπιά, διάφορα είδη πηγών θα επιχειρηθεί να συνεξεταστούν ώστε να παράσχουν μια ολική επισκόπηση της περιόδου. Ως εκ τούτου, ιστορικές αφηγήσεις, ρητορικά κείμενα (π.χ. κάτοπτρα ηγεμόνων) καθώς και αρχαιολογικές πηγές θα συνεξεταστούν και θα συγκριθούν με τις παλαιολόγειες μυθιστορίες. Μέσα από τη σύγκριση των μυθιστοριών μεταξύ τους αλλά και με διαφορετικού τύπου πηγές (αφηγηματικές ή μη), επιδιώκεται να αναδυθεί η αναπαράσταση του κόσμου της εποχής και να εισαχθεί ο αναγνώστης στα άδυτα μιας ρευστής και μεταβαλλόμενης ιστορικής πραγματικότητας: τη σταδιακή εδραίωση μιας πολυπολιτισμικής και πολύγλωσσης κοινωνίας.
Η οικογένεια Zaccaria ήταν ακόμη μια οικογένεια προερχόμενη από την οικονομική άρχουσα τάξη της Γένουας, η οποία προσπαθεί, χωρίς ιδιαίτερη επιτυχία, να ανταγωνιστεί την μεγάλη αντίπαλό της, Βενετία, για την κυριαρχία στο εμπόριο της ανατολικής Μεσογείου.
Η σύνδεση της οικογένειας με το Βυζάντιο ξεκινά λίγο μετά τα μέσα του 13ου αιώνα, κατά την υπογραφή της συνθήκης του Νυμφαίου (1261), ενώ το 1275, ο Μιχαήλ Η΄ παραχώρησε στον Manuele Zaccaria την άδεια για εκμετάλλευση των ορυχείων στυπτηρίας στην περιοχή της Φώκαιας. Από το 1304 εως το 1329, η κυριαρχία της οικογένειας επεκτείνεται στη Χίο και τη Λέσβο, εντάσσοντας το εμπόριο της μαστίχας στην οικονομική αυτοκρατορίας τους.
Ταυτόχρονα, οι Zaccaria αναπτύσσουν στενότατους δεσμούς με την παποσύνη, εξασφαλίζοντας πολλαπλά οικονομικά προνόμια, ενώ αναλαμβάνουν στρατιωτική δράση εναντίον των Οθωμανών, εμφανιζόμενοι ως υπέρμαχοι της Χριστιανοσύνης. Στο απόγειο της, η εμπορική αυτοκρατορία των Zaccaria, έχει να επιδείξει μεγάλα οχυρωματικά έργα, πολλαπλές νομισματικές κοπές, σύνδεση με άλλες λατινικές οικογένειες του ελλαδικού χώρου και έντονη διπλωματική δραστηριότητα.
Η ιστορία της οικογένειας Zaccaria και η δράση της στον βυζαντινό χώρο είναι ενδεικτική μιας ολόκληρης ομάδας ανθρώπων που έδρασαν στην ανατολική Μεσόγειο κατά τον Ύστερο Μεσαίωνα, και παρουσιάζουν ένα καινούριο και πολύπλευρο κοινωνικό προφίλ.
The Crusaders coming to the East, led to significant changes, not only to the political status quo, but throughout public and private life. The economy, in particular, is transformed, since, besides traditional economic activities, new concepts were introduced in the Byzantine Empire, like credit. Branches of the commercial and banking families are settled in the East, where they can easily spread their influence and eliminate their competition.
In the Byzantine and Latin occupied Greece, after 1204, mingling with the newcomer ‘entrepreneurs’ from the West, as well as huge territorial losses that the local upper classes suffered, led to the adoption of new money-making endeavors and the rise of families like the Zaccaria, the Gattilusi, the Acciaiuoli etc.
The Zaccaria family came from the financial upper class of Genoa, a city trying to compete with Venice, for the eastern Mediterranean commerce. The family’s ties with Byzantium began shortly after the mid-13th century, during negotiations for the signing of the treaty of Nymphaion (1261). In 1275, the emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus (1259-1282) granted Manuele Zaccaria the right to exploit the alum mines in Phocaea. From 1304 to 1329, the family’s dominion was extended to the islands of Chios and Lesbos, adding the invaluable mastiha trade to their economic empire.
