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Balázs Major

Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Department of Archaeology, Head of Department

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Books by Balázs Major

Medieval Rural Settlements in the Syrian Coastal Region (12th and 13th Centuries)

Medieval Rural Settlements of the syrian Coastal Region

This book is the result of more than a dozen years of research in the field of the hitherto unstu... more This book is the result of more than a dozen years of research in the field of the hitherto unstudied medieval settlement pattern of the Syrian coastal region in the 12th and 13th centuries. The conclusions presented were reached with the combined use of several source types including medieval documents, travellers' accounts, former research, map evidence, toponymy, archive and satellite photographs, oral sources and extensive archaeological field surveys accompanied by documentation between the years 2000 and 2015. After enumerating the historical events that influenced the settlement pattern of the coast, its centres, including the towns and castles and with special regard to the smaller fortifications of the countryside that seem to have been a Frankish introduction to the area, are analysed. After the detailed examination of the written sources and the architectural material preserved at these lesser sites, a closer look at the villages and their environment aims to draw a general picture on the density of settlements and their basic characteristics. The book also discusses communication lines and provides an assessment of the medieval population that inhabited the region in the 12th and 13th centuries. The text is accompanied by a collection of maps, plan drawings, tables and illustrations on a selected number of sites visited during the field surveys.

Papers by Balázs Major

Construction History of Deir es-Salib - Hadshit

Archaeology and History in the Lebanon 60-61, 2024

The Change in the Use of Spaces in a Medieval Syrian Fortress. Qal’at al-Marqab in the Mamluk Period

Beitrӓge zur Islamischen Kunst und Archӓologie 9. Spaces and Frontiers of Islamic Art and Archaeology. Wiesbaden, 2023

The Sasanian Fort of Pankan

M. van Berkel & L. Osti (eds.) The Historian of Islam at Work. Essays in Honor of Hugh N. Kennedy. Brill, Leiden , 2022

Constructing a Medieval Fortification in Syria: Margat between 1187 and 1285

P. Edbury, D. Pringle & B. Major (eds.) Bridge of Civilisations: The Near East and Europe c. 1100-1300. Archaeopress, Oxford, 2019

Contents Notes on Contributors ��... more Contents Notes on Contributors ��ix Introduction ��xiii Castles and Warfare 1� Constructing a Medieval Fortification in Syria: Margat between 1187 and 1285 �� 1 Balázs Major 2� Applying the Most Recent Technologies in Archaeological and Architectural Documentation at Margat �� 23 Bendegúz Takáts 3� Al-Marqab Citadel (Margat): Present Possibilities and Future Prospects �� 35 Marwan Hassan 4� New Research on the Medieval Water-Management System of Crac des Chevaliers �� 54 Zsolt Vágner and Zsófia E. Csóka 5� The Medieval Masonry Marks in Crac des Chevaliers and Margat �� 67 Erzsébet Bojtár 6� Burials in Crac des Chevaliers excavated in 2017 �� 79 Teofil Rétfalvi 7� The Fortifications of Medieval Jubayl (Byblos) �� 89 Anis Chaaya 8� Karak Castle in the Lordship of Transjordan: Observations on the Chronology of the Crusader-period Fortress �� 97 Micaela Sinibaldi 9� Stone-Throwing Machines and their effects on the Medieval Castles of the Syrian Coastal Region �� 115 Dávid Kotán 10� Medieval Ovens and Cooking Installations in Margat �� 128 Mayssam Youssef Architecture, Art and Material Culture 11� Latakia in the Middle Ages �� 147 Ibrahim Kherbek 12� The Impact of the Crusades on the Architecture of Cairo �� 165 Júlia Sárközi

Balázs Major, Daniela Tănase, Archaeological Contributions to the Establishment of the Plan of the Igriș/Egres Cistercian Abbey Church, Caietele ARA 13, 2022, 93-108.

by Daniela Tănase and Balázs Major

Distinguishing damages from two earthquakes—Archaeoseismology of a Crusader castle (Al-Marqab citadel, Syria)

