Papers/books by Albert Nijboer
TMA supplement 3 Landschap en nederzetting in de Mediterrane Oudheid, 2024
In the early 1990s, the predecessor of Peter Attema as chair of Classical and Mediterranean Archa... more In the early 1990s, the predecessor of Peter Attema as chair of Classical and Mediterranean Archaeology at the University of Groningen, Marianne Kleibrink, started a new research programme. This programme aimed to examine and describe the fabrics of ceramics excavated at the pre-Roman site of Satricum (900 to 300 BC). It was the intention that all staff members would participate, particularly Peter, Gert van Oortmerssen,
the late Arnold Beijer, and myself. Thus, the Satricum Fabrics project was initiated. One of its objectives was to enhance the chronological resolution of abraded pottery sherds recovered from field walking surveys in southern Latium. This turned out to be more complicated than originally anticipated. The present paper will address this issue as well as topics such as urbanization, ceramic traditions, and innovation.
For Satricum, the project has revealed in detail that the number of fabrics increased significantly with centralization and the subsequent formation of an early town. Part of this increase is due to interregional imports, but it is mostly the result of more complex, local modes of production and growing technological know-how. There are even smallscale, single fabrics for highly specialized functions, such as the final lining of the combustion chamber of a large ceramic kiln dating around 500 BC. However, two fundamental issues persist: skill and lingering local traditions in ceramic paste manipulation. Thus, the introduction of a new fabric does not immediately result in the abolition of the old ones.
Moreover, identifying ceramic fabrics requires more expert competence than expected. In addition, the use of locally available clays and minerals may have been employed for centuries in case production continued. The retirement of Peter as chair of Mediterranean archaeology in 2024, offers me an opportunity to reflect on our fabrics project with some closing remarks.
TMA Vol. 68, 2023
Abstract. Urban societies have public squares that can accommodate larger groups of people on a r... more Abstract. Urban societies have public squares that can accommodate larger groups of people on a regular basis for meetings, jurisdiction, festivities and for the exchange of goods and ideas. Such open spaces are known from numerous places such as Athens (Agora), Rome (Forum Romanum) and Groningen (Grote Markt). They frequently develop in the centre of towns near the main sanctuary. The early development of such urban, public, open spaces in Central Italy is poorly understood, even in recent publications on the development of the Roman economy from the eight to fourth centuries BC. The monumental Roman fora are mainly known from later periods. In this paper, I present Satricum as a case study for the rise of such urban, public squares until roughly 500 BC. The final orthogonal layout of the area immediately surrounding the last monumental temple on the Acropolis of this settlement was preceded by centuries of habitation, increasing interregional trade, craft specialisation and the development of city-states. The paper was written as an homage to my fine colleague Elisabeth van ’t Lindenhout, who retired in 2021.
Van Drenthe tot aan ’t Wad Over landschap, archeologie en geschiedenis van Noord-Nederland Essays ter ere van Egge Knol Annet Nieuwhof en Albert Buursma (redactie).Jaarverslagen van de Vereniging voor Terpenonderzoek 104 2023., 2023
The artificial terp mounds of Baflo and Rasquert in the north
of the province of Groningen are lo... more The artificial terp mounds of Baflo and Rasquert in the north
of the province of Groningen are located next to each other, separated
by a waterway that connects the Wadden Sea with the
interior. During the Early Middle Ages, the twin hamlets grew
into the central settlement of the district Halfambt, each with
a different focus: Baflo being more of an ecclesiastical centre,
and Rasquert the home of some rising aristocratic families.
This development can be explored by examining an array of
archaeological and historical data. In this paper we describe
the development of Rasquert from the 3rd/2nd century BC
into Carolingian/Ottonian times, as it evolved into a mound
with several farmsteads and an accompanying lower mound
that during the Early Middle Ages probably served as a burial
ground. In honour of Egge Knol, we here introduce and illustrate
three topics: the ceramic evidence, three of the seven longitudinal
sections that were drawn in 1928/1929 and that reveal
the construction of the mound over time, and the Rasquert-
Bultvenne cemetery.
Making Cities; Economies of production and urbanization in Mediterranean Europe, 1000–500 BC Edited by Margarita Gleba, Beatriz Marín-Aguilera & Bela Dimova, 2021
The fragmented, indigenous polities along the coasts of the Western Mediterranean, including west... more The fragmented, indigenous polities along the coasts of the Western Mediterranean, including western Italy, became progressively incorporated in a long-distance, overseas, exchange network that covered almost the whole Mediterranean from the tenth century BC onwards. Such communities could become dynamic recipients of goods and expertise that transformed some of their material culture in a decidedly hybrid blend as will be illustrated. This phase is often referred to as the Orientalizing phenomenon, which is accompanied by early city-state formation in some Mediterranean regions that were previously non-urban. Most new manufacturing techniques initially produced high value–low output commodities for which there was a significant need due to local social competition, the rate of which is essential for making cities. Some of the commodities in time gradually altered into low value–high output goods by increased demand, being produced in workshops that signify full centralization and eventually towns with thousands of inhabitants after 700/600 BC. Other skills introduced became hardly anchored in the western Mediterranean during the period 1000 to 700 BC partially due to the still non-urban social-economic environment, restricting demand and display. From a cross-cultural, comparative perspective, it appears that all urbanization is accompanied by some form of craft specialization that resulted in a number of commodities that became available for many: low value–high output goods produced in workshops by skilled craftspeople.
Project description, 2021
Palaeohistoria 61/62, 2019
This paper discusses six tombs from Sveta Lucija (Slovenia) that were bought in 1923 from Prof. R... more This paper discusses six tombs from Sveta Lucija (Slovenia) that were bought in 1923 from Prof. Rudolf Much
(Vienna) by Prof. Albert Egges van Giffen (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) for the collection of what is now the Groningen Institute
of Archaeology. These tombs, excavated in 1890, form part of one of the largest Hallstatt cemeteries known archaeologically,
consisting of thousands of tombs. Walking 40 km north from Sveta Lucija, one can reach the Triglav, at 2864 m the highest
mountain of the Julian Alps. The site itself is located in a valley, in a strategic location at the confluence of two rivers emerging
in these Alps. During the Iron Age, Sveta Lucija functioned as a transitional site between Italy, the Balkans and Austria. This
frontier character is reflected in its entire history, starting in the 8th century BC, when it emerged as a settlement centre. The
article provides a biography of old study collections since c. 1850 and discusses the role of some influential archaeologists in
the history of the excavations at Sveta Lucija since the 1880s. The article then contextualizes the artefacts held at Groningen,
concentrating on the 7th to early 5th century BC. The numerous excavations in the burial grounds and settlement for more
than a century, make Sveta Lucija one of the more thoroughly investigated European Iron Age settlement centres with a couple
of hundred inhabitants. Finally, the article introduces the still-enigmatic development of the site from an Iron Age centre
to a Roman village, addressing the decline of its archaeological visibility during the intervening centuries and its correlation
with Celtic groups.
