Cristiano Iaia
As a researcher, I have received train at the school of Protohistory of the "La Sapienza" University of Rome. Still, the continuous dialogue with anglophone academic environments and my work experiences in the UK partly guided the methodological and theoretical principles based on a basic eclecticism that I adopt in dealing with archaeological themes.
Over the years, my specialized interests have mainly turned to the archaeology of the metal ages in Italy from a broader perspective of European prehistory/protohistory.
Main research topics:
- Civilization of the Italian early Iron Age, with particular regard to those of mid-Tyrrhenian Italy (Etruria, Latium Vetus)
- Urbanization processes in protohistoric Italy (10th-6th centuries BC)
- Copper-based metallurgy, technological aspects and its social and economic implications in late prehistory, with particular regard to the Neo-Eneolithic origins of metallurgical production and the Late Bronze-Early Iron Ages;
- Contacts and exchanges between Italy and temperate Europe in the early Iron Age (10th-6th centuries BC)
- Funeral rituals and ideology in Italy in the Final Bronze/early Iron Ages
- Origins of the consumption of alcoholic beverages and their reflections in the material culture of protohistoric Italy
Over the years, my specialized interests have mainly turned to the archaeology of the metal ages in Italy from a broader perspective of European prehistory/protohistory.
Main research topics:
- Civilization of the Italian early Iron Age, with particular regard to those of mid-Tyrrhenian Italy (Etruria, Latium Vetus)
- Urbanization processes in protohistoric Italy (10th-6th centuries BC)
- Copper-based metallurgy, technological aspects and its social and economic implications in late prehistory, with particular regard to the Neo-Eneolithic origins of metallurgical production and the Late Bronze-Early Iron Ages;
- Contacts and exchanges between Italy and temperate Europe in the early Iron Age (10th-6th centuries BC)
- Funeral rituals and ideology in Italy in the Final Bronze/early Iron Ages
- Origins of the consumption of alcoholic beverages and their reflections in the material culture of protohistoric Italy
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Recently published papers by Cristiano Iaia
Communities that populated what is nowadays Central Italy underwent profound changes during this period
forming more complex societies, developing proto-urban and urban centres, and incorporating into a wide trade
network of the Mediterranean Sea and beyond. Glass objects in that small region are frequently found in burial
sites dated to the first half of the first millennium BCE, with small blue beads with simple ring eyes being among
the most abundant types. Fifty-six objects of this type (both whole beads and fragments) were studied with a noninvasive
approach by means of Optical Microscopy, Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy, and portable X-ray
Fluorescence spectroscopy. The analyses were conducted at the Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia and at
the Museo delle Civilt`a (both in Rome, Italy). Five samples from the main set were also analysed with a Scanning
Electron Microscope coupled to an Energy Dispersive Spectrometer. The data gave preliminary information on
the raw materials used to prepare the glass, the manufacturing techniques, and offered some hints to (tentatively)
locate the region of provenance. In particular, the analyses established that the beads are soda-lime-silica glass
and the source of cobalt, used as the blue colorant, could be an ore from Egypt. Within this general frame, a
smaller group showed a different compositional pattern. These preliminary results contribute new knowledge for
tracing exchange routes within the Mediterranean during the Iron Age.
for prehistoric Italian metalwork, c.4500-2100 BC, which these authors
developed as part of the EU-funded TEMPI project, 2015-2017. The research is grounded in a critical reclassification of early copper-alloy axes, daggers and halberds; a reassessment of metal-rich burial assemblages from northern and peninsular Italy, organised into geographically and chronological coherent groupings; and an evaluation and Bayesian statistical modelling of radiocarbon dates from metal-rich burials, integrated by fresh AMS determinations and typological
comparisons with selected non-Italian metalwork. Thus reassessed and
modelled, the data have enabled these authors to suggest that early Italian metalwork could newly be organised into five discrete horizons charting the evolution of copper-alloy technology and object design over two and a half millennia. The research contributes to a 50-year-long debate that has engaged some of the foremost specialists in later Italian prehistory and provides solid ground on which future research on early Italian metallurgy can build.
