Papers by Mª Amparo Arroyo de la Fuente
Music in Art: International Journal for Music Iconography, XLVII (2022), pp. 5-23., 2022
Ancient Egyptian goddess Meret (Mert or Merit) has been a protector of singers, holding the epith... more Ancient Egyptian goddess Meret (Mert or Merit) has been a protector of singers, holding the epithet “Mistress of the Throat” or “Lady of the Throat”. Her usual iconography is a compendium of all musical arts: her headdress evokes the sistra; she is a musical director, harp or sistrum player, and singer; and she is also related to dance. Her wig usually ends in a small curl, or a small circular object that was worn by the dancers. Its use served to underline the circular evolutions of the dances, likely evoking astrological evolutions. Sometimes, the object placed at the end of the wig could be filled with beads producing sound as an idiophone. The sound then accompanied the movements, creating the music performed by the dancers. Her headdress is a bouquet of papyrus or lotuses, and it has been suggested that the origin of the sistrum may have been the sound produced by shaken papyrus bouquets.
In the visual representations, Meret usually appears unfolded in two women who are so close that they can hardly be distinguished from one another. In the temple of Ramses II at Abydos, the goddess stands in the royal boat, facing the pharaoh, with her characteristic gesture, raising both hands to the level of her face. The polychrome shows Meret of Upper Egypt in a red dress and crowned with a lotus flower headdress and Meret of Lower Egypt is in a blue dress. Such a dual vision of the goddesses is common in Egyptian thought, and it is an iconographic archetype like that of the Two Maat in the Osiris Hall of Judgment.
Revista del Centro Superior de Diseño de Moda de Madrid. CSDMM. Diseño de Moda. Teoría e Historia de la indumentaria, N4, 2018, pp. 19-39., 2018
La moda egiptizante en Roma estuvo estrechamente ligada a la difusión del culto de las denominada... more La moda egiptizante en Roma estuvo estrechamente ligada a la difusión del culto de las denominadas divinidades alejandrinas y a la visita de Cleopatra VII de Egipto. La estética propia de la decoración de los santuarios isiacos contaminó ciertos entornos privados con rasgos de gran exotismo, mientras los devotos y servidores de la diosa lucieron orgullosos los atuendos que los caracterizaban como fieles del nuevo culto. Sus vestiduras, por tanto, no sólo constituyeron una moda sino también una forma de afirmar su profunda espiritualidad.
The Egyptianizing fashion in Rome was closely linked to the spread of the cult of Alexandrian divinities and to the visit of Cleopatra VII of Egypt. The aesthetic of the decoration of Isiac shrines influenced private environments with signs of great exoticism, while devotees and servants of the goddess dressed proudly attires that characterized them as faithful of the new cult. Their clotheses, therefore, were not only a trend but also a way of affirming his deep spirituality.
Boletín de la Asociación Española de Egiptología. BAEDE., 2019
En el antiguo Egipto la mujer paría apoyada sobre cuatro adobes. El parto, debido lógicamente al ... more En el antiguo Egipto la mujer paría apoyada sobre cuatro adobes. El parto, debido lógicamente al riesgo implícito para madre e hijo, fue concebido como un instante de vital trascendencia, pero no sólo desde el punto de vista de la supervivencia del neonato sino que también se percibió como un evento que podía determinar el destino del recién nacido. El pensamiento egipcio, siempre tendente al fetichismo y al animismo, divinizó y personalizó a estos cuatro adobes, atribuyéndoles una notable influencia en el devenir vital de cada persona. La estrecha relación concebida entre el alumbramiento y el destino se hace evidente en la iconografía tradicional del juicio de Osiris.
In ancient Egypt the woman gave birth leaning on four bricks. Childbirth was a risk for mother and child and it was conceived as a moment of vital transcendence, not only it had to assure the survival of the new-born but also it was sensed as an event that could decide the fate of the infant. Egyptian thought, near to fetishism and animism, deified and embodied these four birth bricks, and it assigned to these objects a remarkable influence in vital evolution of each person. The relationship between birth and destiny can see in images of the Osiris Judgment.
Glyphos. Revista de Historia, 2018
Son muy diversos los ejemplos que el arte egipcio nos ha legado de personas que, padeciendo enani... more Son muy diversos los ejemplos que el arte egipcio nos ha legado de personas que, padeciendo enanismo y, particularmente, enanismo acondroplásico, llegaron a las más altas instancias del poder administrativo. No obstante, en el seno de la sociedad egipcia, esta dolencia se asoció con dos aspectos concretos de la producción artística: la orfebrería y la danza. El vínculo con estas disciplinas llegó a ser tan firme que el panteón egipcio incluyó dos dioses que fueron representados con síntomas de acondroplasia: el demiurgo menfita, Ptah, patrón de artífices y padre de los patecos, enanos dedicados al trabajo artesanal; y el dios Bes, protector del hogar y las parturientas que, mediante danzas rituales, alejaba a los malos espíritus. Esta estrecha relación con el arte y con la divinidad hubo de tener su origen en la genialidad de determinados individuos que, a lo largo de la dilatada historia del antiguo Egipto, establecieron que, lejos de entender la acondroplasia como una discapacidad, se considerase a las personas que la padecían como seres dotados de una especial capacidad para el desarrollo de estas facultades artísticas. Todo ello se hace patente a través de una compleja iconografía, tanto en lo que respecta a personajes anónimos como a las deidades mencionadas.
