Life Sciences

It has been well documented (eg Bioché & Sarrazin, 2007; Khan et al, 2012; Koivula, 1999) that participation in regular physical activity such as recreational sport has positive effects on both physical (eg appearance, slimness, conditioned body) and psychological health and well-being (eg self-esteem, anxiety, depression, vitality, energy). Physical activity includes all forms of activity and can range from “everyday walking or cycling to get from A to B, active play or playing active games as well as organised and competitive sport” (Department of Health, 2011, p. 9).
The Department of Health stated that lack of physical inactivity is the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality, following high blood pressure, tobacco use and high blood glucose. The recommendation of 30 minutes at least five days a week (for adults) helps prevent numerous physical and health problems. Physical activity is therefore not only encouraged but is recommended as part of a healthy lifestyle (Khan et al, 2012).
In 2013, Sport England commissioned and conducted a large scale research that has generated a mass of information about who plays sport, the benefits of sport and encouraging take up (http://www.sportengland.org/research/). It is noteworthy that nearly 55% of the sample aged 16-25 participated in sport once a week for 30 minutes or more. Moreover, 31% of adults aged 26 years+ participated once a week for 30 minutes or more. More males (40%) than females (30%) aged 16+ participated in moderate intensity level sport at least once a week.
These are encouraging results but may also highlight that there‟s a long way to go. Recent research has revealed that young people who participate in sport every day are twice as likely to have high levels of happiness as those who participate in sport on two or fewer days in a week (McFall, 2012). Overall, more involvement in sport can evidently have positive benefits for both young and old.
Despite the established benefits of physical activity (regardless of age and gender) underlined by scientific research and government recommendations, the role of the psychological factors in physical activity specifically related to recreational sport participation remains limited. An understanding of these factors could provide important information on what causes people to initiate and maintain participation in recreational sports. Understanding these reasons could help practitioners engage more people in recreational sports for longer and help participants enjoy more the benefits of their participation.
Whilst there is a lack of research on the psychological factors associated with recreational sport participation, there is a plethora of research exploring the psychological factors associated with elite sport participation. The findings of this research have highlighted that such factors as confidence, concentration, coping, motivation, commitment and support are key for participation at the highest level of sport (eg Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002a).
These psychological factors, whilst important for participation in elite sport, may not accurately reflect the psychological factors associated with participation in recreational sport. For the purpose of this study, we define recreational participation as engagement in regular physical activity that involves any organised sport with the focus on fun, learning, and others factors, including competition. What differentiates elite from recreational sport is that while competition and everything that relates to it (eg sponsorships, scholarships, medals, trophies, travelling) is a requirement of elite sport, it is not for recreational sport participation. Thus, this research aims to examine the specific psychological factors associated with recreational sport participation.
The literature review is presented in two parts. The first provides a brief overview of the literature concerning the psychological factors prevalent in elite sport. The second provides an overview of literature concerning the psychological factors associated with recreational sport. These are followed by a summary with concluding remarks.

The present study aimed to explore the mediating role of social factors on the associations between attachment styles and basic psychological needs satisfaction within two relational contexts. Athletes (N ¼ 215) completed a multi-section questionnaire pertaining to attachment styles, basic needs satisfied within the coaching and the parental relational context, and such social factors as social support, interpersonal conflict, autonomy and controlling behaviours. Bootstrap mediation analysis revealed that the association between avoidant attachment style and basic needs satisfaction with the coach was mediated by social support and autonomy-related behaviours from the coach. The association between avoidant attachment style and basic needs satisfaction with the parent on the other hand was mediated by all social factors investigated. Finally, the association between anxious attachment style and basic needs satisfaction from the parent was mediated by conflict and controlling behaviours. Overall, the findings of the current study suggest that social factors play an important role in explaining the associations between attachment styles and basic needs satisfaction within two central relational contexts athletes operate in, and thus should be targeted in future interventions.

