smbolos da notao musical moderna

Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre

musical smbolos modernos so as marcas e smbolos que so amplamente utilizados em

partituras musicais de todos os estilos e instrumentos hoje. Este pretende ser um guia completo
de Ingls a vrios smbolos encontrados na moderna notao musical.
Contedo
[esconder]

1 Linhas
2 Clefs
3 notas e pausas
4 Breaks
5 Accidentals e chave de assinaturas

5,1 acidentes comuns

5,2 assinaturas Key

5,3 -tom acidentes Trimestre

6 Tempo de assinaturas
7 Note relaes
8 Dynamics
9 marcas de Articulao
10 Ornaments
11 Oitavas
12 Repetio e codas
13 Instrumento de notao especfica

13,1 Guitar

13,2 Piano

13.2.1 marcas Pedal

13.2.2 notao piano Outros

14 Veja tambm
15 referncias

[editar]Linhas
Funcionrios ou stave
A trelia fundamental da notao musical, em que os smbolos so colocados. As
cinco linhas e quatro espaos funcionrios intervenientes correspondem a alturas
da escala diatnica - que passo entender por uma determinada linha ou espao
definida pela clave. Com a clave de sol, a linha inferior pessoal atribudo E acima
de C mdio (E4 emoitavas notao nota), o espao acima F4, e assim por
diante. O pessoal grand combina graves e agudos equipes em um sistema unidos por
uma cinta. usado para teclado e harpa msica. As linhas em um perodo de cinco
funcionrios da linha de base so designados um nmero de um a cinco, a linha de
fundo sendo o primeiro eo top de linha a ser o quinto. Os espaos entre as linhas so,
da mesma forma, numeradas de um a quatro. Na msica, a educao para a Clave,
o mnemnico "Cada Good Boy Does Fine" (ou "Todo Good Boy Deserves Fudge")
usado para lembrar o valor de cada linha de baixo para cima. Os espaos intersticiais
so muitas vezes lembrado como a soletrao da palavra "cara" (notas FACE).
Ledger linhas ou leger
Utilizado para prolongar o pessoal para arremessos que caem acima ou abaixo
dele. Razo linhas so colocadas atrs da cabea da nota, e estender uma pequena
distncia de cada lado.

linha Bar
Utilizado para medidas distintas (ver assinaturas tempo abaixo para uma explicao
de medidas). Bar linhas so estendidas para conectar-se a parte superior e inferior de
funcionrios uma equipe grande.

Double linha bar, barra dupla

Usada para separar duas sees ou frases da msica. Tambm usado em mudanas
na armadura de clave ou grandes mudanas no estilo ou ritmo. A ousada linha de
barra dupla indica a concluso de um movimento ou uma composio inteira.

Linha pontilhada bar, barra pontilhada

Subdivide medidas de longo em segmentos menores para facilitar a leitura,
geralmente de acordo com a natural subdivises rtmicas.

Accolade, cinta
Conecta duas ou mais linhas de msicas que so tocadas simultaneamente.
[1] Dependendo do tocar instrumentos, a cinta, ou elogios, ir variar em modelos e
estilos.
[editar]Clefs
Ver artigo principal: Clef
Clefs definir o intervalo de pitch, ou tessitura, do pessoal em que ele colocado. A clave
geralmente o mais esquerda em um smbolo pessoal. claves adicionais podem aparecer no
meio de uma equipe para indicar uma mudana de registo de instrumentos com uma vasta
gama. Na msica antiga, claves poderia ser colocado em qualquer uma das vrias linhas de
uma pauta.
G clef (Treble Clef)
O centro da espiral define a linha ou espao em que se baseia como o breu G C acima
do meio, ou cerca de 392 Hz.Posicionado aqui, ele atribui G C acima da mdia para a
segunda linha do fundo do pessoal, e referido como o treble clef ". Esta a clave
mais comumente encontradas em notao moderna, e usado para mais modernas da
msica vocal. Mdio-C o primeiro livro da linha abaixo da pauta aqui. O formato da
clave vem de uma verso estilizada maisculas-G.
C clef (Alto Clave e Tenor Clef)
Isso aponta para a clave de linha (ou espao, raramente), representando C mdia, ou
cerca de 262 Hz. Posicionado aqui, faz a linha central na equipe C do meio, e
referido como o "alto clave". Esta clave utilizada na notao moderna para
aviola. Embora todas as claves podem ser colocados em qualquer lugar na equipe
para indicar vrios tessitura, a clave C muitas vezes considerada uma "clave"
mveis: ele visto freqentemente apontando para a quarta linha e chamou uma
clave tenor ". Esta clave utilizada muito frequentemente na msica escrita
para fagote, violoncelo, e trombone, que substitui a clave de f, quando o nmero de
linhas de Ledger acima da pauta baixo dificulta a leitura fcil.
claves C foram usados na msica vocal do perodo clssico e verses anteriores,
porm seu uso na msica vocal, foi suplantado pelo uso universal das claves agudos e
graves. As edies modernas de msica a partir de tais perodos geralmente transpor
as peas originais C-clave, quer agudos (vozes femininas), treble oitava (tenores), ou
clave de f (tenores e baixos).
F clave (Bass Clef)
A linha ou o espao entre os pontos nesta clave indica F C abaixo do meio, ou seja,
aproximadamente 175 Hz.Posicionado aqui, faz a segunda linha do topo da F pessoal
abaixo do meio C, e chamado de clave de f ". Esta clave parece quase to
freqentemente quanto a clave de sol, especialmente na msica coral, onde representa
o baixo ea voz de bartono. Mdio C o primeiro livro da linha acima da pauta
aqui. O formato da clave vem de uma verso estilizada maisculas F (que costumava
ser escrito no verso da F moderna)

clave Neutral
Usada para instrumentos pitchless, como alguns desses usados para percusso. Cada
linha pode representar um instrumento de percusso especfico dentro de um
conjunto, como em uma bateria. Dois estilos diferentes de claves neutro so
retratados aqui. Tambm pode ser desenhado com uma equipe de funcionrios de
uma nica linha separada para cada instrumento de percusso desafinados.

Octave Clef
Agudos e claves bass tambm podem ser modificadas por nmeros de oitavas. Um
oito ou quinze sobre uma clave aumenta o intervalo pitch destinados por uma ou duas
oitavas respectivamente. Da mesma forma, um oito ou quinze abaixo uma clave reduz
o alcance passo por uma ou duas oitavas respectivamente. A clave de Sol com um
perodo de oito a seguir o mais comumente usado, normalmente usado em vez de
uma clave para as linhas C tenor em partituras corais. Mesmo se os oito no estiver
presente, as partes tenor na clave de sol devem ser entendidas como cantado uma
oitava abaixo do que escrito.
Tablatura
Para guitarras e outros instrumentos de cordas pinadas, possvel anotar tablatura no lugar
de notas comuns. Neste caso, um sinal de TAB muitas vezes escrito em vez de uma clave. O
nmero de linhas do pessoal no necessariamente cinco: uma linha usado para cada corda
do instrumento (por isso, padro de cordas, guitarras 6, seis linhas sero utilizadas). Os
nmeros sobre as linhas show em que traste as cordas devem ser tocadas. Este guia sinal,
como a clave de percusso, no uma clave no verdadeiro sentido, mas sim um smbolo
utilizado em vez de uma clave. Os espaos intersticiais em uma tablatura nunca so usadas.
[editar]Notas

e descansa

Ver artigo principal: Note valor

Observao e descanso valores no so absolutamente definidas, mas so proporcionais
durao de todas as notas e outros valores de repouso. A semibreve o valor de referncia, e
as outras notas so nomeadas (em Americana), em comparao, ou seja, uma semnima um
quarto do comprimento de uma semibreve.
Nota
British Nome / Americana

Breve / nota Double todo

Semibreve nota / Total

Minim / Half nota

Crotchet nota Bairro /

Descanso

Colcheia / Oitava Nota

Para notas deste comprimento e menor, a nota tem o mesmo
nmero de bandeiras (ou ganchos) que o resto tem filiais.

Semicolcheia / XVI nota

Demisemiquaver nota / Trinta segundos

Hemidemisemiquaver nota / sexagsima quarta

notas Beamed
Vigas contato colcheias (colcheias) e notas de menor valor, e so equivalentes em
termos de valor para o pavilho. Na msica metered, vigas refletem o agrupamento
rtmico das notas. Eles tambm podem ser usados para agrupar frases curtas de notas
do mesmo valor, independentemente do metro, o que mais comum nas passagens
ametrical. Em impresses mais velhos da msica vocal, as vigas so usadas apenas
quando vrias notas sero cantadas com uma batida; notao moderna estimula o uso
de irradiao de uma forma consistente com gravao instrumental, ea presena de
feixes ou bandeiras no informa o cantor . Hoje, devido ao corpo da msica
tradicional em que os Estados mtrica nem sempre so assumidas, radiante fica a
critrio do compositor ou arranjador e irregular vigas so frequentemente utilizados
para dar nfase em um padro rtmico especfico.
Nota pontuada
Colocando os pontos direita da notehead correspondente prolonga a durao da
nota. n pontos prolongar a nota
seu valor, por exemplo, um ponto metade,
dois pontos em trs quartos, trs pontos por sete oitavos e assim por diante.Restos
podem ser pontilhadas da mesma forma que as notas. Por exemplo, se uma nota
trimestre teve um ponto ao lado de si mesma, ela iria ficar um ano e meio batidas.
Multi-medida de repouso
Indica o nmero de medidas em uma parte de repouso, sem uma mudana no metro,
que serve para economizar espao e simplificar a notao. Tambm chamado de
descanso "apanhado" ou "resto-bar multi".
Duraes mais curtas do que os 64 so raros, mas no desconhecido. regista 128 so
utilizadas por Mozart e Beethoven; notas 256 ocorrem em obras de Vivaldi e at
Beethoven. Um caso extremo a Toccata Grande cromatica no incio do sculo 19 o
compositor americano Anthony Philip Heinrich, que usa valores de nota to curto quanto 2,048

ths, no entanto, o contexto mostra claramente que essas notas tm um feixe mais do que
pretendia, assim que deve realmente a 1024 observa .
O nome de curtas notas muito pode ser encontrado com a seguinte frmula:

Numme =

2(nmero de bandeiras em nota + 2)nota .

[editar]Breaks
marca Breath
Em uma nota, este smbolo diz o intrprete de respirar (ou fazer uma pequena pausa
para o vento no instrumentos).Essa pausa geralmente no afeta o tempo todo. Para
instrumentos de arco, que indica a levantar a proa e tocar a prxima nota com um
baixo (ou para cima, se marcados) arco.

Pausa
Indica uma pausa breve silncio, durante o qual o tempo no contado. Em conjunto
tocando tempo, recomea quando indicado pelo maestro ou lder.
[editar]Accidentals

e chave de assinaturas

Ver artigo principal: acidental (msica) e chave de assinatura

[editar]acidentes

comuns

Acidentes modificar o tom da nota que segui-los sobre a posio pessoal dentro de uma
mesma medida, a no ser cancelada por um acidente adicionais.

Apartamento
Reduz o tom de uma nota por um semitom.

Afiado
Gera o tom de uma nota em um semitom.

Natural
Cancela um acidente anterior, ou modifica o tom de um sustenido ou bemol, tal como
definido pela assinatura vigente chave (como F sustenido na clave de Sol maior, por
exemplo).

Double apartamento
Baixa o tom de uma nota de dois semitons cromticos. Normalmente usado quando a
nota a ser modificada j est achatado pela armadura de clave.

Dupla afiada
Gera o tom de uma nota de dois semitons cromticos. Normalmente usado quando a
nota a ser modificada j sharped pela armadura de clave.
[editar]Principais

assinaturas

assinaturas Key define prevalecente chave da msica que se segue, evitando assim o uso de
acidentes de muitas notas. Se no houver assinatura de chave aparece, a chave assumido
como sendo C maior / menor, mas tambm pode significar uma chave neutro, empregando
acidentes individuais, conforme necessrio para cada nota. Os exemplos de chaves de
assinatura que aparece aqui so descritos como eles aparecem em um triplo pessoal.
Flat clave
Baixa por um semitom a altura das notas na linha correspondente ou no espao, e
todas as oitavas , definindo assim a maior ou menor chave em vigor. Diferentes
chaves so definidos pelo nmero de apartamentos na assinatura chave, comeando
com a esquerda, ou seja, B , e segue para a direita, por exemplo, se apenas os dois
primeiros apartamentos so usados, a chave B maior / G menores, e todos os B e
E esto "achatados", ou seja, baixou para B e E.
Sharp clave
Eleva por um semitom a altura das notas na linha correspondente ou no espao, e
todas as oitavas , definindo assim a maior ou menor chave em vigor. Diferentes
chaves so definidos pelo nmero de sustenidos na armadura de tom, tambm
provenientes da esquerda para a direita, por exemplo, se apenas os quatro primeiros
sustenidos so usados, a chave importante E / C menores, e os campos
correspondentes so gerados.
[editar]-tom

acidentes Trimestre

Estes so exemplos de notao mais comum para a msica que envolvam tons
trimestre. (Microtonal notao na msica ocidental no muito padronizado e outros smbolos
podem ser utilizados em vez de os abaixo).
Demiflat
Reduz o tom de uma nota por um quarto de tom. (Outra notao para o demiflat um
apartamento com uma barra diagonal atravs do seu caule. Nos sistemas em que
passos esto divididos em intervalos menores do que um quarto de tom, o plano
reduziu representa uma nota inferior ao apartamento invertida).

Flat-e-meia (sesquiflat)
Reduz o tom de uma nota de trs tons trimestre.

Demisharp
Gera o tom de uma nota por um quarto de tom.

Sharp-e-um-metade
Gera o tom de uma nota de trs tons trimestre. s vezes representado com dois e trs
barras verticais em vez diagonal.
[editar]Time

assinaturas

Ver artigo principal: assinatura Time

assinaturas Time definir o contador da msica. A msica "marcada" em sees uniformes
chamados bares ou medidas, e as assinaturas tempo estabelecer o nmero de batidas em
cada um. Esta no , necessariamente, destinada a indicar quais so batidas ressaltar, no
entanto. A assinatura de tempo que transmite informaes sobre a forma como a pea soa
realmente assim escolhido. assinaturas Time tendem a sugerir, mas apenas sugerir, os
agrupamentos existentes de batidas ou pulsos.
tempo especfico
O nmero final representa o valor da nota de o impulso bsico da msica (neste caso,
o 4 representa a semnima ou semnima). O primeiro nmero indica quantos desses
valores aparecem em nota de cada medida. Este exemplo informa que cada medida
o comprimento equivalente a trs luas (quartas-de-notas). Voc iria pronunciar isso
como "Trs por quatro vezes", e foi referido como um "momento perfeito".
tempo comum
Este smbolo um regresso ao sculo XVI notao rtmica, quando representava
04/02, ou "tempo imperfeito". Hoje ela representa 04/04.

Alla breve ou de corte

Este smbolo representa duas metades do tempo, indicando dois minim (ou meianota) batimentos por medida. Aqui, uma semnima (ou semnima) conseguiria bater
um meia.
Metronome marca
Escrito no incio de uma partitura, e em qualquer mudana significativa do tempo,
este smbolo precisamente define o ritmo da msica atravs da atribuio de duraes
absolutas para todos os valores de nota na partitura. Neste exemplo particular, o
artista dito que 120 luas, ou semnimas, se encaixam em um minuto de
tempo. Muitos editores preceder a marcao com as letras "MM", referindose Maelzel's Metronome.
[editar]Nota

relaes
Gravata
Indica que os dois (ou mais) notas juntas esto a ser tocada como uma nota com os
valores de tempo somado. Para ser um empate, as notas devem ser idnticos, ou seja,
eles devem estar na mesma linha ou no mesmo espao, caso contrrio, uma calnia
(ver abaixo).

Estigma
Indica que duas ou mais notas esto a ser tocada em um golpe fsico, uma respirao
contnua, ou (em instrumentos de sopro, nem com nenhum arco) conectado em uma
frase como se jogado em uma nica respirao. Em certos contextos, um insulto s
pode indicar que as notas esto a ser tocada legato, neste caso, rearticulao
permitido.
Insultos e os laos so similares na aparncia. Um empate distinta porque sempre
junta exatamente dois imediato notas adjacentes da mesma altura, ao passo que uma
ligao pode participar qualquer nmero de notas de diferentes alturas.
A marca de frase (ou mais raramente, ligadura) uma marca que visualmente
idntica a uma ofensa, mas se conecta uma passagem de msica atravs de diversas
medidas. A frase indica uma marca de expresso musical e no podem
necessariamente que a msica seja arrastada.
Glissando ou Portamento
A contnua, ininterrupta deslize de uma nota para o prximo, que inclui entre as
alturas. Alguns instrumentos, como o trombone, tmpanos, instrumentos de corda no
trastes, os instrumentos electrnicos e da voz humana pode fazer este deslize
continuamente (portamento), enquanto outros instrumentos como o piano ou o malho
instrumentos borrar a passos discretos entre o incio e notas de fim de imitar uma
lmina contnua (glissando).
Quilteras
Uma srie de notas de durao irregular so realizados durante a vigncia de um
determinado nmero de notas de valor de tempo regular, por exemplo, cinco notas
tocadas na durao normal de quatro notas, sete notas tocadas na durao normal de
dois, trs notas tocadas no a durao normal de quatro. Quilteras so nomeados de
acordo com o nmero de notas irregulares, por exemplo, duplets, trigmeos,
quadrigmeos, etc
Acorde
Vrias notas soavam simultaneamente ("slido" ou "bloco"), ou em sucesso
("quebrado"). Note-acordes Dois so chamados dade;-acordes nota trs so
chamados trades. Um acorde pode conter qualquer nmero de notas.

Arpejo acorde
Um acorde com as notas tocadas em rpida sucesso, geralmente ascendente, cada
nota a ser sustentado que os outros so jogados.
[editar]Dynamics
Ver artigo principal: Dynamics (msica)
Dynamics so indicadores da intensidade ou volume relativo de uma linha musical.
Pianissimissimo
Extremamente macio. Muito raramente se v uma dinmica mais suave do que isso, que so
especificadas com adicionalps.
Pianssimo
Muito macio. Normalmente, a indicao mais suaves em uma msica, apesar de dinmica
mais macia so geralmente especificados com adicional ps.
Piano
Soft. Normalmente, a indicao a mais usada.

Mezzo piano
Literalmente, metade suave como piano.
Mezzo Forte
Da mesma forma, a metade to alto quanto forte. mais comumente usado de mezzopiano. Se no aparece dinmico,mezzo-forte assumido como sendo a dinmica
prevalecente nvel.
Forte
Loud. Usado como muitas vezes como piano para indicar contraste.
Fortssimo
Muito alto. Normalmente, a indicao mais alto em uma pea, embora a dinmica mais alto
so muitas vezes referidos adicionais com f(s, como fortississimo - ver abaixo).
Fortissimissimo
Extremamente alto. Muito raramente se v uma dinmica mais forte do que isso, que so
especificados com mais fs.
Sforzando
Literalmente "forado", denota um acento, abrupta feroz em um nico som ou
acorde. Quando por extenso, aplica-se a seqncia de sons e acordes sob ou sobre a qual
colocado.
Crescendo
Um aumento gradual do volume.
Pode ser prorrogado em conformidade com muitas notas para indicar que o volume aumenta
progressivamente durante a passagem.
Diminuendo
Tambm decrescendo
A diminuio gradual do volume. Pode ser estendida da mesma forma como crescendo.
Dinmicas comumente utilizadas como base esses valores. Por exemplo, "piano pianssimo"
(representada como 'ppp ' significado to baixinho que quase inaudvel, e fortissimo-forte
('FFF '), que significa extremamente alto. Em alguns pases europeus, a utilizao desta
dinmica foi praticamente banida como pondo em risco a audio dos executantes. [2] A s
"pequeno" na frente das notaes dinmico significa "subito", e significa que a dinmica deve
ser alterada para a nova notao rapidamente. Subito comumente usado com sforzandos,
mas todos outras notaes, mais comumente como sff "(subitofortissimo) ou" spp
"(subitopianissimo).
Forte-piano
A seo de msica em que a msica deveria inicialmente ser jogado alto (forte), logo em
seguida suavemente (piano).
Outro valor que raramente aparece niente, que significa "nada". Isso pode ser usado no final
de um diminuendo para indicar 'fade out para nada ".
[editar]marcas

de Articulao

Articulaes (ou acentos) especificar como notas individuais devem ser executadas dentro de
uma frase ou passagem. Eles podem ser ajustadas atravs da combinao de mais do que um
smbolo, sobre ou sob uma nota. Eles tambm podem aparecer em conjunto com as marcas
fraseado acima.