In Egypt, the dwarves —especially achondroplasic dwarves— were not considered disabled and some of them occupied high positions of administrative power, and thus it can be seen in Egyptian art. Furthermore, in Egyptian society, this disease was related with two artistic disciplines: craftsmanship in precious metals and dance. For this reason, the Egyptian pantheon incorporated two gods with achondroplasic features: Ptah, father of Pataikos, artisan dwarves; and Bes, birth and home protector that he performed ritual dances. This close relationship with art and divinity could have its origin in the genius of particular individuals who consolidated dwarfism as a reason of special ability, not disability. The iconography reflects this reality of Egyptian society, both as regards the anonymous characters and the deities.
En CABRERO, J. y GONZÁLEZ, P. (eds.) (2019). PVRPVREA ÆTAS. Estudios sobre el Mundo Antiguo dedicados a la Profesora Pilar Fernández Uriel. Madrid-Salamanca, 2019 (Ed. Signifer Libros). Pp. 65-81., 2019
Las referencias al mito osiriaco contenidas en la Biblioteca Histórica denotan un profundo sincre... more Las referencias al mito osiriaco contenidas en la Biblioteca Histórica denotan un profundo sincretismo greco-egipcio, consecuencia de la dominación macedonia. El autor describe las costumbres religiosas del siglo I a.C. que conoció in situ en su viaje por Egipto, no obstante, es preciso distinguir entre las prácticas autóctonas y las injerencias del racionalismo heleno. Este estudio se propone un análisis de las pervivencias de las primitivas cosmogonías egipcias en el relato de Diodoro, así como también un breve examen de la evolución semántica del mito.
References to the Osiris myth included in the Bibliotheca Historica indicate an intensive Greco-Egyptian syncretism, a consequence of Macedonian domination. The author explains the religious beliefs of the first century BC, who he met in his journey through Egypt, however, it is necessary to distinguish between natives practices and the interference of Hellenic rationalism. This study purposes an analysis of the survivals of the primitive Egyptian cosmogonies in the Diodorus report, as well as a brief exam of the semantic evolution of the myth.
Resumen: El juicio de Osiris fue concebido como símbolo del tránsito del hombre a una nueva vida ... more Resumen: El juicio de Osiris fue concebido como símbolo del tránsito del hombre a una nueva vida después de la muerte, pero también como un examen moral que determinaba el acceso a esa vida de ultratumba o bien la completa anulación mediante la destrucción de los componentes espirituales del ser humano. El emblema principal de esa prueba objetiva de la honestidad del finado fue la balanza, que también tuvo un profundo significado escatológico en el mundo heleno. El cristianismo primitivo adoptó este concepto e incluyó este elemento en las imágenes del Juicio Final, pero también vio en los platos de la balanza una alegoría con la que expresar la dualidad entre el cielo y el infierno, el Bien y el Mal.
Abstract: The Judgment of Osiris was shaped as a symbol of transition to a new life after death, but also as a moral proof that decided the entry in that new life beyond the grave or the complete disappearance through the destruction of the spiritual components of the man. The main emblem of this objective, proof of honesty, was the scale, which it also had an eschatological meaning in the Greek world. Primitive Christianity assumed this concept and included this element in the visions of the Last Judgment, but it also considered the scale an allegory of the duality between Heaven and Hell, Good and Evil.
Boletín de la Asociación Española de Egiptología. (B.A.E.D.E.), 2014
El culto a ciertas divinidades egipcias llegó a Roma transformado por la visión alejandrina de es... more El culto a ciertas divinidades egipcias llegó a Roma transformado por la visión alejandrina de estas deidades que, en gran medida, fueron transformándose para adaptarse a la mentalidad grecolatina. Tanto iconográfica como iconológicamente, estos “dioses alejandrinos” fueron muy diferentes de las divinidades egipcias originarias. Particularmente, se difundió en el territorio romano el culto a la tríada alejandrina —Isis, Serapis y Horus-Harpócrates— junto a otros dioses asociados al mito osiriaco. Además del establecimiento de una liturgia y unos modelos iconográficos, la aceptación de estas deidades en territorio latino supuso también la creación de edificios que albergaran sus estatuas de culto y acogieran un estructurado sacerdocio. Solamente conocemos con certeza la ubicación exacta del santuario del Campo de Marte, no obstante, las fuentes nos han transmitido la existencia de otros lugares destinados al culto isiaco en Roma; el elevado número de templos, altares y otras evidencias de la devoción isiaca en la capital del Imperio demuestra la trascendencia y aceptación de los cultos egiptizantes en la Roma de los primeros siglos de nuestra era.
The cult of certain Egyptian gods came to Rome transformed by the Alexandrian vision of these deities, largely, these gods were transformed to adjust to the Greco-Roman mentality. Both iconographically like as regards the iconology, these "Alexandrian gods" were very different from the original Egyptian deities. Particularly, spread into Roman territory the cult of Alexandrian triad —Isis, Serapis and Horus-Harpocrates— with other gods associated with the Osirian myth. In addition to establishing a liturgy and some iconographic models, the acceptance of these deities in Latin territory also involved the creation of buildings that harbored the statues of worship and a structured priesthood. It is only known the exact location of the sanctuary of the Campus Martius, however, sources have told us that there were other places open to the isiac cults in Rome; the large number of temples, shrines and other evidence of isiac devotion in the imperial capital demonstrates the importance and acceptance of egyptians cults in Rome in the first centuries of our era.