Books by Cristiano Iaia
In the first chapter is a brief account of the important works on this topic by German-speaking scholars (G. von Merhart, H. Müller Karpe, A. Jockenhövel), who first noticed the strong connection between the Italic toreutic production and Central Europe. The second chapter is devoted to an overview of sheet bronze manufacture techniques from the points of view of metal composition, hammering of laminas, decoration and assembly, sheet width etc. The central chapters are dedicated to object classification and contextualization: helmets, and shields in chapter 3, and banquet and funerary vessels (biconical vases, cups and bowls) in chapter 4. In the end section bronze armour and vessels are analyzed in their original funerary context (warriors' graves) and then their ideological and symbolical meaning is investigated. The last chapter is entirely devoted to the discussion of economic aspects such as the identification of production centers and workshops, social status of craftsmen, and circulation of goods. I stress the emergence since the 9th century BC of local workshops centered in southern Etruria, especially at Tarquinia and surrounding centres. During the late Early Iron Age (8th century BC) a rising market exchange system can be postulated for small objects such as cups, whose production becomes more and more standardized . These phenomena of production standardization and production increase are related to the urbanization process of Etruria and surrounding areas in the Early Iron Age.
Papers by Cristiano Iaia
The Late Bronze Age (1700-900 BC) represents an extremely dynamic period for Mediterranean Europe. Here, we provide a comparative survey of the archaeological record of over half a millennium within the entire northern littoral of the Mediterranean, from Greece to Iberia, incorporating archaeological, archaeometric, and bioarchaeological evidence. The picture that emerges, while certainly fragmented and not displaying a unique trajectory, reveals a number of broad trends in aspects as different as social organization, trade, transcultural phenomena, and human mobility. The contribution of such trends to the processes that caused the end of the Bronze Age is also examined. Taken together, they illustrate how networks of interaction, ranging from the short to the long range, became a defining aspect of the "Middle Sea" during this time, influencing the lives of the communities that inhabited its northern shore. They also highlight the importance of research that crosses modern boundaries for gaining a better understanding of broad comparable dynamics.
the stages of shaping/forging/finishing of artefacts, but also in their maintenance (such as the sharpening of blades) and recycling (fragmentation, cutting etc.). This means putting a particular emphasis on a substantial portion, merely in terms of duration and intensity, of the technical sequence of metallurgical production, which studies in Italy have rarely dealt with. The conceptual as well operational framework of such a survey is that of chaîne opératoire, which is further articulated in order to adapt to the nature of ancient metallurgical practice. Beside the catalogue of artefacts made from stone, and those manufactured with copper-based alloys, a classification work has been carried out, to elucidate their morphological, and hopefully functional and technical features. Their dependence on the type of used material (rocks of various nature, metal) is also assessed. Through a comparative approach, the classification integrates, where possible, the few analytical studies on the use-wear of stone tools in protohistoric times, direct macroscopic observations made from the author and the outcomes of experimental practices. In order to further support the functional interpretation, the occurrence of different classes of percussion instruments in archaeological contexts with more or less explicit links to the metallurgical industry, both in Italy and in other European areas, has been critically examined.
Communities that populated what is nowadays Central Italy underwent profound changes during this period
forming more complex societies, developing proto-urban and urban centres, and incorporating into a wide trade
network of the Mediterranean Sea and beyond. Glass objects in that small region are frequently found in burial
sites dated to the first half of the first millennium BCE, with small blue beads with simple ring eyes being among
the most abundant types. Fifty-six objects of this type (both whole beads and fragments) were studied with a noninvasive
approach by means of Optical Microscopy, Fibre Optics Reflectance Spectroscopy, and portable X-ray
Fluorescence spectroscopy. The analyses were conducted at the Museo Nazionale Etrusco di Villa Giulia and at
the Museo delle Civilt`a (both in Rome, Italy). Five samples from the main set were also analysed with a Scanning
Electron Microscope coupled to an Energy Dispersive Spectrometer. The data gave preliminary information on
the raw materials used to prepare the glass, the manufacturing techniques, and offered some hints to (tentatively)
locate the region of provenance. In particular, the analyses established that the beads are soda-lime-silica glass
and the source of cobalt, used as the blue colorant, could be an ore from Egypt. Within this general frame, a
smaller group showed a different compositional pattern. These preliminary results contribute new knowledge for
tracing exchange routes within the Mediterranean during the Iron Age.