Staccato
Isso indica que a nota para ser jogado inferior simbolizada, geralmente metade do
valor, o restante do valor da mtrica ento mudo. Staccato marcas podem, assim,
aparecer em notas de qualquer valor, diminuindo a sua durao real executada sem
acelerar a msica em si.
Stacatssimo
Indica um longo silncio depois da nota (como descrito acima), tornando a nota
muito curto. Geralmente aplicada a semnimas ou menos. (No passado, esta marcao
foi mais do significado ambguo: s vezes foi usado de forma intercambivel com
staccato, e s vezes indicado sotaque e no staccato. Esses usos so agora quase
extinta, mas ainda aparecem em alguns pontos.)
sotaque Dynamic
A nota tocada mais forte ou com um ataque mais difcil de todas as notas em torno
tono. Pode aparecer em notas de qualquer durao.
Tenuto
Este smbolo tem vrios significados. Ele normalmente indica que ele seja jogado
para o seu valor total, ou um pouco mais. Isso pode indicar um ataque separado na
nota, ou pode indicar legato, em contraste com o ponto de staccato.Combinando um
tenuto com um staccato ponto indica um ligeiro descolamento ("portato"ou"mezzo
staccato").
Marcato
A nota tocada muito alto ou com um ataque muito mais forte do que qualquer
unaccented notas envolventes. Pode aparecer em notas de qualquer durao. Tambm
chamado petit chapeau.
-Pizzicato de mo esquerda ou nota Parado
Uma nota em um instrumento de cordas, onde a corda puxada com a mo esquerda
(a mo que normalmente deixa as cordas) e no cedeu. No chifre, esse acento indica
uma "parada" nota (a nota tocada com a mo parada empurrou ainda mais para dentro
do pavilho da trompa).
Snap pizzicato
Em um instrumento de cordas, uma nota tocada por esticar uma corda para fora da
armao do instrumento e deix-lo ir, tornando-se "presso" contra o
quadro. Tambm conhecido como Bartk pizzicato.
Harmnico natural ou nota Open
Em um instrumento de cordas, que denota uma natural harmnica para ser
jogado. Em um instrumento de bronze valvulado, denota que a nota para ser jogado
"open" (sem qualquer reduo de vlvula, ou no muda). Na msica de rgo, isso
denota que a nota pedal para ser jogado com o calcanhar.
Fermata (Pausa)
Uma nota sustentada indefinidamente ou acorde. Geralmente aparece sobre todas as
partes no mesmo local mtrica em um pedao, para mostrar uma parada
no tempo. Ela pode ser colocada acima ou abaixo da nota.

At arco ou Sull'arco
Em um instrumento de cordas, a nota tocada enquanto o arco para cima. Em um
instrumento de cordas dedilhadas jogado com um plectro ou escolher (como
uma guitarra tocada pickstyle ou um bandolim), a nota tocada com um movimento
ascendente. Na notao rgo, essa marcao indica a tocar pedal nota com o dedo.
Down arco ou arco Gi
Como sull'arco, exceto o arco desenhado para baixo. Em um instrumento de cordas
dedilhadas jogado com um plectroou escolher (como
uma guitarra tocada pickstyle ou um bandolim), a nota tocada com um
descendente. Alm disso, observe na notao do rgo, essa marcao indica a tocar
nota pedal com o calcanhar.
[editar]Ornamentos
Enfeites modificar o padro de altura das notas individuais.
Trinado
Uma alternncia rpida entre a nota especificada ea prxima nota mais alta (de
acordo com a armadura de clave) no prazo de sua durao. Tambm chamado de
agitar ". Quando seguido por uma linha ondulada horizontal, este smbolo indica uma
extenso, ou em execuo, trinado. Em muita msica, o trinado comea na nota
superior auxiliares.
Mordent
Rapidamente tocar a nota principal, a prxima nota mais alta (de acordo com a
armadura de clave), em seguida, retornar nota principal para a durao restante. Em
muita msica, o mordente comea na nota auxiliares, ea alternncia entre as duas
notas podem ser prorrogados.
Mordent (invertida)
Rapidamente tocar a nota principal, o semitom abaixo, em seguida, retornar nota
principal para a durao restante. Em muita msica, o mordente comea na nota
auxiliares, ea alternncia entre as duas notas podem ser prorrogados.

Vez
Quando colocadas diretamente acima da nota, o turn (tambm conhecido
como gruppetto) indica uma seqncia de nota auxiliar superior, a nota principal,
menor nota auxiliar, e um retorno nota principal. Quando colocado direita da nota,
a nota principal tocada primeiro, seguido pelo padro acima. Uma linha vertical
colocado atravs da vez inverte a ordem das notas auxiliares.

Apojatura
A primeira metade da durao da nota principal tem o tom da nota graa (o primeiro
de dois teros se a nota principal uma nota pontilhada).

Acciaccatura
O acciaccatura de muito curta durao, como se escovados sobre a maneira com a
nota principal, que recebe praticamente todo o seu tempo anotado.
[editar]Oitavas
alta Ottava
Notas abaixo da linha
pontilhada so tocadas
uma oitava acima
anotado.

bassa Ottava
Notas abaixo da linha pontilhada so
tocadas uma oitava abaixo do anotado. A
notao ea linha tracejada so
frequentemente escritos abaixo da pauta,
em vez de acima, como mostrado aqui.

alta Quindicesima
Notas abaixo da linha
pontilhada so tocadas
duas oitavas mais alto.

bassa Quindicesima
Notas abaixo da linha pontilhada so
tocadas duas oitavas mais baixas. A
notao ea linha tracejada so
frequentemente escritos abaixo da pauta,
em vez de acima, como mostrado aqui.

[editar]Repetio

e codas

Trmulo
Uma nota rpida repetido. Se a vibrao entre duas notas, ento eles so jogados em
alternncia rpida. O nmero de barras atravs da haste (ou o nmero de barras
diagonais entre duas notas) indica a freqncia com que a nota deve ser repetida (ou
alternada). Como demonstrado aqui, a nota deve ser repetida em um demisemiquaver
(note trigsimo segundo) de taxa.
Na notao de percusso, vibraes so usadas para indicar rolos, logram,
e arrasta. Normalmente, uma linha de tremolo em uma nica nota suficientemente
curto (como um XVI) jogado como um estorvo, e uma combinao de trs linhastronco e indica um tremolo tempos rolo duplo (ou um nico rolo de curso, no caso
de tmpanos, percusso martelo e alguns instrumentos de percusso desafinados
como tringulo e bumbo), por um perodo equivalente durao da nota.Em outros
casos, a interpretao de vibraes muito varivel e deve ser examinada pelo diretor
e performers.
Repita sinais
Coloque uma passagem que para ser jogado mais de uma vez. Se no houver
nenhum sinal de repetir esquerda, o sinal de repetio direito envia o performer de
volta para o incio da pea ou o bar mais prximo de casal.

marcas Smile
Denotam que os grupos anteriores de batidas e medidas devem ser repetidas. Nos
exemplos aqui, o primeiro geralmente significa repetir o compasso anterior, ea
segunda geralmente significa repreat ltimos dois bares.

Volta suportes (1 e 2 finalizaes, ou 1 e 2 barras de tempo)

Denotam que uma passagem repetida deve ser tocada de forma diferente sobre
playings diferente.
Da capo
Diz o artista a repetir a reproduo da msica desde o seu incio. Isso seguido por al
fine, o que significa a repetir a palavra multa e parar, ou al coda, o que significa
repetir o sinal coda e, em seguida saltar para a frente.
Dal segno
Diz o artista a repetir a reproduo da msica a partir da prxima segno. Isso
seguido por al fine ou al coda assim como com capo.
Segno
Mark usado com dal segno.
Coda
Indica um salto em frente na msica sua passagem final, marcada com o mesmo
sinal. S podem ser utilizadas aps o jogo atravs de um DS al coda ou DC al coda.
[editar]Instrumento

de notao especfica

[editar]Guitar
A guitarra tem um brao direito do sistema de notao dedilhado derivados dos nomes dos
dedos em espanhol. Eles so escritos acima, abaixo ou ao lado da nota a que esto
ligados. Eles tm a seguinte redaco:
Smbolo

Espanhol

Ingls

pulgar

polegar

Eu

ndice

ndice

medio

meio

um

anular

anel

c, x, e, q, um

meique

pouco

[editar]Piano
[editar]marcas Pedal
Estas marcas aparecem no pedal de msica para instrumentos com pedais sustentar, como
o piano, vibrafone e carrilhes.
Engage pedal
Diz o jogador para colocar o pedal para baixo.
Lanamento pedal
Diz o jogador para deixar o pedal para cima.

Varivel pedal marca

Mais precisamente, indicam o uso preciso do pedal de sustain. O prolongamento da linha
inferior indica que o jogador mantenha o pedal pressionado para sustentar todas as notas
abaixo do qual ele aparece. Invertido forma de "V" (/ \) indica o pedal deve ser liberado
momentaneamente e, em seguida deprimido novamente.
[editar]Notao piano Outros
Destra mano (italiano)
principal droite (francs)
md / MD / rH /rh / RH
Mo Rechte (alemo)
mo direita (Ingls)
mano sinistra (italiano)
Main Gauche (francs)
ms / MS / mg /MG / LH / LH /LH
Mo Linke (Alemanha)
mo esquerda (Ingls)
Finger identificaes:
1 Thumb =
ndice = 2
1, 2, 3, 4, 5
3 = Mdio
4 Anel =
5 = Little
[editar]Veja

tambm

Articulao (msica)
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre

Exemplos de articulaes. Da esquerda para a direita: staccato, Stacatssimo, martellato, Marcato,tenuto.

Articulaes de legato de Stacatssimo

Na msica, a articulao refere-se direo tcnica de execuo ou que afeta a transio ou

de continuidade na nica nota ou entre vrias notas ou sons.
H muitos tipos diferentes de articulao, cada um tendo um efeito diferente sobre a forma
como a nota tocada. Algumas marcas incluem a articulao calnia, marca
frase, staccato,Stacatssimo, sotaque, sforzando, rinforzandoelegato. Cada articulao
representado por um smbolo diferente colocados acima ou abaixo da nota (dependendo de
sua posio na pauta).

Woodwind e bronze instrumentos geralmente articulado por tonguing, o uso da lngua para
quebrar o fluxo de ar dentro do instrumento.Curvou-se instrumentos de cordas, uso
diferentecurvando tcnicas para atingir diferentes articulaes.
Quando marcas de staccato so combinados com uma ligadura, o resultado portato, tambm
conhecida como legato articulado.marcaes Tenuto em uma ligao so chamados (para
curvou cordas) arcos gancho. Este nome tambm menos comumente aplicada a staccato ou
martellato (martel) marcaes.

Ornament (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In music, ornaments are musical flourishes that are not necessary to carry the overall line of the
melody (or harmony), but serve instead to decorate or "ornament" that line. Many ornaments are
performed as "fast notes" around a central note. The amount of ornamentation in a piece of music
can vary from quite extensive (it was often so in the Baroque period) to relatively little or even none.
The word agrment is used specifically to indicate the French Baroque style of ornamentation. A very
important function of the ornamentation in early and baroquekeyboard music was as a way of
creating a longer sustain of the note on a harpsichord, clavichord, or virginal, such instruments being
unable to sustain a long note in the same manner as a pipe organ.
In the baroque period, it was common for performers to improvise ornamentation on a given melodic
line. A singer performing a da capo aria, for instance, would sing the melody relatively unornamented
the first time, but decorate it with additional flourishes the second time. Improvised ornamentation
continues to be part of the Irish musical tradition[1], particularly in sean-ns singing but also
throughout the wider tradition as performed by the best players.
Ornamentation may also be indicated by the composer. A number of standard ornaments (described
below) are indicated with standard symbols in music notation, while other ornamentations may be
appended to the staff in small notes, or simply written out normally. Frequently, a composer will have
his or her own vocabulary of ornaments, which will be explained in a preface, much like a code.
A grace note is a note written in smaller type, with or without a slash through it, to indicate that
its note value does not count as part of the total time value of the measure. Alternatively, the term
may refer more generally to any of the small notes used to mark some other ornament
(seeAppoggiatura, below), or in association with some other ornaments indication (see Trill, below),
regardless of the timing used in the execution.
In Spain, these ornaments were called "diferenzias", and can be traced back to the early 16th
century, when the first books with music for the guitar were produced.
Contents
[hide]

1 Baroque/Western Classical

1.1 Trill

1.2 Mordent

1.3 Turn (also known as Gruppetto)

1.4 Appoggiatura

1.5 Acciaccatura

1.6 Glissando
2 In Baroque Music
3 Renaissance / Early Baroque
4 Indian Classical Music
5 In non-Classical music

5.1 Rock and pop

5.2 Jazz

5.3 Celtic Music

6 See also
7 References
8 External links

[edit]Baroque/Western

Classical

[edit]Trill
Main article: trill (music)
A trill is a rapid alternation between an indicated note and the one above, also known as the shake.
Usually, if the music containing the trill was written before 1800 the trill is played by starting a note
above the written note. If the music was written after 1800 then the trill is usually played by starting

on the note written and going up to the note above. A printed score will often indicate which
interpretation is to be used, either in the preface to the score or by using a grace note.
Sometimes it is expected that the trill will end with a turn (by sounding the note below rather than the
note above the principal note, immediately before the last sounding of the principal note), or some
other variation. Such variations are often marked with a few grace notes following the note that bears
the trill indication. The trill is indicated by either a

or a

~~, with the ~ representing the length of

the trill, above the staff. In Baroque music, the trill is sometimes indicated with a + (plus) sign above
or below the note.

Note: This information is correct, except that the + is really a lower-case T written with the crossbar
bisecting the vertical stroke. Trills can be notated as the squiggle, tr, t, or +. See corrections on other
ornaments, however, below.
Second Note: In french horn music, it is commonplace for a stopped horn part to be noted with a plus
sign over each note.

[edit]Mordent
The mordent is thought of as a rapid single alternation between an indicated note, the note above
(called the upper mordent, inverted mordent, or pralltriller) or below (called the lower
mordent or mordent), and the indicated note again.
The upper mordent (which was never used during the Baroque period)[2] is indicated by a short
squiggle (which may also indicate a trill); the lower mordent is the same with a short vertical line
through it:
This can also be called a turn.

As with the trill, the exact speed with which the mordent is performed will vary according to the tempo
of the piece, but at moderate tempi the above might be executed as follows:

Mordents

First bar of Goldberg Variation

7, first played with lower
mordents, then without 134
KB

Problems listening to this file? See media help.

Confusion over the meaning of the unadorned word mordent has led to the modern
terms upper and lower mordent being used, rather than mordent and inverted mordent. Practice,
notation, and nomenclature vary widely for all of these ornaments, that is to say, whether, by
including the symbol for a mordent in a musical score, a composer intended the direction of the
additional note (or notes) to be played above or below the principal note written on the sheet music
varies according to when the piece was written, and in which country. This article as a whole
addresses an approximate nineteenth-century standard.
In the Baroque period, a Mordant (the German or Scottish equivalent of mordent) was what later
came to be called an inverted mordent and what is now often called a lower mordent. In the 19th
century, however, the name mordent was generally applied to what is now called theupper mordent.
Although mordents are now thought of as just a single alternation between notes, in the Baroque
period a Mordant may sometimes have been executed with more than one alternation between the
indicated note and the note below, making it a sort of inverted trill. Mordents of all sorts might
typically, in some periods, begin with an extra inessential note (the lesser, added note), rather than
with theprincipal note as shown in the examples here. The same applies to trills, which in Baroque
and Classical times would standardly begin with the added, upper note. A lower inessential note may
or may not be chromatically raised (that is, with a natural, a sharp, or even a double sharp) to make it
just one semitone lower than the principal note.

[edit]Turn

(also known as Gruppetto)

A short figure consisting of the note above the one indicated, the note itself, the note below the one
indicated, and the note itself again. It is marked by a mirrored S-shape lying on its side above the
staff.
The details of its execution depend partly on the exact placement of the turn mark. The following
turns:

might be executed like this:

The exact speed at which the notes of a turn are executed can vary, as can its rhythm. The question
of how a turn is best executed is largely one of context, convention, and taste. The lower and upper
added notes may or may not be chromatically raised (see mordent).
An inverted turn (the note below the one indicated, the note itself, the note above it, and the note
itself again) is usually indicated by putting a short vertical line through the normal turn sign, though
sometimes the sign itself is turned upside down.

[edit]Appoggiatura
See also Nonchord tone#Appoggiatura.
Appoggiatura (English pronunciation: /pdtjr/, Italian: [appoddatura]) comes from the
Italian verb appoggiare, "to lean upon". The long appoggiatura is important melodically and
often suspends the principal note by taking away the time-value of the appoggiatura prefixed to
it (generally half the time value of the note, though in triple time, for example, it might receive
two thirds of the time). The added note (the unessential note) is one degree higher or lower
than the principal note; and, if lower, it may or may not be chromatically raised (see mordent).
The appoggiatura is written as a grace note prefixed to a principal note and printed in small
character, usually without the oblique stroke:

This would be executed as follows:

Appoggiatura

A passage with two phrases

ending in appoggiaturas,
followed by these phrases
without them 160 KB

Problems listening to this file? See media help.

Appoggiaturas are also usually on the strong or strongest beat of the resolution and are
approached by a leap and leave by a step. Musicians mnemonic: the appoggiatura is longer
than the acciaccatura because it is podgy. This notation has also been used to mark an accent
in the articulation of vocal music, meaning that the grace note should be emphasized, for
example in Haydns Missa Brevis in G-dur, fifth bar for soprano and tenor voices.
So-called unaccented appoggiaturas are also quite common in many periods of music, even
though they are disapproved of by some early theorists (for example CPE Bach, in his Versuch
ber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen). While not being identical with the acciaccatura (see
below), these are almost always quite short, and take their time from the allocation for the note
that precedes them. They are more likely to be seen as full-size notes in the score, rather than
in small character at least in modern editions.

[edit]Acciaccatura
Acciaccatura (English pronunciation: /tktjr/, Italian: [attakkatura]) comes from the Italian
verb acciaccare, "to crush". The acciaccatura(sometimes called short appoggiatura) is
perhaps best thought of as a shorter, less melodically significant, variant of the long
appoggiatura, where the delay of the principal note is scarcely perceptible theoretically
subtracting no time at all. It is written using a grace note (often a quaver, or eighth note), with
an oblique stroke through the stem:

The exact interpretation of this will vary according to the tempo of the piece, but the following is
possible:

Whether the note should be played before or on the beat is largely a question of taste and
performance practice. Exceptionally, the acciaccatura may be notated in the bar preceding the
note to which it is attached, showing that it is to be played before the beat. (This guide to
practice is unfortunately not available, of course, if the principal note does not fall at the
beginning of the measure.)
The implication also varies with the composer and the period. For example, Mozarts and
Haydns long appoggiaturas are to the eye indistinguishable from Mussorgskys and
Prokofievs before-the-beat acciaccaturas. In some cases on instruments that permit it, such as
the piano, the acciaccatura is sounded simultaneously with the principal note, and then
immediately released.

[edit]Glissando
Main article: Glissando
A glissando is a slide from one note to another, signified by a wavy line connecting the two
notes. All of the intervening diatonic or chromatic (depending on instrument and context) are
heard, albeit very briefly. In this way, the glissando differs from portamento.

[edit]In

Baroque Music

Ornaments in Baroque music take on a different meaning. Most ornaments occur on the beat,
and use diatonic intervals more exclusively than ornaments in later periods do. While any table
of ornaments must give a strict presentation, consideration has to be given to the tempo and
note length, since at rapid tempos it would be difficult or impossible to play all of the notes that
are usually required. One realisation of some common Baroque ornaments is set in the
following table, made by J.S. Bachs father, Johann Ambrosius Bach[2]:

[edit]Renaissance

/ Early Baroque

From Silvestro Ganassis treatise in 1535 we have instruction and examples of how musicians
of renaissance and early baroque decorated their music with improvised ornaments. Michael
Praetorius spoke warmly of musicians "sundry good and merry pranks with little runs/leaps".
Until the last decade of the 16th century the emphasis is on divisions, also known
as diminutions, passaggi (in Italian) or glosas (by Ortiz) - a way to decorate a simple cadence
or interval with extra shorter notes. These start as simple passing notes, progress to step-wise
additions and in the most complicated cases are rapid passages of equal valued notes virtuosic flourishes. There are rules for designing them, to make sure that the original structure
of the music is left intact. Towards the end of this period the divisions detailed in the treatises
contain more dotted and other uneven rhythms and leaps of more than one step at a time.
Starting with Archilei (1589), the treatises bring in a new set of expressive devices
called graces alongside the divisions. These have a lot more rhythmic interest and are filled
with affect as composers took much more interest in text portrayal. It starts with

the trillo and cascate, and by the time we reach Francesco Rognoni (1620) we are also told
about fashionable ornaments: portar la
voce, accento, tremolo, gruppo,esclamatione and intonatio.[3]
Key treatises detailing ornamentation:
Silvestro Ganassi dal Fontego Opera intitulata Fontegara..., Venice 1535
Diego Ortiz Trattado de glosas..., Rome, 1553
Girolamo Dalla Casa Il vero modo diminuir..., Venice 1584
Giovanni Bassano Ricercate, passaggi et cadentie..., Venice 1585
Riccardo Rognoni Passaggi per potersi essercitare nel diminuire, 1592
Giovanni Luca Conforto Breve et facile maniera...passaggi, Rome 1593
Giovanni Battista Bovicelli Regole, passaggi di musica madrigali e motetti passaggiati,
Venice 1594
Aurelio Virgiliano Il Dolcimelo, c.1600
Francesco Rognoni Selva de varii passaggi..., 1620
Giovanni Battista Spadi da Faenza Libro de passaggi ascendenti e descendenti, Venice,
1624

[edit]Indian

Classical Music

Indian classical music is based on ragas, a modal system similar to Jazz with scales of 5 to 7
main notes (beside the microtones) in the ascending and descending form. Its origin is dated
back to the Vedas, earliest documentations exist till 2000 BC. Indian classical music has
evolved and split into two main parts: North Indian Classical (Hindustani) and South Indian
Classical (Carnatic).
In Indian music generally and especially in Raga Sangeet staccato or isolated notes are almost
unheard. With the exception of some very view instruments, the Indian notes (swaras) are not
of static nature. Each swara is linked with its preceding or succeeding note. Such an extra note
(or grace note) known as Kan-Swaras set up the basis of all kind of alankars (Sanskrit:
decoration with ornaments, ornaments of sound (shabd-alankar) or ornaments of words).
These ornaments of ragas, Alankar is essential for the beauty of raga melodies. The
term Alankar can be found in ancient texts. One of the earliest treatises is

the Natyashastra written by the sage Bharata (between 200 BC and 200 AD), later
on Alankaras are described in theSangeet Ratnakar of Sharangdev (13th century)
and Sangeet Parijat of Pandit Ahobal (17th century).
The classification of alankara-s is relating to the structure of ragas and the aesthetic aspect
(latter classification = Shabdalankar). All techniques refer to the sound production utilized by
the human voice, imitated by any kind of Indian instrument
(e.g. Sitar, Sarod, Shehnai,Sarangi, Santoor, etc.).
The variations of a raga performance within a defined frame of compositorial rules and
reglements using the different types of Alankara-s can be termed as whole simply as alankar.
Different types of alankars exist,
e.g. Meend, Kan, Sparsh, Krintan, Andolan, Gamak, Kampit (or Kampan), Khatka (or Gitkari), Z
amzama,Murki and combination of alankars in Indian classical performances.

