Etruscology: Economy 10th cent to 730 BCE

From: Chapter 43 Economy, 10th cent. – 730 BCE In: De Naso (ed.), Etruscology. Boston/Berlin: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 795-809 Here page 795-798 are reproduced. For full chapter 43 please consult the Reference publication Etruscology (2017) Abstract: In economic terms the clearest features for Etruria during EIA 1 (1000/950–800 BCE) are: – The increasing role of a landlocked network of exchange crossing from northeast to southwest Italy with Etruria at its core. This network was managed by part-time traders who gained advantages over the rest of the population by dominating exchange and communication. – The growing exploitation of the local metal ores due to a gradual substitution of copper-alloy tools and weapons by those of iron. For EIA 2 (800–730 BCE) there is evidence for: – Accelerated population growth. – Craft specialization on account of politically motivated demands of the emerging upper classes for prestige goods. – The definite opening of the existing exchange network to overseas merchants/craftsmen from the Levant and Euboea. Food, shelter and clothing are the three economic necessities of life. In Etruria, everybody seems to have had access to these necessities. Shelter during the whole Early Iron Age consisted of huts that were probably constructed with communal labor by extended families or by clans. Clothing and textiles were produced in most households, mainly as additional—though labor-intensive—tasks for women. For the rest, the production of food or agriculture constituted 90–95% of the labor. The remaining 5—10% was for activities such as mining, metalworking, salt production and a limited amount for trade and political-religious services. Agricultural land in Etruria was predominantly collective and probably belonged to clans. Some rising families within each clan, possibly those managing long-distance exchange, started to control labor of their fellows and thus claimed part of the productivity. For economic progress, it seems to have been essential that the rising upper class found ways to collect and dispose of surplus production. This probably gave rise to economic inequality in return for social-economic protection. Keywords: Exchange network, craft specialization, land, agriculture 1 Introduction An economy represents the “hardware” of a society and region. It entails the distribution and exploitation of resources, the organization of labor, demography, appropriation, customs of local and regional exchange, and the consumption of food and goods that are produced and imported. As such, an economy is interlocked with its social and political order. The collective socio-political structure in Etruria will be referred to when necessary, since it structured its economic development but is not * For comments on the text, forwarded articles and discussion, I would like to thank Prof. A. Naso, Prof. G. Bartoloni, Prof. A.M. Bietti Sestieri, Dr. A. de Santis, Dr. F. Delpino, Dr. C. Iaia, and my students.  796 Albert J. Nijboer discussed independently. For convenience, the Early Iron Age in Etruria is divided in two phases: EIA 1 (1000/950–800) and EIA 2 (800–730). During EIA 1, economic development shows a gradual increase in scale that accelerated during EIA 2, a period that is partially characterized by overseas contacts and exchange. These contacts brought with them a social hierarchy in Etruria that became more visible in the form of exceptional female and warrior tombs containing local luxury goods, status symbols and some overseas imports. This chapter presents a general reconstruction of the economy in Etruria from 1000 to 730, which is a challenging exercise in overall interpretation.1 An extensive discussion on local differences between coastal and interior or northern and southern Etruria is not feasible here. Society in Etruria changed considerably during these centuries, a transformation that is brought to light by archaeological data that reveals evermore differentiation. Regrettably, our knowledge of EIA 1 is still sketchy. Two economic features for this period stand out nevertheless: the establishment of a sound interregional, overland network of exchange, and the steady replacement of copperalloy tools and weapons with iron ones. 2 Demography A major event in Etruria during the tenth century is the concentration of the population on larger plateaus at central sites that became the nuclei of the future Etruscan city-states.2 Many smaller Final Bronze Age sites were deserted in favor of much larger plateaus.3 This territorial restructuring of Etruria does not seem to have been accompanied by a sharp increase in population. The minor Final Bronze Age sites typically housed communities of around 100 people, though higher populations are estimated for some settlements. The larger plateaus, some of which are between 100 and 200 hectares, housed a dispersed population of a few hundreds during the tenth century. They were probably organized in small groups or clans, which are denoted by surveys that often show concentrations of EIA 1 ceramics on specific plots of these plateaus. The rise of a number of prescribed burial grounds surrounding these settlements from EIA 1 onwards, indicates that the groups within them were distinct.4 If one were to include the people from the large adjoining territory, the population per main set- 1 Many aspects of the economy of the Early Iron Age in Etruria are presented in other chapters; topics such as shipping (chapter 22 Pomey), mines (chapters 25 Zifferero and 26 Corretti), weights (chapter 28 Maggiani) and settlement patterns (chapter 72 Zifferero). 