Glyphos. Revista de Historia, 2015
El cardenal Pietro Bembo fue un ilustrado miembro de la Iglesia que se dejó seducir por la cultur... more El cardenal Pietro Bembo fue un ilustrado miembro de la Iglesia que se dejó seducir por la cultura y el pensamiento clásicos. Su pasión se hizo patente en sus escritos, en los que se advierten profundas influencias del neoplatonismo. No obstante, la afición del cardenal por la Antigüedad le llevó también a atesorar objetos relacionados con el pasado, convirtiéndose en un reconocido coleccionista. Su studiolo fue famoso en la Italia renacentista, especialmente, por una pieza de iconografía egiptizante que aun actualmente es conocida con su nombre: la Tabla Isiaca o Tabula Bembina.
Cardinal Pietro Bembo was a learned member of the Church who was seduced by the culture and classical thought. His passion was evident in his writings, which are noticed profound influences of Neoplatonism. However, Cardinal liking for Antiquity led him also to hoard objects related to the past, becoming a renowned collector. Its Studiolo was famous in Renaissance Italy, especially for a piece of iconography egyptianizing that even today is known by his name: Isiac Tablet or Bembine Table.
Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, Serie II, Historia Antigua, 2013
El desarrollo del culto isiaco en la zona de Campania ha permitido el estudio de sus rituales y f... more El desarrollo del culto isiaco en la zona de Campania ha permitido el estudio de sus rituales y formas litúrgicas, pero ha revelado también el anhelo de los nuevos fieles por la recreación de exóticos entornos egiptizantes. La iconografía propia de las divinidades protagonistas del mito osiriaco se había helenizado ya desde época alejandrina, no obstante, en el ámbito latino, se valoraron especialmente aquellos objetos caracterizados por una estética cercana al arte egipcio. Entre estos objetos destacan ciertas obras importadas de Egipto, pero también piezas realizadas en territorio latino con fuertes influencias alejandrinas, probablemente, elaboradas en talleres especializados en este tipo de iconografía. La existencia de estos talleres puede deducirse de diferentes hallazgos que presentan múltiples similitudes en lo que respecta no sólo a la técnica sino también al repertorio iconográfico y epigráfico.
The development of the isiac cult in the Campania has allowed the study of their rituals and liturgical forms, but has also revealed the desire of the new faithful to recreate egyptianizing exotic environments. The typical iconography of divinities protagonist of the Osiris myth, were already hellenized since Alexandrian period, however, in the Latin sphere, were specially appreciated those objects characterized by an aesthetic close to the Egyptian art. These objects included certain works imported from Egypt, but also pieces made in Latin territory with strong Alexandrian influences, probably made in this type of iconography especialized workshops. The existence of these workshops can be deduced from different findings that display many similarities in terms of not only the technique but also iconographic and epigraphic repertoire.
Las múltiples funciones atribuidas al dios Hermes generaron, a partir de época ptolemaica, la asi... more Las múltiples funciones atribuidas al dios Hermes generaron, a partir de época ptolemaica, la asimilación de esta divinidad con Anubis y con Thoth, cuyos cometidos, no obstante, estuvieron bien diferenciados dentro del panteón egipcio. La compleja figura de Hermes, consagrado a muy diversas labores, englobó las principales atribuciones de ambos dioses. Las divinidades sincréticas surgidas de estas asimilaciones experimentaron un desarrollo iconográfico e iconológico muy dispar que confluyó, a través la filosofía hermética, en la figura mítica de Hermes Trismegisto, tan alejada de la inicial concepción del Hermes heleno.
The multiple functions attributed to the god Hermes generated, from the Ptolemaic era on, the assimilation of this deity with Thoth and Anubis, whose duties however, were well differentiated in the Egyptian pantheon. The complex figure of Hermes, devoted to different tasks, encompassed the major powers of the two gods. The syncretic deities that emerged from these assimilations experienced a very different iconographic and iconological development that converged, through the Hermetic philosophy, in the mythical figure of Hermes Trismegistus, so far away from the initial conception of the Greek Hermes.
Eikon / Imago , 2012
Las diversas fórmulas de legitimación del poder empleadas durante la época ptolemaica se caracter... more Las diversas fórmulas de legitimación del poder empleadas durante la época ptolemaica se caracterizaron, desde los inicios mismos de la dinastía, por una doble concepción: aquellas imágenes destinadas a la población egipcia liberada de la dominación persa y, por otra parte, las dirigidas a los pobladores griegos de las ciudades de nueva planta, particularmente, de Alejandría. La legitimación de corte helenístico se asentaría sobre la imagen misma de Alejandro; por el contrario, la consolidación del poder de los ptolomeos entre la población autóctona se construyó de acuerdo con las tradicionales fórmulas de legitimación del poder faraónico. En el caso de la última de las mandatarias ptolemaicas, Cleopatra VII Filópator, esta particular dicotomía iconográfica se enriqueció con una nueva visión de la reina provocada por la necesidad de elaborar y difundir su imagen, no sólo en el interior del país, sino también en el entorno del Imperio Romano.