At the same time, the Zaccaria formed strong ties with the Papacy, securing multiple financial benefits, and undertook military action against the Ottomans, appearing as the defenders of Christianity in the region. To its apogee, the Zaccaria rule established great fortifications, issued currency, was connected with prominent families of the Latin Greece, and excelled as diplomats.
The history of the Zaccaria family and their activity is indicative of a larger group of people residing in the eastern Mediterranean in the Late Middle Ages, presenting a new and complex social profile.
The authors of the orations are some of the most renowned scholars of the late Byzantine period, like George Acropolites, Nicephorus Gregoras, Manuel II, Bessarion and George Gemistos-Plethon. Among the commemorated are Manuel’s brother, Theodore I and Cleopa Malatesta.
For the in-laws of the emperor, that are usually women of foreign lineage, their incorporation to the Byzantine society is a crucial issue sketched through religious belief, ethnic origin, and the influence of family and the political environment.
The comparison between orations that honour men with the ones addressed to women comes also as a significant factor.
Με την παρούσα ανακοίνωση επιδίωξη των ομιλητών είναι να εκπληρωθούν δύο επιμέρους στόχοι. Ο πρώτος αφορά στη χαρτογράφηση του χώρου των Digital Humanities στην Ελλάδα, στα υπάρχοντα ψηφιακά εργαλεία για την ιστορική έρευνα και στη μελλοντική τους προοπτική.
Ο δεύτερος στόχος είναι να αποτυπωθεί η εμπειρία του προγράμματος “DARIAH–GR - Ανάπτυξη της Ελληνικής Ερευνητικής Υποδομής για τις Ανθρωπιστικές Επιστήμες ΔΥΑΣ”, μιας από τις πρώτες προσπάθειες για τη δημιουργία ψηφιακών πόρων για την έρευνα στις ανθρωπιστικές επιστήμες στην Ελλάδα με τη συνεργασία 6 ανώτατων εκπαιδευτικών, ερευνητικών και επιστημονικών ιδρυμάτων.
Μέσα από τις εμπειρίες των συμμετεχόντων σκιαγραφούνται ενδιαφέρουσες πτυχές του εγχειρήματος, οι δυσκολίες της υλοποίησής του, οι παράλληλες δραστηριότητες καθώς και τα μελλοντικά οφέλη.
Digital Humanities emerged in Greece as a phenomenon of the last decade. However, the international development of the field, as early as the 1940s, has offered new possibilities and important tools to the researchers of the Humanities.
With this presentation our aspiration is to fulfill two goals. The first is to map the Digital Humanities field in Greece, the existing digital tools for historical research and their future prospective.
The second is to capture the experience of working in the Greek Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities/DARIAH-GR, one of the first efforts to create digital resources about the Humanities through the cooperation of 6 prominent educational, research and scientific institutions.
Participants describe interesting aspects of the venture, the difficulties in its realization, parallel activities and expected benefits.
Byzantine diplomacy and its means have always captured the interest of historians. The gentle manoeuvres of byzantine diplomats were in many occasions the reason of Byzantium’s survival for over a millennium. One of the most significant methods to avoid conflict or to create a firm coalition was the conclusion of a nuptial agreement with the powerful enemy or the desirable ally.
This study presents the strategy under which the weddings of the Palaeologan emperors, princes and aristocrats were designed. In a period of almost two centuries, nearly a hundred marital unions were negotiated. Some of them led to marriage, others to short or long engagements and others failed utterly. The grounds of this success or failure are also interesting for this thesis. Other parameters like dowry and religion are also being taken into consideration.
Of particular importance are other individual topics such as the foreign affairs of each emperor, the planning of these marriages on behalf of the Byzantines, the prosopographical elements concerning some of those «grooms» and «brides» and the benefits that the participants enjoyed from such diplomatic connections. Moreover, this study helps in presenting the liaisons of the Byzantine Empire with the dominant states of the Palaeologan era. Such states were the wealthy Italian maritime cities, the kingdoms of western and central Europe, the remaining crusader states in the Mediterranean, as well as the neighbouring Balkan and Turkish principalities.