Geological Society of America Special Papers, 2010

Damages from two major earthquakes are identifi ed in medieval Al-Marqab citadel (Latin: Margat) ... more Damages from two major earthquakes are identifi ed in medieval Al-Marqab citadel (Latin: Margat) in coastal Syria. Built by the Order of St. John (Hospitallers) in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries, the hilltop fortifi cation has masonry walls made with and without mortar, using the opus caementum technology (Roman concrete). V-shaped and U-shaped failures, single-corner and symmetrical corner collapses, and in-plane shifts of ashlar masonry walls are identifi ed and dated by historical and archaeological methods. The azimuth of displacement is NE-SW for the older damages of the Crusader period (A.D. 1170-1285), possibly related to the A.D. 1202 earthquake. A later, NW-SE displacement occurred during the Muslim period (post-1285). The 1202 earthquake produced at least VIII intensity on the MSK scale at Al-Marqab, which is higher than previously considered.

Living with earthquakes-development and usage of earthquake-resistant construction methods in European and Asian Antiquity

EGU General …, 2010

Earthquakes are among the most horrible events of nature due to unexpected occurrence, for which ... more

Két földrengés Szíriában–Margat várának archeoszeizmológiája

Két nagyobb, egymásra következő földrengés által okozott sérüléseket azonosítottunk Margat (arabu... more Két nagyobb, egymásra következő földrengés által okozott sérüléseket azonosítottunk Margat (arabul al-Marqab) keresztes várában, Szíria tengerparti régiójában. A Szent János-lovagrend (johannita lovagok) által a 12-13. században emelt erődítmény erős kőfalakból áll, melyet az opus caementum (római beton) technológiájával építettek. V-és U-alakú falsérülések, egyoldali és szimmetrikus sarokomlások, valamint a falak megnyúlása történeti és régészeti módszerekkel datálhatóak. A keresztes időszakra (Kr. u. 1170-1285) datált idősebb sérülések ÉK-DNy rezgés következtében keletkeztek, valószínűleg az 1202-es földrengés következtében. Az 1285-ben kezdődött muzulmán uralom idején keletkezett sérülések ÉNy-DK rezgésirányról tanúskodnak. A libanoni Baalbekben kipattant 1202-es földrengés >VIII MSK intenzitást eredményezett Margatban; ez magasabb az eddigi feltételezett értéknél.

Safita Castle and Rockfalls in the ‘ Dead Villages ’ of Coastal Syria – an Archaeoseismological Study

Sāfı̄tā, a crusader fortification in Tartūs Governorate, coastal Syria, bears major damages of ea... more Sāfı̄tā, a crusader fortification in Tartūs Governorate, coastal Syria, bears major damages of earthquake origin. The tower suffered heavy vibration, which produced fractures across the thick walls, widening the central portion of the building, and causing arch keystones to slide downwards. Apparently a north–south strong motion was responsible for the damages. Further north, at Khirbat al-Qurshiyya, an abandoned village from Late Antiquity, a quarry abounds with fallen blocks. These display displacement predominantly in a northerly direction, suggesting a north–south strong motion. ‘Ayn-Qadı̄b, a small village in the Jabal Ansāriyya ranges, was damaged by a northward-directed rockfall. A contemporary letter testifies to the fact that Sāfı̄tā donjon was heavily damaged by the AD 1202 earthquake. The Yammouneh Fault, which probably caused the damage, is only 50 km away further south. 2015 Académie des sciences. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved. Corresponding auth...

Micromorphological and geochemical investigation of formation processes in the refectory at the Castle of Margat (Qal’at al-Marqab), Syria

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2014

Micromorphological and geochemical investigation of formation processes in the refectory at the C... more

Daniela Tănase, Balázs Major, Preliminary Data Regarding the Archaeological Research Performed between 2016 and 2019 at the Cistercian Abbey in Igriș/Egres, Timiș County, Ziridava Studia Archaeologica 34, 2020, 439-454.

by Daniela Tănase and Balázs Major

Crusader Landscapes in the Medieval Levant: The Archaeology and History of the Latin East (University of Wales Press, 2016)

by Kevin Lewis, Micaela Sinibaldi, and Balázs Major

A Festschrift in honour of Professor Denys Pringle co-edited with Micaela Sinibaldi, Balazs Majo... more