Projectbeschrijving, 2021
Bronpublicaties over de periode van de 3 de eeuw voor tot 2000 na Chr. Projectbeschrijving voor 2... more Bronpublicaties over de periode van de 3 de eeuw voor tot 2000 na Chr. Projectbeschrijving voor 23 eeuw nederzettingsgeschiedenis op een wierde aan de Waddenzee
Making Cities. Economies of production and urbanization in Mediterranean Europe, 1000–500 BC. Published by the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3ER, UK. ISBN: 978-1-913344-06-1, 2021
The final proofs of this paper were received in June 2021. It is published as Chapter 21, pages 3... more The final proofs of this paper were received in June 2021. It is published as Chapter 21, pages 313-327 in: Gleba, M, Marín-Aguilera, B. & B. Dimova (eds.). Making Cities. Economies of production and urbanization in Mediterranean Europe, 1000–500 BC. Forthcoming by the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3ER, UK. ISBN: 978-1-913344-06-1
Open Access paper
See: https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/328684
The creation of the urban, Classical World that during the Roman Empire finally covered for centuries the whole Mediterranean and beyond emerges as a coastal phenomenon in a period of transformation after the 12th century BC collapse in its Eastern half, representing the Late Bronze Age palatial system with its embassy trading for long-distance overseas exchange. During the Iron Age, it is accompanied by nucleation and eventually the rise of city-states in specific coastal regions of the Mediterranean. It comes with technological transmission starting with the structural use of iron in Italy and on the Iberian Peninsula from the 10th century BC onwards. Subsequently other metallurgical know-how, concepts of monumental architecture, the alphabet, metrological units and novel ceramic production techniques were introduced till around 700/600 BC. Definitely not all of these innovations became anchored everywhere, creating an elusive set of correlations steered somewhat by the rate of entanglement and centralization feasible. It surfaces along the coast with local, mostly land-locked groups and initially seafaring Phoenicians forming elite networks for exchange and stimulating local surplus production. It is the concept of the ‘swallow merchant/artisan’ that seems to prevail, circulating between home and host communities resulting in imported objects and a relatively limited output of the commodities produced during their stay abroad. Shared incentives were crucial, though the scale of involvement fluctuated considerably per territory. During the 9th century BC the rate of exchange intensified leading to ‘settled swallows’ in some regions of the Western Mediterranean and the foundation of Carthage. From ca. 800 BC onwards, Greek-speaking groups moved autonomously westwards, especially to Sicily and southern Italy; groups such as the Euboeans with their relatively short-lived overseas trading relations of the 8th century BC.
The People and the State, 2020
Chapter 9 in: Attema, P.A.J. & A.J. Bronkhorst (eds.), 2020. The People and the State. Material c... more Chapter 9 in: Attema, P.A.J. & A.J. Bronkhorst (eds.), 2020. The People and the State. Material culture, social structure, and political centralisation in Central Italy (800-450 BC) from the perspective of ancient Crustumerium (Rome, Italy). Groningen: University of Groningen / Groningen Institute of Archaeology & Barkhuis, pp. 153-94.
Book and cover design: S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.Image editing: A.J. Bronkhorst & S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.
ISBN printed book: 9789493194236ISBN
e-book: 9789493194243
In: Palaeohistoria 35/36,., 89-105., 1994
The iron votive offerings from Votive Deposit I at Satricum (8th to 6th centuries BC) are present... more The iron votive offerings from Votive Deposit I at Satricum (8th to 6th centuries BC) are presented in combination with the evidence for loeal iron production. The introduetion of iron production in Central Italy is briefly diseussed in order to establish a frarnework for the situation encountered at Satrieum. This is supplemented by metallographic analyses of some of the 7th century BC iron artefacts from the settlement excavations. The paper is completed by an appendix recording all the iron artefacts known from S atricum.
https://ugp.rug.nl/Palaeohistoria/issue/view/3327
Antiquity, Volume 93, Issue 370 August 2019 , pp. 1105-1106, 2019
Seth Bernard. 2018. Building in mid-Republican Rome: labor, architecture, and the urban economy. ... more Seth Bernard. 2018. Building in mid-Republican Rome: labor, architecture, and the urban economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 978-0-19-087878-8 £ 55
Review by Albert J. Nijboer, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands; [email protected]
Edited version published in Antiquity, Volume 93, Issue 370 August 2019 , pp. 1105-1106
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2019.124
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 August 2019
On Academia.edu you find the author version; handed in April 29, 2019; 750 to 1000 words requested; 1044 words on April 29th
In: Palaeohistoria 59/60, 2017
At Celano (Abruzzo region, Italy), rare tumulus tombs of the Final Bronze Age were excavated, yie... more At Celano (Abruzzo region, Italy), rare tumulus tombs of the Final Bronze Age were excavated, yielding waterlogged sarcophagi of oak wood. Two tombs are dated by Wiggle Match Dating (WMD) using the conventional 14C method. This shows that the tumuli were erected around 1025±25 BC, while the associated artefacts in the sarcophagi refer to the final stages of the Bronze Age (FBA) in Italy.
Related fibulae as the ones found in both tombs at Celano are recovered in limited numbers all over the Italian Peninsula and even in Croatia and nearby regions (Glogović 2003; von Merhart 1969, pls. 4, 5, 7).
Our date of 1050-1000 BC for the last stages of the Bronze Age in Italy has consequences for the beginning of the Iron Age, which should start around 1000-950 BCE, an assessment that is consistent with other radiocarbon sequences obtained for Italy, such as the sequence for Latium Vetus and elsewhere in the western Mediterranean.