The sources for the matter are ample and of various origins. Firstly, there are the works of byzantine historians and chronographers, many of those had immediate implication with the state bureaucracy. In addition to these texts, extremely helpful are the corpora of letters and documents survived to us. Treaties, letters of byzantine emperors, foreign kings, diplomats, ambassadors, state officials and clerics, patriarchal and monastic documents as well as local versed chronicles, support this research providing plenty of information. Last, but not least, archaeological facts complete the picture of the period.
All of the above portray thoroughly one of the key factors of the byzantine state and society; the diplomatic tactics, which in numerous cases achieved the endurance of the empire, even when there were described as scheming and intriguing.
Through the comparison between learned historiography and vernacular romance we can detect an abundance of historical information and reflections on the Palaiologan so- ciety, that reveal a number of similar views, but also striking contradictions, especially about perceptions concerning the turbulent relation between Byzantium and the West, a topic revisited time and again by several scholars.
This study aims to highlight some of the most prominent institutions and practices of the West that were incorporated into the Palaiologan society, and how they are represented in the literary genres of the Late Byzantine era, while exploring aspects like identity and gender. The cases analyzed include, but are not limited to, customs, legal regulations, means of entertainment and sports, as well as other feudal practices introduced into the Palaiologan state.
Byzantine authors use different methods to refer to these practices into their narrative, to comment, make a statement or criticize. This variety outlines perfectly the interaction of historiography and romance and their depiction of the Palaiologan milieu and the world around it.
Common ground of these palace coups and court conspiracies was violence, in same cases extreme violence, utilized as an instrument of politics.
A typical example is the case of the assassination of the Mouzalones brothers, in 1258, organized by the founder of the Palaeologan dynasty, Michael VIII. Upon Michael’s guidance, foreign mercenaries serving under his orders, murdered the protovestiarios George Mouzalon, regent of the young emperor John IV Laskaris, inside the monastery where the late emperor’s memorial service was held. That led Michael to become regent and co-emperor. A few months later, in a new display of violence, Michael blinded young John and remained sole ruler.
The incident of the Mouzalones is a textbook case of a political assassination following a long tradition throughout byzantine history. A young and ambitious aristocrat, supported in secret by some members of the land aristocracy and the clergy, plans the murder of his adversary towards power.
Through the study of these events our aim is to examine if, and in what extent, violence was deliberately used as a means of power, at first when Michael was trying to ascend to the throne and throughout the establishment of his dynasty. Other issues examined is the reaction of the Church, since the murder took place at a monastery, the social background of the main characters in this episode, as well as the use of violence as a policy until Michael VIII’s death.
The opposition of those economically and politically powerful persons, some of them being even members of the imperial family, played a decisive role to the progress of the communication between Byzantium and the West. Furthermore, it led the standing of Byzantine foreign affairs to decay and rendered futile the persistence of numerous emperors to achieve peace with the Holy See. This attitude had a serious impact on the credibility of the Empire and destroyed every hope the Byzantine rulers had of receiving aid against the Ottoman danger.
The purpose of this article is to present the causes of the aristocrats’ accession to the anti-unionist party and the consequences of their actions. This will be done through the parallel study of other religious movements, all bearing social and political characteristics, as it is given in the work of several Byzantine historians.
The protagonist of this paper is Theodore I Palaeologus (1382-1407), brother of the emperor Manuel II (1391-1425). Through the observation of his reign in Morea, the reader can take a glimpse at the empire’s situation at the time, which was defined by the irreversible expansion of its enemies and the on-going dynastic struggles that led to the political, social and economic collapse of the Byzantine state.
Upon his arrival, Theodore had to cope with the rebellious Byzantine ruling class, who preferred their independence instead of abiding to the beadings of the central administration. That problem, still present until his death, forced him to make sporadic compromises and superficial coalitions, usually without benefit. Among his Latin allies were Nerio Acciaiuoli, the despot’s father-in-law, Venice and the Hospitallers of Rhodes.