Arrowheads and chainmail fragments from the Crusader Al-Marqab Citadel (Syria): First archeometallurgical approach

by Béla Török, Béla Török, Balázs Major, and Zsolt Vágner

Selected iron arrowheads and samples of iron and copper-based chainmail fragments from the mediev... more Selected iron arrowheads and samples of iron and copper-based chainmail fragments from the medieval citadel of Al-Marqab (Qal'at al-Marqab, Margat, Syria) were examined by the Archaeometallurgical Research Group of the University of Miskolc (ARGUM) using various methods. The examination includes X-ray screening, optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and microhardness tests, in order to determine the composition, microstructure and mechanical properties of the finds and the manufacturing processes (e.g., traces of forming and probable heat treatment) used by Crusader and/or Mamluk metalworkers. Although the highly saline and humid atmosphere of the coastal environment of the fortress was detrimental to the iron and even to the copper-based objects, the complex examination has been very useful to acquire an in-depth knowledge of the material characteristics of the finds. The results indicate different kinds of manufacturing processes were employed on the arrowheads made of wrought iron, and a typical technique for making the links of the chain. In terms of application, two kinds of arrowheads were unearthed. The widened leaf-shaped ones, which might have been made for the use of crossbows, are fully corroded and often cracked lengthwise. In addition, two types can be found among these wide leaf-shaped arrows, those that are slightly smaller and those that are bigger. During the manufacture of thinner spiked-shaped armorpiercing arrowheads, sufficiently hard raw materials (such as pieces of bloom containing a relatively high amount of carbon or recycled iron) or wrought iron were available for the smiths. In the case of wrought iron, obtained from bloomery process, the hardness of the material could be improved by different methods (forge-hardening or cementation), which mostly depended on the master's professional knowledge and preference.

Where was the Town of Valenia Located in the Thirteenth Century?

Crusader Landscapes in the Medieval Levant. The Archaeology and History of the Latin East., 2016

Living with earthquakes-development and usage of earthquake-resistant construction methods in European and Asian Antiquity

by Miklos Kazmer and Balázs Major

EGU General …, Jan 1, 2010

Abstract Earthquakes are among the most horrible events of nature due to unexpected occurrence, f... more

Al-Marqab Research Project of the Syro-Hungarian Archaeological Mission (A brief report on the activities of 2009).

A Special Type of "Urban Site" in the 13th Century Levant? The Case of Margat (Qal'at al-Marqab).

Lisa-Marie Shillito, Balázs Major, Matthew Almond, Emma Anderson, Alex Pluskowski - Micromorphological and geochemical investigation of formation processes in the refectory at the castle of Margat (Qal'at al-Marqab), Syria

by Balázs Major and Aleks Pluskowski

Margat Castle, located on the eastern coast of Syria, is an outstanding example of architecture f... more Margat Castle, located on the eastern coast of Syria, is an outstanding example of architecture from the Crusader Period, and the most important castle of the Hospitallers, who were one of the most famous Christian military orders during the medieval period. Excavations by the Syro-Hungarian Archaeological Mission have been conducted with the aim of better understanding the history and material culture of this important part of Syrian heritage. Whilst large scale excavation and architectural analysis can provide an understanding of broad changes over the lifetime of the monument, high resolution studies of deposits are essential to understand their formation processes, and to test hypotheses suggested during excavation. In the refectory at Margat, a series of dark deposits overlain by a pale 'ashy' layer, were hypothesised to be the result of a large-scale burning event. In this study we aimed to test this hypothesis by conducting micromorphological and geochemical analysis of the sequence, the first application of microarchaeological techniques to medieval deposits in Syria. It was observed that the composition of the deposits relates to degradation of anthropogenic debris and constructional material through cycles of wetting/drying and microbial and faunal activity, rather than fire/destruction debris. These observations have clarified important changes in the castles' function associated with multiple phases of ownership.

Medieval “light construction buildings” on top of the vaulted halls of al-Marqab Citadel (Syria).