Bentz, M. & T. Helms (eds.), 2018. Craft production systems in a cross-cultural perspective. “Studien zur Wirtschaftsarchäologie” (Studies on Economic Archaeology), Vol. I, Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn, pp. 61-81. , 2018
Abstract
The transition from Bronze to Iron Age in the western Mediterranean during the 10th and ... more Abstract
The transition from Bronze to Iron Age in the western Mediterranean during the 10th and 9th centuries BC is based on the awareness of the inherent advantages of the metal iron over copper-alloys when it comes to two contrary attributes, hardness and malleability. Both qualities of iron/steel could and were manipulated during smelting of the iron-ores and the subsequent smiting. It created perfect implements of all kinds, most of which can nowadays still be bought in hardware stores. The paper examines the structural, generic introduction of this novel metal in mainly Italy and Spain/Portugal. It presents well-published sites where relatively much early iron was excavated in combination with related radiocarbon dates. It turns out that the intrinsic qualities of iron are appreciated mainly in iron/steel knives from the 10th century BC onwards after which the repertoire of iron tools and weapons rapidly enlarged till it became the prevailing metal for all tools and weapons in a couple of centuries. The technological transfer involved, appears related to the Phoenicians, who crossed the whole Mediterranean from the 11th – 10th century BC onwards, well before the establishment of permanent overseas settlements. Local overland networks on the Italian Peninsula and in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula resulted in the distribution of the early iron artefacts. In Italy the accompanying technological know-how seems to have spread along these landlocked arteries as well.
Another benefit in this transition from bronze to iron is the availability of terrestrial metal-ores; iron-ores are far more ubiquitous than coper- and tin-ores necessary for the manufacture of bronze. Therefore, the growing use of iron as a base-metal and the local/regional exploitation of iron-ores inevitably resulted in its devaluation. This process of deflation is best recorded in the Near and Middle East from the 11th – 10th centuries BC onwards. However, it must successively have occurred in the western Mediterranean, especially during the 8th century BC and later. These intricate topics concerning the introduction of iron are described with moderation since the associated archaeological data for the 10th and 9th century BC are improving but still remain somewhat patchy.
The Archaeology of Death; Papers in Italian Archaeology VII, 2018
The archaeology of death in pre-Roman Italy frequently focuses on important issues such as social... more The archaeology of death in pre-Roman Italy frequently focuses on important issues such as social stratification, gender roles and ancestor cult. Central Italy, taken as the regions Etruria, Latium Vetus or Old Latium, the Sabina Tiberina and the Faliscan-Capenate area, was however home to various Peoples and is diverse in many aspects. This variation is mirrored in the funerary record and reveals differences between main centres in each of the four above-mentioned regions. For example, the wealth as deposited in tombs fluctuated considerably per centre and period as if status differences were less expressed in some settlements than in others. Local, cultural choices in funerary rites, and even per clan, are examined in this paper in the broader context of identity. It will address issues such as child burials and the structural presence of elaborate warrior tombs in Etruria during the eight century BC while they hardly occur in Latium Vetus and the other regions. The point of departure will be our excavations at Crustumerium at the crossing into these four regions since the interpretation of its funerary record remains puzzling due to assimilation of diverse cultural traits of the surrounding Peoples and its traditional rituals and ceremonies encasing death (www.Crustumerium.nl; Attema et al. 2016).
Archaeological evidence for economic transformations, pre-monetary exchange and urbanisation in c... more Archaeological evidence for economic transformations, pre-monetary exchange and urbanisation in central Italy from 800 to 400 BC
Contents
List of illustrations
Acknowledgements
Preface
Chapter I FRAMEWORK
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Theoretical background 7
1.3 Chronology 15
1.4 Method of study 18
1.5 Agricultural foundations 20
1.6 Urbanisation 24
1.7 Economic development 29
1.8 Social and cultural development 46
Chapter II POTTERY
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 General geological perspective 58
2.3 Preparation of raw materials 62
2.4 Forming and finishing methods 64
2.5 Firing 73
2.6 Archaeological evidence 79
2.6.1 Satricum 79
2.6.2 Lavinium 91
2.6.3 Laurentina-Acqua Acetosa 96
2.6.4 Caere 99
2.6.5 Acquarossa 111
2.6.6 Poggio Civitate 113
2.6.7 Marzabotto 118
2.7 Ancient literary texts 126
2.8 Conclusion 128
Chapter III METALS
3.1 Introduction 135
3.2 Gold and silver 142
3.3 Copper alloys 144
3.4 Iron 150
3.5 Resources 162
3.6 Archaeological evidence 165
3.6.1 Pithekoussai 165
3.6.2 Satricum 168
3.6.3 Caere 184
3.6.4 Acquarossa 185
3.6.5 Gran Carro 187
3.6.6 Lago dell'Accesa 188
3.6.7 Populonia 189
3.6.8 Poggio Civitate 193
3.6.9 Marzabotto 196
3.7 Conclusion 202
Chapter IV STANDARDISATION AND PRE-MONETARY EXCHANGE
4.1 Introduction 207
4.2 Weights 210
4.3 Volume 223
4.4 Length 229
4.5 Marzabotto 230
4.6 Conclusion 233
Chapter V EPILOGUE
Samenvatting 247
Appendix Iron artefacts which are recorded at Satricum 257
Bibliography 262
Abstract: Defensive systems of main settlements in the region around Rome are diverse during the ... more Abstract: Defensive systems of main settlements in the region around Rome are diverse during the period 950–300 BC. They consist originally of natural defences in the form of steep hillsides, trenches as well as monumental earthworks with or without stone walls. Often an efficient combination of fortification works is recorded to prevent the construction of full-blown artificial battlements around the entire settlement with sizes up to 200 ha. Rome is the exception because it became, within its fortification, at least twice as large as its Etruscan peers around 600–550 BC. The beginning of the construction of full-size city walls with rectangular stones is disputed. They became more common from the 6th century BC onwards. The full circuit, retaining walls made of massive polygon stones, expands the number of options for battlements but seem hardly constructed any longer after the 3rd century BC. Some issues regarding concepts of fortification in central Italy are reviewed. The paper presents cases of fortifications at main sites around Rome such as Veii, Ardea and Crustumerium revealing that concepts of defences were frequently modified once the perimeter of a proto-urban/urban settlement was established. These cases are subsequently integrated to address the long-standing debate on Rome’s Esquiline agger and an argument on the rise of the Roman state.
Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2017
This provides you with one page of the review on page 536-540 of Journal of Roman Archaeology (JR... more This provides you with one page of the review on page 536-540 of Journal of Roman Archaeology (JRA), Vol 30, 2017.
Etruscology, Ed. A. Naso 2017, Boston/Berlin: De Gruyter, 2017
Abstract: In this chapter a divide is presented between the economies of:
1. The Early and Middle... more Abstract: In this chapter a divide is presented between the economies of:
1. The Early and Middle Orientalizing period (730–640/630), with its lavish levels of wealth and conspicuous consumption as documented in funerary rituals. This phase also records the emergence of monumental architecture, tombs and infrastructure; and
2. The Late Orientalizing period (640/630–580), with its rising urbanization, increasing workshop mode of production and expanding markets for better quality, mass-produced commodities.