[edit]In

non-Classical music

[edit]Rock

and pop

Ornamentation is also used in popular music such as rock and pop. Rock piano playing has
incorporated many ornaments from early 1900s blues piano styles such as boogie-woogie.
Improvised ornaments in rock solos or instrumental melody lines are often idiomatic to specific
instruments. Electric guitar players use a variety of ornaments that are specific to their
instrument, such as the hammer-on and the pull-off, both of which can resemble a trill.
While rock and pop are typically learned "by ear" [dubious discuss], with the arrangements fleshed out
with improvisation[dubious discuss], the style also includes notated music, particularly in arranged
music for larger ensembles. This notated music uses some of the most-used "Classical"
ornaments, such as trills and mordents.

[edit]Jazz
Jazz music incorporates a number of ornaments, which can be divided into improvised
ornaments, which are added by performers during their solo extemporizations, and written
ornaments. Improvised ornaments are often idiomatic to specific instruments. The Hammond
organ playing in the jazz subgenre of organ trio soul jazz often features trills which outline the
harmony of a chord, glisses up or down the keyboard, and turn-like decorations. Saxophone
players may decorate a simple melody line with turns, grace notes, and short glissandos
created with the mouth and the reed.
While jazz is substantially based upon improvisation, the style also includes notated music,
particularly in music for larger ensembles such as big bands. Small ensembles may also use
notated music for part of their performances, in arrangements of a tunes main theme. Notated
jazz music incorporates most of the standard "Classical" ornaments, such as trills, grace notes,

and mordents. As well, written jazz notation may also include other ornaments, such as "dead"
or "ghost" notes (a percussive sound, notated by an "X"), glissandos (a portamento between
notes written with a long line), or an instruction to "fill" part of a bar with an embellishment
(notated with diagonal slashes in the bar)

[edit]Celtic

Music

Ornamentation is a major distinguishing characteristic of Irish, Scottish, and Cape

Breton music. A singer, fiddler, flautist, tin whistler, piperor a player of another instrument may
add grace notes, slides, rolls, doubling, mordents, drones, trebles, or a variety of other
ornaments to a given melody.

Portato
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Portato (Italian, past participle of portare, "to carry") in music denotes slurred staccato and is notated
by adding a slur to staccato notes.
Portato is actually articulated legato, where the notes are played almost legato. Each portato note is
'carried' to the next note.
Portato sometimes is confused with portamento, but it is a completely different entity. By
playing portato the music gets 'dignity', 'importance' or a clear pace. Portato was a common way of
playing accompanying lines in baroque music, although it was not written in the score. In Classical
and Romantic music the portato notation with slurs and dots is more common.

Accent (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article does not cite any references or sources.

Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may
be challenged andremoved. (December 2007)

In music, an accent is an emphasis placed on a particular note, either as a result of its context or
specifically indicated by an accent mark. Accents contribute to the articulation and prosody of a
performance of a musical phrase. Compared to surrounding notes:

A dynamic accent or stress accent is an emphasis using louder sound, typically most
pronounced on the attack of the sound.

A tonic accent is an emphasis on a note by virtue of being higher in pitch.

An agogic accent is an emphasis by virtue of being longer in duration.

Accents which do not correspond to the stressed beats of the prevailing meter are said to be
syncopated (See syncopation).
Contents
[hide]

1 Agogic accents
2 Accent marks
3 Anti-accent marks
4 See also

[edit]Agogic

accents

There are four kinds of agogic accent:

Longer notated duration of a note, for example, a half note among quarter notes.

Extended duration of a note within its full time value (without altering the tempo). For
example, players of organ and harpsichord (which don't afford the use of dynamic accents) can
emphasize one of a sequence of staccato quarter notes by making it less staccato.

Extended duration of a note with the effect of temporarily slowing down the tempo.

Delayed onset of a note.

[edit]Accent

marks

In music notation, an accent mark indicates a louder dynamic to apply to a single note, or
an articulation mark. The most common is the horizontal accent, the fourth symbol in the diagram
above; this is the symbol that most musicians mean when they say accent mark. The vertical accent,
third in the diagram, may be stronger or weaker than the horizontal accent; composers have never
been consistent in using these markings. The vertical accent has many informal names such as a
teepee, housetop, or mamba-jamba. In most musical works this type of accent is meant to be played
more forcefully and usually shorter. The remaining marks typically shorten a note.

1. Staccato, the first symbol shown above, indicates that the last part of a note should be
silenced to create separation between it and the following note. The duration of a staccato
note may be about half as long as the note value would indicate, although the tempo and
performers' taste varies this quite a bit.
2. The staccatissimo, shown second, is usually interpreted as shorter than the staccato, but
composers up to the time of Mozart used these symbols interchangeably.
3. The third one shown, the vertical accent, is played with the same dynamics as a regular
accent mark but condensed into about half the original length of the note (depending on
style, song, preference, etc.), essentially a combination of accent and staccato. This type of
accent is also known as marcato.
4. The fourth mark shown, the Accent mark, indicates that the marked note should have an
emphasized beginning and then taper off rather quickly.
5. The tenuto mark, shown fifth above, indicates that a note is to be separated with a little
space from surrounding notes. This separation may be enough to emphasize the note, or it
may have to be played a little louder, at the discretion of the player. The tenuto mark also
indicates that the note should be played for its full value - not cut off earlier. Sometimes
these symbols are used in combination.
Even when these symbols are absent, experienced musicians will introduce the appropriate gesture
according to the style of the music.

[edit]Anti-accent

marks

Percussion music in particular makes use as well of anti-accent marks, notated as follows:
1. slightly softer than surrounding notes: u (breve)
2. significantly softer than surrounding notes: ( ) (note head in parentheses)
3. much softer than surrounding notes: [ ] (note head in brackets)

[edit]See

also

Legato

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about legato in music. For other uses, see Legato (disambiguation).
In musical notation the Italian word legato (literally meaning "tied together") indicates that musical
notes are played or sung smoothly and connected. That is, in transitioning from note to note, there
should be no intervening silence. Legato technique is required for slurredperformance, but unlike
slurring (as that term is interpreted for some instruments), legato does not forbid rearticulation. In
standard notation legato is indicated either with the word legato itself, or by a slur (a curved line)
under the notes that are to be joined in one legato group. Legato, like staccato, is a kind
of articulation. There is an intermediate articulation called either mezzo staccato or non-legato.
Contents
[hide]

1 Classical stringed instruments

2 Guitar
3 Synthesizers
4 Vocal music
5 Sources
6 Audio examples
7 See also
8 References

[edit]Classical

stringed instruments

In music for classical stringed instruments, legato often refers to notes played with a full bow, that are
played with minimal silence between notes. This may be achieved through controlled wrist
movements of the bowing hand, often masked or enhanced with vibrato. Such a legato style of
playing may also be associated with the use of portamento.

[edit]Guitar
In guitar playing (apart from classical guitar) legato usually refers to fast notes, such as hammerons and pull-offs. Use of legato technique with electric guitar will generally require playing notes that
are close and on the same string, following the first note with others that are played by the
techniques just mentioned. Many guitar virtuosos are well-versed in this technique, as it allows for
rapid and also "clean" runs. Multiple hammer-ons and pull-offs together are sometimes also referred

to colloquially as "rolls," a reference to the fluid sound of the technique. A rapid series of hammer-ons
and pull-offs between a single pair of notes is called a trill. When playing legato on guitar, it is
common for the musician to play more notes within a beat than the stated timing, i.e. playing 5
(a quintuplet) or 7 (a septuplet) notes against a quarter-note instead of the usual even number or
triplet. This gives the passage an unusual timing and when played slowly an unusual sound.
However, this is less noticeable by ear when played fast, as legato usually is. There is a fine line
between what is legato and what is two hand finger tapping, in some cases making the two
techniques harder to distinguish by ear. Generally, Legato is used to add a more fluid, smooth sound
to the passage being played.

[edit]Synthesizers
In synthesizers legato is a variation of monophonic operation. In contrast to monophonic mode where
every new note restarts the ADSR envelopes, in legato mode they are not if the previous note
remains depressed when the new note is played. This causes the initial transientfrom the attack and
decay phases to sound only once and the ADSR's to remain at sustain stage for the whole sequence
of notes until the final note is released.

[edit]Vocal

music

In classical singing, legato can be defined as a string of sustained vowels with minimal interruption
from consonants. A good, smooth legato line is still a necessity for any successful classical singer. It
was a key characteristic of the bel canto style of vocalism that prevailed among voice teachers and
singers during the 18th century and the first four decades of the 19th century.
There are other, unorthodox viewpoints. For example Kendra Colton, a faculty member of the Voice
Department at Oberlin Conservatory, believes in separating phrases into two or three word units, and
adding large separatory articulations between each unit, and before any word starting with a vowel.

[edit]Sources
Elementary Rudiments of Music, by Barbara Wharram, Revised Edition edited by Kathleen Wood,
Publisher: Frederick Harris Music, 2005

[edit]Audio

examples

Tenuto
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A tenuto marking on an individual note

Tenuto (Italian, past participle of tenere, "to hold") is a direction used in musical notation. Arguably, it
is one of the first directions to be used in music notation, as Notker of St. Gall (c.840 - 912) discusses
the use of the letter t in plainsong notation as meaning trahere vel tenere debere in one of his letters.
The precise meaning of tenuto is ambiguous: it can mean either hold the note in question its full
length (or longer, with slight rubato), or play the note slightly louder. In other words, the tenuto mark
may alter either the dynamics or the duration of a note. Either way, the marking indicates that a note
should receive emphasis.[1]
The marking's meaning may be affected when it appears in conjunction with other articulations.
When it appears in conjunction with a staccato dot, it has the same meaning as staccato dots under
a slur: non legato[2] or detached. When it appears with an accent mark, because the accent indicates
dynamics, the tenuto takes on its meaning of full or extra duration. [3] If there are a succession of
tenuto marks, one right after another, the performer would play the notes slightly detached and with a
slight accent as well. [4]

[edit]Notation
Tenuto can be notated three ways:
1. The word tenuto written above the passage to be played tenuto.
2. The abbreviation ten. written above the note or passage to be played tenuto.
3. A horizontal line, roughly the length of a notehead, placed immediately above or below the
note to be played tenuto (as in the image above).

[edit]See

also

Modern musical symbols

[edit]References

1. ^ Tom Gerou and Linda Lusk, Essential Dictionary of Music Notation (1996)
2. ^ Kurt Stone, "Music Notation in the Twentieth Century" (1980)
3. ^ Tom Gerou and Linda Lusk, Essential Dictionary of Music Notation (1996)
4. ^ http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheory21.htm

David Fallows, "Tenuto." Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy. (Accessed 15 May 2006) [1]

Marcato
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Marcato (Italian for marked) is a form of staccato. True marcato entails performing the note with
a sforzando (sfz) attack and a sustain of two-thirds (occasionally three-quarters) of the original
written length at same or increased volume, to notes preceding or succeeding it. An audible counted
rest should follow (rest length: one-third to one quarter the marcato note written value)[1][2].
Marcato, as applied to other orchestral instruments, particularly winds, refers to a note articulation
which combines the fortepiano (fp) or sforzando (sfz) of the accented note with a duration reduced to
two-thirds of its written value (the other third being occupied by a rest); hence, in bigband jazz circles the ^ symbol for marcato, which appears above the note, is also known as a "jazz
staccato." (A true staccato has a steady volume and a duration of half its written value; the other half
is occupied by a rest)[3].
According to author James Mark Jordan:
"the marcato' sound is characterised by a rhythmic thrust followed by a decay of the sound[4]"
Contents
[hide]

1 Stringed Instruments
2 Practitioners
3 Works
4 References

[edit]Stringed

Instruments

The bowing technique on stringed instruments for marcato, is that each note is commenced with a
new attack or "explosive start" to each with a rest or "gap" between marcato notes. This creates a
major contrast in bowing articulation to the legato or connected manner of bowingarticulation where

one note is inaudibly joined to the next.

Best effect is achieved with an attack made with initial high friction incisive or "bite" (the bow-hair
grips the string with such friction that the bow is restricted from smoothly moving) followed by
immediate release and sustain made with a smooth, legato stroke. Marcato is best thought of as
halfway between a staccato and a legato note, where a staccato is played half the length of its'
written form.

[edit]Practitioners
Notable exemplars of marcato bowing are the performers Salvatore Accardo, David Oistrakh, Itzhak
Perlman, Ruggierio Ricci and the lateIsaac Stern. Yehudi Menuhin, Heifetz, Kreisler and their peers
did not perform staccato nor marcato as dramatically as the post-war generation of violinists.

[edit]Works
One strong etude (study) of marcato is in found in the common pedagogical (children's teacher) work
of H. E. Kayser Etude 14 of Opus 20:Thirty-Six Elementary and Progressive Studies For the Violin. In
the latter half of the twenty-first measure, marcato assai, or "very marked". The technique of this
Etude is as follows: lay the sides of the bow-hair onto the string, and for the first two consecutive
notes, are stroked in an accented manner. After that, the bow is lifted, for a pizzicato. Then each note
(not indicated with a dot above it) is performed in a style between legato and staccato.

Fermata
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A fermata (also known as a hold, pause, colloquially a birdseye, before the 20th century a corona,
or as a grand pause when placed on a note of rest) is an element of musical notation indicating that

the note should be sustained for longer than its note value would indicate. Exactly how much longer it
is held is up to the discretion of the performer or conductor, but twice as long is not unusual. It is
usually printed above, but occasionally below (upside down), the note that is to be held longer.
Occasionally holds are also printed above rests or barlines, indicating a pause of indefinite duration.
This symbol appears as early as the 15th century, and is quite common in the works
of Dufay and Josquin.
A fermata can occur at the end of a piece (or movement), or it can occur in the middle of a piece, and
be followed by either a brief rest or more notes. [1]
In chorale arrangements by Johann Sebastian Bach and other composers of the Baroque, the
fermata often only signifies the end of a phrase, where a breath is to be taken. In a
few organ compositions, the fermatas occur in different measures for the right and left hand, and for
the feet, which would make holding them impractical.

The word lunga (Shortened form of the Italian lunga pausa, meaning "long pause") is sometimes
added above a fermata to indicate a longer duration.
Some modern composers (including Francis Poulenc, Krzysztof Penderecki, and Luigi Nono) have
expanded the symbol's usage to indicate approximate duration, incorporating fermatas of different
sizes, square- and triangle-shaped fermatas, and so on, to indicate holds of different lengths. This is
not standard usage, however.

Dynamics (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Fortissimo" redirects here. For other meanings, see Fortissimo (disambiguation).

"Crescendo" redirects here. For other meanings, see Crescendo (disambiguation).

It has been suggested that Sotto voce be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

From left to right, the symbols for piano, mezzo-piano, mezzo-forte, and forte.

In music, dynamics normally refers to the volume of a sound ornote, but can also refer to every
aspect of the execution of a given piece, either stylistic (staccato, legato etc.) or functional (velocity).
The term is also applied to the written or printed musical notation used to indicate dynamics.
Dynamics do not indicate specific volume levels, but are meant to be played with reference to the
ensemble as a whole. Dynamic indications are derived from Italianwords.
Contents
[hide]

1 Relative loudness

1.1 Sudden changes

1.2 Gradual changes

2 Words/phrases indicating changes of dynamics
3 History
4 See also
5 References

[edit]Relative

loudness

Teacher. "And what does mean?"

Pupil (after mature deliberation). "Fump-Fump."

Cartoon from Punch magazine October 6, 1920

The two basic dynamic indications in music are:

p or piano, meaning "soft".

or forte, meaning "loud".

More subtle degrees of loudness or softness are indicated by:

mp, standing for mezzo-piano, meaning "moderately soft".

m, standing for mezzo-forte, meaning "moderately loud".

Beyond f and p, there are also

pp, standing for "pianissimo", and meaning "very soft",

, standing for "fortissimo", and meaning "very loud",

To indicate an even softer dynamic than pianissimo, ppp is marked, with the reading pianissimo
possibile ("softest possible"). The same is done on the loud side of the scale, with being "forte
possibile".

Note Velocity in terms of Dynamic's relative to Logic Pro 8 and other digital music software.

Few pieces contain dynamic designations with more than three s (sometimes called "fortondoando")
or ps. In Holst's The Planets, occurs twice in Mars and once in Uranus often punctuated by
organ and occurs several times throughout the work. The Norman Dello JoioSuite for Piano ends
with a crescendo to a , and Tchaikovsky indicated a bassoon solopppppp in his Pathtique
symphony and in passages of his 1812 Overture and the 2nd movement of his 5th
symphony. is also found in a prelude by Rachmaninoff, op.3-2.Shostakovich even went as loud
as in his fourth symphony. Gustav Mahler, in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony,
gives the celli and basses a marking of , along with a footnote directing 'pluck so hard that the
strings hit the wood.' On another extreme, Carl Nielsen, in the second movement of his Symphony
No. 5, marked a passage for woodwinds a diminuendo to ppppp. Another more extreme dynamic is
in Gyrgy Ligeti's Devil's Staircase Etude, which has at one point a and progresses to
a . At Ligeti's 9th etude, he uses pppppppp. In the baritone passage Era la notte from his
opera Otello Verdi uses pppp Steane (1971) and others suggest that such markings are in reality a
strong reminder to less than subtle singers to at least sing softly rather than an instruction to the
singer actually to attempt a pppp.
In music for marching band, passages louder than are sometimes colloquially referred to by
descriptive terms such as "blastissimo".
Dynamic indications are relative, not absolute. mp does not indicate an exact level of volume, it
merely indicates that music in a passage so marked should be a little louder than p and a little
quieter than mf. Interpretations of dynamic levels are left mostly to the performer; in theBarber Piano
Nocturne, a phrase beginning pp is followed by a diminuendo leading to a mp marking. Another
instance of performer's discretion in this piece occurs when the left hand is shown to crescendo to
a , and then immediately after marked p while the right hand plays the melody . It has been
speculated that this is used simply to remind the performer to keep the melody louder than the
harmonic line in the left hand. In some music notation programs, there are default MIDI key velocity
values associated with these indications, but more sophisticated programs allow users to change
these as needed.

[edit]Sudden

changes

Sudden changes in dynamics are notated by a s prefixing the new dynamic notation, and the prefix is
called subito. Subito is italian as most other dynamic notations, and translates into "suddenly" [1]. It is
usually used along with forzando (italian for "forcing"), to make subito forzando, or what most people
refer to as just sforzando. Other common uses of subito are before a regular dynamic notation, like
in spp, sf, or sff.

Subito forzando notation

Sforzando (or sforzato), indicates a forcefull, sudden accent and is abbreviated as sz. Regular
forzando (fz) indicates a forcefull note, but with a sligthly less sudden accent.
The fortepiano notation p (or subito fortepiano; sp) indicates a forte followed immediately
by piano. This notation is usually used to give an unusual strong (and sudden if subito) accent.
One particularly noteworthy use of forzando is in the second movement of Joseph Haydn's Surprise
Symphony.Rinforzando, rz (literally "reinforcing") indicates that several notes, or a short phrase, are
to be emphasized. Rinforte (r) is also available.

[edit]Gradual

changes

In addition, there are words used to indicate gradual changes in volume. The two most common
are crescendo, sometimes abbreviated tocresc., meaning "get gradually louder";
and decrescendo or diminuendo, sometimes abbreviated to decresc. and dim. respectively,
meaning "get gradually softer". Signs sometimes referred to as "hairpins" [2] are also used to stand for
these words (See image). If the lines are joined at the left, then the indication is to get louder; if they
join at the right, the indication is to get softer. The following notation indicates music starting
moderately loud, then becoming gradually louder and then gradually quieter.

Hairpins are usually written below the staff, but are sometimes found above, especially in music
for singers or in music with multiple melody lines being played by a single performer. They tend
to be used for dynamic changes over a relatively short space of time,
while cresc.,decresc. and dim. are generally used for dynamic changes over a longer period.
For long stretches, dashes are used to extend the words so that it is clear over what time the
event should occur. It is not necessary to draw dynamic marks over more than a few bars,
whereas word directions can remain in force for pages if necessary.
For quicker changes in dynamics, molto cresc. and molto dim. are often used, where
the molto means a lot. Similarly, for slow changespoco a poco cresc. or cresc. poco a
poco and poco a poco dim. or dim. poco a poco are used, where poco a poco translates
as bit by bit.
A good example of a piece that uses both gradual changes and quick changes in dynamics
is Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's fantasy overtureRomeo and Juliet.