The various forms of legitimation of power used during the Ptolemaic era were characterized, from the very beginning of the dynasty, by a double conception: on one hand, those images intended for the Egyptian population freed from Persian domination and, on the other hand, those aimed at the Greek settlers from the recently-founded cities, particularly, Alexandria. The legitimation of Hellenistic type would be based on the image of Alexander the Great; on the contrary, the consolidation of Ptolemaic power among the native population was built according to the traditional formulas of power legitimation distinctive of the Pharaonic era. In the case of the last of the Ptolemaic rulers, Cleopatra VII Philopator, this particular iconographic dichotomy was enriched with a new vision of the queen, caused by the need to elaborate and spread her image, not only within the country, but in the Roman Empire as well.
Boletín de la Asociación Española de Egiptología. (B.A.E.D.E.), 2012
La denominada Tabla Isiaca, tras su aparición en la colección del Cardenal Pietro Bembo, fue inte... more La denominada Tabla Isiaca, tras su aparición en la colección del Cardenal Pietro Bembo, fue interpretada en estrecha relación con la filosofía hermética; posteriormente, las escenas en ella representadas han sido consideradas una simple sucesión de figuras, inspiradas en el arte ptolemaico, con una única intención decorativa. El presente estudio plantea la existencia de un programa iconográfico coherente y global, acorde con la estructura literaria y teológica que late en las denominadas aretalogías o himnos isiacos. Los diferentes registros en los que se estructura la pieza harían pues referencia a las diversas dádivas que la diosa entregó a los hombres, así como a sus potestades divinas y a ciertas relaciones con otras deidades del panteón egipcio. Asimismo, la elaborada decoración del borde exterior de la pieza, inspirada en la iconografía astronómica y astrológica, constituye un espacio simbólico de representación del ámbito estelar controlado por la diosa. Se trata, por lo tanto, de plantear, desde este punto de vista, una nueva función de esta magnífica pieza en el entorno de la liturgia latina de la diosa.
The so-called Table of Isis, after its appearance in the collection of Cardinal Pietro Bembo, was interpreted in close connection with the Hermetic philosophy. Later, the represented scenes in it have been considered a simple succession of figures inspired by the Ptolemaic art, with just a decorative purpose. The present study suggests the existence of a coherent and comprehensive global iconographic program, according to the literary and theological structure that beats in the so-called aretologies or Isiac hymns. The different levels in which the piece is structured would refer to the various gifts that the goddess gave to men, as well as to her divine powers and to certain relationships with other deities of the Egyptian pantheon. Also, the intricate decoration of the outer edge of the piece, inspired by astronomical and astrological iconography, is a symbolic representation of the stellar field controlled by the goddess. We are trying, therefore, to propose from this point of view, a new function of this magnificent object in the context of the Latin liturgy of the goddess.
La protección de la maternidad en el antiguo Egipto se ejerció, en el ámbito popular, mediante me... more La protección de la maternidad en el antiguo Egipto se ejerció, en el ámbito popular, mediante mecanismos apotropaicos propiciatorios del buen término de los embarazos: amuletos, conjuros e imágenes de divinidades cuyo culto estuvo especialmente vinculado con el entorno doméstico. La sacralización de la monarquía generó, a su vez, una serie de programas iconográficos destinados tanto a la protección de los vástagos de la realeza como a su propia divinización. En época ptolemaica y romana, los ‘mammisis’, donde se consagraba el nacimiento divino, exhibieron estos programas iconográficos oficiales pero también ciertos símbolos profilácticos de tradición popular.
The protection of motherhood in ancient Egypt was exerted at a popular level through apotropaic mechanisms, in order to propitiate the successful outcome of pregnancies: amulets, spells and images of deities whose worship was especially linked to the domestic environment. The consecration of the monarchy generated, in turn, a series of iconographic programmes for both the protection of the offspring of royalty and their own deification. In Ptolemaic and Roman times, the 'mammisis', the birth-houses, showed these official iconographic programmes as well as popular prophylactic symbols.
Las culturas prehistóricas ubicadas en la cuenca del Nilo, tanto en el Alto como en el Bajo Egipt... more Las culturas prehistóricas ubicadas en la cuenca del Nilo, tanto en el Alto como en el Bajo Egipto, determinarían los usos sociales y la jerarquización, religiosa y política, del Egipto dinástico. Las primeras manifestaciones artísticas de estas culturas denotan los orígenes del arte egipcio en lo referente al trabajo cerámico, al tallado de la piedra, a la concepción arquitectónica e, incluso, a la peculiar forma de representación pictórica; pero, sin duda, el aspecto más trascendente, desde el punto de vista artístico, es la fijación de motivos iconográficos que gozarían de un amplio desarrollo, simbólico y político, hasta época ptolemaica.
El predinástico egipcio aúna los acontecimientos que habrían de culminar en el advenimiento de la... more El predinástico egipcio aúna los acontecimientos que habrían de culminar en el advenimiento de la monarquía dual y la unificación de las Dos Tierras, el Alto y el Bajo Egipto. Esta unión instituiría un símbolo del poder absoluto del monarca y, sobre todo, un soporte de la fortaleza de Egipto fuera de sus fronteras, ya que los períodos de crisis a lo largo de la historia de Egipto coincidirían con la desmembración del país. Desde el punto de vista artístico, las obras elaboradas en este período desarrollan motivos iconográficos que, si bien ya se habían ensayado en época prehistórica, se consolidan como fundamentos del poder político y religioso. Por otra parte, las técnicas artísticas, así como la propia escritura jeroglífica, consolidan una concepción plástica que sienta las bases de la evolución del arte egipcio en época dinástica.