The shift between this divide is exemplified by the transition from huts to houses during the Late Orientalizing period but can also be illustrated by the imitation of luxury products in more modest materials. Stylistic conformity and devaluation were the result, revealing close relations between the various crafts. The economy remained largely landlocked. The increasing exploitation of the available resources rose gradually, starting from patterns that became established during the eight century.
However, during the seventh century, the scale and differentiation of the economy in Etruria enlarged significantly assisted by considerable population growth. Surveys have shown that the countryside around major centers became more and more inhabited with minor settlements. Hierarchies of craft workers evolved with differences between primary, secondary and tertiary settlements. Specialization was most advanced in the capitals of the rising city-states. The demand for ceramics during the late seventh century probably established early nucleation of pottery workshops at key sites such as Veii, Caere, Tarquinia, Vulci, and Vetulonia. At secondary settlements the process of craft specialization
occurred as well but not to the same extent as in the main power centers.
Market conditions and exchange by quantification were more developed in the trading sites along the coast for the management of long-distance exchange with overseas traders. Most local exchange was still reciprocal and by barter. Many farmers lived in or near the key centers and
acquired progressively more products from specialized workshops, reflecting the growth of interior markets.
Uncertainties remain about the economic role of war and of rising institutions. It is probable that ongoing economic growth created opportunities for many and that enduring warfare was absent
to some extent as long as the surrounding hinterland of the rising Etruscan city-states was not fully exploited and dominated. Institutions were predominantly run by the leading families of various clans. By managing labor and exchange, their hold on the increasingly more complex economy of Etruria had become considerable.
Keywords: Standardization, urbanization, settlement hierarchy, workshop mode of production, expanding demand
Etruscology. Ed. A. Naso. Boston/Berlin: De Gruyter, 2017
Abstract: In economic terms the clearest features for Etruria during EIA 1 (1000/950–800 BCE) are... more Abstract: In economic terms the clearest features for Etruria during EIA 1 (1000/950–800 BCE) are:
– The increasing role of a landlocked network of exchange crossing from northeast to southwest Italy with Etruria at its core. This network was managed by part-time traders who gained advantages over the rest of the population by dominating exchange and communication.
– The growing exploitation of the local metal ores due to a gradual substitution of copper-alloy tools and weapons by those of iron.
For EIA 2 (800–730 BCE) there is evidence for:
– Accelerated population growth.
– Craft specialization on account of politically motivated demands of the emerging upper classes for prestige goods.
– The definite opening of the existing exchange network to overseas merchants/craftsmen from the Levant and Euboea.
Food, shelter and clothing are the three economic necessities of life. In Etruria, everybody seems to have had access to these necessities. Shelter during the whole Early Iron Age consisted of huts that were probably constructed with communal labor by extended families or by clans. Clothing and textiles were produced in most households, mainly as additional—though labor-intensive—tasks for women. For the rest, the production of food or agriculture constituted 90–95% of the labor. The
remaining 5—10% was for activities such as mining, metalworking, salt production and a limited amount for trade and political-religious services.
Agricultural land in Etruria was predominantly collective and probably belonged to clans. Some rising families within each clan, possibly those managing long-distance exchange, started to control labor of their fellows and thus claimed part of the productivity. For economic progress, it seems to have been essential that the rising upper class found ways to collect and dispose of surplus production.
This probably gave rise to economic inequality in return for social-economic protection.
Keywords: Exchange network, craft specialization, land, agriculture
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Papers/books by Albert Nijboer
the late Arnold Beijer, and myself. Thus, the Satricum Fabrics project was initiated. One of its objectives was to enhance the chronological resolution of abraded pottery sherds recovered from field walking surveys in southern Latium. This turned out to be more complicated than originally anticipated. The present paper will address this issue as well as topics such as urbanization, ceramic traditions, and innovation.
For Satricum, the project has revealed in detail that the number of fabrics increased significantly with centralization and the subsequent formation of an early town. Part of this increase is due to interregional imports, but it is mostly the result of more complex, local modes of production and growing technological know-how. There are even smallscale, single fabrics for highly specialized functions, such as the final lining of the combustion chamber of a large ceramic kiln dating around 500 BC. However, two fundamental issues persist: skill and lingering local traditions in ceramic paste manipulation. Thus, the introduction of a new fabric does not immediately result in the abolition of the old ones.
Moreover, identifying ceramic fabrics requires more expert competence than expected. In addition, the use of locally available clays and minerals may have been employed for centuries in case production continued. The retirement of Peter as chair of Mediterranean archaeology in 2024, offers me an opportunity to reflect on our fabrics project with some closing remarks.
of the province of Groningen are located next to each other, separated
by a waterway that connects the Wadden Sea with the
interior. During the Early Middle Ages, the twin hamlets grew
into the central settlement of the district Halfambt, each with
a different focus: Baflo being more of an ecclesiastical centre,
and Rasquert the home of some rising aristocratic families.
This development can be explored by examining an array of
archaeological and historical data. In this paper we describe
the development of Rasquert from the 3rd/2nd century BC
into Carolingian/Ottonian times, as it evolved into a mound
with several farmsteads and an accompanying lower mound
that during the Early Middle Ages probably served as a burial
ground. In honour of Egge Knol, we here introduce and illustrate
three topics: the ceramic evidence, three of the seven longitudinal
sections that were drawn in 1928/1929 and that reveal
the construction of the mound over time, and the Rasquert-
Bultvenne cemetery.
from the 3rd century BC to roughly 2000 AD
Project description
The translation in English is slightly more elaborate than the Dutch version of Project Rasquert that can be found as an open source document on my academia.edu page https://rug.academia.edu/AlbertNijboer or on the website of the Historical Society Baflo http://www.bavvelt.nl/index_htm_files/Rasquert%20Projectbeschrijving%202021.pdf
(Vienna) by Prof. Albert Egges van Giffen (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) for the collection of what is now the Groningen Institute
of Archaeology. These tombs, excavated in 1890, form part of one of the largest Hallstatt cemeteries known archaeologically,
consisting of thousands of tombs. Walking 40 km north from Sveta Lucija, one can reach the Triglav, at 2864 m the highest
mountain of the Julian Alps. The site itself is located in a valley, in a strategic location at the confluence of two rivers emerging
in these Alps. During the Iron Age, Sveta Lucija functioned as a transitional site between Italy, the Balkans and Austria. This
frontier character is reflected in its entire history, starting in the 8th century BC, when it emerged as a settlement centre. The
article provides a biography of old study collections since c. 1850 and discusses the role of some influential archaeologists in
the history of the excavations at Sveta Lucija since the 1880s. The article then contextualizes the artefacts held at Groningen,
concentrating on the 7th to early 5th century BC. The numerous excavations in the burial grounds and settlement for more
than a century, make Sveta Lucija one of the more thoroughly investigated European Iron Age settlement centres with a couple
of hundred inhabitants. Finally, the article introduces the still-enigmatic development of the site from an Iron Age centre
to a Roman village, addressing the decline of its archaeological visibility during the intervening centuries and its correlation
with Celtic groups.