for prehistoric Italian metalwork, c.4500-2100 BC, which these authors
developed as part of the EU-funded TEMPI project, 2015-2017. The research is grounded in a critical reclassification of early copper-alloy axes, daggers and halberds; a reassessment of metal-rich burial assemblages from northern and peninsular Italy, organised into geographically and chronological coherent groupings; and an evaluation and Bayesian statistical modelling of radiocarbon dates from metal-rich burials, integrated by fresh AMS determinations and typological
comparisons with selected non-Italian metalwork. Thus reassessed and
modelled, the data have enabled these authors to suggest that early Italian metalwork could newly be organised into five discrete horizons charting the evolution of copper-alloy technology and object design over two and a half millennia. The research contributes to a 50-year-long debate that has engaged some of the foremost specialists in later Italian prehistory and provides solid ground on which future research on early Italian metallurgy can build.
In the first chapter is a brief account of the important works on this topic by German-speaking scholars (G. von Merhart, H. Müller Karpe, A. Jockenhövel), who first noticed the strong connection between the Italic toreutic production and Central Europe. The second chapter is devoted to an overview of sheet bronze manufacture techniques from the points of view of metal composition, hammering of laminas, decoration and assembly, sheet width etc. The central chapters are dedicated to object classification and contextualization: helmets, and shields in chapter 3, and banquet and funerary vessels (biconical vases, cups and bowls) in chapter 4. In the end section bronze armour and vessels are analyzed in their original funerary context (warriors' graves) and then their ideological and symbolical meaning is investigated. The last chapter is entirely devoted to the discussion of economic aspects such as the identification of production centers and workshops, social status of craftsmen, and circulation of goods. I stress the emergence since the 9th century BC of local workshops centered in southern Etruria, especially at Tarquinia and surrounding centres. During the late Early Iron Age (8th century BC) a rising market exchange system can be postulated for small objects such as cups, whose production becomes more and more standardized . These phenomena of production standardization and production increase are related to the urbanization process of Etruria and surrounding areas in the Early Iron Age.
The Late Bronze Age (1700-900 BC) represents an extremely dynamic period for Mediterranean Europe. Here, we provide a comparative survey of the archaeological record of over half a millennium within the entire northern littoral of the Mediterranean, from Greece to Iberia, incorporating archaeological, archaeometric, and bioarchaeological evidence. The picture that emerges, while certainly fragmented and not displaying a unique trajectory, reveals a number of broad trends in aspects as different as social organization, trade, transcultural phenomena, and human mobility. The contribution of such trends to the processes that caused the end of the Bronze Age is also examined. Taken together, they illustrate how networks of interaction, ranging from the short to the long range, became a defining aspect of the "Middle Sea" during this time, influencing the lives of the communities that inhabited its northern shore. They also highlight the importance of research that crosses modern boundaries for gaining a better understanding of broad comparable dynamics.