[edit]Words/phrases

indicating changes of dynamics

(In Italian unless otherwise indicated)

 al niente: to nothing; fade to silence

calando: becoming smaller
crescendo: becoming louder
dal niente: from nothing; out of silence
decrescendo or diminuendo: becoming softer
fortepiano: loud and accented and then immediately soft
fortissimo piano: very loud and then immediately soft
in rilievo: in relief (French en dehors: outwards); indicates that a particular instrument or
part is to play louder than the others so as to stand out over the ensemble. In the circle
of Arnold Schoenberg, this expression had been replaced by the letter "H" (for German,
"Hauptstimme"), with an added horizontal line at the letter's top, pointing to the right, the
end of this passage to be marked by the symbol " ".
perdendo or perdendosi: losing volume, fading into nothing, dying away
mezzoforte piano: moderately loud and them immediately soft
morendo: dying away (may also indicate a tempo change)
marcato: stressed, pronounced
pianoforte: soft and then immediately loud
sforzando piano: with marked and sudden emphasis, then immediately soft
sotto voce: in an undertone (whispered or unvoiced)[3]
smorzando: dying away

[edit]History
The Renaissance composer Giovanni Gabrieli was one of the first to indicate dynamics
in music notation, but dynamics were used sparingly by composers until the late 18th century.
Bach used the terms piano, pi piano, and pianissimo (written out as words), and in some
cases it may be that ppp was considered to mean pianissimo in this period.

During the Baroque period, the use of terraced dynamics was common. This meant a sudden
change from full to soft, with no crescendo or decrescendo. The terraced dynamic was used for
musical effect, to create an echo effect: a passage is played forte, then repeated piano as an
echo. However, a major reason for the use of terraced dynamics is that the harpsichord, which
was the principal keyboard instrument of the period, was incapable of gradations of volume.
The harpsichord can be played either loud or soft, but not in between.
The fact that the harpsichord could play only terraced dynamics, and the fact that composers of
the period did not mark gradations of dynamics in their scores, has led to the "somewhat
misleading suggestion that baroque dynamics are 'terraced dynamics'," writes Robert
Donington.[4] In fact, baroque musicians constantly varied dynamics. "Light and shade must be
constantly introduced... by the incessant interchange of loud and soft," wrote Johann Joachim
Quantz in 1752.[5]
In the Romantic period, composers greatly expanded the vocabulary for describing dynamic
changes in their scores. Where Haydn and Mozart specified six levels (pp to ff), Beethoven
used also ppp and fff (the latter less frequently), and Brahms used a range of terms to
describe the dynamics he wanted. In the slow movement of the trio for violin, waldhorn and
piano (Opus 40), he uses the expressions ppp,molto piano, and quasi niente to express
different qualities of quiet.

Coda (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Coda (Italian for "tail", plural code) is a term used in music in a number of different senses, primarily
to designate a passage that brings a piece (or one movement thereof) to a conclusion.
Contents
[hide]

1 Coda as a section of a movement

1.1 The musical function of codas

2 In music notation
3 Cauda
4 Codetta

5 Codas in popular music

6 See also
7 Notes
8 References

[edit]Coda

as a section of a movement

The presence of a coda as a structural element in a music movement is especially clear in works
written in particular musical forms. In asonata form movement, the recapitulation section will, in
general, follow the exposition in its thematic content, while adhering to the homekey. The
recapitulation often ends with a passage that sounds like a termination, paralleling the music that
ended the exposition; thus, any music coming after this termination will be perceived as extra
material, i.e., as a coda. In works in variation form, the coda occurs following the last variation and
will be very noticeable as the first music not based on the theme.
Codas were commonly used in both sonata form and variation movements during the Classical era.
One of the ways that Beethoven extended and intensified Classical practice was to expand the coda
sections, producing a final section sometimes of equal musical weight to the foregoing exposition,
development, and recapitulation sections and completing the musical argument. For one famous
example, seeSymphony No. 8 (Beethoven).[1]

[edit]The

musical function of codas

Charles Burkhart (2005, 12) suggests that the reason codas are common, even necessary, is that, in
the climax of the main body of a piece, a "particularly effortful passage", often an expanded phrase,
is often created by "working an idea through to its structural conclusions" and that, after all this
momentum is created, a coda is required to "look back" on the main body, allow listeners to "take it
all in", and "create a sense of balance."

[edit]In

music notation

Coda sign

In music notation, the coda symbol, which resembles a set of crosshairs, is used as a navigation
marker, similar to the dal Segno sign. It is used where the exit from a repeated section is within that
section rather than at the end. The instruction "To Coda" indicates that, upon reaching that point
during the final repetition, the performer is to jump immediately to the separate section headed with

the coda symbol. For example, this can be used to provide a special ending for the final verse of a
song.
This symbol is encountered mainly in modern music, not works by classical composers such as
Haydn or Mozart.

[edit]Cauda
Cauda, the Latin root of coda, is used in the study of conductus of the 12th and 13th centuries. The
cauda was a long melisma on one of the last syllables of the text, repeated in each strophe. Conducti
were traditionally divided into two groups, conductus cum cauda and conductus sine cauda (Latin:
"conductus with cauda", "conductus without cauda"), based on the presence of the melisma. Thus,
the cauda provided a conclusionary role, also similar to the modern coda.

[edit]Codetta
Codetta (Italian for "little tail," the diminutive form) has a similar purpose to the coda, but on a
smaller scale, concluding a section of a work instead of the work as a whole. A typical codetta
concludes the exposition and recapitulation sections of a work in sonata form, following the second
(modulated) theme, or the closing theme (if there is one). Thus, in the exposition, it usually appears
in the secondary key, but, in the recapitulation, in the primary key. The codetta ordinarily closes with
a perfect cadence in the appropriate key, confirming the tonality. If the exposition is repeated, the
codetta is also, but sometimes it has its ending slightly changed, depending on whether it leads back
to the exposition or into the development sections.

[edit]Codas

in popular music

Many songs in rock and other genres of popular music have sections identifiable as codas. A coda in
these genres is sometimes referred to as an outro and in jazz and modern church music as a tag.
See also fade out.

[edit]See

also

Da capo

Dal segno

Epilogue

[edit]Notes
1. ^ For discussion of this coda, and of codas in general, see Rosen (1988).

[edit]References

Burkhart, Charles. "The Phrase Rhythm of Chopin's A-flat Major Mazurka, Op. 59, No. 2" in
Stein, Deborah (2005). Engaging Music: Essays in Music Analysis. New York: Oxford University
Press, ISBN 0-19-517010-5.

Rosen, Charles (1988) Sonata Forms, 2nd edition. New York: Norton.

This article incorporates text from the Encyclopdia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now
in the public domain.

Exposition (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Sonata form. (Discuss)
In musical form and analysis, exposition is the initial presentation of the thematic material of
a musical composition, movement, or section. The use of the term generally implies that the material
will be developed or varied.

[edit]Exposition

in classical sonata form

The term is most widely used[1] as an analytical convenience to denote a portion of a movement
identified as an example of classical tonalsonata form. The exposition typically establishes the
music's tonic key, and then modulates to, and ends in, the dominant.[2] If the exposition starts in a
minor key, it typically modulates to the relative major key. There are many exceptions for example
the exposition of the first movement of Beethoven's Waldstein Sonata modulates from C major to the
mediant E major. The exposition may include identifiable musical
themes (whether melodic, rhythmic or chordal in character), and may develop them, but it is usually
the key relationships and the sense of "arrival" at the dominant that is used by analysts in identifying
the exposition. The exposition in classical symphonies is typically repeated, although there are many
examples where the composer does not specify such a repeat.
If the movement starts with an introductory section, this introduction is not usually analysed as being
part of the movement's exposition.
In many works of the Classical period and some of the Romantic era, the exposition is often
bracketed by repeat signs, indicating that it is to be played twice. This is something which is not
always done in concert from the 20th Century onwards.[3]

[edit]References
1. ^ William E. Grim, "The Musicalization of Prose: Prolegomena to the Experience of Literature in
Musical Form" Papers presented at the Second World Phenomenology Congress September 12

 18, 1995, Guadalajara, Mexico, in Analecta Husserliana: The Yearbook of Phenomenological

Research LXIII (1998): 65. "The first section of a sonata form is called the exposition."
2. ^ William E. Grim, "The Musicalization of Prose: Prolegomena to the Experience of Literature in
Musical Form" Papers presented at the Second World Phenomenology Congress September 12
18, 1995, Guadalajara, Mexico, in Analecta Husserliana: The Yearbook of Phenomenological
Research LXIII (1998): 65. "It is in this section that there is harmonic movement away from the
primary tonal area to the secondary tonal area."
3. ^ Charles Michael Carroll, "Memories of Dohnnyi" Perspectives on Ernst von Dohnnyi, edited
by James A. Grymes. Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. (2005): 235
[show]
vde

Musical notation and development

[show]
vde

Musical form

This music theory article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Harmony
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about musical harmony and harmonies. For other uses of the term, see Harmony
(disambiguation).
"Disharmony" redirects here. For the episode of Angel, see Disharmony (Angel).

The harmonious major triad is composed of three tones. Their frequency ratio corresponds approximately 6:5:4.
In real performances, however, the third is often larger than 5:4. The ratio 5:4 corresponds to an interval of 386
cents, but an equally tempered major third is 400 cents and a Pythagorean third with a ratio of 81:64 is 408
cents. Measurements of frequencies in good performances confirm that the size of the major third varies across

this range and can even lie outside it without sounding out of tune. Thus, there is no simple connection between
frequency ratios and harmonic function.

In music, harmony is the use of simultaneous pitches (tones, notes), or chords.[1] The study of
harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of
connection that govern them.[2] Harmony is often said to refer to the "vertical" aspect of music, as
distinguished from melodic line, or the "horizontal" aspect.[3] Counterpoint, which refers to the
interweaving of melodic lines, and polyphony, which refers to the relationship of separate
independent voices, are thus sometimes distinguished from harmony.
Contents
[hide]

1 Definitions, origin of term, and history of use

2 Historical rules
3 Types
4 Intervals
5 Chords and tension
6 Perception of harmony
7 Consonance and dissonance in balance
8 See also
9 References

9.1 Footnotes

9.2 Notations
10 External links
11 Further reading

[edit]Definitions,

origin of term, and history of use

The term harmony derives from the Greek (harmona), meaning "joint, agreement, concord",
[4]

from the verb (harmozo), "to fit together, to join".[5] The term was often used for the whole

field of music, while "music" referred to the arts in general.

In Ancient Greece, the term defined the combination of contrasted elements: a higher and lower note.
[6]

Nevertheless, it is unclear whether the simultaneous sounding of notes was part of ancient Greek

musical practice; "harmona" may have merely provided a system of classification of the relationships
between different pitches. In the Middle Ages the term was used to describe two pitches sounding in
combination, and in the Renaissance the concept was expanded to denote three pitches sounding
together.[6]
It was not until the publication of Rameau's 'Trait de l'harmonie' (Treatise on Harmony) in 1722 that
any text discussing musical practice made use of the term in the title, though that work is not the
earliest record of theoretical discussion of the topic. The underlying principle behind these texts is
that harmony sanctions harmoniousness (sounds that 'please') by conforming to certain preestablished compositional principles.[7]
Current dictionary definitions, while attempting to give concise descriptions, often highlight the
ambiguity of the term in modern use. Ambiguities tend to arise from either aesthetic considerations
(for example the view that only "pleasing" concords may be harmonious) or from the point of view of
musical texture (distinguishing between "harmonic" (simultaneously sounding pitches) and
"contrapuntal" (successively sounding tones).[7] In the words of Arnold Whitall:
While the entire history of music theory appears to depend on just such a distinction between
harmony and counterpoint, it is no less evident that developments in the nature of musical
composition down the centuries have presumed the interdependenceat times amounting to
integration, at other times a source of sustained tensionbetween the vertical and horizontal
dimensions of musical space.
[7]
The view that modern tonal harmony in Western music began in about 1600 is commonplace in
music theory. This is usually accounted for by the 'replacement' of horizontal (of contrapuntal) writing,
common in the music of the Renaissance, with a new emphasis on the 'vertical' element of
composed music. Modern theorists, however, tend to see this as an unsatisfactory generalisation.
As Carl Dahlhaus puts it:
It was not that counterpoint was supplanted by harmony (Bachs tonal counterpoint is surely no less
polyphonic than Palestrinas modal writing) but that an older type both of counterpoint and of vertical
technique was succeeded by a newer type. And harmony comprises not only the (vertical) structure
of chords but also their (horizontal) movement. Like music as a whole, harmony is a process.
[8][9]
Descriptions and definitions of harmony and harmonic practice may show bias
towards European (or Western) musical traditions. For example, South Asian art music
(Hindustani and Carnatic music) is frequently cited as placing little emphasis on what is perceived in
western practice as conventional 'harmony'; the underlying 'harmonic' foundation for most South
Asian music is the drone, a held open fifth (or fourth) that does not alter in pitch throughout the

course of a composition.[10] Pitch simultaneity in particular is rarely a major consideration.

Nevertheless many other considerations of pitch are relevant to the music, its theory and its
structure, such as the complex system ofRgas, which combines both melodic and modal
considerations and codifications within it. [11] So although intricate combinations of pitches sounding
simultaneously in Indian classical music do occur they are rarely studied as teleological harmonic
or contrapuntal progressions, which is the case with notated Western music. This contrasting
emphasis (with regard to Indian music in particular) manifests itself to some extent in the different
methods of performance adopted: in Indian Music improvisation takes a major role in the structural
framework of a piece,[12] whereas in Western Music improvisation has been uncommon since the end
of the 19th century,[13]. Where it does occur in Western music (or has in the past), the improvisation
will either embellish pre-notated music or, if not, draw from musical models that have previously been
established in notated compositions, and therefore employ familiar harmonic schemes. [14]
There is no doubt, nevertheless, that the emphasis on the precomposed in European art music and
the written theory surrounding it shows considerable cultural bias. The Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians (Oxford University Press) identifies this quite clearly:
In Western culture the musics that are most dependent on improvisation, such as jazz, have
traditionally been regarded as inferior to art music, in which pre-composition is considered
paramount. The conception of musics that live in oral traditions as something composed with the use
of improvisatory techniques separates them from the higher-standing works that use notation.
[15]
Yet the evolution of harmonic practice and language itself, in Western art music, is and was facilitated
by this process of prior composition (which permitted the study and analysis by theorists and
composers alike of individual pre-constructed works in which pitches (and to some extent rhythms)
remained unchanged regardless of the nature of the performance). [16]

[edit]Historical

rules

Some traditions of music performance, composition, and theory have specific rules of harmony.
These rules are often held to be based on natural properties such as Pythagorean tuning's law whole
number ratios ("harmoniousness" being inherent in the ratios either perceptually or in themselves)
or harmonics and resonances ("harmoniousness" being inherent in the quality of sound), with the
allowable pitches and harmonies gaining their beauty or simplicity from their closeness to those
properties. While Pythagorean ratios can provide a rough approximation of perceptual harmonicity,
they cannot account for cultural factors.[citation needed]
Early Western religious music often features parallel perfect intervals; these intervals would preserve
the clarity of the original plainsong. These works were created and performed in cathedrals, and
made use of the resonant modes of their respective cathedrals to create harmonies. As polyphony
developed, however, the use of parallel intervals was slowly replaced by the English style of
consonance that used thirds and sixths. The English style was considered to have a sweeter sound,

and was better suited to polyphony in that it offered greater linear flexibility in part-writing. Early
music also forbade usage of the tritone, as its dissonance was associated with the devil, and
composers often went to considerable lengths, via musica ficta, to avoid using it. In the newer triadic
harmonic system, however, the tritone became permissible, as the standardization of functional
dissonance made its use in dominant chords desirable.
Although most harmony comes about as a result of two or more notes being sounded
simultaneously, it is possible to strongly imply harmony with only one melodic line through the use
of arpeggios or hocket. Many pieces from the baroque period for solo string instruments, such as
Bach's Sonatas and partitas for solo violin, convey subtle harmony through inference rather than full
chordal structures; see below:

Example of implied harmonies in J.S. Bach's Cello Suite no. 1 in G, BWV 1007, bar 1.

[edit]Types
Carl Dahlhaus (1990) distinguishes between coordinate and subordinate harmony. Subordinate
harmony is the hierarchical tonality or tonal harmony well known today, while coordinate harmony is
the older Medieval and Renaissance tonalit ancienne, "the term is meant to signify that sonorities
are linked one after the other without giving rise to the impression of a goal-directed development. A
first chord forms a 'progression' with a second chord, and a second with a third. But the former chord
progression is independent of the later one and vice versa." Coordinate harmony follows direct
(adjacent) relationships rather than indirect as in subordinate. Interval cycles create symmetrical
harmonies, which have been extensively used by the composers Alban Berg, George Perle, Arnold
Schoenberg, Bla Bartk, and Edgard Varse's Density 21.5.
Other types of harmony are based upon the intervals used in constructing the chords used in that
harmony. Most chords used in western music are based on "tertian" harmony, or chords built with the
interval of thirds. In the chord C Major7, C-E is a major third; E-G is a minor third; and G to B is a
major third. Other types of harmony consist of quartal harmony and quintal harmony.

[edit]Intervals

An interval is the relationship between two separate musical pitches. For example, in the melody
"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star", the first two notes (the first "twinkle") and the second two notes (the
second "twinkle") are at the interval of one fifth. What this means is that if the first two notes were the
pitch "C", the second two notes would be the pitch "G"four scale notes, or seven chromatic notes
(a perfect fifth), above it.
The following are common intervals:

Root

Major Third

Minor third

Fifth

Therefore, the combination of notes with their specific intervals a chord creates harmony. For
example, in a C chord, there are three notes: C, E, and G. The note "C" is the root, with the notes "E"

and "G" providing harmony, and in a G7 (G dominant 7th) chord, the root G with each subsequent
note (in this case B, D and F) provide the harmony.
In the musical scale, there are twelve pitches. Each pitch is referred to as a "degree" of the scale.
The names A, B, C, D, E, F, and G are insignificant. The intervals, however, are not. Here is an
example:

As can be seen, no note always corresponds to a certain degree of the scale. The "root", or 1stdegree note, can be any of the 12 notes of the scale. All the other notes fall into place. So, when C is
the root note, the fourth degree is F. But when D is the root note, the fourth degree is G. So while the
note names are intransigent, the intervals are not. In layman's terms: a "fourth" (four-step interval) is
always a fourth, no matter what the root note is. The great power of this fact is that any song can be
played or sung in any keyit will be the same song, as long as the intervals are kept the same, thus
transposing the harmony into the corresponding key.
When the intervals surpass the Octave (12 semitones), these intervals are named as "Extended
intervals", which include particularly the 9th, 11th, and 13th Intervals, widely used
in Jazz and Blues Music.
Extended Intervals are formed and named as following:

2nd Interval + Octave = "Ninth" Interval / 9th

4th Interval + Octave = "Eleventh" Interval / 11th

6th Interval + Octave = "Thirteenth" Interval / 13th

Apart from this categorization, intervals can also be divided into consonant and dissonant. As
explained in the following paragraphs,consonant intervals produce a sensation of relaxation
and dissonant intervals a sensation of tension.
The consonant intervals are considered to be the Unison, Octave, Fifth, Fourth and Major and
Minor Third. The Third is considered Imperfect while the former are considered Perfect. In classical
music the fourth may be considered to be dissonant when its function is contrapuntal.
All the other intervals, such as the 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th are considered Dissonant and require
resolution (of the produced tension) and usually preparation (depending on the music style used).