Open Access paper
See: https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/328684
The creation of the urban, Classical World that during the Roman Empire finally covered for centuries the whole Mediterranean and beyond emerges as a coastal phenomenon in a period of transformation after the 12th century BC collapse in its Eastern half, representing the Late Bronze Age palatial system with its embassy trading for long-distance overseas exchange. During the Iron Age, it is accompanied by nucleation and eventually the rise of city-states in specific coastal regions of the Mediterranean. It comes with technological transmission starting with the structural use of iron in Italy and on the Iberian Peninsula from the 10th century BC onwards. Subsequently other metallurgical know-how, concepts of monumental architecture, the alphabet, metrological units and novel ceramic production techniques were introduced till around 700/600 BC. Definitely not all of these innovations became anchored everywhere, creating an elusive set of correlations steered somewhat by the rate of entanglement and centralization feasible. It surfaces along the coast with local, mostly land-locked groups and initially seafaring Phoenicians forming elite networks for exchange and stimulating local surplus production. It is the concept of the ‘swallow merchant/artisan’ that seems to prevail, circulating between home and host communities resulting in imported objects and a relatively limited output of the commodities produced during their stay abroad. Shared incentives were crucial, though the scale of involvement fluctuated considerably per territory. During the 9th century BC the rate of exchange intensified leading to ‘settled swallows’ in some regions of the Western Mediterranean and the foundation of Carthage. From ca. 800 BC onwards, Greek-speaking groups moved autonomously westwards, especially to Sicily and southern Italy; groups such as the Euboeans with their relatively short-lived overseas trading relations of the 8th century BC.
Book and cover design: S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.Image editing: A.J. Bronkhorst & S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.
ISBN printed book: 9789493194236ISBN
e-book: 9789493194243
https://ugp.rug.nl/Palaeohistoria/issue/view/3327
Review by Albert J. Nijboer, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands; [email protected]
Edited version published in Antiquity, Volume 93, Issue 370 August 2019 , pp. 1105-1106
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2019.124
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 August 2019
On Academia.edu you find the author version; handed in April 29, 2019; 750 to 1000 words requested; 1044 words on April 29th
Related fibulae as the ones found in both tombs at Celano are recovered in limited numbers all over the Italian Peninsula and even in Croatia and nearby regions (Glogović 2003; von Merhart 1969, pls. 4, 5, 7).
Our date of 1050-1000 BC for the last stages of the Bronze Age in Italy has consequences for the beginning of the Iron Age, which should start around 1000-950 BCE, an assessment that is consistent with other radiocarbon sequences obtained for Italy, such as the sequence for Latium Vetus and elsewhere in the western Mediterranean.
The transition from Bronze to Iron Age in the western Mediterranean during the 10th and 9th centuries BC is based on the awareness of the inherent advantages of the metal iron over copper-alloys when it comes to two contrary attributes, hardness and malleability. Both qualities of iron/steel could and were manipulated during smelting of the iron-ores and the subsequent smiting. It created perfect implements of all kinds, most of which can nowadays still be bought in hardware stores. The paper examines the structural, generic introduction of this novel metal in mainly Italy and Spain/Portugal. It presents well-published sites where relatively much early iron was excavated in combination with related radiocarbon dates. It turns out that the intrinsic qualities of iron are appreciated mainly in iron/steel knives from the 10th century BC onwards after which the repertoire of iron tools and weapons rapidly enlarged till it became the prevailing metal for all tools and weapons in a couple of centuries. The technological transfer involved, appears related to the Phoenicians, who crossed the whole Mediterranean from the 11th – 10th century BC onwards, well before the establishment of permanent overseas settlements. Local overland networks on the Italian Peninsula and in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula resulted in the distribution of the early iron artefacts. In Italy the accompanying technological know-how seems to have spread along these landlocked arteries as well.
Another benefit in this transition from bronze to iron is the availability of terrestrial metal-ores; iron-ores are far more ubiquitous than coper- and tin-ores necessary for the manufacture of bronze. Therefore, the growing use of iron as a base-metal and the local/regional exploitation of iron-ores inevitably resulted in its devaluation. This process of deflation is best recorded in the Near and Middle East from the 11th – 10th centuries BC onwards. However, it must successively have occurred in the western Mediterranean, especially during the 8th century BC and later. These intricate topics concerning the introduction of iron are described with moderation since the associated archaeological data for the 10th and 9th century BC are improving but still remain somewhat patchy.
Contents
List of illustrations
Acknowledgements
Preface
Chapter I FRAMEWORK
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Theoretical background 7
1.3 Chronology 15
1.4 Method of study 18
1.5 Agricultural foundations 20
1.6 Urbanisation 24
1.7 Economic development 29
1.8 Social and cultural development 46
Chapter II POTTERY
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 General geological perspective 58
2.3 Preparation of raw materials 62
2.4 Forming and finishing methods 64
2.5 Firing 73
2.6 Archaeological evidence 79
2.6.1 Satricum 79
2.6.2 Lavinium 91
2.6.3 Laurentina-Acqua Acetosa 96
2.6.4 Caere 99
2.6.5 Acquarossa 111
2.6.6 Poggio Civitate 113
2.6.7 Marzabotto 118
2.7 Ancient literary texts 126
2.8 Conclusion 128
Chapter III METALS
3.1 Introduction 135
3.2 Gold and silver 142
3.3 Copper alloys 144
3.4 Iron 150
3.5 Resources 162
3.6 Archaeological evidence 165
3.6.1 Pithekoussai 165
3.6.2 Satricum 168
3.6.3 Caere 184
3.6.4 Acquarossa 185
3.6.5 Gran Carro 187
3.6.6 Lago dell'Accesa 188
3.6.7 Populonia 189
3.6.8 Poggio Civitate 193
3.6.9 Marzabotto 196
3.7 Conclusion 202
Chapter IV STANDARDISATION AND PRE-MONETARY EXCHANGE
4.1 Introduction 207
4.2 Weights 210
4.3 Volume 223
4.4 Length 229
4.5 Marzabotto 230
4.6 Conclusion 233
Chapter V EPILOGUE
Samenvatting 247
Appendix Iron artefacts which are recorded at Satricum 257
Bibliography 262
1. The Early and Middle Orientalizing period (730–640/630), with its lavish levels of wealth and conspicuous consumption as documented in funerary rituals. This phase also records the emergence of monumental architecture, tombs and infrastructure; and
2. The Late Orientalizing period (640/630–580), with its rising urbanization, increasing workshop mode of production and expanding markets for better quality, mass-produced commodities.