Grounded in self-determination theory, this study aimed to examine the links of the social environment, as defined by coach interpersonal behaviors and coach-athlete relationships, with athletes' psychological need satisfaction and indexes of well-being. Athletes (N = 300) completed a multi-section questionnaire assessing the study variables. Bootstrap mediation analysis highlighted significant indirect effects whereby the competence need mediated associations between the social environment of coaching and athletes' vitality, negative affect, and physical self-concept (defined as skillfulness and performance). Findings support theoretical assumptions and highlight that athletes' perceptions of what coaches do, and how they relate, are important to their psychological needs satisfaction and optimal functioning.

Postnatal days (PNDs) 4 -14 constitute the stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP) of the rat's pituitary -adrenal axis. The impact of manipulation of the pup -dam relationship during the SHRP on neuroendocrine and behavioural function has been the subject of considerable investigation. A single period of 24-h separation of the litter from the dam (maternal separation, MS) during the SHRP increases pup pituitary -adrenal activity and attenuates the SHRP. The MS manipulation also allows for the age-specific analysis of the chronic effects of early-life stress. Here we report on the effects of MS performed at the beginning of (PND 4), or about midway into (PND 9), or after (PND 18) the SHRP, on basal and stress-related blood corticosterone (CORT) titers in mature (month 5) and old (month 20) adult males. MS at PND 4, 9, or 18 did not affect basal CORT plasma titers. MS at each of these ontogenetic stages led to a similar and significant increase in the CORT response to restraint in adults but not in old adults. Therefore, whereas MS exerts a chronic impact on stress-related pituitary -adrenal activity in adult male rats, the effect of this postnatal experience does not depend upon the ontogenetic/SHRP status of the pup, and nor does it persist into senescence. D

Aim In this study we use a modelling approach to identify: (1) the factors responsible for the differences in ape biogeography, (2) the effects that global warming might have on distribution patterns of African apes, (3) the underlying mechanisms for these effects, and (4) the implications that behavioural flexibility might be expected to have for ape survival. All African apes are highly endangered, and the need for efficient conservation methods is a top priority. The expected changes in world climate are likely to further exacerbate the difficulties they face. Our study aims to further understand the mechanisms that link climatic conditions to the behaviour and biogeography of ape species.

Time constraints can limit an animal's potential to survive in a given habitat and the maximum size of its group. Many studies have, therefore, investigated the ecological correlates of time allocated to travelling, foraging and vigilance. However, animals spend more time inactive than active, and understanding the determinants of this resting time may provide new insights into the habitat-specific time-budgeting problems that animals face. We analysed the environmental constraints that determine the minimum amount of daytime an average primate has to spend resting, using data from a wide range of ecologically different species. However, total resting time consists of two components: enforced resting time (imposed on the animal by ecological constraints) and free resting time (the time available for allocation to ecologically functional activities). We show that the ecologically important enforced resting time is determined by diet and annual temperature as well as by temperature variation. Our tests of the biological significance of this relationship show that enforced resting time distinguishes between locations that are suitable or unsuitable for particular genera. We show that an annual temperature increase of 2-4 C would greatly increase enforced resting time, leading to serious time-budgeting problems for many species. The effect of changes to enforced resting time on the biogeographical distribution of species is especially strong for folivorous primates. This study shows that resting time is an important component of animal behaviour that can help us understand extinction risk and geographical distribution of taxa. Ó

Most primates live in social groups in which affiliative bonds exist between individuals. Because these bonds need to be maintained through social interactions (grooming in most primates), sociality will be limited by time constraints. It has previously been shown that the time primates invest in grooming increases with group size. However, when groups become too large, individuals will not have enough time available to service all possible social relationships and group cohesion is expected to decrease. In this study, we use data from previously published studies to determine how large groups compromise on their grooming time and how ecological, phylogenetic and lifehistory variables affect time invested in grooming (across species as well as within taxa). We use path analysis to analyse direct and indirect (via group size) effects on grooming. We show that not only is grooming time determined by group size, but it is also affected by dispersal patterns and sex ratio. Furthermore, we found that grooming time is asymptotic when group size exceeds 40 individuals, indicating that time constraints resulting from ecological pressure force individuals to compromise on their grooming time. This was true across species, but a similar effect was also found within taxa. Cognitive constraints and predation pressure strongly affect group sizes and thereby have an indirect effect on primate grooming time.