the stages of shaping/forging/finishing of artefacts, but also in their maintenance (such as the sharpening of blades) and recycling (fragmentation, cutting etc.). This means putting a particular emphasis on a substantial portion, merely in terms of duration and intensity, of the technical sequence of metallurgical production, which studies in Italy have rarely dealt with. The conceptual as well operational framework of such a survey is that of chaîne opératoire, which is further articulated in order to adapt to the nature of ancient metallurgical practice. Beside the catalogue of artefacts made from stone, and those manufactured with copper-based alloys, a classification work has been carried out, to elucidate their morphological, and hopefully functional and technical features. Their dependence on the type of used material (rocks of various nature, metal) is also assessed. Through a comparative approach, the classification integrates, where possible, the few analytical studies on the use-wear of stone tools in protohistoric times, direct macroscopic observations made from the author and the outcomes of experimental practices. In order to further support the functional interpretation, the occurrence of different classes of percussion instruments in archaeological contexts with more or less explicit links to the metallurgical industry, both in Italy and in other European areas, has been critically examined.
In the initial stages of the Iron Age the connections were mainly oriented towards central and northern Europe on the one hand, and the great Tyrrhenian island of Sardinia on the other. Most relationships were centered on the metal trade, but possibly a considerable role may have been played by other raw materials, such as amber. Connections with continental Europe were associated with the wide diffusion of bronze artifact typologies, such as antenna swords, elements of armor and ceremonial vessels, presumably transmitted by foreign smiths in the service of local elites. Relations with the Nuragic civilization, monopolized by maritime north-central Etruria, were of a different nature, involving imports of small bronze objects and a specific kind of ritual pottery vessel, the askoid jug, which was also locally imitated by Sardinian immigrants.
In the late ninth and eighth centuries, in association with the reactivation of Mediterranean colonial movements and trade, central Tyrrhenian Italy started a new cycle of contacts, mainly with people of the Near East (Levantine, Phoenician) and Greeks.
Oriental goods, especially luxury items, such as ornaments and bronze cups, but also painted ceramics of Greek manufacture, were increasingly traded. Acceleration of relationships occurred around the mid eighth century, when the foundation of trading posts and colonies by Euboeans and Phoenicians (such as Pithekoussai and Sulcis) fostered the immigration of oriental craftsmen and the transmission of exotic material culture patterns, linked to the areas of commensal practices and power imagery.
Ceramics include handmade vessels (chiefly biconical funerary urns and their lids) ornamented with geometric patterns in the Villanovan style, as well as more specialized vessels decorated with metal stripes. Only in the advanced Early Iron Age 2 (eighth century) were wheel-made ceramics introduced under the influence of immigrant Greek potters.
The best-known handicraft in Iron Age Etruria is bronze working, a productive field that encompasses a broad range of artifact classes and shapes. Indirect evidence from the study of artifacts attests to specific stages in the metalworking process, demonstrating a high level of specialization and complexity in the organization of labor. The great variability of formal features and techniques, and the different levels of elaboration in Villanovan bronze production are exemplified by cast objects, such as fibulae and weapons (swords), and by hammered items such as sheet bronze armor and vessels. Sheet bronze production is considered particularly representative of the high level of Villanovan craftsmanship and of the close connection between metalwork and the display expressions of new elites within the proto-urban communities. It is also pointed out how iron production, though giving the name to the period, did not become especially important in local economies before the mid eighth century. Other minor materials, especially amber, gained great importance in the framework of elite consumption and trade, which led to a highly sophisticated production of ornaments and symbolic items in the latest stages of this period.
"Working tools in burials of the Italian Iron Age"
In this paper I address the issue of the presence of working tools found in burials of the Italian Iron Age. A typical phenomenon of the burials of the 8th and 7th centuries BC in some areas of Italy (especially Etruria, Veneto, southern Italy) is the appearance of tools seemingly linked to woodworking, but also to agriculture. They include mainly chisels, saws, axes and sickles, sometimes reciprocally associated to make up sets; another remarkable feature is their presence especially in male burials of the aristocratic elite, in many cases belonging to paramount individuals, or ‘princes’. There are various questions that I discuss. First: why are this kind of burials so rare during the Bronze Age and start to receive a decisively greater importance in Iron Age? Second: are they linked to the emergence of a different role of some groups of productive workers? And to what kind of workers do they belong? This funerary aspect is concurrent with the increasing appearance, in contemporary burials, of finely-decorated wooden luxury furniture as well as wooden vessels for ceremonial banqueting. Some scholars have compared this material with the textual and archaeological data from the Archaic Greece, for example the detailed references to woodworking activities by aristoi and other dominant social groups in Homer’s Odyssey and Hesiod’s Works and Days. On the basis of these data and observations I point out the emergence, in the symbolism of funerary representation, of leading social figures encompassing military functions (weapons) and references to an active and managerial function in subsistence and specialized production (tools for woodworking and agriculture).