The shift between this divide is exemplified by the transition from huts to houses during the Late Orientalizing period but can also be illustrated by the imitation of luxury products in more modest materials. Stylistic conformity and devaluation were the result, revealing close relations between the various crafts. The economy remained largely landlocked. The increasing exploitation of the available resources rose gradually, starting from patterns that became established during the eight century.
However, during the seventh century, the scale and differentiation of the economy in Etruria enlarged significantly assisted by considerable population growth. Surveys have shown that the countryside around major centers became more and more inhabited with minor settlements. Hierarchies of craft workers evolved with differences between primary, secondary and tertiary settlements. Specialization was most advanced in the capitals of the rising city-states. The demand for ceramics during the late seventh century probably established early nucleation of pottery workshops at key sites such as Veii, Caere, Tarquinia, Vulci, and Vetulonia. At secondary settlements the process of craft specialization
occurred as well but not to the same extent as in the main power centers.
Market conditions and exchange by quantification were more developed in the trading sites along the coast for the management of long-distance exchange with overseas traders. Most local exchange was still reciprocal and by barter. Many farmers lived in or near the key centers and
acquired progressively more products from specialized workshops, reflecting the growth of interior markets.
Uncertainties remain about the economic role of war and of rising institutions. It is probable that ongoing economic growth created opportunities for many and that enduring warfare was absent
to some extent as long as the surrounding hinterland of the rising Etruscan city-states was not fully exploited and dominated. Institutions were predominantly run by the leading families of various clans. By managing labor and exchange, their hold on the increasingly more complex economy of Etruria had become considerable.
Keywords: Standardization, urbanization, settlement hierarchy, workshop mode of production, expanding demand
– The increasing role of a landlocked network of exchange crossing from northeast to southwest Italy with Etruria at its core. This network was managed by part-time traders who gained advantages over the rest of the population by dominating exchange and communication.
– The growing exploitation of the local metal ores due to a gradual substitution of copper-alloy tools and weapons by those of iron.
For EIA 2 (800–730 BCE) there is evidence for:
– Accelerated population growth.
– Craft specialization on account of politically motivated demands of the emerging upper classes for prestige goods.
– The definite opening of the existing exchange network to overseas merchants/craftsmen from the Levant and Euboea.
Food, shelter and clothing are the three economic necessities of life. In Etruria, everybody seems to have had access to these necessities. Shelter during the whole Early Iron Age consisted of huts that were probably constructed with communal labor by extended families or by clans. Clothing and textiles were produced in most households, mainly as additional—though labor-intensive—tasks for women. For the rest, the production of food or agriculture constituted 90–95% of the labor. The
remaining 5—10% was for activities such as mining, metalworking, salt production and a limited amount for trade and political-religious services.
Agricultural land in Etruria was predominantly collective and probably belonged to clans. Some rising families within each clan, possibly those managing long-distance exchange, started to control labor of their fellows and thus claimed part of the productivity. For economic progress, it seems to have been essential that the rising upper class found ways to collect and dispose of surplus production.
This probably gave rise to economic inequality in return for social-economic protection.
Keywords: Exchange network, craft specialization, land, agriculture
the late Arnold Beijer, and myself. Thus, the Satricum Fabrics project was initiated. One of its objectives was to enhance the chronological resolution of abraded pottery sherds recovered from field walking surveys in southern Latium. This turned out to be more complicated than originally anticipated. The present paper will address this issue as well as topics such as urbanization, ceramic traditions, and innovation.
For Satricum, the project has revealed in detail that the number of fabrics increased significantly with centralization and the subsequent formation of an early town. Part of this increase is due to interregional imports, but it is mostly the result of more complex, local modes of production and growing technological know-how. There are even smallscale, single fabrics for highly specialized functions, such as the final lining of the combustion chamber of a large ceramic kiln dating around 500 BC. However, two fundamental issues persist: skill and lingering local traditions in ceramic paste manipulation. Thus, the introduction of a new fabric does not immediately result in the abolition of the old ones.
Moreover, identifying ceramic fabrics requires more expert competence than expected. In addition, the use of locally available clays and minerals may have been employed for centuries in case production continued. The retirement of Peter as chair of Mediterranean archaeology in 2024, offers me an opportunity to reflect on our fabrics project with some closing remarks.
of the province of Groningen are located next to each other, separated
by a waterway that connects the Wadden Sea with the
interior. During the Early Middle Ages, the twin hamlets grew
into the central settlement of the district Halfambt, each with
a different focus: Baflo being more of an ecclesiastical centre,
and Rasquert the home of some rising aristocratic families.
This development can be explored by examining an array of
archaeological and historical data. In this paper we describe
the development of Rasquert from the 3rd/2nd century BC
into Carolingian/Ottonian times, as it evolved into a mound
with several farmsteads and an accompanying lower mound
that during the Early Middle Ages probably served as a burial
ground. In honour of Egge Knol, we here introduce and illustrate
three topics: the ceramic evidence, three of the seven longitudinal
sections that were drawn in 1928/1929 and that reveal
the construction of the mound over time, and the Rasquert-
Bultvenne cemetery.
from the 3rd century BC to roughly 2000 AD
Project description
The translation in English is slightly more elaborate than the Dutch version of Project Rasquert that can be found as an open source document on my academia.edu page https://rug.academia.edu/AlbertNijboer or on the website of the Historical Society Baflo http://www.bavvelt.nl/index_htm_files/Rasquert%20Projectbeschrijving%202021.pdf
(Vienna) by Prof. Albert Egges van Giffen (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen) for the collection of what is now the Groningen Institute
of Archaeology. These tombs, excavated in 1890, form part of one of the largest Hallstatt cemeteries known archaeologically,
consisting of thousands of tombs. Walking 40 km north from Sveta Lucija, one can reach the Triglav, at 2864 m the highest
mountain of the Julian Alps. The site itself is located in a valley, in a strategic location at the confluence of two rivers emerging
in these Alps. During the Iron Age, Sveta Lucija functioned as a transitional site between Italy, the Balkans and Austria. This
frontier character is reflected in its entire history, starting in the 8th century BC, when it emerged as a settlement centre. The
article provides a biography of old study collections since c. 1850 and discusses the role of some influential archaeologists in
the history of the excavations at Sveta Lucija since the 1880s. The article then contextualizes the artefacts held at Groningen,
concentrating on the 7th to early 5th century BC. The numerous excavations in the burial grounds and settlement for more
than a century, make Sveta Lucija one of the more thoroughly investigated European Iron Age settlement centres with a couple
of hundred inhabitants. Finally, the article introduces the still-enigmatic development of the site from an Iron Age centre
to a Roman village, addressing the decline of its archaeological visibility during the intervening centuries and its correlation
with Celtic groups.