Es preciso analizar los condicionamientos geográficos del Valle del Nilo para comprender en toda ... more Es preciso analizar los condicionamientos geográficos del Valle del Nilo para comprender en toda su magnitud el pensamiento egipcio, pensamiento que determinaría tanto la conciencia nacional como el sentir religioso y, en consecuencia, la concepción de los edificios oficiales o bien dedicados al culto y, por tanto, todas las manifestaciones artísticas asociadas a ellos. Por otra parte, el mundo de ultratumba, íntimamente influido por el devenir del Nilo, garante del sustento del país, requiere una breve introducción, muy básica, que permita interpretar correctamente las múltiples obras que el arte egipcio ha legado en relación con el mundo del Más Allá.
La conquista de Egipto por Alejandro Magno, en la segunda mitad del siglo IV a.C., propició una t... more La conquista de Egipto por Alejandro Magno, en la segunda mitad del siglo IV a.C., propició una tendencia al sincretismo greco-egipcio que generó una reinterpretación de su arte y su religiosidad a través del prisma del pensamiento heleno. Tanto la iconografía como el sentido profundo de las imágenes de culto experimentarían este proceso, evolucionando de este modo ciertos dioses del panteón egipcio hasta convertirse en las denominadas divinidades alejandrinas. Si bien su origen hay que buscarlo en concepciones religiosas egipcias, tanto la racionalización de su significado a través de la filosofía griega, como la influencia de principios artísticos helenos, transformó a estas divinidades que aunaron conceptos egipcios y otros heredados del pensamiento griego. Su culto, especialmente el de la triada osiriaca, se extendería por todo el Mediterráneo llegando a obtener un amplio desarrollo en la Roma Imperial que, a su vez, reinterpretaría de nuevo tanto los rituales como la iconografía de estos dioses.
Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, Serie II, Historia Antigua, 2006
Bes, divinidad arcaica consagrada a la protección del hogar, alcanzó, en época ptolemaica, un aug... more Bes, divinidad arcaica consagrada a la protección del hogar, alcanzó, en época ptolemaica, un auge iconográfico que contrastaría con la escasez de templos propios, ya que su devoción se circunscribía al entorno doméstico y popular. Sus representaciones aparecen en contextos litúrgicos adscritos a otras divinidades, especialmente en los ‘mammisis’ de los grandes templos ptolemaicos, debido a su relación ancestral con la protección de los partos y los infantes. Estas imágenes tardías relacionan a Bes no sólo con la magia apotropaica y el sentido litúrgico y cultual de la música y la danza, sino también con el concepto de eternidad y, por tanto, con el complejo mundo funerario egipcio. Dichas representaciones determinarían su posterior difusión iconográfica e iconológica en el ámbito mediterráneo.
Bes, archaic divinity dedicated to the protection of the home, reached, in Ptolemaic epoch, an iconographic summit that would contrast with the shortage of own temples, since his devotion was limited to the domestic and popular environment. His representations appear in liturgical contexts assigned to other divinities, specially in the 'mammisis' of the big Ptolemaic temples, due to his ancient relation with the protection of the childbirths and the children. These late images relate Bes not only to the apothropaic magic and the liturgical sense and cultual of the music and the dance, but also to the concept of eternity and, therefore, to the complex funeral Egyptian world. This representations would determine his later iconographic diffusion and iconologic in the Mediterranean area.
Boletín de la Asociación Española de Egiptología, 2002
En el análisis de la introducción de los cultos orientales, mistéricos, en Roma hay que considera... more En el análisis de la introducción de los cultos orientales, mistéricos, en Roma hay que considerar, principalmente, dos hechos previos: 1) el cómo llegaron las nuevas creencias, de qué modo se consolidaron como cultos oficiales; 2) el porqué de su capacidad de captación de una gran cantidad de devotos ajenos, en un principio, a la religiosidad oriental.
Magia, palabras mágicas "¿Desconoces, pues, tú, Asclepios, que el Egipto es la copia del cielo o,... more Magia, palabras mágicas "¿Desconoces, pues, tú, Asclepios, que el Egipto es la copia del cielo o, por mejor decir, el lugar en que se transfieren y se proyectan aquí abajo todas las operaciones que dirigen y ponen por obra las fuerzas celestes? Más aún, si hay que decir toda la verdad, nuestra tierra es el templo del mundo entero" (Corpus Hermeticum. Asclepius, 24). ASPECTOS ICONOGRÁFICOS DE LA MAGIA EN EL ANTIGUO EGIPTO: IMAGEN Y PALABRA 1 Mª AMPARO ARROYO DE LA FUENTE (Publicado en la revista Akros, nº 8, 2009. Pp. 63-72)
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Papers by Mª Amparo Arroyo de la Fuente
In the visual representations, Meret usually appears unfolded in two women who are so close that they can hardly be distinguished from one another. In the temple of Ramses II at Abydos, the goddess stands in the royal boat, facing the pharaoh, with her characteristic gesture, raising both hands to the level of her face. The polychrome shows Meret of Upper Egypt in a red dress and crowned with a lotus flower headdress and Meret of Lower Egypt is in a blue dress. Such a dual vision of the goddesses is common in Egyptian thought, and it is an iconographic archetype like that of the Two Maat in the Osiris Hall of Judgment.