Besides the Latins, whose help proved inadequate, Theodore turned to the swiftly rising Ottoman sultans. Although at first, the Ottomans suppressed the internal opposition of the despot, soon they became the most significant threat, not only for the Peloponnese, but for the rest of the failing Byzantine Empire. In the long run, Theodore, from an “ally” of Murād I (1361-1389), turned out to be a liegeman of Bāyezīd I (1389-1402).
This study, based on contemporary Byzantine sources and modern bibliography, aims to roughly present Theodore’s foreign affairs and his co-existence in the Peloponnese with the Latins and the Ottoman Turks, either as friends or as foes.
The Despotate of Morea became a crucial outpost for the Palaeologan state, a domain that produced elaborate diplomacy and precious works of art within a failing state. Its rulers’ wives -Isabelle de Lusignan, Bartolomea Acciaiuoli, Cleopa Malatesta, Caterina Gattilusio to name a few- were foreign brides brought to serve purposes of a political agenda. However, while the written sources of the 13th and early 14th centuries are overflowing with information about the empresses, the despots’ wives of the 14th and 15th centuries are women concealed safely in the shadows.
This paper aims to explore the issue of female power in the Despotate of Morea through two different approaches. The first is to compare the βασίλισσαι of the Morea with women sovereigns of Latin Greece, a context that can illuminate several aspects of female authority in the Late Byzantine State and its vicinity. The second is to enquire into the concept of the power couple, already seen on occasion in imperial couples of Constantinople, but a doubtful occurrence for the Palaeologan Morea. The examination of historiography, along with vernacular chronicles, orations and documents, can unveil a more clear image of the ladies of the Morea.
The byzantine imperial ideology imposes the archetype of a victor, a ruler blessed by God to win. That notion is also widespread through the early Palaeologan historiography, a basic genre of scholarly literature usually written by high-ranking officials. Even in case of defeat, the emperor always comes out as brave and glorious, the author praises his abilities and tries to diminish those of his enemies.
While the learned writers persevere in describing the Palaeologan emperors in the classical way, the vernacular texts accumulate and adopt new characteristics and attitudes of the changing late byzantine world. The values of the West, mainly chivalry and feudalism, play a significant role in popular literature, especially in texts that originate from latin-occupied Greek territories.
This paper aims to outline the image of the ruler using two aligned focal points. The byzantine rulers as the protagonists of literary genres, depicted in both historiographical works and vernacular texts, and the fictional figures who appear as their parallel. The information provided are useful in order to recreate the historical and social background of the period, and especially the importance of war, while acknowledging the interaction between cultures and peoples of the late medieval Mediterranean.
The vast majority of the Palaiologan romances, original or adapted, are tales of war and warriors, reflections of the empire’s constant foreign struggles and civil strifes. These narratives also combine facets of the Eastern and Western cultures, showing the interaction of peoples and societies. With war as key element in the romances, the descriptions of sieges, battles or single combats, praise the skills and valor of the protagonists. while fictional figures mirror actual rulers and soldiers featured in the historiographical texts of the same period, mixing feudalism, knights and byzantine warriors in the same story.
In many cases the line between reality and fiction is very thin. Vernacular literature often depicts the day-to-day evolution of society, since, as its language suggests, is written to address larger audiences, but historiography comes as a bearer of the official ideology, that began to fade away after the empire’s existence ended.
This paper aims to outline the presentation of war and warriors in the Palaiologan romances as standalone texts and their connection to historiography, while highlighting the influences that the Eastern and Western cultures had on these texts, as well as the perception of allies and rivals as part of the historical and social background of the romances. Also, a very preliminary comparison will be attempted with the 12th century epic poem of Digenis Akritis in order to discover common ground, if any.
Through the comparison between learned historiography and vernacular romance, a topic revisited time and again by several scholars, we can detect an abundance of historical information and comments on the Palaiologan society, that reveal a number of similar views, but also striking contradictions, especially about perceptions concerning ethnicity, political terminology and gender.
This presentation aims to report some of the final results of a three-year long analysis completed as part of the research programme “The World of the Palaiologan Romance”. The main focus is given to the interaction of historiography and romance, and the depiction of the Palaiologan state and society and the world around it.