[edit]Chords

and tension

Main article: Chord (music)

Main article: Consonance and dissonance
In the Western tradition, harmony is manipulated using chords, which are combinations of pitch
classes. In tertian or tertial harmony, so named after the interval of a third, the members of chords
are found and named by stacking intervals of major and minor thirds, starting with the "root", then the
"third" above the root, and the "fifth" above the root (which is a third above the third), etc. (Note that
chord members are named after their interval against the root, not by their numerical inclusion in the
building of the chord.) Traditionally, a chord must have at least three members to be called a chord,
although 2-member dyads are sometimes treated as chords, especially in rock (see power chords). A
chord with three members is called a triad because it has three members, not because it is
necessarily built in thirds (see Quartal and quintal harmony for chords built with other intervals).
Depending on the widths of the intervals being stacked, different qualities of chords are formed. In
popular and jazz harmony, chords are named by their root plus various terms and characters
indicating their qualities. To keep the nomenclature as simple as possible, some defaults are
accepted (not tabulated here). For example, the chord members C, E, and G, form a C Major triad,
called by default simply a "C" chord. In an "A" chord (pronounced A-flat), the members are A, C,
and E.
In many types of music, notably baroque and jazz, chords are often augmented with "tensions". A
tension is an additional chord member that creates a relatively dissonant interval in relation to one or
more of the other chord members. Following the tertian practice of building chords by stacking thirds,
the simplest first tension is added to a triad by stacking on top of the existing root, third, and fifth,
another third above the fifth, giving a new, potentially dissonant member the interval of a seventh
away from the root and therefore called the "seventh" of the chord, and producing a four-note chord,
called a "seventh chord". Depending on the widths of the individual thirds stacked to build the chord,
the interval between the root and the seventh of the chord may be major, minor, or diminished. (The
interval of an augmented seventh reproduces the root, and is therefore left out of the chordal
nomenclature.) The nomenclature allows that, by default, "C7" indicates a chord with a root, third,
fifth, and seventh spelled C, E, G, and B. Other types of seventh chords must be named more
explicitly, such as "C Major 7" (spelled C, E, G, B), "C augmented 7" (here the word augmented
applies to the fifth, not the seventh, spelled C, E, G#, Bb), etc. (For a more complete exposition of
nomenclature see Chord (music).)
Continuing to stack thirds on top of a seventh chord brings in the "extended tensions" or "upper
tensions" (those more than an octave above the root when stacked in thirds), the ninths, elevenths,
and thirteenths, and creates the chords named after them. (Note that except for dyads and triads,
tertian chord types are named for the widest interval in use in the stack, not for the number of chord
members, thus a ninth chord has five members, not nine.) Extensions beyond the thirteenth

reproduce existing chord members and are (usually) left out of the nomenclature. Complex
harmonies based on extended chords are found in abundance in jazz, modern orchestral works, film
music, etc.
Typically, in the classical Common practice period a dissonant chord (chord with tension) will
"resolve" to a consonant chord. Harmonization usually sounds pleasant to the ear when there is a
balance between the consonant and dissonant sounds. In simple words, that occurs when there is a
balance between "tense" and "relaxed" moments. For this reason, usually tension is 'prepared' and
then 'resolved'.[17]
Preparing tension means to place a series of consonant chords that lead smoothly to the dissonant
chord. In this way the composer ensures introducing tension smoothly, without disturbing the listener.
Once the piece reaches its sub-climax, the listener needs a moment of relaxation to clear up the
tension, which is obtained by playing a consonant chord that resolves the tension of the previous
chords. The clearing of this tension usually sounds pleasant to the listener.[17]

[edit]Perception

of harmony

Harmony is based on consonance, a concept whose definition has changed various times during the
history of Western music. In a psychological approach, consonance is a continuous variable.
Consonance can vary across a wide range. A chord may sound consonant for various reasons.
One is lack of perceptual roughness. Roughness happens when partials (frequency components) lie
within a critical bandwidth, which is a measure of the ear's ability to separate different frequencies.
Critical bandwidth lies between 2 and 3 semitones at high frequencies and becomes larger at lower
frequencies. The roughness of two simultaneous harmonic complex tones depends on the
amplitudes of the harmonics and the interval between the tones. The roughest interval in the
chromatic scale is the minor second and its inversion the major seventh. For typical spectral
envelopes in the central range, the second roughest interval is the major second and minor seventh,
followed by the tritone, the minor third (major sixth), the major third (minor sixth) and the perfect
fourth (fifth).
The second reason is perceptual fusion. A chord fuses in perception if its overall spectrum is similar
to a harmonic series. According to this definition a major triad fuses better than a minor triad and a
major-minor seventh chord fuses better than a major-major seventh or minor-minor seventh. These
differences may not be readily apparent in tempered contexts but can explain why major triads are
generally more prevalent than minor triads and major-minor sevenths generally more prevalent than
other sevenths (in spite of the dissonance of the tritone interval) in mainstream tonal music. Of
course these comparisons depend on style.
The third reason is familiarity. Chords that have often been heard in musical contexts tend to sound
more consonant. This principle explains the gradual historical increase in harmonic complexity of

Western music. For example, around 1600 unprepared seventh chords gradually became familiar
and were therefore gradually perceived as more consonant.
Western music is based on major and minor triads. The reason why these chords are so central is
that they are consonant in terms of both fusion and lack of roughness. they fuse because they
include the perfect fourth/fifth interval. They lack roughness because they lack major and minor
second intervals. No other combination of three tones in the chromatic scale satisfies these criteria.

[edit]Consonance

and dissonance in balance

As Frank Zappa explained it,

"The creation and destruction of harmonic and 'statistical' tensions is essential to the maintenance of
compositional drama. Any composition (or improvisation) which remains consistent and 'regular'
throughout is, for me, equivalent to watching a movie with only 'good guys' in it, or eating cottage
cheese."q:Frank Zappa
In other words, a composer cannot ensure a listener's liking by using exclusively consonant sounds.
However, an excess of tension may disturb the listener. The balance between the two is essential.
Contemporary music has evolved in the way that tension is less often prepared and less structured
than in Baroque or Classical periods, thus producing new styles such as Jazz and Blues, where
tension is not usually prepared.

[edit]See

also
Look
up harmony in Wiktionary,
the free dictionary.

Barbershop music

Consonance and dissonance

Chord (music)

Chord sequence

Chromatic chord

Chromatic mediant

Counterpoint

Harmonic series

Homophony (music)

List of musical terminology

Mathematics of musical scales

Musica universalis

Peter Westergaard's tonal theory

Prolongation

Physics of music

Tonality

Unified field

Voice leading

[edit]References
[edit]Footnotes
1. ^ Malm, William P. (1996). Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia, p.15. ISBN 013-182387-6. Third edition. "Homophonic texture...is more common in Western music, where
tunes are often built on chords (harmonies) that move in progressions. Indeed this harmonic
orientation is one of the major differences between Western and much non-Western music."
2. ^ Dahlhaus, Car. "Harmony", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 24 February
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
3. ^ Jamini, Deborah (2005). Harmony and Composition: Basics to Intermediate, p.147. ISBN 14120-3333-0.
4. ^ '1. Harmony' The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology in English Language
Reference accessed via Oxford Reference Online(24th February 2007)
5. ^ Harmonia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus
6. ^ a b Dahlhaus, Carl. "Harmony", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 24 February
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).

7. ^ a b c Arnold Whittall, "Harmony", The Oxford Companion to Music, ed. Alison Latham, (Oxford
University Press, 2002) (accessed via [Oxford Reference Online], 16 November 2007 is
gayubview=Main&entry=t114.e3144 )
8. ^ Harmony, 3: Historical development. "Carl Dahlhaus", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy
(accessed 16 November 2007), grovemusic.com(subscription access).
9. ^ see also Whitall 'Harmony: 4. Practice and Principle', Oxford Companion to Music
10. ^ Regula Qureshi. "India, I, 2(ii): Music and musicians: Art music", Grove Music Online, ed. L.
Macy (accessed 16 November 2007),grovemusic.com (subscription access). and Catherine
Schmidt Jones, 'Listening to Indian Classical Music', Connexions, (accessed 16 November
2007) [1]
11. ^ Harold S. Powers/Richard Widdess. "India, III, 2: Theory and practice of classical music:
Rga", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 16 November
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
12. ^ Harold S. Powers/Richard Widdess. "India, III, 3(ii): Theory and practice of classical music:
Melodic elaboration", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 16 November
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
13. ^ Rob C. Wegman. "Improvisation, II: Western art music", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy
(accessed 16 November 2007), grovemusic.com(subscription access).
14. ^ Robert D Levin. "Improvisation, II, 4(i): The Classical period in Western art music: Instrumental
music", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 16 November
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
15. ^ Bruno Nettl. "Improvisation, I, 2: Concepts and practices: Improvisation in musical
cultures", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed 16 November
2007), grovemusic.com (subscription access).
16. ^ see Whitall, 'Harmony'
17. ^ a b Schejtman, Rod (2008). The Piano Encyclopedia's "Music Fundamentals eBook", p.20-43
(accessed 10 March 2009).PianoEncyclopedia.com

[edit]Notations

Dahlhaus, Carl. Gjerdingen, Robert O. trans. (1990). Studies in the Origin of Harmonic
Tonality, p. 141. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09135-8.

van der Merwe, Peter (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of TwentiethCentury Popular Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-316121-4.

Nettles, Barrie & Graf, Richard (1997). The Chord Scale Theory and Jazz Harmon

Melody
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about melody in music. For other senses of this word, see Melody (disambiguation).
Look
up melody in Wiktionary, the
free dictionary.

A melody (from Greek - melida, "singing, chanting"[1]), also tune, voice, or line, is
alinear succession of musical tones which is perceived as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a
melody is a sequence of pitches and durations, while, more figuratively, the term has occasionally
been extended to include successions of other musical elements such as tone color.
Melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated
throughout a song or piece in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic
motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches (predominantly conjunct or disjunctor with
further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, and shape.
Contents
[hide]

1 Elements
2 Examples
3 See also
4 Further reading
5 References
6 External links

[edit]Elements
Given the many and varied elements and styles of melody "many extant explanations [of melody]
confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive." [2] Paul Narveson claimed in 1984
that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly.[3]

The melodies existing in most European music written before the 20th century, and popular music
throughout the 20th century, featured "fixed and easily discernible frequency patterns", recurring
"events, often periodic, at all structural levels" and "recurrence of durations and patterns of
durations".[2]
Melodies in the 20th century have "utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than has been the
custom in any other historical period of Western music." While the diatonic scale is still used,
the twelve-tone scale became "widely employed."[2] Composers also allotted a structural role to "the
qualitative dimensions" that previously had been "almost exclusively reserved for pitch and rhythm".
Kliewer states, "The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality (timbre),
texture, and loudness.[2] Though the same melody may be recognizable when played with a wide
variety of timbres and dynamics, the latter may still be an "element of linear ordering" [2]

[edit]Examples

"Pop Goes the Weasel" melody[2]

Different musical styles use melody in different ways. For example:

Jazz musicians use the melody line, called the "lead" or "head", as a starting point
for improvisation.

Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music and folk music tend to pick
one or two melodies (verse and chorus) and stick with them; much variety may occur in
the phrasing and lyrics.

Indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony as
the above forms.

Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a single
melody played simultaneously, called heterophony.

In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, and then
create variations. Classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as
those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short
melodic fragments, such as the opening of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony. Richard

Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif: a motif or melody associated with a certain idea,
person or place.

While in both most popular music and classical music of the common practice period pitch
and duration are of primary importance in melodies, the contemporary music of the 20th and
21st centuries pitch and duration have lessened in importance and quality has gained
importance, often primary. Examples include musique concrete, klangfarbenmelodie, Elliott
Carter's Eight Etudes and a Fantasy which contains a movement with only one note, the third
movement of Ruth Crawford-Seeger's String Quartet 1931 (later reorchestrated asAndante for
string orchestra) in which the melody is created from an unchanging set of pitches through
"dissonant dynamics" alone, andGyrgy Ligeti's Aventures in which recurring phonetics create
the linear form.

Melody from Anton Webern's Variations for Orchestra, Op. 30 (pp. 23-24)[4]

[edit]See

also

Unified field

Parsons code, a simple notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion
the motion of the pitch up and down.

Appropriation (music)

Klangfarbenmelodie

Musique concrte

Melodic patterns

Sequence (music)

Line (poetry)

[edit]Further

reading
Wikiquote has a collection of
quotations related to: Melody

Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed., p.517-19. [2]

Edwards, Arthur C. The Art of Melody, p.xix-xxx. Includes "a catalog of sample definitions."

Holst, Imogen (1962/2008). Tune, Faber and Faber, London. ISBN 0-571-24198-0.

Smits van Waesberghe, J. (1955). A Textbook of Melody: A course in functional melodic

[2]

analysis, American Institute of Musicology. Includes "an attempt to formulate a theory of

melody."

[2]

Szabolcsi, Bence (1965). A History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London.

[edit]References
1. ^ Melodia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus project
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kliewer, Vernon (1975). "Melody: Linear Aspects of Twentieth-Century
Music", Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, p.270-301. Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
3. ^ Narveson, Paul (1984). Theory of Melody. ISBN 0-8191-3834-7.
4. ^ Marquis, G. Welton (1964). Twentieth Century Music Idioms, p.2. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.

Motif (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A phrase originally presented as a motif may become a figure which accompanies another melody, as in the
second movement of Claude Debussy'sString Quartet (1893)

For other uses, see Motif (disambiguation) and Motive.

In music, a motif or motive
[1]

(pronunciation) (helpinfo) is a shortmusical idea,

a salient recurring figure, musical fragment or succession of notes that has some special

importance in or is characteristic of a composition. The Encyclopdie de la Pliaderegards it as a

"melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic cell", whereas the 1958 Encyclopdie Fasquelle maintains that it
may contain one or more cells, though it remains the smallest analyzable element or phrase within
a subject.[2] It is commonly regarded as the shortest subdivision of a theme or phrase that still
maintains its identity as a musical idea. Grove and Larousse[3] also agree that the motif may have
harmonic, melodic and/or rhythmic aspects, Grove adding that it "is most often thought of in melodic
terms, and it is this aspect of the motif that is connoted by the term 'figure'."
A harmonic motif is a series of chords defined in the abstract, that is, without reference to melody or
rhythm. A melodic motif is a melodic formula, established without reference to intervals. A rhythmic
motif is the term designating a characteristic rhythmic formula, an abstraction drawn from the
rhythmic values of a melody."
A motif thematically associated with a person, place, or idea is called a leitmotif. Occasionally such a
motif is a musical cryptogram of the name involved. A head-motif (German: Kopfmotiv) is a musical
idea at the opening of a set of movements which serves to unite those movements.
To Scruton, however, a motif is distinguished from a figure in that a motif is foreground while a figure
is background: "A figure resembles a moulding in architecture: it is 'open at both ends', so as to be
endlessly repeatable. In hearing a phrase as a figure, rather than a motif, we are at the same time
placing it in the background, even if it is...strong and melodious." [4]
Any motif may be used to construct complete melodies, themes and pieces. Musical
development uses a distinct musical figure that is subsequently altered, repeated, or sequenced
throughout a piece or section of a piece of music, guaranteeing its unity. Such motivic
development has its roots in the keyboard sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti and the sonata
form of Haydn and Mozart's age. ArguablyBeethoven achieved the highest elaboration of this
technique; the famous "fate motif" the pattern of three short notes followed by one long one that
opens his Fifth Symphony and reappears throughout the work in surprising and refreshing
permutations is a classic example.
Motivic saturation is the "immersion of a musical motive in a composition," ie, keeping motifs and
themes below the surface or playing with their identity, and has been used by composers
including Miriam Gideon, as in "Night is my Sister" (1952) and "Fantasy on a Javanese Motif" (1958),
and Donald Erb. The use of motives is discussed in Adolph Weiss' "The Lyceum of Schnberg".

[edit]See

also

Motif (art)

[5]

Motif (literature)

Leitmotif

[edit]References
1. ^ New Grove (1980). cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a
Semiology of Music (Musicologie gnrale et smiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691091366/ISBN 0691027145.
2. ^ Both cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of
Music (Musicologie gnrale et smiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691091366/ISBN 0691027145.
3. ^ 1957 Encyclopdie Larousse cited in Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse:
Toward a Semiology of Music (Musicologie gnrale et smiologue, 1987). Translated by
Carolyn Abbate. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691091366/ISBN
0691027145.
4. ^ Scruton, Roger (1997). The Aesthetics of Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-8166389.
5. ^ Hisama, Ellie M. (2001). Gendering Musical Modernism: The Music of Ruth Crawford, Marion
Bauer, and Miriam Gideon, p.146 and 152. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64030-X.

Recapitulation (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Sonata form. (Discuss)
In music theory, the recapitulation is one of the sections of a movement written in sonata form. The
recapitulation occurs after the movement's development section, and typically presents once more
the musical themes from the movement's exposition. This material is most often recapitulated in the
tonic key of the movement, in such a way that it reaffirms that key as the movement's home key.
In some sonata form movements, the recapitulation presents a straightforward image of the
movement's exposition. However, many sonata form movements, even early examples, depart from
this simple procedure. Devices used by composers include incorporating a secondary
development section, or varying the character of the original material, or rearranging its order, or
adding new material, or omitting material altogether, or overlaying material that was kept separate in
the exposition.

The composer of a sonata form movement may disguise the start of the recapitulation as an
extension of the development section. Conversely, the composer may write a "false recapitulation",
which gives the listener the idea that the recapitulation has begun, but proves on further listening to
be an extension of the development section.

[edit]References
Rosen, Charles (1988). Sonata Forms (2nd edition). W. W. Norton & Co. Ltd.. ISBN 978-

0393302196.
Rosen, Charles (2005). The Classical Style. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0571228126.

Rhythm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Rhythm (disambiguation).

Rhythm (from Greek rhythmos, "any regular recurring motion, symmetry"[1]) is a
"movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or
different conditions." [2] While rhythm most commonly applies to sound, such as music and spoken
language, it may also refer to visual presentation, as "timed movement through space." [3]
Contents
[hide]

1 Rhythm in linguistics
2 Origins of human appreciation of rhythm
3 Rhythm notation and the oral tradition
o

3.1 African music

3.2 Indian music

3.3 Western music

4 Types
5 See also
6 Sources

7 Further reading

[edit]Rhythm

in linguistics

The study of rhythm, stress, and pitch in speech is called prosody; it is a topic in linguistics.
Narmour [4] describes three categories of prosodic rules which create rhythmic successions which are
additive (same duration repeated), cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short).
Cumulation is associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or tension,
while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard Middleton [5] points out this method
cannot account for syncopation and suggests the concept oftransformation.
A rhythmic unit is a durational pattern which occupies a period of time equivalent to a pulse or pulses
on an underlying metric level, as opposed to a rhythmic gesture which does not [6].

[edit]Origins

of human appreciation of rhythm

In his series How Music Works, Howard Goodall presents theories that rhythm recalls how we walk
and the heartbeat we heard in the womb. More likely is that a simple pulse or di-dah beat recalls the
footsteps of another person. Our sympathetic urge to dance is designed to boost our energy levels
in order to cope with someone, or some animal chasing us a fight or flight response. From a less
darwinist perspective, perceiving rhythm is the ability to master the otherwise invisible dimension,
time. Rhythm is possibly also rooted in courtship ritual. [7]
Neurologist Oliver Sacks posits that human affinity for rhythm is fundamental, so much that a
person's sense of rhythm cannot be lost in the way that music and language can (e.g. by stroke). In
addition, he states that chimpanzees and other animals show no similar appreciation for rhythm. [8]

[edit]Rhythm

notation and the oral tradition

Worldwide there are many different approaches to passing on rhythmic phrases and patterns, as
they exist in traditional music, from generation to generation.

[edit]African

music

In the Griot tradition of Africa everything related to music has been passed on orally. Babatunde
Olatunji (19272003), a Nigerian drummer who lived and worked in the United States, developed a
simple series of spoken sounds for teaching the rhythms of the hand drum. He used six vocal
sounds: Goon Doon Go Do Pa Ta. There are three basic sounds on the drum, but each can be
played with either the left or the right hand. This simple system is now used worldwide, particularly
by Djembe players.
It is noteworthy that the debate about the appropriateness of staff notation for African music is a
subject of particular interest to outsiders, not insiders. African scholars from Kyagambiddwa to Kongo
have for the most part accepted the conventionsand limitationsof staff notation and gone on to

produce transcriptions in order to inform and to make possible a higher level of discussion and
debate. Agawu (2003: 52)[9]

[edit]Indian

music

Indian music has also been passed on orally. Tabla players would learn to speak complex rhythm
patterns and phrases before attempting to play them. Sheila Chandra, an English pop singer of
Indian descent, made performances based on her singing these patterns. In Indian Classical music,
the Tala of a composition is the rhythmic pattern over which the whole piece is structured.

[edit]Western

music

Standard music notation contains rhythmic information and is adapted specifically for drums and
percussion instruments. The drums are generally used to keep other instruments in 'time'. They do
this by supplying beats/strikes in time at a certain pace, i.e. 70 beats per minute (bpm). In Rock
music, a drum beat is used to keep a bass/guitar line in time.

[edit]Types
In Western music, rhythms are usually arranged with respect to a time signature, partially signifying a
meter. The speed of the underlyingpulse is sometimes called the beat. The tempo is a measure of
how quickly the pulse repeats. The tempo is usually measured in 'beats per minute' (bpm); 60 bpm
means a speed of one beat per second. The length of the meter, or metric unit (usually
corresponding with measurelength), is usually grouped into either two or three beats, being
called duple meter and triple meter, respectively. If each beat is divided by two or four, it is simple
meter, if by three (or six) compound meter. According to Pierre Boulez, beat structures beyond four
are "simply not natural".[10]. His reference is to western European music.

Standard notation of a clave pattern on audio clip clave pattern.ogg

Syncopated rhythms are rhythms that accent parts of the beat not already stressed by counting.
Playing simultaneous rhythms in more than one time signature is called polymeter. See
also polyrhythm. In recent years, rhythm and meter have become an important area of research
among music scholars. Recent work in these areas includes books by Maury Yeston[11], Fred
Lerdahl and Ray Jackendoff, Jonathan Kramer, Christopher Hasty[12], William Rothstein, and Joel
Lester.

Grid notation of single a clave pattern

Some genres of music make different use of rhythm than others. Sub-Saharan African music
traditions and most Western music is based on subdivision, while non-Western music uses
more additive rhythm. African music makes heavy use of polyrhythms, specifically crossrhythm andIndian music uses complex cycles such as 7 and 13, whileBalinese music often uses
complex interlocking rhythms. By comparison, a lot of Western classical music is fairly rhythmically
(or metrically) simple; it stays in a simple meter such as 4/4 or 3/4 and makes little use
of syncopation.
Clave is a key pattern (or guide pattern) in African, Cuban music, and Brazilian music.
Claves

Four beats followed by three

Clave patterns

Problems listening to this file? See media help.

In the 20th century, composers like Igor Stravinsky, Bla Bartk, Philip Glass, andSteve Reich wrote
more rhythmically complex music using odd meters, and techniques such as phasing and additive
rhythm. At the same time, modernists such as Olivier Messiaen and his pupils used increased
complexity to disrupt the sense of a regular beat, leading eventually to the widespread use
of irrational rhythms in New Complexity. This use may be explained by a comment of John
Cage's[where?] where he notes that regular rhythms cause sounds to be heard as a group rather than
individually; the irregular rhythms highlight the rapidly changing pitch relationships that would
otherwise be subsumed into irrelevant rhythmic groupings

[13]

. LaMonte Young also wrote music in

which the sense of a regular beat is absent because the music consists only of long sustained tones
(drones). In the 1930s, Henry Cowellwrote music involving multiple simultaneous periodic rhythms
and collaborated with Lon Thrmin to invent the Rhythmicon, the first electronic rhythm machine,
in order to perform them. Similarly, Conlon Nancarrow wrote for the player piano.