This paper addresses some aspects of ritualized commensality in the early stages of the Iron Age in Middle-Tyrrhenian Italy, by focusing on the variable configurations shown by the material culture linked to the consumption of alcohol or other elaborate beverages. Point of departure is the recognition of the political importance of commensality (either having at its centre alcoholic beverages or food) for most complex societies, as stressed by authors like A. Sherratt, M. Dietler and B. Arnold. A strong emphasis on drinking practices and secondarily on meat consumption is seen especially from the rich burial record of Etruria and the nearby region of Latium vetus, with a particular emergence of this phenomenon in the second phase of the EIA in South Etruria. Contrary to the common assumption that links sets of vases for consuming/serving alcohol mainly to the aristocratic warrior ethos, there appears a diversified distribution of drinking assemblages in graves belonging to both genders and to a wider range of social positions. The lavishness of many elite burials richly furnished with metal drinking equipments, both male and female, will be contrasted with the occurrence of many non-elite, or ‘sub-elite’ burials provided with specific classes of exotic ceramics or isolated bronze vessels for consuming liquids. Thus the possible existence of distinct levels of consumption of wine, expressed through the adoption of different kinds of material culture linked to specific rules of drinking etiquette, will be discussed.
societies, a crucial moment in social life. In the light of recent discoveries in the archaeobotanical field, this paper uses a comparative approach to reassess some examples from Bronze Age contexts, which have been selected for the quality of the data available. The case studies are located in Emilia and Calabria, in northern and southern Italy respectively. Special attention is paid to the formation of new material manifestations linked to ceremonial drinking customs in different areas of the peninsula during the recent Bronze Age (1300-1150 BC), a period of rapid socio-economic change and broad geo-political crisis. How this connects with funerary practices, especially with cremation, and with the commensality rituals of new elites, is also discussed."
Paper presented at the Theoretical Archaeology Group conference, Bradford 15 December 2015, Session: “Social Differentiation, Personhood and Inequality in Prehistoric Societies: understanding diverse forms of social organisation”
anthropological archaeology, which affords a major social and political importance to commensality within most complex societies, the paper outlines some examples of the many forms of ritualized consumption of alcoholic beverages in Early Iron Age Middle Tyrrhenian Italy. It specifically analyses the emergence of a strong emphasis on ceremonial drinking practices in the funerary record of the ‘proto-urban centres’ in southern Etruria and Latium vetus between the ninth and eighth centuries BC. It also discusses the possibility that the various configurations of material culture aimed at the ritualized consumption of alcoholic beverages in the burials corresponded to a multiplicity of coexisting rituals, which might have involved different components in
terms of gender, age and social position.
Della città di Roma, ben nota per le maestose vestigia riguardanti la civiltà romana e per i miti che precedono la sua fondazione avvenuta nel 753 a.C., sono poco conosciute le fasi antecedenti l’età del Bronzo finale , sia nell’area urbana, che nel territorio al di fuori delle mura, definito come “Campagna Romana” che va dal Neolitico antico fino agli inizi dell'età del Bronzo. Scavi recenti, legati principalmente all’archeologia preventiva, hanno portato all’individuazione di insediamenti e necropoli riferibili ad un complesso ed articolato panorama culturale, gettando luce su aspetti della vita quotidiana, sociale e culturale di gruppi umani che hanno occupato questo territorio prima della formazione della civiltà laziale.