Although written in vernacular language, the authors and the audiences of the romances might have very well come from every part of the byzantine society. But do these texts reflect the actual circumstances of the Palaiologan world? And what is the interaction with the learned works and historiography?
Historiographers often portray a very different situation, not necessarily better or worse, but different nonetheless, in terms of politics, statesmanship and imperial ideology. Especially when it comes to male and female authority the vernacular and scholarly texts appear to share common ground, however many incompatibilities are also present, always depending on the timeframe, political situations, and social background.
This paper aims to outline the manner in which sovereignty is presented in the Palaiologan romances, especially when it combines byzantine and western elements, as well as the perception of female authority and power in the same context. A comparison with the texts of the period’s historiographers can also illuminate which parts of the romances echo the reality of the Palaiologan society and imperial ideology, and which can be attributed to external influences.
The aim of this presentation is to examine whether the writers of romances composed during the 13th century (Livistros and Rodamni, War of Troy, Velthandros and Chrysantza) share the views of the principal historiographers of the period, namely George Acropolites and George Pachymeres, concerning the depiction of ethnic identity and how political terminology appears in both genres.
Η ερευνητική ομάδα φιλοδοξεί να μελετήσει τον τρόπο με τον οποίο οι άνθρωποι της παλαιολόγειας περιόδου έλεγαν ιστορίες, να ερμηνεύσει τι σήμαιναν οι ιστορίες αυτές για τους ίδιους και να εξετάσει το πώς αναπαρίσταναν την κοινωνική και ιστορική πραγματικότητα. Φιλοδοξεί επίσης να απαντήσει σε καίρια ερωτήματα που αφορούν στην κατασκευή της ατομικής και κοινωνικής ταυτότητας των ιστορικών υποκειμένων: τι πιστεύουν για τους ίδιους τους εαυτούς τους, ποιος είναι ο «άλλος» και τι τον καθιστά «ξένο»; Πώς κατασκευάζονται οι έμφυλοι ρόλοι, τι είναι ο «άνδρας», τι είναι η «γυναίκα» και ποια είναι τα κύρια ατομικά και κοινωνικά χαρακτηριστικά τους; Πώς επηρεάζει η αυτοκρατορική ιδεολογία τους λογοτεχνικούς ήρωες και ποιες είναι οι προεκτάσεις της στην καθημερινή ζωή; Υπάρχει κάποια σχέση μεταξύ της λογοτεχνίας και των εικαστικών τεχνών εκείνης της περιόδου; Τι μπορούν να μας αποκαλύψουν τα μυθιστορηματικά θέματα και μοτίβα, ή οι μυθιστορηματικοί χρονότοποι, για την καθημερινή ζωή και συμπεριφορά; Σε τι βαθμό ενεπλάκησαν οι λόγιοι της παλαιολόγειας περιόδου στην άνθηση της μυθιστορίας; Ποια ακριβώς σχέση μπορεί να υπάρχει μεταξύ των παλαιολόγειων μυθιστοριών και των μυθιστοριών της Λατινικής «Δύσης» ή της Αραβικής «Ανατολής»; Αυτά είναι ορισμένα από τα κύρια ερωτήματα στα οποία η παρούσα ερευνητική πρόταση αποσκοπεί να απαντήσει. Για τον σκοπό αυτόν θα υιοθετηθεί μια διεπιστημονική προσέγγιση. Από μεθοδολογική σκοπιά, διάφορα είδη πηγών θα επιχειρηθεί να συνεξεταστούν ώστε να παράσχουν μια ολική επισκόπηση της περιόδου. Ως εκ τούτου, ιστορικές αφηγήσεις, ρητορικά κείμενα (π.χ. κάτοπτρα ηγεμόνων) καθώς και αρχαιολογικές πηγές θα συνεξεταστούν και θα συγκριθούν με τις παλαιολόγειες μυθιστορίες. Μέσα από τη σύγκριση των μυθιστοριών μεταξύ τους αλλά και με διαφορετικού τύπου πηγές (αφηγηματικές ή μη), επιδιώκεται να αναδυθεί η αναπαράσταση του κόσμου της εποχής και να εισαχθεί ο αναγνώστης στα άδυτα μιας ρευστής και μεταβαλλόμενης ιστορικής πραγματικότητας: τη σταδιακή εδραίωση μιας πολυπολιτισμικής και πολύγλωσσης κοινωνίας.