[edit]See

also

Meter (music)

Soul (music)

Prosody (linguistics)

Time scale (music)

Riddim

Timing (linguistics)

Morse Code

Composite rhythm

[edit]Sources

1. ^ , Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus project

2. ^ The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. II. Oxford University Press. 1971.
p. 2537.
3. ^ "Art, Design, and Visual Thinking". Retrieved 2010-03-16.
4. ^ Narmour (1980), p. 14753. Cited in Winold, Allen (1975).
5. ^ Middleton, Richard (1990). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University
Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
6. ^ Winold, Allen (1975). "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music", Aspects of Twentieth-Century
Music. Wittlich, Gary (ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.
7. ^ Mithen, Steven (2005). The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and
Body.. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson..ISBN 0297643177.
8. ^ Patel, Aniruddh D. (2006), "Musical rhythm, linguistic rhythm, and human evolution not
you", Music Perception (Berkeley, California: University of California Press) I (24): 99
104, ISSN 0730-7829, "there is not a single report of an animal being trained to tap, peck, or
move in synchrony with an auditory beat." as cited in Sacks, Oliver (2007). "Keeping Time:
Rhythm and Movement". Musicophilia, Tales of Music and the Brain. New York Toronto: Alfred a
Knopf. pp. 239240. ISBN 978-1-4000-4081-0. "No doubt many pet lovers will dispute this
notion, and indeed many animals, from the Lippizaner horses of the Spanish Riding School of
Vienna to performing circus animals appear to 'dance' to music. It is not clear whether they are
doing so or are responding to subtle visual or tactile cues from the humans around them."
9. ^ Agawu, Kofi (2003: 52). Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions.
New York: Routledge.
10. ^ In Discovering Music: Rhythm with Leonard Slatkin at 5:05
11. ^ Yeston, Maury (1976). The Stratification of Musical Rhythm. Yale University
Press. ISBN 0300018843.
12. ^ Hasty, Christopher (1997). Meter as Rhythm. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19510066-2.
13. ^ Sandow, Greg (2004). "A Fine Madness", p. 257, The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 158046-143-3.

[edit]Further

reading

McGaughey, William (2001). Rhythm and Self-Consciousness: New Ideals for an Electronic
Civilization. Minneapolis: Thistlerose Publications. ISBN 0-9605630-4-0.

Honing, H. (2002). "Structure and interpretation of rhythm and timing." Tijdschrift voor
Muziektheorie [Dutch Journal of Music Theory]7(3): 227232.

Humble, M. (2002). The Development of Rhythmic Organization in Indian Classical Music,

MA dissertation, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.

Lewis, Andrew (2005). RhythmWhat it is and How to Improve Your Sense of It. San
Francisco: RhythmSource Press. ISBN 978-0-9754667-0-4.

London, Justin (2004). Hearing in Time: Psychological Aspects of Musical Meter. ISBN 0-19516081-9.

Williams, C. F. A., The Aristoxenian Theory of Musical Rhythm, (Cambridge Library

Collection - Music), Cambridge University Press; 1st edition, 2009.

Toussaint, G. T., The geometry of musical rhythm, In J. Akiyama, M. Kano, and X. Tan,
editors, Proceedings of the Japan Conference on Discrete and Computational Geometry, Vol.
3742, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, 2005, pp. 198212.

Theme (music)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In music, a theme is the material, usually a recognizable melody, upon which part or all of a
composition is based. It may be perceivable as a complete musical expression in itself, separate
from the work in which it is found (Drabkin 2001). In contrast to an "idea" or "motif", a theme is
usually a complete phrase or period (Dunsby 2002). The Encyclopdie Fasquelle (Michel 195861)
defines a theme as "Any element, motif, or small musical piece that has given rise to some variation
becomes thereby a theme."
Contents
[hide]

1 Explanation
2 Fugue

3 Music without themes

4 See also
5 References

[edit]Explanation
In classical composition, a principal theme is announced and then a second melody, sometimes
called a countertheme or secondary theme, may occur.
A leitmotif is a motif or theme associated with a person, place, or idea. See also figure and cell.
Thematic changes and processes are often structurally important, and theorists such as Rudolph
Reti have created analysis from a purely thematic perspective ( [citation needed]). Fred Lerdahl describes
thematic relations "associational" and thus outside his cognitive-based generative theory's scope of
analysis.[cite this quote]
Music based on one theme is monothematic while music based on several themes is polythematic.
For example, most fugues are monothematic and most pieces in sonata form are polythematic
(Randel 2002, 429). When one of the sections in the exposition of a sonata form movement consists
of several themes or other material, defined by function and (usually) their tonality, rather than by
melodic characteristics alone, the term theme group (or subject group) is sometimes used
(Rushton 2001).

[edit]Fugue
In a three-part fugue, the principal theme (usually called the "subject") is announced three times in
three different voices soprano, alto,bass or some variation of this.
In a four-part fugue, the principal theme is announced four times. A motif is a short melodic figure
used repeatedly which may be used to construct a theme.

[edit]Music

without themes

Music without themes, or without recognizable, repeating, and developing themes, is

called athematic. Examples include the pre-twelve tone or early atonal works of Arnold
Schoenberg, Anton Webern, and Alban Berg. Schoenberg once said that, "intoxicated by the
enthusiasm of having freed music from the shackles of tonality, I had thought to find further liberty of
expression. In fact...I believed that now music could renounce motivic features and remain coherent
and comprehensible nevertheless" (Schoenberg 1975, [page needed]).

[edit]See

also

Ritornello

Rondo

Theme music

[edit]References

Drabkin, William (2001). "Theme". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.

Dunsby, Jonathan (2002). "Theme". The Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison
Latham. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198662122

Lerdahl, Fred (1992)."Cognitive Constraints on Compositional Systems". Contemporary

Music Review 6, no. 2:97-121.

Michel, Franois (ed). (195861). Encyclopdie de la musique, 3 vols. Paris: Fasquelle.

(Cited in Nattiez 1990.)

Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1990). Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of

Music (Musicologie gnrale et smiologue, 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990). ISBN
0-691-02714-5.

Randel, Don Michael (ed.) (1999). The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press. ISBN 0-674-00978-9.

Rushton, Julia 2001. "Subject Group". New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited
by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.

Schoenberg, Arnold (1975). "My Evolution", in Style and Idea: Selected Writings of Arnold
Schoenberg,, edited by Leonard Stein, translated by Leo Black, 88. London: Faber. ISBN
0571097227

Tonality
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the musical system. For linguistic feature, see Tone (linguistics).
Tonality is a system of music in which specific hierarchical pitch relationships are based on
a key "center", or tonic. The term tonalitoriginated with Alexandre-tienne Choron (1810) and was
borrowed by Franois-Joseph Ftis in 1840 (Reti, 1958; Simms 1975, 119; Judd, 1998; Dahlhaus
1990). Although Ftis used it as a general term for a system of musical organization and spoke
of types de tonalits rather than a single system, today the term is most often used to refer to Major-

Minor tonality (also called diatonic tonality, common practice tonality, or functional tonality), the
system of musical organization of the common practice period, and of Western-influenced popular
music throughout much of the world today.
Contents
[hide]

1 Characteristics and features

1.1 Roman numerals

1.2 Chords

1.3 Inversion

1.4 Form

1.5 Harmony

1.6 Consonance and dissonance

2 History and theory

2.1 18th century

2.2 19th century

2.3 20th century

3 Theoretical underpinnings
4 See also
5 References
6 Sources
7 Further reading
8 External links

[edit]Characteristics
Main article: Diatonic scale

and features

Carl Dahlhaus (1990,[page needed]) lists the characteristics schemata of tonal harmony, "typified in the
compositional formulae of the 16th and early 17th centuries," as the "complete cadence"
(vollstndige Kadenz): I-IV-V-I; I-IV-I-V-I; or I-ii-V-I; the circle of fifths progression: I-IV-vii-iii-vi-ii-V-I;
and the "major-minor parallelism": minor: v-i-VII-III equals major: iii-vi-V-I; or minor: III-VII-i-v equals
major: I-V-vi-iii.
David Cope (1997,[page needed]) considers key, consonance and dissonance (or relaxation and tension,
respectively), and hierarchicalrelationships to be the three most basic concepts in tonality. In
describing these tenets of tonal music, several known terms are used to refer to various elements of
the tonal system.
C major scale:

A natural minor scale:

Other scales or modes are often introduced for variety within the context of a major-minor tonal
system without disturbing the diatonic nature of the work. The major scale predominates, and the
melodic minor contains nine pitches (seven with two alterable). The seven basic notes of a scale are
notated in the key signature, and whether the piece is in the major or minor key is either stated in the
title or implied in the piece (there is a major and minor key for each key signature). While other
scales and modes are used in tonal music, these two scales are the reference point for most tonal
music and its vocabulary.[citation needed]
Other important scales include the blues scale, the whole tone scale, the pentatonic scale, and
the chromatic scale. As these are not the major or minor diatonic scales, music written exclusively
with them is not tonal by the definition above.
Tone-centric music composed in other scale systems may be microtonal, and while microtonal music
theory may draw from tonal theory, it is treated separately in textbooks and other works on music.
[citation needed]

However, within the tonal system, notes between the chromatic system are used in various

contexts, including quarter tones and various effects such as portamento or glissando, where the
instrumentalist moves between established notes of the diatonic scale. These are used for "colour"
rather than harmonic function, and do not disturb the fundamental (diatonic) scale being used. [citation
needed]

Chords are built primarily from notes of a diatonic scale, or secondarily from chromatic notes treated
as variations or embellishments of the basic scale. The identity of the scale is important, as the size
of the steps between notes are used to determine the system of chord relationships. At any given
time one scale degree is heard as the most important (the "tonic"), and the chord built on it, which is
always a major or minor triad, is heard as the most forceful closure.[citation needed]

[edit]Roman

numerals

Main article: Scale degree

In notation or analysis, each note or degree of the scale is often designated by a Roman numeral, or,
less commonly, solfege:

Function

Roman Numeral

Solfege

Tonic

Do/Ut

Supertonic

II

Re

Mediant

III

Mi

Sub-Dominant

IV

Fa

Dominant

Sol

Sub-Mediant

VI

La

Leading/Subtonic

VII

Ti/Si

Roman numerals are most commonly used to describe triads in relation to the tonic, and are often
written using a combination of upper and lower case numerals. The quality of triad
(major, minor, diminished, or augmented) determines the case of the numeral; major and augmented
triads require an upper case numeral, and minor and diminished triads require a lower case numeral.
The triad built upon the first scale degree (or tonic note) corresponds to the Roman numeral I (or i),
the triad built on the second scale degree corresponds to the roman numeral II (or ii), and so on.
Using Roman numerals to describe chords found in a piece of music highlights how the piece relates
to the fundamental harmonic paradigms (I-IV-V-I, I-ii-V-I, etc.).

[edit]Chords
Main article: Chord (music)
These numerals also indicate chords which are built upon the indicated degree. This degree is then
known as the root of that chord. Thus Idescribes the tonic chord, the chord built on the tonic note, at
a given time. These chords are generally all triads (having three notes, built from thirds, and having a
diatonic function).

The degrees of a scale refer both to given pitches (frequencies) and to those pitches' diatonic
functions (roles), which is why chords are named by scale degree. The notes of a chord need not all
be sounded simultaneously, and one to two notes may function as, or imply, a three (or more) note
chord. Thus, a chord described as V is based on the fifth note of the prevailing tonic scale (V-VII-II).
In C Major, that would be a triad based on G, and would be the G Major triad (G-B-D). To describe
a chord progression, the Roman numerals of the chords are listed. Thus IV-V-I describes a chord
progression of a chord based on the fourth note of a scale, then one based on the fifth note of the
scale, and then one on the first note of the scale.
Chords are then further named according to their quality or makeup, determined by the scale notes
which lie a third and fifth (two thirds) above the degree a chord is built upon. Capital Roman
numerals refer to the major chord, and lower-case Roman numerals refer to the minor chord. Quality
is generally not as important as the chord's root. [citation needed]
This means that in the traditional major scale, the ii, iii and vi are minor chords, whereas I, IV, V are
major. The chord on the seventh note is a diminished triad chord and is written vii. Numbers
attached to a chord indicate additional notes, and one of the most important chords in tonal harmony
is the V7 chord, which is a four note chord that includes the fourth note of the tonic scale.
The 7 refers to the minor seventh note from the fundamental note of the chord, not the seventh note
of the (original) tonic scale of the composition.

[edit]Inversion
Main article: Inversion (music)
A chord's root is determined by which note establishes the chord's relationship to the tonic, and not
by which is in the bass, or the lowest played note. Chords are inverted when this root note is not the
lowest. For example in C Major C-E-G is the tonic chord. If C is not the lowest note played, it is said
to be in inversion. The first inversion would be E-G-C, and the second inversion would be G-C-E.
Since inverted chords are also chords in their own right, in context a chord is sometimes thought to
be inverted only when voice leading implies it.[citation needed]

[edit]Form
Main article: Musical form

The traditional form of tonal music begins and ends on the tonic of the piece, and many tonal works
move to a closely related key, such as the dominant of the main tonality (for example sonata form).
Establishing a tonality is traditionally accomplished through a cadence, which is two chords in
succession which give a feeling of completion or rest, with the most common being V7-I cadence.
Other cadences are considered to be less powerful. The cadences determine the form of a tonal
piece of music, and the placement of cadences, their preparation, and their establishment
as cadences, as opposed to simply chord progressions, is central to the theory and practice of tonal
music.[citation needed]

[edit]Harmony
Main article: Harmony
Chord progressions assign particular roles, or functions, to the individual harmonies. The totality of
paradigmatic harmonic relationships in classical tonal music is called functional harmony.

[edit]Consonance

and dissonance

Main article: Consonance and dissonance

In the context of tonal organization, a chord or a note is said to be consonant when it implies stability,
and dissonant when it implies instability. This is not the same as the ordinary use of the words
consonant and dissonant. A dissonant chord is in tension against the tonic, and implies that the
music is distant from that tonic chord. Resolution is the process by which the harmonic progression
moves from dissonant chords to consonant chords and follows counterpoint or voice leading. Voice
leading is a description of the horizontal movement of the music, as opposed to chords which are
considered the vertical.
Traditional tonal music is described in terms of a scale of notes, upon which are built chords. Chords
in order form progressions, which establish or deny a particular chord as being the tonic chord. The
cadence is held to be the sequence of chords which establishes one chord as being the tonic chord;
more powerful cadences create a greater sense of closure and a stronger sense of key. Chords
function by leading the music towards or away from a particular tonic chord. When the sense of
chord is the tonic chord is changed, the music is said to have "changed key" or "modulated". Roman
numerals and numbers are used to describe the relationship of a particular chord to the tonic chord.
The techniques of accomplishing this process, are the subject of tonal music theory and
compositional practice.

[edit]History

and theory
This section needs attention from an expert on the subject. See the talk page for
details.WikiProject Music or the Music Portal may be able to help recruit an expert. (May
2010)

[edit]18th

century

Theories of tonal music are generally said to have begun with Jean-Philippe Rameau's Treatise on
Harmony (1722), in which he describes music written through chord progressions, cadences, and
structure. He claimed that his work represents "the practice of the last 40 years". Rameau's work was
introduced to Germany by Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg in 1757, and used Rameau's system to explain
the music of Johann Sebastian Bach (Marpurg 175354). The vocabulary of describing notes in
relationship to the tonic note, and the use of harmonic progressions and cadences, became part of
Bach's practice. Essential to this version of tonal theory are the chorale harmonizations of Bach, and
the method by which a church melody is given a four part harmony by first assigning cadences, then
creating a natural, or most direct,thoroughbass, and finally filling in the middle voices.

[edit]19th

century

Ftis (1844[citation needed]) defined tonality, specifically tonalit moderne as the, "set of relationships,
simultaneous or successive, among the tones of the scale," allowing for other types de
tonalits among different cultures.[cite this quote] He considered tonalit moderne as "trans-tonic order"
(having one established key, and allowing for modulation to other keys) and tonalit ancienne "unitonic order" (establishing one key and remaining in that key for the duration of the piece). He
described his earliest example of tonalit moderne thus: "In the passage quoted here from
Monteverdi's madrigal (Cruda amarilli, mm.9-19 and 24-30), one sees a tonality determined by
the accord parfait [root position major chord] on the tonic, by the sixth chord assigned to the chords
on the third and seventh degrees of the scale, by the optional choice of the accord parfait or the sixth
chord on the sixth degree, and finally, by the accord parfait and, above all, by the unprepared
seventh chord (with major third) on the dominant" (p. 171).
Ftis believed that tonality, tonalit moderne, was entirely cultural, saying, "For the elements of
music, nature provides nothing but a multitude of tones differing in pitch, duration, and intensity by
the greater or least degree... The conception of the relationships that exist among them is awakened
in the intellect, and, by the action of sensitivity on the one hand, and will on the other, the mind
coordinates the tones into different series, each of which corresponds to a particular class of
emotions, sentiments, and ideas. Hence these series become various types of tonalities" (pp. 1112).
"But one will say, 'What is the principle behind these scales, and what, if not acoustic phenomena
and the laws of mathematics, has set the order of their tones?' I respond that this principle is purely
metaphysical [anthropological]. We conceive this order and the melodic and harmonic phenomena
that spring from it out of our conformation and education" (p. 249). In contrast, Hugo Riemann
believed tonality, "affinities between tones" or Tonverwandtschaften, was entirely natural and,
following Moritz Hauptmann(1853), that the major third and perfect fifth were the only "directly
intelligible" intervals, and that I, IV, and V, the tonic, subdominant, and dominant were related by the
perfect fifths between their root notes (Dahlhaus 1990, 101-2).
By the 1840s, the practice of harmony had expanded to include more chromatic notes and a wider
chord vocabulary, particularly the more frequent use of the diminished seventh chorda four-note

chord of all minor thirds. It is in this era that the word tonality became more common. At the same
time, the elaboration of both the fugue and the sonata form, in terms of key relationships, became
more rigorous, and the study of harmonic progressions, voice leading, and ambiguity of key, more
precise.
Theorists such as Hugo Riemann, and later Edward Lowinsky and others, pushed back the date at
which modern tonality began, and thecadence began to be seen as the definitive way that a tonality
is established in a work of music (Judd, 1998).

[edit]20th

century
This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
(May 2010)

In response, Bernhard Meier instead used a tonality and modality, or modern and ancient, dichotomy,
with Renaissance music being modal. The term modality has been criticized by Harold Powers,
among others. However, it is used to describe music whose harmonic function centers on notes
rather than on chords, including some of the music of Bartk, Stravinsky, Vaughan Williams, Charles
Ives, and composers of minimalist music. This and other modal music is broadly tonal.
In the early 20th century, the vocabulary of tonal theory was decisively influenced by two theorists:
composer Arnold Schoenberg, whoseHarmonielehre (Theory of Harmony) describes in detail chords,
chord progressions, vagrant chords, creation of tonal areas, and voice leading in terms of harmony.
To Schoenberg, every note has "structural function" to assert or deny a tonality, based on its
tendency to establish or undermine a single tonic triad as central. At the same time, Heinrich
Schenker was evolving a theory based on the expansion of horizontal relationships. To Schenker, the
background of every successful tonal piece is based on a simple cadence, which is then elaborated
and elongated in the middle and foreground. Though adherents of the two theorists argued back and
forth, in the mid-century a synthesis of their ideas was widely taught as tonal theory, most
particularly, Schenker's use of graphical analysis, and Schoenberg's emphasis on tonal distance.
The practice of jazz developed its own theory of tonality, stating that while the cadence is not central
to establishing a tonality, the presence of the I and V chords and either the IV or ii chord in
progression is. This theory emphasized the play of modal elements against tonal elements in an
effort to allow improvisation and inflection of standard melodies.
While the works of Schoenberg post 1911 created an atonal revolution, one influential school of
thought, to which Schoenberg himself belonged, argued that chromatic composition led to a "new
tonality".[citation needed] The central idea of this theory is that music is always perceived as having a
center, and even in a fully chromatic work, composers establish and disintegrate centers in a manner
analogous to traditional harmony.[citation needed]
Tonality may be considered generally, with no restrictions on the date or place the music was
produced, and little restriction on the materials and methods used. This definition includes pre-17th

century western music, as well as much non-western music. By the middle of the twentieth century, it
had become "evident that triadic structure does not necessarily generate a tone center, that nontriadic harmonic formations may be made to function as referential elements, and that the
assumption of a twelve-tone complex does not preclude the existence of tone centers" (Perle 1991,
8). Centric is sometimes used to describe music which is not traditionally tonal, but which
nevertheless has a relatively strong tonal center. Often the term common practice tonality is used
specifically to refer to tonal music that utilizes the diatonic system of relationship between tonic and
dominant, whereas tonal or tonality refers more broadly to describe any music or musical practice
that relies on or exhibits tonal centers, modalities, or both, often with triadic organization and
relatively consonant harmonies.
In the early 20th century, the tonality which had prevailed since the 1600s was seen to have reached
a crisis or break down point. Because of the "increased use of ambiguous chords, the less probable
harmonic progressions, and the more unusual melodic and rhythmic inflections", [citation needed] the syntax
of functional harmony was loosened to the point where "At best, the felt probabilities of the style
system had become obscure; at worst, they were approaching a uniformity which provided few
guides for either composition or listening" (Meyer 1967, 241). This led to a series of responses,
many[weasel words] of which were considered irreconcilable with tonal theory or tonality at all. At the same
time, other composers and theorists[who?] maintained that tonality had been stretched but not broken.
This led to more technical vocabularies to describe tonality, including pitch classes, pitch sets,
graphical analysis, and describing works in terms, not of their notes, but of their dominant intervals.
Alfred Einstein wrote that in ancient China, "the development from the non-semitonal pentatonic to
the seven-note scale is certainly traceable, even though the old pentatonic always remained the
foundation of its music" (Einstein 1954, 7). He notes a similar development in ancient Japan and
Java. Much folk and art music focuses on a pentatonic, or five-note scale, including Beijing Opera,
the folk music of Hungary, and the musical traditions of Japan.
Pre-classical concert music was largely modal.[citation needed] The postmodern age of composition which
began in the mid-1970s with the advent of minimalism has been characterized by a dramatic return
to the use of tonality by composers, especially in the U.S. [citation needed]Other composers such as Alan
Hovhaness, Samuel Barber, Benjamin Britten, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, and Lou Harrison, never
abandoned tonality in the general sense, even at the height of atonal modernist influence in the
middle decades of the 20th century.[citation needed]

[edit]Theoretical

underpinnings

Tonality allows for a great range of musical materials, structures, meanings, and understandings. It
does this through establishing a tonic, or central chord, based on the lowest pitch, or degree, of a
scale, and using a somewhat flexible network of relations between any pitch or chord and the tonic,
similar to perspective in painting. Tonality has a hierarchical structure: one triad, the tonic triad, is the

center to which other chords are supposed to lead. Changing which chord is felt to be the tonic triad
is referred to as modulation.