Open Access paper
See: https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/328684
The creation of the urban, Classical World that during the Roman Empire finally covered for centuries the whole Mediterranean and beyond emerges as a coastal phenomenon in a period of transformation after the 12th century BC collapse in its Eastern half, representing the Late Bronze Age palatial system with its embassy trading for long-distance overseas exchange. During the Iron Age, it is accompanied by nucleation and eventually the rise of city-states in specific coastal regions of the Mediterranean. It comes with technological transmission starting with the structural use of iron in Italy and on the Iberian Peninsula from the 10th century BC onwards. Subsequently other metallurgical know-how, concepts of monumental architecture, the alphabet, metrological units and novel ceramic production techniques were introduced till around 700/600 BC. Definitely not all of these innovations became anchored everywhere, creating an elusive set of correlations steered somewhat by the rate of entanglement and centralization feasible. It surfaces along the coast with local, mostly land-locked groups and initially seafaring Phoenicians forming elite networks for exchange and stimulating local surplus production. It is the concept of the ‘swallow merchant/artisan’ that seems to prevail, circulating between home and host communities resulting in imported objects and a relatively limited output of the commodities produced during their stay abroad. Shared incentives were crucial, though the scale of involvement fluctuated considerably per territory. During the 9th century BC the rate of exchange intensified leading to ‘settled swallows’ in some regions of the Western Mediterranean and the foundation of Carthage. From ca. 800 BC onwards, Greek-speaking groups moved autonomously westwards, especially to Sicily and southern Italy; groups such as the Euboeans with their relatively short-lived overseas trading relations of the 8th century BC.
Book and cover design: S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.Image editing: A.J. Bronkhorst & S.E. Boersma, RUG/GIA.
ISBN printed book: 9789493194236ISBN
e-book: 9789493194243
https://ugp.rug.nl/Palaeohistoria/issue/view/3327
Review by Albert J. Nijboer, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands; [email protected]
Edited version published in Antiquity, Volume 93, Issue 370 August 2019 , pp. 1105-1106
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2019.124
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 August 2019
On Academia.edu you find the author version; handed in April 29, 2019; 750 to 1000 words requested; 1044 words on April 29th
Related fibulae as the ones found in both tombs at Celano are recovered in limited numbers all over the Italian Peninsula and even in Croatia and nearby regions (Glogović 2003; von Merhart 1969, pls. 4, 5, 7).
Our date of 1050-1000 BC for the last stages of the Bronze Age in Italy has consequences for the beginning of the Iron Age, which should start around 1000-950 BCE, an assessment that is consistent with other radiocarbon sequences obtained for Italy, such as the sequence for Latium Vetus and elsewhere in the western Mediterranean.
The transition from Bronze to Iron Age in the western Mediterranean during the 10th and 9th centuries BC is based on the awareness of the inherent advantages of the metal iron over copper-alloys when it comes to two contrary attributes, hardness and malleability. Both qualities of iron/steel could and were manipulated during smelting of the iron-ores and the subsequent smiting. It created perfect implements of all kinds, most of which can nowadays still be bought in hardware stores. The paper examines the structural, generic introduction of this novel metal in mainly Italy and Spain/Portugal. It presents well-published sites where relatively much early iron was excavated in combination with related radiocarbon dates. It turns out that the intrinsic qualities of iron are appreciated mainly in iron/steel knives from the 10th century BC onwards after which the repertoire of iron tools and weapons rapidly enlarged till it became the prevailing metal for all tools and weapons in a couple of centuries. The technological transfer involved, appears related to the Phoenicians, who crossed the whole Mediterranean from the 11th – 10th century BC onwards, well before the establishment of permanent overseas settlements. Local overland networks on the Italian Peninsula and in the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula resulted in the distribution of the early iron artefacts. In Italy the accompanying technological know-how seems to have spread along these landlocked arteries as well.
Another benefit in this transition from bronze to iron is the availability of terrestrial metal-ores; iron-ores are far more ubiquitous than coper- and tin-ores necessary for the manufacture of bronze. Therefore, the growing use of iron as a base-metal and the local/regional exploitation of iron-ores inevitably resulted in its devaluation. This process of deflation is best recorded in the Near and Middle East from the 11th – 10th centuries BC onwards. However, it must successively have occurred in the western Mediterranean, especially during the 8th century BC and later. These intricate topics concerning the introduction of iron are described with moderation since the associated archaeological data for the 10th and 9th century BC are improving but still remain somewhat patchy.
Contents
List of illustrations
Acknowledgements
Preface
Chapter I FRAMEWORK
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Theoretical background 7
1.3 Chronology 15
1.4 Method of study 18
1.5 Agricultural foundations 20
1.6 Urbanisation 24
1.7 Economic development 29
1.8 Social and cultural development 46
Chapter II POTTERY
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 General geological perspective 58
2.3 Preparation of raw materials 62
2.4 Forming and finishing methods 64
2.5 Firing 73
2.6 Archaeological evidence 79
2.6.1 Satricum 79
2.6.2 Lavinium 91
2.6.3 Laurentina-Acqua Acetosa 96
2.6.4 Caere 99
2.6.5 Acquarossa 111
2.6.6 Poggio Civitate 113
2.6.7 Marzabotto 118
2.7 Ancient literary texts 126
2.8 Conclusion 128
Chapter III METALS
3.1 Introduction 135
3.2 Gold and silver 142
3.3 Copper alloys 144
3.4 Iron 150
3.5 Resources 162
3.6 Archaeological evidence 165
3.6.1 Pithekoussai 165
3.6.2 Satricum 168
3.6.3 Caere 184
3.6.4 Acquarossa 185
3.6.5 Gran Carro 187
3.6.6 Lago dell'Accesa 188
3.6.7 Populonia 189
3.6.8 Poggio Civitate 193
3.6.9 Marzabotto 196
3.7 Conclusion 202
Chapter IV STANDARDISATION AND PRE-MONETARY EXCHANGE
4.1 Introduction 207
4.2 Weights 210
4.3 Volume 223
4.4 Length 229
4.5 Marzabotto 230
4.6 Conclusion 233
Chapter V EPILOGUE
Samenvatting 247
Appendix Iron artefacts which are recorded at Satricum 257
Bibliography 262
1. The Early and Middle Orientalizing period (730–640/630), with its lavish levels of wealth and conspicuous consumption as documented in funerary rituals. This phase also records the emergence of monumental architecture, tombs and infrastructure; and
2. The Late Orientalizing period (640/630–580), with its rising urbanization, increasing workshop mode of production and expanding markets for better quality, mass-produced commodities.