Η οικογένεια Zaccaria ήταν ακόμη μια οικογένεια προερχόμενη από την οικονομική άρχουσα τάξη της Γένουας, η οποία προσπαθεί, χωρίς ιδιαίτερη επιτυχία, να ανταγωνιστεί την μεγάλη αντίπαλό της, Βενετία, για την κυριαρχία στο εμπόριο της ανατολικής Μεσογείου.
Η σύνδεση της οικογένειας με το Βυζάντιο ξεκινά λίγο μετά τα μέσα του 13ου αιώνα, κατά την υπογραφή της συνθήκης του Νυμφαίου (1261), ενώ το 1275, ο Μιχαήλ Η΄ παραχώρησε στον Manuele Zaccaria την άδεια για εκμετάλλευση των ορυχείων στυπτηρίας στην περιοχή της Φώκαιας. Από το 1304 εως το 1329, η κυριαρχία της οικογένειας επεκτείνεται στη Χίο και τη Λέσβο, εντάσσοντας το εμπόριο της μαστίχας στην οικονομική αυτοκρατορίας τους.
Ταυτόχρονα, οι Zaccaria αναπτύσσουν στενότατους δεσμούς με την παποσύνη, εξασφαλίζοντας πολλαπλά οικονομικά προνόμια, ενώ αναλαμβάνουν στρατιωτική δράση εναντίον των Οθωμανών, εμφανιζόμενοι ως υπέρμαχοι της Χριστιανοσύνης. Στο απόγειο της, η εμπορική αυτοκρατορία των Zaccaria, έχει να επιδείξει μεγάλα οχυρωματικά έργα, πολλαπλές νομισματικές κοπές, σύνδεση με άλλες λατινικές οικογένειες του ελλαδικού χώρου και έντονη διπλωματική δραστηριότητα.
Η ιστορία της οικογένειας Zaccaria και η δράση της στον βυζαντινό χώρο είναι ενδεικτική μιας ολόκληρης ομάδας ανθρώπων που έδρασαν στην ανατολική Μεσόγειο κατά τον Ύστερο Μεσαίωνα, και παρουσιάζουν ένα καινούριο και πολύπλευρο κοινωνικό προφίλ.
The Crusaders coming to the East, led to significant changes, not only to the political status quo, but throughout public and private life. The economy, in particular, is transformed, since, besides traditional economic activities, new concepts were introduced in the Byzantine Empire, like credit. Branches of the commercial and banking families are settled in the East, where they can easily spread their influence and eliminate their competition.
In the Byzantine and Latin occupied Greece, after 1204, mingling with the newcomer ‘entrepreneurs’ from the West, as well as huge territorial losses that the local upper classes suffered, led to the adoption of new money-making endeavors and the rise of families like the Zaccaria, the Gattilusi, the Acciaiuoli etc.
The Zaccaria family came from the financial upper class of Genoa, a city trying to compete with Venice, for the eastern Mediterranean commerce. The family’s ties with Byzantium began shortly after the mid-13th century, during negotiations for the signing of the treaty of Nymphaion (1261). In 1275, the emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus (1259-1282) granted Manuele Zaccaria the right to exploit the alum mines in Phocaea. From 1304 to 1329, the family’s dominion was extended to the islands of Chios and Lesbos, adding the invaluable mastiha trade to their economic empire.
At the same time, the Zaccaria formed strong ties with the Papacy, securing multiple financial benefits, and undertook military action against the Ottomans, appearing as the defenders of Christianity in the region. To its apogee, the Zaccaria rule established great fortifications, issued currency, was connected with prominent families of the Latin Greece, and excelled as diplomats.
The history of the Zaccaria family and their activity is indicative of a larger group of people residing in the eastern Mediterranean in the Late Middle Ages, presenting a new and complex social profile.