Circle of fifths

As within a musical phrase, interest and tension may be created through the move from consonance
to dissonance and back. A larger piece will also create interest by moving away from and back to the
tonic, and tension by destabilizing and re-establishing the key. Distantly related pitches and chords
may be considered dissonant in and of themselves, since their resolution to the tonic is implied.
Temporary secondary tonal centers may be established by cadences, or simply passed through in a
process called modulation, while simultaneous tonal centers may be established through polytonality.
Additionally, the structure of these features and processes may be linear, cyclical, or both. This
allows for a huge variety of relations to be expressed throughconsonance and dissonance, distance
or proximity to the tonic, the establishment of temporary or secondary tonal centers,
and ambiguity as to tonal center. Music notation was created to accommodate tonality and facilitate
interpretation.
The majority of tonal music assumes that notes spaced over several octaves are perceived the same
way as if they were played in one octave, or octave equivalency. Tonal music also assumes that
scales have harmonic implication or diatonic functionality. This means a note which has different
places in a chord will be heard differently, thus there is not enharmonic equivalency. In tonal music,
chords which are moved to different keys, or played with different root notes, are not perceived as
being the same; transpositional equivalency and especially inversional equivalency are not
considered applicable.
A successful tonal piece of music, or a successful performance of one, will give the listener a feeling
that a particular chord the tonic chord is the most stable and final. It will then use musical
materials to tell the musician and the listener how far the music is from that tonal center, most
commonly, though not always, to heighten the sense of movement and drama as to how the music
will resolve the tonic chord. The means for doing this are described by the rules of harmony (or

throughbass) and counterpoint. Counterpoint is the study of linear resolutions of music, while
harmony encompasses the sequences of chords which form a chord progression.
Though modulation may occur instantaneously without indication or preparation, the least ambiguous
way to establish a new tonal center is through a cadence, a succession of two or more chords which
ends a section, gives a feeling of closure or finality, or both. Traditionally, cadences act both
harmonically, to establish tonal centers, and formally, to articulate the end of sections; just as the
tonic triad is harmonically central, a dominant-tonic cadence will be structurally central. The more
powerful the cadence, the larger the section of music it can close. The strongest cadence is the
perfect authentic cadence, which moves from the dominant to the tonic, most strongly establishes
tonal center, and ends the most important sections of tonal pieces, including the final section. This is
the basis of the dominant-tonic ortonic-dominant relationship. Common practice placed a great deal
of emphasis on the correct use of cadences to structure music, and cadences were placed precisely
to define the sections of a work. However, such strict use of cadences gradually gave way to more
complex procedures where whole families of chords were used to imply particular distance from the
tonal center. Composers, beginning in the late 18th century, began using chords such as the
Neapolitan, French or Italian Sixth. These temporarily suspended a sense of key, and by freely
changing between the major and minor voicing for the tonic chord, they made the listener unsure of
whether the music was major or minor. There was also a gradual increase in the use of notes which
were not part of the basic 7 notes, called chromaticism, culminating in post-Wagnerian music such as
that by Mahler and Strauss, and trends such as impressionism and dodecaphony.
One area of disagreement going back to the origin of the term tonality is whether tonality is natural or
inherent in acoustical phenomena, whether it is inherent in the human nervous system or a
psychological construct, whether it is inborn or learned, and to what degree it is all these things
(Meyer 1967, 236). A viewpoint held by many theorists since the third quarter of the 19th century,
following the publication in 1862 of the first edition of Helmholtz's On the Sensation of
Tone (Helmholtz 1877), holds that diatonic scales and tonality arise from natural overtones (Riemann
1872, 1875, 1882, 1893, 1905, 191415; Schenker 190635; Hindemith 193770).
Rudolph Rti differentiates between harmonic tonality of the traditional kind found in homophony, and
melodic tonality, as in monophony. In the harmonic kind, tonality is produced through the V-I chord
progression. He argues that in the progression I-x-V-I (and all progressions), V-I is the only step
"which as such produces the effect of tonality," and that all other chord successions, diatonic or not,
being more or less similar to the tonic-dominant, are "the composer's free invention." He describes
melodic tonality (the term coined independently and 10 years earlier by Estonian composer Jaan
Soonvald (Rais 1992, 46)) as being "entirely different from the classical type," wherein, "the whole
line is to be understood as a musical unit mainly through its relationship to this basic note [the tonic],"
this note not always being the tonic as interpreted according to harmonic tonality. His examples are
ancient Jewish and Gregorian chant and other Eastern music, and he points out how these melodies

often may be interrupted at any point and returned to the tonic, yet harmonically tonal melodies, such
as that from Mozart's The Magic Flute below, are actually "strict harmonic-rhythmic pattern[s]," and
include many points "from which it is impossible, that is, illogical, unless we want to destroy the
innermost sense of the whole line" to return to the tonic (Reti 1958). [page needed]

Play normally (helpinfo) and compare with

impossible return (helpinfo) after B

x = return to tonic near inevitable

circled x = possible but not inevitable
circle = impossible
(Reti 1958, [page needed])
Consequently, he argues, melodically tonal melodies resist harmonization and only reemerge in
western music after, "harmonic tonality was abandoned," as in the music of Claude Debussy:
"melodic tonality plus modulation is [Debussy's] modern tonality" (Reti 1958, 23).

[edit]See

also
Music portal

Atonality
History of music
Schenkerian analysis
Peter Westergaard's tonal theory

[edit]References
Beswick, Delbert Meacham. 1951. "The Problem of Tonality in Seventeenth-Century Music."
Ph.D. diss. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina.
Jim Samson (1977) suggests the following discussions of tonality as defined by Ftis,
Helmholtz, Riemann, D'Indy, Adler, Yasser, and others:

Beswick, Delbert M. 1950. "The Problem of Tonality in Seventeenth Century Music".

Ph.D. thesis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina. p. 1-29. OCLC accession
number 12778863.
Shirlaw, Matthew (1917). The Theory of Harmony: An Inquiry into the Natural

Principles of Harmony; with an Examination of the Chief Systems of Harmony from

Rameau to the Present Day. London: Novello & Co. (Reprinted New York: Da Capo
Press, 1969. ISBN 0-306-71658-5.)

[edit]Sources
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principes de m. Rameau. Paris: David l'an. Facsimile reprint, New York: Broude Bros.,
1966.
Choron, Alexandre. 1810. "Sommaire de l'histoire de la musique." In vol. 1 of Franois
Fayolle and Alexandre Choron, Dictionnaire historique de musiciens. 2 vols. Paris: Valade
et Lenormant, 181011.
Cope, David. 1997. Techniques of the Contemporary Composer. New York: Schirmer
Books. ISBN 0-02-864737-8.
Dahlhaus, Carl. 1990. Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality. Translated by Robert O.
Gjerdingen. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09135-8.

Castile-Blaze. 1821. Dictionnaire de musique moderne. Paris: Au magazin de

musique de la Lyre moderne.

Ftis, Franois-Joseph. 1844. Trait complet de la thorie et de la pratique de

l'harmonie contenant la doctrine de la science et de l'art. Brussels: Conservatoire de
Musique; Paris: Maurice Schlesinger.

Hauptmann, Moritz. 1853. Die Natur der Harmonik und der Metrik. Leipzig:
Breitkopf und Hrtel.

Rameau, Jean-Philippe. 1737. Gnration harmonique, ou Trait de musique

thorique et pratique. Paris: Prault fils.

Riemann, Hugo; cited in Gurlitt, W. (1950). "Hugo Riemann (1849-1919)".

Einstein, Alfred. 1954. A Short History of Music, fourth American edition, revised. New York:
Vintage Books.

 Gustin, Molly. 1969. Tonality. Philosophical Library. LCCN 68-18735.

Harrison, Lou. 1992. "Entune." Contemporary Music Review 6 (2), 9-10.
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Grundlage fr die Theorie der Musik. Fourth edition. Braunschweig: F. Vieweg. English,
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der besten deutschen und auslndischen Meister. 2 vols. Berlin: A. Haude, und J.C.
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D'Alembert 1752]

 Meyer, Leonard B. 1967. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in TwentiethCentury Culture. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.
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Perle, George. 1991. Serial Composition and Atonality: An Introduction to the Music of
Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern, sixth edition, revised. Berkeley and Los Angeles:
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Ballard.
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Principe de toutes les Regles necessaires la Pratique, Pour servir d'Introduction au
Trait de l'Harmonie. Paris: L'Imprimerie de Jean-Baptiste-Christophe Ballard.
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pratique. Paris: Prault fils.
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tout l'Art Musical thorique et pratique. Paris: Durand et Pissot.
Reti, Rudolph (1958). Tonality, Atonality, Pantonality: A Study of Some Trends in Twentieth
Century Music. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-20478-0.
Riemann, Hugo. 1872. "ber Tonalitt." Neue Zeitschrift fr Musik 68.
Riemann, Hugo. 1875. Die objective Existenz der Untertne in der Schallwelle. Allgemeine
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Paul Graf Waldersee. Leipzig: Breitkopf und Hrtel.

 Riemann, Hugo. 1893. Vereinfachte Harmonielehre oder die Lehre von den tonalen
Funktionen der Akkorde. London & New York: Augener & Co. (2d ed. 1903.) Translated
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Augener & Co.
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Musik 101:35, 2326, 4346, 6770.
Riemann, Hugo. 191415. "Ideen zu einer 'Lehre von den Tonvorstellungen'." Jahrbuch der
Musikbibliothek Peters 191415: 126.
Samson, Jim. 1977. Music in Transition: A Study of Tonal Expansion and Atonality, 19001920. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.ISBN 0-393-02193-9.
Schellenberg, E. Glenn, and Sandra E. Trehub. 1996. "Natural Musical Intervals: Evidence
from Infant Listeners" Psychological ScienceVol. 7, no. 5 (September): 272-77.
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Vienna and Leipzig: Universal Edition.
Schenker, Heinrich. 1979. Free composition, translated and edited by Ernst Oster. New
York: Longman, 1979. Translation of Neue musikalische Theorien und Phantasien, 3.
Bd., Der freie Satz. ISBN 0-582-28073-7
Schenker, Heinrich. 1987. Counterpoint, translated by John Rothgeb and Jrgen Thym;
edited by John Rothgeb. 2 vols. New York: Schirmer Books; London: Collier Macmillan.
Translation of Neue musikalische Theorien und Phantasien, 2. Bd., Kontrapunkt. ISBN 002-873220-0
Schenker, Heinrich; ed. and annot. Oswald Jonas (1954). Harmony. trans. Elisabeth MannBorgese. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. OCLC 280916. Translation of Neue
musikalische Theorien und Phantasien, 1. Bd., Harmonielehre. (Reprinted Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1973, ISBN 0-262-69044-6)
Schoenberg, Arnold. 1978. Theory of Harmony, translated by Roy E. Carter. Berkeley & Los
Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03464-3. Reprint ed. 1983, ISBN 0520-04945-4. Pbk ed. 1983, ISBN 0-520-04944-6.
Simms, Bryan. 1975. "Choron, Ftis, and the Theory of Tonality." Journal of Music
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 Thomson, William. 1999. Tonality in Music: A General Theory. San Marino, Calif.: Everett
Books. ISBN 0-940459-19-1.
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[edit]Further

reading

Khramov M. 2008. "Project Commator and Sonantometry." Proceedings of the International

Symposium FRSM-2008. Kolkata, pp. 133140.[citation needed]

Atonality
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Atonal" redirects here. For the ruler of the Mixtec kingdom of Coixtlahuaca, see Atonal II.
Atonality in its broadest sense describes music that lacks a tonal center, or key. Atonality in this
sense usually describes compositions written from about 1908 to the present day where a hierarchy
of pitches focusing on a single, central tone is not used and the notes of the chromatic scale function
independently of one another (Anon. 1994). More narrowly, the term describes music that does not
conform to the system of tonal hierarchies that characterized classical European music between the
seventeenth and nineteenth centuries (Lansky, Perle, and Headlam 2001).
More narrowly still, the term is sometimes used to describe music that is neither tonal nor serial,
especially the pre-twelve-tone music of theSecond Viennese School, principally Alban Berg, Arnold
Schoenberg, and Anton Webern (Lansky, Perle, and Headlam 2001). According to John Rahn,
however, "[a]s a categorical label, 'atonal' generally means only that the piece is in the Western
tradition and is not 'tonal' " (Rahn 1980, 1); "serialism arose partly as a means of organizing more
coherently the relations used in the preserial 'free atonal' music....Thus many useful and crucial
insights about even strictly serial music depend only on such basic atonal theory" (Rahn 1980, 2)
Composers such as Alexander Scriabin, Claude Debussy, Bla Bartk, Paul Hindemith, Sergei
Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, and Edgard Varse have written music that has been described, in full or
in part, as atonal (Baker 1980 & 1986; Bertram 2000; Griffiths 2001; Kohlhase 1983; Lansky and
Perle 2001; Obert 2004; Orvis 1974; Parks 1985; Rlke 2000; Teboul 199596; Zimmerman 2002).
Contents
[hide]

1 History
o

1.1 Free atonality

1.2 Strict atonality

2 Controversy over the term itself

3 Composing atonal music
4 Criticism of the concept of atonality
5 Criticism of atonal music
6 See also
7 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links

[edit]History
While music without a tonal center had been written previously, for example Franz Liszt's Bagatelle
sans tonalit of 1885, it is with the twentieth century that the term atonality began to be applied to
pieces, particularly those written by Arnold Schoenberg and The Second Viennese School.
Their music arose from what was described as the crisis of tonality between the late nineteenth
century and early twentieth century inclassical music. This situation had come about historically
through the increasing use over the course of the nineteenth century of
ambiguous chords, less probable harmonic inflections, and the more unusual melodic and rhythmic
inflections possible within the style[s] of tonal music. The distinction between the exceptional and the
normal became more and more blurred; and, as a result, there was a concomitant loosening of the
syntactical bonds through which tones and harmonies had been related to one another. The
connections between harmonies were uncertain even on the lowestchord-to-chordlevel. On
higher levels, long-range harmonic relationships and implications became so tenuous that they
hardly functioned at all. At best, the felt probabilities of the style system had become obscure; at
worst, they were approaching a uniformity which provided few guides for either composition or
listening. (Meyer 1967, 241)
The first phase, known as "free atonality" or "free chromaticism", involved a conscious attempt to
avoid traditional diatonic harmony. Works of this period include the opera Wozzeck (19171922) by
Alban Berg and Pierrot Lunaire (1912) by Schoenberg.

The second phase, begun after World War I, was exemplified by attempts to create a systematic
means of composing without tonality, most famously the method of composing with 12 tones or
the twelve-tone technique. This period included Berg's Lulu and Lyric Suite, Schoenberg'sPiano
Concerto, his oratorio Die Jakobsleiter and numerous smaller pieces, as well as his last two string
quartets. Schoenberg was the major innovator of the system, but his student, Anton Webern, is
anecdotally claimed to have begun linking dynamics and tone color to the primary row, making rows
not only of pitches but of other aspects of music as well (Du Noyer 2003, 272). However, actual
analysis of Webern's twelve-tone works has so far failed to demonstrate the truth of this assertion.
One analyst concluded, following a minute examination of the Piano Variations, op. 27, that
while the texture of this music may superficially resemble that of some serial music . . . its structure
does not. None of the patterns within separate nonpitch characteristics makes audible (or even
numerical) sense in itself. The point is that these characteristics are still playing their traditional role
of differentiation. (Westergaard 1963, 109)
Twelve-tone technique, combined with the parametrization (separate organization of four aspects of
music: pitch, attack character, intensity, and duration) of Olivier Messiaen, would be taken as the
inspiration for serialism (du Noyer 2003, 272).
Atonality emerged as a pejorative term to condemn music in which chords were organized seemingly
with no apparent coherence. In Nazi Germany, atonal music was attacked as "Bolshevik" and labeled
as degenerate (Entartete Musik) along with other music produced by enemies of the Nazi regime.
Many composers had their works banned by the regime, not to be played until after its collapse
after World War II.
The Second Viennese School, and particularly 12-tone composition, was taken by avant-garde
composers in the 1950s to be the foundation of the New Music, and led to serialism and other forms
of musical innovation. Prominent post-World War II composers in this tradition arePierre
Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Luciano Berio, Krzysztof Penderecki, and Milton Babbitt. Many
composers wrote atonal music after the war, even if before they had pursued other styles,
including Elliott Carter and Witold Lutosawski. After Schoenberg's death, Igor Stravinsky began to
write music with a mixture of serial and tonal elements (du Noyer 2003, 271). Iannis
Xenakis generated pitch sets from mathematical formulae, and also saw the expansion of tonal
possibilities as part of a synthesis between the hierarchical principle and the theory of numbers,
principles which have dominated music since at least the time of Parmenides (Xenakis 1971, 204).

[edit]Free

atonality

The twelve tone technique was preceded by Schoenberg's freely atonal pieces of 19081923, which,
though free, often have as an "integrative element...a minute intervallic cell" that in addition to
expansion may be transformed as with a tone row, and in which individual notes may "function as

pivotal elements, to permit overlapping statements of a basic cell or the linking of two or more basic
cells" (Perle 1977, 2).
The twelve tone technique was also preceded by nondodecaphonic serial composition used
independently in the works of Alexander Scriabin,Igor Stravinsky, Bla Bartk, Carl Ruggles, and
others (Perle 1977, 37). "Essentially, Schoenberg and Hauer systematized and defined for their own
dodecaphonic purposes a pervasive technical feature of 'modern' musical practice, the ostinato"
(Perle 1977, 37).

[edit]Strict

atonality

Twelve-tone techniques shares with free atonality premises including the general avoidance of a key
or the overemphasis of one note, and some of the rules of twelve-tone technique are designed to
ensure this, such as the non-repetition of a pitch before the statement of all other pitches in the row.
Twelve-tone practices differ from previous atonal practices in two important ways: all pitches are
used and ordered.

[edit]Controversy

over the term itself

The term "atonality" itself has been controversial. Arnold Schoenberg, whose music is generally used
to define the term, was vehemently opposed to it, arguing that "The word 'atonal' could only signify
something entirely inconsistent with the nature of tone. . . . [T]o call any relation of tones atonal is just
as farfetched as it would be to designate a relation of colors aspectral or acomplementary. There is
no such antithesis" (Schoenberg 1978, 432). He preferred the term "pantonal." [citation needed] For some,
the term continues to carry negative connotations. [weasel words]
"Atonal" developed a certain vagueness in meaning as a result of its use to describe a wide variety of
compositional approaches that deviated from traditional chords and chord progressions. Attempts to
solve these problems by using terms such as "pan-tonal," "non-tonal," "multi-tonal", "free-tonal," and
"without tonal center" instead of "atonal" have not gained broad acceptance.

[edit]Composing

atonal music

Setting out to compose atonal music may seem complicated because of both the vagueness and
generality of the term. Additionally George Perle explains that, "the 'free' atonality that preceded
dodecaphony precludes by definition the possibility of self-consistent, generally applicable
compositional procedures" (Perle 1962, 9). However, he provides one example as a way to compose
atonal pieces, a pre-twelve tone technique piece by Anton Webern, which rigorously avoids anything
that suggests tonality, to choose pitches that do not imply tonality. In other words, reverse the rules of
the common practice period so that what was not allowed is required and what was required is not
allowed. This is what was done by Charles Seeger in his explanation of dissonant counterpoint,
which is a way to write atonal counterpoint (Seeger 1930).

Further, Perle agrees with Oster (1960) and Katz (1945) that, "the abandonment of the concept of
a root-generator of the individual chord is a radical development that renders futile any attempt at a
systematic formulation of chord structure and progression in atonal music along the lines of
traditional harmonic theory" (Perle 1962, 31). Atonal compositional techniques and results "are not
reducible to a set of foundational assumptions in terms of which the compositions that are collectively
designated by the expression 'atonal music' can be said to represent 'a system' of composition"
(Perle 1962, 1). Equal-interval chords are often of indeterminate root, mixed-interval chords are often
best characterized by their interval content, while both lend themselves to atonal contexts (DeLone
and Wittlich 1975, 36272).
Perle also points out that structural coherence is most often achieved through operations on
intervallic cells. A cell "may operate as a kind of microcosmic set of fixed intervallic content, statable
either as a chord or as a melodic figure or as a combination of both. Its components may be fixed
with regard to order, in which event it may be employed, like the twelve-tone set, in its literal
transformations. . . . Individual tones may function as pivotal elements, to permit overlapping
statements of a basic cell or the linking of two or more basic cells" (Perle 1962, 910).