2 These topics are examined in other chapters. See chapters 41 Pacciarelli and 44 Iaia. 3 E.g. Barbaro 2010. 4 The majority of these prescribed burial grounds grew considerably in the centuries to come.  43 Economy, 10th cent.-730 BCE 797 tlement might be raised to a few thousand for EIA 1, many of whom probably had a mobile, semi-permanent lifestyle. The archaeological evidence from tombs and surveys from around 800 suggest that several of the larger primary settlements—especially those in southern Etruria— had reached a population of around 1000.5 EIA 2 is documented as a period of exceptional growth and by 725, this figure could have doubled, at the most. Including groups living in the territories around these central settlements, it has been suggested that some of the chiefdoms/early city-states accommodated over several thousand permanent residents during EIA 2.6 Consequently, the demography is reconstructed as a gradual increase in population during EIA 1 that accelerated in EIA 2.7 These higher population numbers contributed significantly to the economic growth of Etruria. 3 Agriculture, resources and their exploitation The economy of Etruria depended largely on agriculture.8 Its soils are generally fertile, and labor was organized around transhumance and a seasonal farming calendar. Animal husbandry of cattle, pigs and sheep, along with the cultivation of plants such as barley, spelt, emmer and bread wheat, was the basis of the agricultural economy. The occasional remains of wild species and fish in tombs and settlements indicate that meals were augmented with such foods. Other uncultivated foodstuffs such as nuts and fruits supplemented the diet.9 The archaeological evidence for Mediterranean poly-culture (the cultivation of olives, vines and cereals) is limited, but it might have existed on a small scale nonetheless. Wine grapes were cultivated locally.10 By the Late Bronze Age, olive cultivation was well established in Southern Italy,11 and olive trees might have been tended in Etruria as well.12 5 E.g. Nijboer 2008, 426. 6 See chapter 41 Pacciarelli. The term “chiefdom” needs to be specifically defined for conditions in Etruria. The few EIA 2 elaborate warrior tombs might represent chiefs but their position does not seem to become hereditary. The figurehead can be labeled chief, rex or king. As such he represented the formal cooperation of the various clans and their respective heads living in the main settlements of Etruria (De Santis 2005; Nijboer 2008, 440–4). It is probable that early state formation started in EIA 2. 7 These figures are rough estimates and varied per site or territorial unit. I have maintained low to average figures. 8 See chapters 69 Perkins and 72 Zifferero. 9 E.g. Costantini and Costantini Biasini 1987; Barker and Rasmussen 2000, 73–4. 10 E.g. Delpino 1997; 2007; Mori Secci 2005, 70–2; Bonghi Jovino 2010, 163. 11 E.g. Fiorentino 1995; Elevelt 2002; Cazzella and Recchia 2009, 27–8. 12 Bartoloni 1989, 51.  798 Albert J. Nijboer A main economic asset of Etruria is its quantity and variety in ore deposits.13 The main ore deposits are more towards the Tyrrhenian Sea than in the interior, which would have affected the economy of important inland sites such as Orvieto, Chiusi, Cortona and Arretium. Exploitation of ore deposits in Etruria started long before EIA 1. The deposits in Etruria predominantly contain copper and iron ores, and mining grew significantly during EIA 1 due to the increasing use of iron. Andrea Zifferero and Claudio Giardino associate specific ore deposits with settlement patterns while incorporating archaeo-metallurgical evidence.14 A site like Acquarossa is clearly linked to the mineral deposits in its vicinity. Metal waste products, such as slag, crucibles, semi-manufactured iron and copper have been reported in some huts, which date from the eighth century onwards.15 The findings imply that mining might have been a communal activity.16 The exploitation of tin and silver ores in Etruria remains contested. 17 Gold had to be imported into Etruria, and an evident increase in its deposition in tombs from the late ninth century until around 650 suggests widening markets and the ascent of Etruria’s interregional, overseas economy.