Castelos das Ordens Militares., 2014

Medieval Rural Settlements in the Syrian Coastal Region (12th and 13th Centuries)

Medieval Rural Settlements of the syrian Coastal Region

This book is the result of more than a dozen years of research in the field of the hitherto unstu... more This book is the result of more than a dozen years of research in the field of the hitherto unstudied medieval settlement pattern of the Syrian coastal region in the 12th and 13th centuries. The conclusions presented were reached with the combined use of several source types including medieval documents, travellers' accounts, former research, map evidence, toponymy, archive and satellite photographs, oral sources and extensive archaeological field surveys accompanied by documentation between the years 2000 and 2015. After enumerating the historical events that influenced the settlement pattern of the coast, its centres, including the towns and castles and with special regard to the smaller fortifications of the countryside that seem to have been a Frankish introduction to the area, are analysed. After the detailed examination of the written sources and the architectural material preserved at these lesser sites, a closer look at the villages and their environment aims to draw a general picture on the density of settlements and their basic characteristics. The book also discusses communication lines and provides an assessment of the medieval population that inhabited the region in the 12th and 13th centuries. The text is accompanied by a collection of maps, plan drawings, tables and illustrations on a selected number of sites visited during the field surveys.

Construction History of Deir es-Salib - Hadshit

Archaeology and History in the Lebanon 60-61, 2024

The Change in the Use of Spaces in a Medieval Syrian Fortress. Qal’at al-Marqab in the Mamluk Period

Beitrӓge zur Islamischen Kunst und Archӓologie 9. Spaces and Frontiers of Islamic Art and Archaeology. Wiesbaden, 2023

The Sasanian Fort of Pankan

M. van Berkel & L. Osti (eds.) The Historian of Islam at Work. Essays in Honor of Hugh N. Kennedy. Brill, Leiden , 2022

Constructing a Medieval Fortification in Syria: Margat between 1187 and 1285

P. Edbury, D. Pringle & B. Major (eds.) Bridge of Civilisations: The Near East and Europe c. 1100-1300. Archaeopress, Oxford, 2019

Contents Notes on Contributors ��... more Contents Notes on Contributors ��ix Introduction ��xiii Castles and Warfare 1� Constructing a Medieval Fortification in Syria: Margat between 1187 and 1285 �� 1 Balázs Major 2� Applying the Most Recent Technologies in Archaeological and Architectural Documentation at Margat �� 23 Bendegúz Takáts 3� Al-Marqab Citadel (Margat): Present Possibilities and Future Prospects �� 35 Marwan Hassan 4� New Research on the Medieval Water-Management System of Crac des Chevaliers �� 54 Zsolt Vágner and Zsófia E. Csóka 5� The Medieval Masonry Marks in Crac des Chevaliers and Margat �� 67 Erzsébet Bojtár 6� Burials in Crac des Chevaliers excavated in 2017 �� 79 Teofil Rétfalvi 7� The Fortifications of Medieval Jubayl (Byblos) �� 89 Anis Chaaya 8� Karak Castle in the Lordship of Transjordan: Observations on the Chronology of the Crusader-period Fortress �� 97 Micaela Sinibaldi 9� Stone-Throwing Machines and their effects on the Medieval Castles of the Syrian Coastal Region �� 115 Dávid Kotán 10� Medieval Ovens and Cooking Installations in Margat �� 128 Mayssam Youssef Architecture, Art and Material Culture 11� Latakia in the Middle Ages �� 147 Ibrahim Kherbek 12� The Impact of the Crusades on the Architecture of Cairo �� 165 Júlia Sárközi

Balázs Major, Daniela Tănase, Archaeological Contributions to the Establishment of the Plan of the Igriș/Egres Cistercian Abbey Church, Caietele ARA 13, 2022, 93-108.

by Daniela Tănase and Balázs Major

Distinguishing damages from two earthquakes—Archaeoseismology of a Crusader castle (Al-Marqab citadel, Syria)

Geological Society of America Special Papers, 2010

Damages from two major earthquakes are identifi ed in medieval Al-Marqab citadel (Latin: Margat) ... more Damages from two major earthquakes are identifi ed in medieval Al-Marqab citadel (Latin: Margat) in coastal Syria. Built by the Order of St. John (Hospitallers) in the twelfth-thirteenth centuries, the hilltop fortifi cation has masonry walls made with and without mortar, using the opus caementum technology (Roman concrete). V-shaped and U-shaped failures, single-corner and symmetrical corner collapses, and in-plane shifts of ashlar masonry walls are identifi ed and dated by historical and archaeological methods. The azimuth of displacement is NE-SW for the older damages of the Crusader period (A.D. 1170-1285), possibly related to the A.D. 1202 earthquake. A later, NW-SE displacement occurred during the Muslim period (post-1285). The 1202 earthquake produced at least VIII intensity on the MSK scale at Al-Marqab, which is higher than previously considered.