The shift between this divide is exemplified by the transition from huts to houses during the Late Orientalizing period but can also be illustrated by the imitation of luxury products in more modest materials. Stylistic conformity and devaluation were the result, revealing close relations between the various crafts. The economy remained largely landlocked. The increasing exploitation of the available resources rose gradually, starting from patterns that became established during the eight century.
However, during the seventh century, the scale and differentiation of the economy in Etruria enlarged significantly assisted by considerable population growth. Surveys have shown that the countryside around major centers became more and more inhabited with minor settlements. Hierarchies of craft workers evolved with differences between primary, secondary and tertiary settlements. Specialization was most advanced in the capitals of the rising city-states. The demand for ceramics during the late seventh century probably established early nucleation of pottery workshops at key sites such as Veii, Caere, Tarquinia, Vulci, and Vetulonia. At secondary settlements the process of craft specialization
occurred as well but not to the same extent as in the main power centers.
Market conditions and exchange by quantification were more developed in the trading sites along the coast for the management of long-distance exchange with overseas traders. Most local exchange was still reciprocal and by barter. Many farmers lived in or near the key centers and
acquired progressively more products from specialized workshops, reflecting the growth of interior markets.
Uncertainties remain about the economic role of war and of rising institutions. It is probable that ongoing economic growth created opportunities for many and that enduring warfare was absent
to some extent as long as the surrounding hinterland of the rising Etruscan city-states was not fully exploited and dominated. Institutions were predominantly run by the leading families of various clans. By managing labor and exchange, their hold on the increasingly more complex economy of Etruria had become considerable.
Keywords: Standardization, urbanization, settlement hierarchy, workshop mode of production, expanding demand
– The increasing role of a landlocked network of exchange crossing from northeast to southwest Italy with Etruria at its core. This network was managed by part-time traders who gained advantages over the rest of the population by dominating exchange and communication.
– The growing exploitation of the local metal ores due to a gradual substitution of copper-alloy tools and weapons by those of iron.
For EIA 2 (800–730 BCE) there is evidence for:
– Accelerated population growth.
– Craft specialization on account of politically motivated demands of the emerging upper classes for prestige goods.
– The definite opening of the existing exchange network to overseas merchants/craftsmen from the Levant and Euboea.
Food, shelter and clothing are the three economic necessities of life. In Etruria, everybody seems to have had access to these necessities. Shelter during the whole Early Iron Age consisted of huts that were probably constructed with communal labor by extended families or by clans. Clothing and textiles were produced in most households, mainly as additional—though labor-intensive—tasks for women. For the rest, the production of food or agriculture constituted 90–95% of the labor. The
remaining 5—10% was for activities such as mining, metalworking, salt production and a limited amount for trade and political-religious services.
Agricultural land in Etruria was predominantly collective and probably belonged to clans. Some rising families within each clan, possibly those managing long-distance exchange, started to control labor of their fellows and thus claimed part of the productivity. For economic progress, it seems to have been essential that the rising upper class found ways to collect and dispose of surplus production.
This probably gave rise to economic inequality in return for social-economic protection.
Keywords: Exchange network, craft specialization, land, agriculture
Het afgelopen jaar, 2021, is het GIA en daarmee de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, een nieuw, meerjarig onderzoek gestart in de Ommelanden dat goed aansluit op het project Terpen- en Wierdenland waarvan de eerste fase in 2018 is afgerond ( https://terpenenwierden.nl/het-project/ ). De wierde die wordt onderzocht, is Rasquert, pal naast Baflo, in de gouw Hunsingo. De auteur van deze bijdrage is de coördinator van het onderzoek naar de 22 of 23 eeuwen geschiedenis van Rasquert. Deze inleiding is een verkorte versie van de projectbeschrijving, gecombineerd met enkele nieuwe gegevens (Nijboer 2021). Het project Rasquert wordt ondersteund door verschillende archeologen, historici en instanties terwijl het uitdrukkelijk de bedoeling is dat studenten Archeologie participeren. De eerste Master studenten zijn in september 2021 met enthousiasme begonnen aan de bestudering van de beschikbare lengteprofielen, het aardewerk en de tientallen vroegmiddeleeuwse kammen.
in the coastal part of the Pontine Region near the present-day town of Nettuno. Data derive from three different
sources: 1. the mapping and sampling of sections exposed by marine erosion along the coastal stretch between Nettuno
and the Roman villa at Torre Astura; 2. the study of a local museum collection, containing mainly stray materials collected
in the same area; and 3. GIA surveys carried out in the inland part of the municipality of Nettuno and along the lower
streambed
of the Astura river. The ceramics of some coastal sites clearly exhibit industrial characteristics and these sites
may possibly be associated with salt extraction. As such, they fit into a wider pattern of similar sites found throughout
coastal Tyrrhenian central Italy. The ceramic data is less clear for the more inland parts of the study area, where protohistoric
sites are predominantly characterized by thin scatters of mainly undiagnostic pottery.
Exhibition, Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteket, Copenhagen from May 19 till October 23, 2016
The ancient city Crustumerium was a centre for cultural exchange and played a significant role in the story of the foundation of Rome. For some 1,500 year Crustumerium was merely a recurrent reference in historical sources. When in 1975 archaeologists located the city, some 15 km north of the Italian capital, it was an archaeological breakthrough of the first order, and Crustumerium has since been the object of numerous successful excavations.
The main contributors to this exhibition are the Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteket, SSBAR (the archaeological superintendence of Rome) and the Groningen Institute of Archaeology (University of Groningen, the Netherlands). We especially would like to thank Dr.ssa P. Filippini of the SSBAR for her support.
For more information visit:
http://www.glyptoteket.com/whats-on/calendar/crustumerium-death-and-afterlife-at-the-gates-of-rome
I made this volume available on this Academia.edu page in February 2016 after receiving requests for copies. Peeters publishers in Leuven should have back copies of Caecvlvs but since I can not trace on their website how to order this Caecvlvs volume of 2001, I made it available on internet with the assistance of one of our excellent students at the Groningen Institute of Archaeology, Remco Bronkhorst.