The Egyptianizing fashion in Rome was closely linked to the spread of the cult of Alexandrian divinities and to the visit of Cleopatra VII of Egypt. The aesthetic of the decoration of Isiac shrines influenced private environments with signs of great exoticism, while devotees and servants of the goddess dressed proudly attires that characterized them as faithful of the new cult. Their clotheses, therefore, were not only a trend but also a way of affirming his deep spirituality.
In ancient Egypt the woman gave birth leaning on four bricks. Childbirth was a risk for mother and child and it was conceived as a moment of vital transcendence, not only it had to assure the survival of the new-born but also it was sensed as an event that could decide the fate of the infant. Egyptian thought, near to fetishism and animism, deified and embodied these four birth bricks, and it assigned to these objects a remarkable influence in vital evolution of each person. The relationship between birth and destiny can see in images of the Osiris Judgment.
In Egypt, the dwarves —especially achondroplasic dwarves— were not considered disabled and some of them occupied high positions of administrative power, and thus it can be seen in Egyptian art. Furthermore, in Egyptian society, this disease was related with two artistic disciplines: craftsmanship in precious metals and dance. For this reason, the Egyptian pantheon incorporated two gods with achondroplasic features: Ptah, father of Pataikos, artisan dwarves; and Bes, birth and home protector that he performed ritual dances. This close relationship with art and divinity could have its origin in the genius of particular individuals who consolidated dwarfism as a reason of special ability, not disability. The iconography reflects this reality of Egyptian society, both as regards the anonymous characters and the deities.
References to the Osiris myth included in the Bibliotheca Historica indicate an intensive Greco-Egyptian syncretism, a consequence of Macedonian domination. The author explains the religious beliefs of the first century BC, who he met in his journey through Egypt, however, it is necessary to distinguish between natives practices and the interference of Hellenic rationalism. This study purposes an analysis of the survivals of the primitive Egyptian cosmogonies in the Diodorus report, as well as a brief exam of the semantic evolution of the myth.
Abstract: The Judgment of Osiris was shaped as a symbol of transition to a new life after death, but also as a moral proof that decided the entry in that new life beyond the grave or the complete disappearance through the destruction of the spiritual components of the man. The main emblem of this objective, proof of honesty, was the scale, which it also had an eschatological meaning in the Greek world. Primitive Christianity assumed this concept and included this element in the visions of the Last Judgment, but it also considered the scale an allegory of the duality between Heaven and Hell, Good and Evil.
The cult of certain Egyptian gods came to Rome transformed by the Alexandrian vision of these deities, largely, these gods were transformed to adjust to the Greco-Roman mentality. Both iconographically like as regards the iconology, these "Alexandrian gods" were very different from the original Egyptian deities. Particularly, spread into Roman territory the cult of Alexandrian triad —Isis, Serapis and Horus-Harpocrates— with other gods associated with the Osirian myth. In addition to establishing a liturgy and some iconographic models, the acceptance of these deities in Latin territory also involved the creation of buildings that harbored the statues of worship and a structured priesthood. It is only known the exact location of the sanctuary of the Campus Martius, however, sources have told us that there were other places open to the isiac cults in Rome; the large number of temples, shrines and other evidence of isiac devotion in the imperial capital demonstrates the importance and acceptance of egyptians cults in Rome in the first centuries of our era.
Cardinal Pietro Bembo was a learned member of the Church who was seduced by the culture and classical thought. His passion was evident in his writings, which are noticed profound influences of Neoplatonism. However, Cardinal liking for Antiquity led him also to hoard objects related to the past, becoming a renowned collector. Its Studiolo was famous in Renaissance Italy, especially for a piece of iconography egyptianizing that even today is known by his name: Isiac Tablet or Bembine Table.
The development of the isiac cult in the Campania has allowed the study of their rituals and liturgical forms, but has also revealed the desire of the new faithful to recreate egyptianizing exotic environments. The typical iconography of divinities protagonist of the Osiris myth, were already hellenized since Alexandrian period, however, in the Latin sphere, were specially appreciated those objects characterized by an aesthetic close to the Egyptian art. These objects included certain works imported from Egypt, but also pieces made in Latin territory with strong Alexandrian influences, probably made in this type of iconography especialized workshops. The existence of these workshops can be deduced from different findings that display many similarities in terms of not only the technique but also iconographic and epigraphic repertoire.
The multiple functions attributed to the god Hermes generated, from the Ptolemaic era on, the assimilation of this deity with Thoth and Anubis, whose duties however, were well differentiated in the Egyptian pantheon. The complex figure of Hermes, devoted to different tasks, encompassed the major powers of the two gods. The syncretic deities that emerged from these assimilations experienced a very different iconographic and iconological development that converged, through the Hermetic philosophy, in the mythical figure of Hermes Trismegistus, so far away from the initial conception of the Greek Hermes.