Living with earthquakes-development and usage of earthquake-resistant construction methods in European and Asian Antiquity

EGU General …, 2010

Earthquakes are among the most horrible events of nature due to unexpected occurrence, for which ... more

Két földrengés Szíriában–Margat várának archeoszeizmológiája

Két nagyobb, egymásra következő földrengés által okozott sérüléseket azonosítottunk Margat (arabu... more Két nagyobb, egymásra következő földrengés által okozott sérüléseket azonosítottunk Margat (arabul al-Marqab) keresztes várában, Szíria tengerparti régiójában. A Szent János-lovagrend (johannita lovagok) által a 12-13. században emelt erődítmény erős kőfalakból áll, melyet az opus caementum (római beton) technológiájával építettek. V-és U-alakú falsérülések, egyoldali és szimmetrikus sarokomlások, valamint a falak megnyúlása történeti és régészeti módszerekkel datálhatóak. A keresztes időszakra (Kr. u. 1170-1285) datált idősebb sérülések ÉK-DNy rezgés következtében keletkeztek, valószínűleg az 1202-es földrengés következtében. Az 1285-ben kezdődött muzulmán uralom idején keletkezett sérülések ÉNy-DK rezgésirányról tanúskodnak. A libanoni Baalbekben kipattant 1202-es földrengés >VIII MSK intenzitást eredményezett Margatban; ez magasabb az eddigi feltételezett értéknél.

Safita Castle and Rockfalls in the ‘ Dead Villages ’ of Coastal Syria – an Archaeoseismological Study

Sāfı̄tā, a crusader fortification in Tartūs Governorate, coastal Syria, bears major damages of ea... more Sāfı̄tā, a crusader fortification in Tartūs Governorate, coastal Syria, bears major damages of earthquake origin. The tower suffered heavy vibration, which produced fractures across the thick walls, widening the central portion of the building, and causing arch keystones to slide downwards. Apparently a north–south strong motion was responsible for the damages. Further north, at Khirbat al-Qurshiyya, an abandoned village from Late Antiquity, a quarry abounds with fallen blocks. These display displacement predominantly in a northerly direction, suggesting a north–south strong motion. ‘Ayn-Qadı̄b, a small village in the Jabal Ansāriyya ranges, was damaged by a northward-directed rockfall. A contemporary letter testifies to the fact that Sāfı̄tā donjon was heavily damaged by the AD 1202 earthquake. The Yammouneh Fault, which probably caused the damage, is only 50 km away further south. 2015 Académie des sciences. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved. Corresponding auth...

Micromorphological and geochemical investigation of formation processes in the refectory at the Castle of Margat (Qal’at al-Marqab), Syria

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2014

Micromorphological and geochemical investigation of formation processes in the refectory at the C... more

Daniela Tănase, Balázs Major, Preliminary Data Regarding the Archaeological Research Performed between 2016 and 2019 at the Cistercian Abbey in Igriș/Egres, Timiș County, Ziridava Studia Archaeologica 34, 2020, 439-454.

by Daniela Tănase and Balázs Major

Crusader Landscapes in the Medieval Levant: The Archaeology and History of the Latin East (University of Wales Press, 2016)

by Kevin Lewis, Micaela Sinibaldi, and Balázs Major

A Festschrift in honour of Professor Denys Pringle co-edited with Micaela Sinibaldi, Balazs Majo... more

Arrowheads and chainmail fragments from the Crusader Al-Marqab Citadel (Syria): First archeometallurgical approach