[edit]Criticism

of the concept of atonality

Composer Anton Webern held that "new laws asserted themselves that made it impossible to
designate a piece as being in one key or another" (Webern 1963, 51). Composer Walter Piston, on
the other hand, said that, out of long habit, whenever performers "play any little phrase they will hear
it in some keyit may not be the right one, but the point is they will play it with a tonal sense. . . .
[T]he more I feel I know Schoenberg's music the more I believe he thought that way himself. . . . And
it isn't only the players; it's also the listeners. They will hear tonality in everything" (Westergaard
1968, 15).

[edit]Criticism

of atonal music

Swiss conductor, composer, and musical philosopher Ernest Ansermet, a critic of atonal music, wrote
extensively on this in the book Les fondements de la musique dans la conscience
humaine (Ansermet 1961), where he argued that the classical musical language was a precondition
for musical expression with its clear, harmonious structures. Ansermet argued that a tone system can
only lead to a uniform perception of music if it is deduced from just a single interval. For Ansermet
this interval is the fifth (Mosch 2004, 96). Modern atonal music, incomprehensible to Ansermet,
chooses interval relations seemingly at random and cannot achieve such an impact, ethos, or
catharsis for an audience.

[edit]See

also
Wikiquote has a collection of
quotations related

to: Atonality

Serialism

Emancipation of the dissonance

Klangfarbenmelodie

[edit]Sources

Anon. 1994. "Atonal." The Oxford Dictionary of Music, 2nd edition, edited by Michael
Kennedy. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198691629

Ansermet, Ernest. 1961. Les fondements de la musique dans la conscience humaine. 2 v.

Neuchtel: La Baconnire.

Baker, James M. 1980. "Scriabin's Implicit Tonality". "Music Theory Spectrum" 2:118.

Baker, James M. 1986. The Music of Alexander Scriabin. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Bertram, Daniel Cole. 2000. "Prokofiev as a Modernist, 19071915". PhD diss. New Haven:
Yale University.

DeLone, Peter, and Gary Wittlich (eds.). 1975. Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.

Du Noyer, Paul (ed.). 2003. "Contemporary", in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music: From
Rock, Jazz, Blues and Hip Hop to Classical, Folk, World and More, pp. 271-272. London: Flame
Tree Publishing. ISBN 1-9040-4170-1

Griffiths, Paul. 2001. "Varse, Edgard [Edgar] (Victor Achille Charles)". The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.

Katz, Adele T. 1945. Challenge to Musical Traditions: A New Concept of Tonality. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Reprint edition, New York: Da Capo, 1972.

Kohlhase, Hans. 1983. "Aussermusikalische Tendenzen im Frhschaffen Paul Hindemiths.

Versuch uber die Kammermusik Nr. 1 mit Finale 1921". Hamburger Jahrbuch fr
Musikwissenschaft 6:183223.

Lansky, Paul, and George Perle. 2001. "Atonality 2: Differences between Tonality and
Atonality". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John
Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.

Lansky, Paul, George Perle, and Dave Headlam. 2001. "Atonality". The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan.

Meyer, Leonard B. 1967. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in TwentiethCentury Culture. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. (Second edition 1994.)

Mosch, Ulrich. 2004. Musikalisches Hren serieller Musik: Untersuchungen am Beispiel von
Pierre Boulez' Le Marteau sans matre. Saarbrcken: Pfau-Verag.

Obert, Simon. 2004. "Zum Begriff Atonalitt: Ein Vergleich von Anton Weberns 'Sechs
Bagatellen fr Streichquartett' op. 9 und Igor Stravinskijs 'Trois pices pour quatuor cordes'".
In Das Streichquartett in der ersten Hlfte des 20. Jahrhunderts: Bericht ber das Dritte
Internationale Symposium Othmar Schoeck in Zrich, 19. und 20. Oktober 2001. Schriftenreihe
der Othmar Schoeck-Gesellschaft 4, edited by Beat A. Fllmi and Michael Baumgartner. Tutzing:
Schneider.

Orvis, Joan. 1974. "Technical and stylistic features of the piano etudes of Stravinsky, Bartk,
and Prokofiev". DMus Piano pedagogy: Indiana University.

Oster, Ernst. 1960. "Re: A New Concept of Tonality (?)", Journal of Music Theory 4:96.

Parks, Richard S. 1985. "Tonal Analogues as Atonal Resources and Their Relation to form in
Debussy's Chromatic Etude". Journal of Music Theory 29, no. 1 (Spring): 3360.

Perle, George. 1962. Serial Composition and Atonality: An Introduction to the Music of
Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07430-0.

Perle, George. 1977. Serial Composition and Atonality: An Introduction to the Music of
Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern. Fourth Edition. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University
of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03395-7.

Rahn, John. 1980. Basic Atonal Theory. New York: Longman, Inc. ISBN 0-582-28117-2.

Rlke, Volker. 2000. "Bartks Wende zur Atonalitt: Die "tudes" op. 18". Archiv fr
Musikwissenschaft 57, no. 3:24063.

Schoenberg, Arnold. 1978. Theory of Harmony, translated by Roy Carter. Berkeley & Los
Angeles: University of California Press.

Seeger, Charles. 1930. "On Dissonant Counterpoint." Modern Music 7, no. 4:2531.

Teboul, Jean-Claude. 199596. "Comment analyser le neuvime interlude en si du "Ludus

tonalis" de Paul Hindemith? (Hindemith ou Schenker?) ". Ostinato Rigore: Revue Internationale
d'tudes Musicales, nos. 67:21532.

Webern, Anton. 1963. The Path to the New Music, translated by Leo Black. Bryn Mawr.
Pennsylvania: Theodore Presser; London: Universal Edition.

Westergaard, Peter. 1963. "Webern and 'Total Organization': An Analysis of the Second
Movement of Piano Variations, Op. 27."Perspectives of New Music 1, no. 2 (Spring): 10720.

Westergaard, Peter. 1968. "Conversation with Walter Piston". Perspectives of New Music 7,
no.1 (Fall-Winter) 3-17.

Xenakis, Iannis. 1971. Formalized Music: Thought and Mathematics in Composition.

Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press. Revised edition, 1992. Harmonologia Series
No. 6. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press. ISBN 0-945-19324-6

Zimmerman, Daniel J. 2002. "Families without Clusters in the Early Works of Sergei
Prokofiev". PhD diss. Chicago: University of Chicago.

[edit]Further

reading

Beach, David (ed.). 1983. "Schenkerian Analysis and Post-Tonal Music", Aspects of
Schenkerian Theory. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Dahlhaus, Carl. 1966. "Ansermets Polemik gegen Schnberg." Neue Zeitschrift fr

Musik 127, no. 5:17983.

Krausz, Michael. 1984. "The Tonal and the Foundational: Ansermet on Stravinsky". The
Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 42:38386.

Philippot, Michel. 1964. "Ansermets Phenomenological Metamorphoses." Translated by

Edward Messinger. Perspectives of New Music2, no. 2 (Spring-Summer): 12940. Originally
published as "Mtamorphoses Phnomnologiques." Critique. Revue Gnrale des Publications
Franaises et Etrangres, no. 186 (November 1962).

Radano, Ronald M. 1993. New Musical Figurations: Anthony Braxton's Cultural

Critique Chicago: Univ

Forma musical
Origem: Wikipdia, a enciclopdia livre.

Este artigo ou seco contm uma lista de fontes ou uma nica fonte
no fim do texto, mas estas no so citadas no corpo do artigo, o que
compromete averificabilidade. (desde novembro de 2009)
Voc pode melhorar este artigo introduzindo notas de rodap citando as fontes, inserindo-as no corpo do
texto quando necessrio.

Forma musical, nos estudos acadmicos de msica, harmonia avanada ou forma e anlise, entre
outros, refere-se estrutura de uma pea musical especfica. Por exemplo, uma pea pode ser
escrita na forma binria, forma sonata allegro, ou ainda outra, entre vrias.
A forma a estrutura e o desenho da msica. Identificamos os objectos que vemos pela sua forma.
Assim, um patim no tem a mesma forma que tem uma bicicleta. Na msica se d o mesmo;
usamos a audio e a viso, para identificarmos a forma. Msica essencialmente formada de duas
coisas:

Forma e

Estilo, ou gnero.
ndice
[esconder]

1 Msica e sua Forma Tradicional

o

1.1 Rond

1.2 Forma Cano

1.2.1 Idade Mdia

1.2.2 No Renascimento

1.2.3 No Barroco

1.2.4 Era clssica

1.2.5 No Romantismo

1.2.6 Sculo XX at hoje

1.3 Forma Sonata Allegro

1.4 Tema e variaes

1.5 Forma binria

1.6 Forma Ternria

1.7 Forma Estrfica

1.8 O Concerto

1.9 Forma Moderna

2 Referncias e outas leituras

[editar]Msica

e sua Forma Tradicional

Atravs dos anos a msica tem mantido formas fixas nas composies eruditas e at populares,
mas no sculo XX isto mudou. O que segue uma breve amostra destas formas mais tradicionais
que se encontram nas composies de compositores que se destacaram internacionalmente

[editar]Rond
Forma Rond aquela que introduz um tema - chamamos de (A) -, aps o fim de "A", apresenta um
novo tema - (B) -, e aps seu trmino retorna ao tema original (A) e aps o trmino de "A",
novamente introduz um novo tema - (C) -, e assim por diante sempre apresentando um novo tema
aps a repetio do tema principal (A). A Forma rond vista:
A-B-A-C-A-D-A etc.
Esta forma informalmente referida como "abacada". Algumas vezes o rond simtrico e
aparecer da forma ABACADA.

Exemplo desta Forma se encontra frequentemente em ronds de Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart e

outros classicistas.

[editar]Forma

Cano

Esta a forma popular que mais se usa hoje em dia nas canes pops. Uma forma muito antiga que
originou-se da msica folclrica daidade mdia e alcanou uma divulgao bem expansiva no
mundo.
O esquemtico simples dela representa-se por:
AA:B:AA:Bpodendo ser abreviada por AAB ou AAB:A
Na msica moderna, popular, o tema do B o refro, e se repete vrias vezes no final.
Diversos compositores usaram esta forma mas o maior deles Franz Schubert, com centenas
de canes;
Alm das chansons, na Frana; temos os equivalentes:
Lied, na Alemanha;
Song ou Art Song nos Estados Unidos e Inglaterra;
Canzone, na Itlia;
Cano em Portugal e no Brasil.
Na Idade Mdia, os franceses desenvolveram a polifonia na Chanson at o fim do
Renascimento. No Barroco os Italianos lideraram com asCanzone e ria e continuaram at
a Era Clssica. Mas, no Romantismo, os Alemes foram ao auge com os Lieder, o que causou
um entusiasmo nos franceses em renascer sua Forma Chanson. Com isto os ingleses
introduziram a Art Song e compositores do mundo inteiro continuaram a escrever canes que
continuam a ser uma Forma bem popular at hoje. Entre alguns proeminentes compositores
de cano ("Lieder", "Chansons", "Songs", or "Canzoni"), podemos citar:

[editar]Idade Mdia
Frana: Guillaume de Machaut

[editar]No Renascimento
Frana: Josquin Desprez, Pierre Cadac, Pierre Clereau, Nicolas Millot, Pierre
Passereau, Clment Janequin

 Franco-Flamenco: Cornelius Canis, Jan Nasco, Nicolas Payen, Orlando de Lassus

Itlia: Claudio Monteverdi, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Francisco Leontaritis
Inglaterra: William Byrd, Anonymous IV

[editar]No Barroco
Frana: Denis Gaultier
Itlia: Adriano Banchieri, Claudio Monteverdi, Domenico Alberti, Francesco Durante
Inglaterra: John Dowland, Henry Purcell
Alemanha: Heinrich Schtz, Dietrich Buxtehude, Johann Sebastian Bach

[editar]Era clssica
Alemanha e ustria: Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Itlia: Luigi Boccherini, Domenico Cimarosa
Inglaterra: William Boyce

[editar]No Romantismo
Frana: Gabriel Faur, Claude Debussy, Hector Berlioz, Csar Franck
Alemanha, Sua e ustria: Louis Niedermeyer, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Ludwig
van Beethoven, Richard Strauss,Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy,Hugo Wolf
Itlia: Ottorino Respighi, Gaetano Donizetti, Gioacchino Rossini
Hungria: Franz Liszt, Bla Bartk; Polnia: Frdric Chopin; Noruega: Edvard Hagerup
Grieg; Tchecos: Antonn Dvok; Finlndia: Jean Sibelius. Sucia: Hugo Alfvn
Unio Sovitica: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Sergei
Rachmaninoff, Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, Modest Mussorgsky; Dinamarca: Carl
Nielsen

[editar]Sculo XX at hoje

 Frana: Francis Poulenc, Darius Milhaud, Georges Brassens, Jacques Brel, dith
Piaf, Camille, Olivia Ruiz
Brasil: Heitor Villa-Lobos, Ernesto Nazareth, Egberto Gismonti, mais popular e
recente Srgio Mendes
Inglaterra: Benjamin Britten, Ralph Vaughan Williams, John Nicholson Ireland e nas mais
populares e recentes, The Beatles
Alemanha, Sua e ustria: Gustav Mahler,Alban Berg, Kurt Weill, Arnold Schoenberg
Itlia: Luciano Berio, Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco
Estnia*: Arvo Prt
EUA: Charles Ives, Samuel Barber, Aaron Copland, Arthur Farwell
importante lembrar que estes mesmos compositores que foram famosos com suas canes
tambm escreveram diversas composies noutras Formas e de outros gneros.

[editar]Forma

Sonata Allegro

Esta forma mais complexa aparece muito nas sinfonias e concertos, tanto para instrumentos
como para orquestras e em Sonatas tambm. Em geral no primeiro e ltimo movimento de um
concerto ou sinfonia de 3 movimentos e frequentemente no tempo Allegro (andamento). A
Forma Sonata Allegro se destaca com uma Introduo, o desenvolvimento dos temas e a
recapitulao das ideias. Foi a forma do auge desde o perodo do Classicismo ao fim do
perodo do Romantismo e se encontra em diversos movimentos das sinfonias, sonatas,
quartetos de Mozart, Beethoven, Brahams, etc e concertos de Chopin, Lliszt, Richard Strauss
etc. Na Forma Sonata Allegro temos:
A introduo - A Exposio do tema principal, aonde o motivo apresentado e explorado
inicialmente se repetindo com muitas variaes. Primeiramente o tema feminino, em geral
na tnica da escala diatnica, introduzido e em seguida o tema masculino - o tema
secundrio -, em geral na dominante da escala. Durante o perodo clssico, no houve
muitas modulaes, nem alteraes cromticas drsticas na harmonia da composio.
O Desenvolvimento - a parte do movimento aonde a msica desenvolve as ideias iniciais,
os motivos introduzidos inicialmente, temas primrios e secundrios eles se repetem e
formam variaes at a exausto e retornam a tnica para a concluso. Este movimento
inicia na modulao da dominante, deixada pela cadncia final do tema da Introduo.

 A Recapitulao - A concluso musical. Os temas recapitulam as ideias apresentadas

brevemente e reafirmam a tonalidade musical da tnica para a grande cadncia final.

[editar]Tema

e variaes

Ver artigo principal: Variao (msica)

Aqui o tema apresentado, em geral em duas frases pelo menos, podendo ser apenas
uns 8 compassos, ou at uns 16, mas no limitados a esta quantidade. Em seguida as
variaes iniciam. A cada repetio do tema uma variao nova. por a que ns
encontramos composies com nomes do tipo "32 variaes de Mozart". O compositor,
atravs de sua composio, est tentando exibir sua capacidade mxima de criar novas
variaes a cada repetio do tema introduzido inicialmente. O compositor usa no s
modulao na msica como ele pode tambm usar vrias outras tcnicas, como:

transpor;

espelhar o tema (imitar a melodia noutra voz a partir de outra nota inicial);

inverso (inverter a direo meldica na pauta);

retrgrada (inverter a melodia tocando da ltima primeira nota da frase temtica);

imitao (imitar o contorno meldico da msica com diferenas nos intervalos ou

durao das notas musicais),

variar o ritmo (diminuindo a durao de cada nota do motivo inicial),

mudar o tempo da dinmica, etc.

A Msica barroca tpica desta forma - principalmente quando usando "pergunta e

respostas" entre as vozes, em que o tema se repete de vrias formas. Por exemplo, as
15 Invenes e sinfonias de Johann Sebastian Bach.
Dois bons exemplos para esta forma em gneros musicais so:

O canto gregoriano, especialmente quando cantado canonicamente;

A fuga barroca com seu formato imitativo e cheio de variaes em cada ao das
vozes polifnicas.

Dois exemplos de obras compostas com simplicidade nesta forma so

o Bolero de Maurice Ravel e o Canon em R de Johann Pachelbel.
Um exemplo de uma composio mais complexa usando esta forma, tema e variao:

Capricho n. 24 em l menor para violino de Niccol Paganini, consistindo de 1 (um)

tema, 11 (onze) variaes e um finale.

O Tema "A", e a representao :

A, A1, A2, A3, A4, etc
com cada "A" representando a variao do tema com tcnicas acima descritas.

[editar]Forma

binria

Em ingls, Binary Form. Nesta forma a msica se apresenta em: AA:BB: Encontramos
vrias suites do perodo barroco com as pequenas danas neste formato. A Forma
tambm frequentemente encontrada no Coral Sacro.
Exemplo:

Bach escreveu inmeros corais neste formato. Um exemplo claro o Versus VII da
Cantata n4, Christ lag in todesbanden. Bach emprestou a melodia da
Missa, Victimae Paschali Laudes, original para as Festividades da Pscoa da Igreja
Catlica. Neste Coral, Wir essen und leben ("Ns Celebramos Sua Ceia Sagrada",
em Portugus), Bach usa um total de doze compassos (sem contar com a repetio
de quatro compassos que se repetem no incio, sem mudana alguma). A Parte "A"
tem apenas quatro compassos, mas ele repete esta parte como sugere a Forma
Binria (levando a Parte "A" de quatro compassos a oito aps a repetio). Na
repetio de "A" no h mudana alguma no arranjo musical, somente o texto muda.
Na parte "B" (nova linha meldica), Bach muda a possibilidade deste coral estar na
forma estrfica e deixa o arranjo como na forma cano, mas ele no repetiu a parte
"B" embora manteve a parte meldica em oito compassos, dando a simetria da
forma binria no final (oito compassos em cada parte); sendo quatro compassos
introduzindo o segundo tema e os ltimos quatro compassos da parte "B" Bach
divide ao meio, estendendo o tema "B" por dois compassos e numa cadncia final os
ltimos dois compassos, em vez de Amen, usa o Hallelujah num ritardando. Bach
utiliza, ao todo, 48 notas (semnimas) no valor de unidade de tempo para os doze
compassos (sem contar com a repetio idntica dos primeiros quatro compassos).

Observao: Tambm h referncias Forma do Coral Luterano como "Forma Coral",

mas devemos notar que o Coral um gnero de Msica e no uma "forma" em si,

quando analisamos Msica. O Coral pode, no entanto, ter uma Forma estrfica, ou
mesmo, como aqui mencionada, Binria, ou at mesmo Cano, ou outra forma
qualquer.

Bourre em R para alade de J.S. Bach.

[editar]Forma

Ternria

Como o nome implica, de certa forma similar a forma Binria, mas representada na
seguinte estrutura: ABA' invariavelmente a primeira parte (A) se repete, mas quando isto
acontece h uma leve modificao---no apenas uma repetio do que j foi
apresentado anteriormente.

[editar]Forma

Estrfica

Nesta forma temos os hinos e corais litrgicos, aonde o Tema "A" o verso apresentado
e a cada nova estrofe o tema meldico se repete.
O prprio Hino Nacional do Brasil um exemplo. O tema "A" se apresenta na primeira
estrofe:

Ouviram do Ipiranga as margens plcidas, etc, at o fim da primeira estrofe

e quando a segunda estrofe inicia, em:

Deitado eternamente em bero esplndido etc,

estamos de volta repetindo o tema A.

Neste caso temos "A, A, A ,A", sendo que temos dois versos na primeira estrofe e mais
dois na segunda.

[editar]O

Concerto

Estas estruturas so definidas por material temtico, melodias, centro tonal etc. Nas
pocas mais primitivas da msica era mais comum ver as variaes com mudanas
simples na tonalidade Maior e menor para cada movimento. Em geral o primeiro
movimento era mais galante, 'rpido no tempo Allegro com uma tonalidade maior. J o
segundo movimento ficaria mais lento, no tempo Andante, ou Largo, logo a tonalidade
mudaria tambm de maior (do primeiro movimento (frequentemente Allegro) para menor.
O terceiro movimento poderia ser apresentado numa outra forma e de volta a tonalidade
principal, maior e at num Allegro Vivace para um final triunfal e imponente. Em geral a
cada movimento a Forma muda.

[editar]Forma

Moderna

Mais recentemente a maneira de lidar com as formas mudaram e tem sido demonstradas
atravs de superimposio, justaposio, estratificao e outras interrupes e
simultaneidades. Compositores modernos usaram, por exemplo, o minimalismo para
demonstrar o mnimo possvel de contexto harmnico numa obra, mantendo a msica ao
mximo de sua simplicidade, essncia e ainda expondo uma ideia toda complexa e
intrnseca. Como exemplo temos Arvo Prt com sua obra Spiegel im Spiegel.