The various forms of legitimation of power used during the Ptolemaic era were characterized, from the very beginning of the dynasty, by a double conception: on one hand, those images intended for the Egyptian population freed from Persian domination and, on the other hand, those aimed at the Greek settlers from the recently-founded cities, particularly, Alexandria. The legitimation of Hellenistic type would be based on the image of Alexander the Great; on the contrary, the consolidation of Ptolemaic power among the native population was built according to the traditional formulas of power legitimation distinctive of the Pharaonic era. In the case of the last of the Ptolemaic rulers, Cleopatra VII Philopator, this particular iconographic dichotomy was enriched with a new vision of the queen, caused by the need to elaborate and spread her image, not only within the country, but in the Roman Empire as well.
The so-called Table of Isis, after its appearance in the collection of Cardinal Pietro Bembo, was interpreted in close connection with the Hermetic philosophy. Later, the represented scenes in it have been considered a simple succession of figures inspired by the Ptolemaic art, with just a decorative purpose. The present study suggests the existence of a coherent and comprehensive global iconographic program, according to the literary and theological structure that beats in the so-called aretologies or Isiac hymns. The different levels in which the piece is structured would refer to the various gifts that the goddess gave to men, as well as to her divine powers and to certain relationships with other deities of the Egyptian pantheon. Also, the intricate decoration of the outer edge of the piece, inspired by astronomical and astrological iconography, is a symbolic representation of the stellar field controlled by the goddess. We are trying, therefore, to propose from this point of view, a new function of this magnificent object in the context of the Latin liturgy of the goddess.
The protection of motherhood in ancient Egypt was exerted at a popular level through apotropaic mechanisms, in order to propitiate the successful outcome of pregnancies: amulets, spells and images of deities whose worship was especially linked to the domestic environment. The consecration of the monarchy generated, in turn, a series of iconographic programmes for both the protection of the offspring of royalty and their own deification. In Ptolemaic and Roman times, the 'mammisis', the birth-houses, showed these official iconographic programmes as well as popular prophylactic symbols.
Bes, archaic divinity dedicated to the protection of the home, reached, in Ptolemaic epoch, an iconographic summit that would contrast with the shortage of own temples, since his devotion was limited to the domestic and popular environment. His representations appear in liturgical contexts assigned to other divinities, specially in the 'mammisis' of the big Ptolemaic temples, due to his ancient relation with the protection of the childbirths and the children. These late images relate Bes not only to the apothropaic magic and the liturgical sense and cultual of the music and the dance, but also to the concept of eternity and, therefore, to the complex funeral Egyptian world. This representations would determine his later iconographic diffusion and iconologic in the Mediterranean area.
In the visual representations, Meret usually appears unfolded in two women who are so close that they can hardly be distinguished from one another. In the temple of Ramses II at Abydos, the goddess stands in the royal boat, facing the pharaoh, with her characteristic gesture, raising both hands to the level of her face. The polychrome shows Meret of Upper Egypt in a red dress and crowned with a lotus flower headdress and Meret of Lower Egypt is in a blue dress. Such a dual vision of the goddesses is common in Egyptian thought, and it is an iconographic archetype like that of the Two Maat in the Osiris Hall of Judgment.
The Egyptianizing fashion in Rome was closely linked to the spread of the cult of Alexandrian divinities and to the visit of Cleopatra VII of Egypt. The aesthetic of the decoration of Isiac shrines influenced private environments with signs of great exoticism, while devotees and servants of the goddess dressed proudly attires that characterized them as faithful of the new cult. Their clotheses, therefore, were not only a trend but also a way of affirming his deep spirituality.
In ancient Egypt the woman gave birth leaning on four bricks. Childbirth was a risk for mother and child and it was conceived as a moment of vital transcendence, not only it had to assure the survival of the new-born but also it was sensed as an event that could decide the fate of the infant. Egyptian thought, near to fetishism and animism, deified and embodied these four birth bricks, and it assigned to these objects a remarkable influence in vital evolution of each person. The relationship between birth and destiny can see in images of the Osiris Judgment.
In Egypt, the dwarves —especially achondroplasic dwarves— were not considered disabled and some of them occupied high positions of administrative power, and thus it can be seen in Egyptian art. Furthermore, in Egyptian society, this disease was related with two artistic disciplines: craftsmanship in precious metals and dance. For this reason, the Egyptian pantheon incorporated two gods with achondroplasic features: Ptah, father of Pataikos, artisan dwarves; and Bes, birth and home protector that he performed ritual dances. This close relationship with art and divinity could have its origin in the genius of particular individuals who consolidated dwarfism as a reason of special ability, not disability. The iconography reflects this reality of Egyptian society, both as regards the anonymous characters and the deities.
References to the Osiris myth included in the Bibliotheca Historica indicate an intensive Greco-Egyptian syncretism, a consequence of Macedonian domination. The author explains the religious beliefs of the first century BC, who he met in his journey through Egypt, however, it is necessary to distinguish between natives practices and the interference of Hellenic rationalism. This study purposes an analysis of the survivals of the primitive Egyptian cosmogonies in the Diodorus report, as well as a brief exam of the semantic evolution of the myth.