The authors of the orations are some of the most renowned scholars of the late Byzantine period, like George Acropolites, Nicephorus Gregoras, Manuel II, Bessarion and George Gemistos-Plethon. Among the commemorated are Manuel’s brother, Theodore I and Cleopa Malatesta.
For the in-laws of the emperor, that are usually women of foreign lineage, their incorporation to the Byzantine society is a crucial issue sketched through religious belief, ethnic origin, and the influence of family and the political environment.
The comparison between orations that honour men with the ones addressed to women comes also as a significant factor.
Με την παρούσα ανακοίνωση επιδίωξη των ομιλητών είναι να εκπληρωθούν δύο επιμέρους στόχοι. Ο πρώτος αφορά στη χαρτογράφηση του χώρου των Digital Humanities στην Ελλάδα, στα υπάρχοντα ψηφιακά εργαλεία για την ιστορική έρευνα και στη μελλοντική τους προοπτική.
Ο δεύτερος στόχος είναι να αποτυπωθεί η εμπειρία του προγράμματος “DARIAH–GR - Ανάπτυξη της Ελληνικής Ερευνητικής Υποδομής για τις Ανθρωπιστικές Επιστήμες ΔΥΑΣ”, μιας από τις πρώτες προσπάθειες για τη δημιουργία ψηφιακών πόρων για την έρευνα στις ανθρωπιστικές επιστήμες στην Ελλάδα με τη συνεργασία 6 ανώτατων εκπαιδευτικών, ερευνητικών και επιστημονικών ιδρυμάτων.
Μέσα από τις εμπειρίες των συμμετεχόντων σκιαγραφούνται ενδιαφέρουσες πτυχές του εγχειρήματος, οι δυσκολίες της υλοποίησής του, οι παράλληλες δραστηριότητες καθώς και τα μελλοντικά οφέλη.
Digital Humanities emerged in Greece as a phenomenon of the last decade. However, the international development of the field, as early as the 1940s, has offered new possibilities and important tools to the researchers of the Humanities.
With this presentation our aspiration is to fulfill two goals. The first is to map the Digital Humanities field in Greece, the existing digital tools for historical research and their future prospective.
The second is to capture the experience of working in the Greek Digital Research Infrastructure for the Arts and Humanities/DARIAH-GR, one of the first efforts to create digital resources about the Humanities through the cooperation of 6 prominent educational, research and scientific institutions.
Participants describe interesting aspects of the venture, the difficulties in its realization, parallel activities and expected benefits.
Κοινή συνισταμένη των στάσεων και των αυλικών συνωμοσιών είναι η βία, σε κάποιες περιπτώσεις μάλιστα η ακραία βία, την οποία βλέπουμε να χρησιμοποιείται ως εργαλείο άσκησης πολιτικής.
´Ενα χαρακτηριστικό παράδειγμα είναι η περίπτωση της δολοφονίας των Μουζαλώνων, το 1258, η οποία οργανώθηκε από τον ιδρυτή της δυναστείας των Παλαιολόγων, Μιχαήλ Η'. Υπό την καθοδήγηση του Μιχαήλ, οι ξένοι μισθοφόροι των οποίων ο Παλαιολόγος ήταν επικεφαλής δολοφονούν τον πρωτοβεστιάριο Γεώργιο Μουζάλωνα, επίτροπο του ανήλικου αυτοκράτορα Ιωάννη Δ΄. Η πράξη αυτή οδήγησε τον Μιχαήλ Η´ στη θέση του αυτοκρατορικού επιτρόπου και συμβασιλέα. Λίγους μήνες αργότερα, με μια νέα πράξη βίας, ο Μιχαήλ τυφλώνει τον νεαρό αυτοκράτορα και μένει μοναδικός ηγεμόνας.
Στόχος της παρούσας ανακοίνωσης είναι να εξεταστεί αν και σε ποιο βαθμό η βία σκόπιμα χρησιμοποιήθηκε ως μέσο εξουσίας κατά την προσπάθεια, αφενός της ανάδειξης του Μιχαήλ Η΄ στον αυτοκρατορικό θρόνο και αφετέρου της εδραίωσης της δυναστείας των Παλαιολόγων.