by Béla Török, Béla Török, Balázs Major, and Zsolt Vágner

Selected iron arrowheads and samples of iron and copper-based chainmail fragments from the mediev... more Selected iron arrowheads and samples of iron and copper-based chainmail fragments from the medieval citadel of Al-Marqab (Qal'at al-Marqab, Margat, Syria) were examined by the Archaeometallurgical Research Group of the University of Miskolc (ARGUM) using various methods. The examination includes X-ray screening, optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) and microhardness tests, in order to determine the composition, microstructure and mechanical properties of the finds and the manufacturing processes (e.g., traces of forming and probable heat treatment) used by Crusader and/or Mamluk metalworkers. Although the highly saline and humid atmosphere of the coastal environment of the fortress was detrimental to the iron and even to the copper-based objects, the complex examination has been very useful to acquire an in-depth knowledge of the material characteristics of the finds. The results indicate different kinds of manufacturing processes were employed on the arrowheads made of wrought iron, and a typical technique for making the links of the chain. In terms of application, two kinds of arrowheads were unearthed. The widened leaf-shaped ones, which might have been made for the use of crossbows, are fully corroded and often cracked lengthwise. In addition, two types can be found among these wide leaf-shaped arrows, those that are slightly smaller and those that are bigger. During the manufacture of thinner spiked-shaped armorpiercing arrowheads, sufficiently hard raw materials (such as pieces of bloom containing a relatively high amount of carbon or recycled iron) or wrought iron were available for the smiths. In the case of wrought iron, obtained from bloomery process, the hardness of the material could be improved by different methods (forge-hardening or cementation), which mostly depended on the master's professional knowledge and preference.

Where was the Town of Valenia Located in the Thirteenth Century?

Crusader Landscapes in the Medieval Levant. The Archaeology and History of the Latin East., 2016

Living with earthquakes-development and usage of earthquake-resistant construction methods in European and Asian Antiquity

by Miklos Kazmer and Balázs Major

EGU General …, Jan 1, 2010

Abstract Earthquakes are among the most horrible events of nature due to unexpected occurrence, f... more

Al-Marqab Research Project of the Syro-Hungarian Archaeological Mission (A brief report on the activities of 2009).

A Special Type of "Urban Site" in the 13th Century Levant? The Case of Margat (Qal'at al-Marqab).

Lisa-Marie Shillito, Balázs Major, Matthew Almond, Emma Anderson, Alex Pluskowski - Micromorphological and geochemical investigation of formation processes in the refectory at the castle of Margat (Qal'at al-Marqab), Syria

by Balázs Major and Aleks Pluskowski

Margat Castle, located on the eastern coast of Syria, is an outstanding example of architecture f... more Margat Castle, located on the eastern coast of Syria, is an outstanding example of architecture from the Crusader Period, and the most important castle of the Hospitallers, who were one of the most famous Christian military orders during the medieval period. Excavations by the Syro-Hungarian Archaeological Mission have been conducted with the aim of better understanding the history and material culture of this important part of Syrian heritage. Whilst large scale excavation and architectural analysis can provide an understanding of broad changes over the lifetime of the monument, high resolution studies of deposits are essential to understand their formation processes, and to test hypotheses suggested during excavation. In the refectory at Margat, a series of dark deposits overlain by a pale 'ashy' layer, were hypothesised to be the result of a large-scale burning event. In this study we aimed to test this hypothesis by conducting micromorphological and geochemical analysis of the sequence, the first application of microarchaeological techniques to medieval deposits in Syria. It was observed that the composition of the deposits relates to degradation of anthropogenic debris and constructional material through cycles of wetting/drying and microbial and faunal activity, rather than fire/destruction debris. These observations have clarified important changes in the castles' function associated with multiple phases of ownership.

Medieval “light construction buildings” on top of the vaulted halls of al-Marqab Citadel (Syria).

Castelos das Ordens Militares., 2014

A Medieval Burial in Qal’at al-Marqab and its Facial Reconstruction.

by Balázs Major and Kustar Agnes

Hungarian Archaeology, May 2014

The 1 medieval Near East can only boast a relatively limited number of excavated human remains an... more The 1 medieval Near East can only boast a relatively limited number of excavated human remains and this also applies for those territories that were under the control of the Crusaders in the 12 th and 13 th centuries. Especially rare are burials unearthed in castles and those that can be connected to members of the military orders, the fighting elite of the Crusader states. This adds a special importance to the grave that was opened in the summer of 2011 in the course of the excavations of the Syro-Hungarian Archaeological Mission in Qal'at al-Marqab. Combining the contemporary sources with the archaeological observations raised the possibility that the young adult, buried in a prominent section of the citadel, might have belonged to the Hospitaller community of al-Marqab. His skull was the subject of a detailed study and facial reconstruction project performed by experts from the Hungarian Natural History Museum. 2