Abstract: The Judgment of Osiris was shaped as a symbol of transition to a new life after death, but also as a moral proof that decided the entry in that new life beyond the grave or the complete disappearance through the destruction of the spiritual components of the man. The main emblem of this objective, proof of honesty, was the scale, which it also had an eschatological meaning in the Greek world. Primitive Christianity assumed this concept and included this element in the visions of the Last Judgment, but it also considered the scale an allegory of the duality between Heaven and Hell, Good and Evil.
The cult of certain Egyptian gods came to Rome transformed by the Alexandrian vision of these deities, largely, these gods were transformed to adjust to the Greco-Roman mentality. Both iconographically like as regards the iconology, these "Alexandrian gods" were very different from the original Egyptian deities. Particularly, spread into Roman territory the cult of Alexandrian triad —Isis, Serapis and Horus-Harpocrates— with other gods associated with the Osirian myth. In addition to establishing a liturgy and some iconographic models, the acceptance of these deities in Latin territory also involved the creation of buildings that harbored the statues of worship and a structured priesthood. It is only known the exact location of the sanctuary of the Campus Martius, however, sources have told us that there were other places open to the isiac cults in Rome; the large number of temples, shrines and other evidence of isiac devotion in the imperial capital demonstrates the importance and acceptance of egyptians cults in Rome in the first centuries of our era.
Cardinal Pietro Bembo was a learned member of the Church who was seduced by the culture and classical thought. His passion was evident in his writings, which are noticed profound influences of Neoplatonism. However, Cardinal liking for Antiquity led him also to hoard objects related to the past, becoming a renowned collector. Its Studiolo was famous in Renaissance Italy, especially for a piece of iconography egyptianizing that even today is known by his name: Isiac Tablet or Bembine Table.
The development of the isiac cult in the Campania has allowed the study of their rituals and liturgical forms, but has also revealed the desire of the new faithful to recreate egyptianizing exotic environments. The typical iconography of divinities protagonist of the Osiris myth, were already hellenized since Alexandrian period, however, in the Latin sphere, were specially appreciated those objects characterized by an aesthetic close to the Egyptian art. These objects included certain works imported from Egypt, but also pieces made in Latin territory with strong Alexandrian influences, probably made in this type of iconography especialized workshops. The existence of these workshops can be deduced from different findings that display many similarities in terms of not only the technique but also iconographic and epigraphic repertoire.
The multiple functions attributed to the god Hermes generated, from the Ptolemaic era on, the assimilation of this deity with Thoth and Anubis, whose duties however, were well differentiated in the Egyptian pantheon. The complex figure of Hermes, devoted to different tasks, encompassed the major powers of the two gods. The syncretic deities that emerged from these assimilations experienced a very different iconographic and iconological development that converged, through the Hermetic philosophy, in the mythical figure of Hermes Trismegistus, so far away from the initial conception of the Greek Hermes.
The various forms of legitimation of power used during the Ptolemaic era were characterized, from the very beginning of the dynasty, by a double conception: on one hand, those images intended for the Egyptian population freed from Persian domination and, on the other hand, those aimed at the Greek settlers from the recently-founded cities, particularly, Alexandria. The legitimation of Hellenistic type would be based on the image of Alexander the Great; on the contrary, the consolidation of Ptolemaic power among the native population was built according to the traditional formulas of power legitimation distinctive of the Pharaonic era. In the case of the last of the Ptolemaic rulers, Cleopatra VII Philopator, this particular iconographic dichotomy was enriched with a new vision of the queen, caused by the need to elaborate and spread her image, not only within the country, but in the Roman Empire as well.
The so-called Table of Isis, after its appearance in the collection of Cardinal Pietro Bembo, was interpreted in close connection with the Hermetic philosophy. Later, the represented scenes in it have been considered a simple succession of figures inspired by the Ptolemaic art, with just a decorative purpose. The present study suggests the existence of a coherent and comprehensive global iconographic program, according to the literary and theological structure that beats in the so-called aretologies or Isiac hymns. The different levels in which the piece is structured would refer to the various gifts that the goddess gave to men, as well as to her divine powers and to certain relationships with other deities of the Egyptian pantheon. Also, the intricate decoration of the outer edge of the piece, inspired by astronomical and astrological iconography, is a symbolic representation of the stellar field controlled by the goddess. We are trying, therefore, to propose from this point of view, a new function of this magnificent object in the context of the Latin liturgy of the goddess.
The protection of motherhood in ancient Egypt was exerted at a popular level through apotropaic mechanisms, in order to propitiate the successful outcome of pregnancies: amulets, spells and images of deities whose worship was especially linked to the domestic environment. The consecration of the monarchy generated, in turn, a series of iconographic programmes for both the protection of the offspring of royalty and their own deification. In Ptolemaic and Roman times, the 'mammisis', the birth-houses, showed these official iconographic programmes as well as popular prophylactic symbols.
Bes, archaic divinity dedicated to the protection of the home, reached, in Ptolemaic epoch, an iconographic summit that would contrast with the shortage of own temples, since his devotion was limited to the domestic and popular environment. His representations appear in liturgical contexts assigned to other divinities, specially in the 'mammisis' of the big Ptolemaic temples, due to his ancient relation with the protection of the childbirths and the children. These late images relate Bes not only to the apothropaic magic and the liturgical sense and cultual of the music and the dance, but also to the concept of eternity and, therefore, to the complex funeral Egyptian world. This representations would determine his later iconographic diffusion and iconologic in the Mediterranean area.