Το 1415, ο αυτοκράτορας Μανουήλ Β΄ Παλαιολόγος ταξίδεψε στην Πελοπόννησο με στόχο την επισκευή του Εξαμιλίου τείχους. Τα σχέδιά του προσπάθησε να εμποδίσει η τοπική άρχουσα τάξη. Επιδιδόμενος σε πλήθος πολεμικών επιχειρήσεων, με αποκορύφωμα τη νίκη του στη Μαντίνεια της Μεσσηνίας, και με σύμμαχο του τον κόμη της Κεφαλλονιάς Κάρολο I Tocco, ο Μανουήλ κατάφερε να εξαλείψει τις αντιδράσεις των γηγενών αρχόντων.
Με την παρούσα ανακοίνωση τίθεται ως στόχος η εξέταση της διαμάχης μεταξύ των Πελοποννησίων αρχόντων και των Παλαιολόγων μέσα στο πλαίσιο των γεγονότων του 1415, καθώς και η αυτοκρατορική πολιτική στον Μορέα κατά τα έτη που ακολούθησαν.
Εκτός των όσων περιγράφονται στις πηγές της εποχής, ως βάση για τη μελέτη θα χρησιμοποιηθούν και οι απόψεις των Giuseppe Schirò και John Barker, οι οποίοι είχαν ασχοληθεί με το θέμα σε παλαιότερα άρθρα τους.
The study of the diplomatic marriages of the Palaeologi provides information about foreign policies and international relations. Nearly a hundred cases of proposals, betrothals and marriages compose the image of Byzantium between the 13th and the 15th centuries and its interaction with Central and Western Europe, the Italian maritime cities, the lands of the Balkans, the Mongols and the Ottomans.
In addition, several other issues emerge through the research of royal weddings, such as the dowry, implications concerning canon law and doctrine, and the role of the Church. Last but not least, appear the protagonists of the subject, hundreds of men and women involved in these intermarriages that either left their mark in history or occupied a few lines in the works of Byzantine authors.
The Byzantine Empire, throughout its over-millennial history, has a lot of “Histories of War” to tell. The main protagonist was clearly its army. However, depending on the military needs and political conditions, foreign armies were used coming from various ethnic teams. Mercenaries were either auxiliary or the main body of the Byzantine army. Their contribution in several Byzantine victories during the Middle Byzantine period made them even more important for the crumbling empire of the later years who couldn’t afford them any more. This presentation aims to discuss the matter of mercenary troops used by the Byzantines and examine their role. The time frame of the transition from the Middle to the Late Byzantine period will allow us to explore different issues related to the meaning of the term “mercenary”, the evolution of the role of mercenary corps but also the range of forms in which they appear in contemporary Byzantine accounts, from the Varangians of the imperial guard to the notorious “Companies” of foreign warriors. Obviously, these professional soldiers influenced the Empire not only in the military field, but in the economic and social as well. Although this presentation does not aspire to analyse the consequences of hiring mercenaries, we believe we can reveal the needs and circumstances that made necessary the recruitment-hiring of mercenary corps and war professionals.
Modern research has pointed out that this was far from the truth and the necessary proof derives from the lives and conduct of the imperial women. Literate, patrons of the art, founders and supporters of convents and very much engaged in political and religious affairs, women such as Helene Kantakouzene, Theodora Raoulaina and Irene Choumnaina were cases in point.
Yet, the majority of the imperial brides were foreigners. Women brought to Constantinople through diplomatic arrangements, born and raised in a completely different environment, culture and lifestyle. Although they tried to adopt the fortitude and independence of their greek-born counterparts and showed extreme persistence, they failed. Women like Yolande de Montferrat and Anne of Savoy were consumed in their self-conflict between eastern practices and western attitudes, while Helene Dragas was one of the exceptions that prove the rule.
Why was it so difficult for these women to be incorporated into the byzantine society? Was it their fault or the hostility of the imperial court is to be blamed? The fact that the ethnicity of the bride to be was dictated by political and foreign policy considerations has been suggested by byzantine sources and modern works, as well as the reasons of the observed difference between native and Latin origin empresses.